UNIT 9.

SPAIN, TIMES OF CONFLICT (1898- 1975)

1. THE REIGN OF ALFONSO XII (1874-1885)

In December 1874 the General Martínez Campos lead the way of

a military pronunciamiento in Sagunto (Valencia) that
proclaimed Alfonso king of Spain as Alfonso XII, he was 18
years old.

After a long period of pronunciamientos and wars the main

objective was to establish political stability. For that, one of the
political tactics was the system of
rotation of power, known as the
turno pací co, it consisted in two
parties alternating in government:-
The conservatives, supported by the Church and social
order.- The liberals, who favoured moderate social reforms,
such as universal male su rage (all Spanish men could vote).

This system brought stability to Spanish politics, but it was based on political
manipulation because in reality the king decided which party was going to rule, and the
election´s results were arranged accordingly. They were di erent ways of doing this
election manipulation:

- In rural areas, powerful individuals called caciques

used intimidation and violence to force the local
population to vote one way or another. This partite
was known as caciquismo.

- In cities, election results were manipulated

fraudulently. This type of election was known as pucherazo.

- Another method was the manipulation of votes with

"lazarus" (votes of the dead who, at least on paper, were
resurrected like the Lazarus of the Gospels).

Alfonso XII died in 1885. He had two daughters and his widow,
María Cristina of Habsburgo, was pregnant.

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2. THE REIGN OF ALFONSO XIII (1885-1931)

María Cristina of Habsburgo had a boy and he was named

the new King as Alfonso XIII. His mother was regent until
Alfonso was 16 and succeed to the throne in 1902.

The turnismo continued with the new king. However, they

were there were more and more opposition, caused by the
rest of the political parties (Republicans, Socialists, Carlists,
Anarchists and nationalists) that were not allowed to
participate in government.

The violence increased: in 1897 an anarchist murdered the

politician Cánovas in a terrorists attack. Also, on 1906 the King and Queen su ered a
terrorist attack on their wedding day. 28 people were killed and more than 100 injured, but
the King and Queen were unharmed.

To make thing worse, Spain lost the last colonies of its empire:

By late 1800s, Spain´s only remaining colonies were the Philippines, Guam, several
outposts in Africa, Cuba and Puerto Rico. In the 1890s, there were independence
movements in both Cuba and the Philippines. United States was interest in Cuba and
took the opportunity to seize the island. At rst, they o ered money to the Spanish
government, but they decline it. Then, they sent an warship called “Maine” to Cuba (with
the excuse of protecting the US residents of the islands) which mysteriously exploded in
1898 and it served as a pretext for the US to declare war on Spain. The result was called
“el desastre del 98”: The war lasted 10 weeks and ended with the 1898 Treaty of Paris,
negotiated on terms favorable to the U.S. Spain lost Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the
Philippine islands.

This defeat and loss of territory, caused

a major crisis of con dence within
Spain. It helped to create an intellectual
climate of pessimism
(Regeneracionismo, Generación del 98).

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Since the beginning of the 20th century the story of Spain was very tense. There were
many moments of tension. Meanwhile, the dynastic parties alternating in power continued
(liberals and conservatives). Between 1917 and 1922 there were 22 di erent
governments!

In July 1909 there were riots against the government in Barcelona, in which over a
hundred people died and more than a thousand were arrested. This was called Tragic
week.

In 1912 there was another terrorist attack to a politician (Canalejas).

In 1917 there was a crisis (in uence of the Russian Revolution) and almost 3000 strikes
were declared, supported by 400,000 workers.

In 1921 there was another killing of a politician: Eduardo Dato (prime minister) was
killed by more than 20 shots in an attack carried out by anarchists from a moving sidecar
at the Puerta de Alcalá in Madrid.

Also, in 1921 happened the Desastre de Annual "The most bitter defeat of the Spanish
army”. In the summer of 1921 around thirteen thousand Spanish soldiers were massacred
by the rebels in Annual (Morocco). The episode aroused public indignation and was the
direct cause of Primo de Rivera's coup d’état.

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 3. PRIMO DE RIVERA´S DICTATORSHIP (1923-1930)

The Disaster of Annual in Morocoo had a great impact on

Spanish political life. Therefore, a military o cer:
Miguel Primo de Rivera, carried out a coup d´etat with
the kings´s approval in 1923.

The rst years of dictatorship were relatively

successful:
- He managed to ght against caciquismo and
corruption.
- He put an end to the problems of public order
- There was economic prosperity during the 1920s
decade. Public works, such as roads and reservoirs
were carried out, and industries grew. State monopolies
were created (Compañía Telefónica Nacional, CAMPSA)
- He solved the "Moroccan question” with the Al
Hoceima landing.

Encouraged by the success of Morocco, on 1925 he proposed to the king that the military
dictatorship be replaced by a “civil dictatorship” .Also, the international economic crisis
of the 1930s, made Primo gradually lost the support of the majority of his supports.

Thus, on 28 January 1930 Primo de Rivera resigned, very ill with diabetes and
alcoholism, and died two months later in a Paris hotel.

The solution to the crisis was to renew the government toward a constitutional and
democratic system, but Alfonso XIII did not correct past mistakes, committing a fatal
error. January 1930: Alfonso XIII named as president another military o cer!!! (the
General Berenguer).

In the meantime, opposition to the monarchy had grown because the king was
considered an accomplice to the dictatorship. In August 1930, republican, socialist and
Catalan nationalist politicians signed the Pact of San Sebastián with the aim of
overthrowing the monarchy.

February 1931: Berenguer resigned and Alfonso XIII appointed again other military
o cer!!! (the almirant Aznar).

Also, Alfonso XIII planned municipal elections on April 1931… the results will surprise
everyone.

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4. THE SECOND REPUBLIC (1931-1936)

This elections of April 12, 1931 had an enormous

popular interest and for the rst time in recent
Spanish history, it was possible to see what
Spaniards wanted above caciquismo and corruption:
41 out of the 50 provincial capitals voted for the
Republicans. Two days later Alfonso XIII went into
exile and the Second Republic was proclaimed.

However, it was the worst moment for the

Republic:

During its ve years, there were many

changes (as usual):
1. Provisional government (1931)
2. The bienio reformista (1931-1933)
3. The bienio conservador (1933-1936)
4. The Frente Popular (1936)

1. Provisional government (1931)

A provisional government was created to rule the country until a Constituent Cortes were
created to form the new government. It was formed by di erent parties (socialist,
nationalists, republicans) and was headed by Niceto Alcalá Zamora. First problem of the
Republic: some republicans burnt convents. This brutal fact caused a deep division
between Catholics and the Republic.

2. The bienio reformista (1931-1933)

In December 1931, Manuel Azaña became prime minister (presidente
del Gobierno), he carried out many reforms in education, religion,
economy... It was said that he modernised the country faster than in the
previous 200 years. For example: 10,000 primary schools were built and
the educations budget was increased by 50% or they created the
“misiones pedagógicas” to bring cultural events to isolated villages.

However, Azaña´s government faced opposition from both the right

(large land owners, members of the Church and army considered that the reforms were
too radical. In 1932 General José Sajurjo led a failed coup d´état) and the left (anarchists
and low classes believed that they did not go far enough. In 1933 there was an anarchist
uprising that was violently repressed). Manuel Azaña resigned in September 1933.

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 3. The bienio conservador (1933-1936)
New elections were held on November 1933 (women can vote for
the rst time in Spanish history!), in which there was a clear victory
of the right-wing and the moderate parties, all them joined in the
CEDA (Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas) .

Falange española was born in these elections (1933) and was

conducted by José Antonio Primo de Rivera (the son of Miguel
Primo de Rivera), it still exists today.

The new government reversed all the work of the previous biennium. For that reason, they
had many enemies and tension increased. In October 1934, these tensions exploded:
- A general strike of miners in Asturias turned into an insurrection that was brutally
repressed by the army, resulting in thousands of deaths and arrests.
- In Catalonia there was another uprising asking for autonomy that was also repressed
by force.

The new government survived, but a year later (1935) it was brought down by ideological
divisions and a corruption scandal. New elections were called for February 1936.

4. The Frente Popular (1936)

In the elections of February 1936 there was a narrow victory

of the left united in the Popular Front, which consisted on
socialists, communists, left-wing republicans and some
nationalists. They formed a government, which prepared a
new wave of reforms, and freed those who had been
imprisoned in October 1934.

However, soon after the elections, a group of right-wing army o cers led by General
Emilio Mola began to plan a military coup d´état against the republic. On 17th July they
initiated a military rebellion in Spanish Morocco and on 18th July they extended it to
peninsular Spain.

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 5. THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR (1936-1939)

The generals who started the coup d´état on

17-18th July 1936 thought that they could
achieve control throughout Spain very rapidly.

However, following their failure to achieve a

complete victory, the coup turned into a long
violent civil war.

Between 1936 and 1939, Spain was divided into

two opposing territories:

-Republican side: they reside in Madrid. Its characteristic was

fragmentation, this side included communist, anarchist,
republicans and socialist. They had continuous changes go
government .

- Rebel side: they resided in Burgos. Its characteristic was unity. In

September 1936 they elected an only leader: Francisco Franco,
called the “Generalísimo” and they chose a single party: FET y de
las JONS (Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las Juntas de
Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista).

In September 1936, twenty-seven European countries agreed not to intervene in the

Spanish Civil War to avoid any potential escalation or possible expansion of the war to
other states., this was called the “Non Intervention Committee”. However, both sides
had help:
- Republican side: at rst they had no international support, only the milicianos and
milicianas, who were workers and peasants, often taking up arms for the rst time, they
had no military experience of any kind. Then, the USSR does not respect it and helps
until 1938. The democratic powers (France and Great Britain) do not intervene in the
whole con ict. In any case, the maximum aid came from the International Brigades,
foreign volunteers who fought on the Republican side during the Spanish Civil War to
ght Fascism (nearly 40.000).
- Rebel side: they had military superiority from the beginning. in addition to this, Italy
(Mussolini), Germany (Hitler) and Portugal (Salazar) do not respect the pact and help
them from the beginning to the end of the civil war. The USA also helped economically
trading with the rebel side (oil).

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 The course of the Spanish Civil War:

1ª) THE ADVANCE ON MADRID (JULY 1936–MARCH 1937)

The initial plan of the rebels was going straight to Madrid,
the capital. The Rebels cross the Strait of Gibraltar with
Italian and German help. The Republican government
abandons Madrid and settled in Valencia. On September
they paused the advance to Madrid to liberate the Alcázar
de Toledo which had been besieged. Finally, they reached
Madrid on November 1936, but the Republican forces stop
the o ensive in the Battle of Madrid (“¡No pasarán!”).

2ª) THE WAR IN THE NORTH (MARCH 1937-MARCH 1938)

Franco´s plan: defeat the republicans attacking the weaker
zones (the north, that was isolated). Between April and
October 1937 the rebels attacked the cities on the
Cantabrian coast. The city of Guernica was bombed and
Bilbao, Santander and Asturias were occupied. The
Republican o ensives of Belchite and Brunete were
launched to stop pressure on the North but failed.

3ª) THE BATTLE OF THE EBRO (APRIL-DECEMBER 1938)

Franco´s strategy: Reach the Mediterranean sea to to divide
into two the republican zone. Republican forces conquer
Teruel (December 1937) but the rebels recapture the city. The
Republican government concentrates all its forces in the
Battle of the Ebro (three months of ghting that ends with
60,000 casualties per side and the the Republican retreat). In
1938 rebel army advanced, conquering Catalonia and
reaching the French border.

4ª) THE END OF THE WAR (DECEMBER 1938-MARCH 1939)

Madrid and the central area remain in Republican hands.
Republican government wanted to resist, however there is
an uprising inside the Republicans to negotiate with Franco.
Barcelona surrenders on January 26th. The Republicans
exile to France. Madrid surrenders on March 28th. 1 April
1939: end of the war.

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The consequences of the Spanish Civil War:

It is impossible to know the exact number of those who died during the war. Possibly
500,000 people died, including some who died in combat and others who died of
illnesses.

Away from the frontline, violence was frequent in both rebel and
republican Spain. Armed groups removed people from their houses
and killed them, this was called “el paseo”. There were at least
150,000 victims of repression in Franco-held territory. Nearly 50,000
people were killed in republican territory.

The dead were often buried at night without identi cation in mass graves (*fosas
comunes). For as long time, people in Francoist Spain were afraid to talk about these
places. Today, many families are not sure where their relatives were buried, and bodies
are still being exhumed (*exhumados) from anonymous burial sites.

Those who survived had no better luck, food shortages forced the imposition of rationing
(*racionamiento): the authorities set the quantities of food to be delivered per person per
day. The inhabitants of the cities lived under the terror of bombing. Madrid and Barcelona
were the worst a ected. The population sought refuge in the
basements of buildings and in underground stations. Many people
had to leave their homes and became refugees, many republicans
crossed the French border and others were welcomed by Latin
American countries like Mexico or Argentina

In economy: many industries were destroyed, as well as transport infrastructures like

railways and bridges. Large extensions of farmland were lost and agricultural production
declined. The loss of workers greatly a ected economic activity.

In culture: Spain´s brilliant period of cultural achievement in the 1920s and 1930s came
to an abrupt end. Many intellectuals like Antonio Machado or Juan Ramón Jiménez were
forced into exile others, like the poet Federico García Lorca were killed. Post-war Spain
culture was ruled by silence and fear.

The most obvious consequence was the dictatorship of General

Franco for 36 years (1939-1975). Franco's dictatorship put an end to
the most serious e ort to modernise the country in a democratic way.
Most seriously, it divided the country into winners and losers.

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 6. FRANCO´S DICTATORSHIP (1939-1975)

Following his military victory, Francisco Franco established

a dictatorship in Spain lasting from 1939 to 1975.

- Franco assumed all powers: He was head of state,

head of government and the leading general. It was not
until 1973 that he appointed a prime minister. He received the title of Caudillo de
España and Generalísimo de los Ejércitos.

- There was a parliament, but this was only consultative, as Franco himself approved
laws.

- There was no Constitution, but a set of laws known as the Fundamental Laws (*las
Leyes Fundamentales).

- FET y de las JONS (Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las Juntas de Ofensiva

Nacional Sindicalista) was the only legal party. This party included the groups that
had supported the uprising (the army, the Catholic Church, landowners and business,
some middle class conservative).

- Rights and liberties were abolished.

Throughout its almost 40 years Francoism remained unchanged in its principles: denial of
freedoms, concentration of power in the hands of the dictator, absence of a constitution,
su rage and political parties.

However, social and economic changes did take place: from a rst stage of economic
stagnation (1939-1959) to one of growth and social transformation (1959-1973).

There are di erent phases in Franco´s dictatorship:

1) The early years (1939-1949)
2) The consolidation and development (1950-1973)
3) The nal years (1973-1975)

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 1) The early years (1939-1949)
Franco´s dictatorship was brutally repressive. Many republican supporters were
executed, im prisoned or sentenced to hard labour.

Many of the republicans who had left Spain in 1939 remained in exile. Other republicans
continued to ght until the 1950s. Known as the maquis, they operated in isolated
mountain regions.

Spain did not enter the Second World War even though
Franco strongly favoured the Axis powers. In 1940,
Franco met Hitler in Hendaye, on the Spanish-French
border, to negotiate Spain´s participation. However,
Franco failed to achieve the terms that he wanted and
Hitler was not convinced that Spain could be an e ective
ally. In 1941, the Blue Division (*División Azul) was created
to support the Nazis on the Russian front. Between 1941 and 1943, some 45,000 Spanish
soldiers took part in various battles, mainly related to the siege of Leningrad.

After the Second World War (1945), the Allied powers did not remove Franco, but he
faced isolation as the last remaining dictator. Spain was not admitted to the UN, and
France closed its border with Spain.

Early Francoist society was marked by hunger, cold, poverty, disease, reconstruction,
survival and fear. The regime had a policy of autarchy (*autarquía) or economic self-
su ciency. However, this policy failed and the Spanish economy could not meet the
needs of the population. In the 1940s basic goods as food, clothes and fuel were scarce
and began to be rationed (*racionados). At the same time black market (known as
estraperlo) emerged.

Education was almost exclusively in the hands of the

Catholic Church. Many republican teachers were removed
from their jobs. Education was used to spread the values
of the regime among children and young people:
patriotism, secondary role of women and the glori cation
of Franco.

The role of women: a patriarchal model was imposed, which was supported by the state
and the Church. A woman’s role was to be wife and mother. Women lost many of the
rights the had won during the Second Republic. They were only allowed to work in they
had permission from their father or husband, and they were banned from certain
professions, such as diplomat, judge or other legal positions.

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2) The consolidation and development (1950-1973)
Spain´s international isolation nished because of the Cold War.
The United States was now strongly anti-communist and viewed
Franco as a potencial ally. The French border was reopened and
Spain was admitted into the UN in 1955.

By the 1950s the public image of the Franco regime was

changing considerably, although in reality was still a dictatorship and the regime was still
repressive, but various types of opposition began to emerge (nationalists, university
students, teachers…).

- Changes in economy: The idea of autarchy was de nitively abandoned. Rapid

economic growth between 1960 and 1973 was caused by a combination of factors:
Tourism expanded massively and became one of the country’s main economic
activities (1960: 6 millones de turistas.1975: 30 millones de
turistas!!!), agriculture was mechanised which led to an
increase in production and foreign investment was attracted to
Spain by its low salaries and taxes. This economic
development improved the quality of life in Spain. More people
were able to buy cars, install telephones or spent summer
holidays.

- Changes in demography: Three was a rapid population growth. However, soon there
were not enough jobs in Spain for all. Therefore, many thousands of Spaniards
emigrated to other countries like Germany, France or Switzerland.

- Changes in society: social change was in uenced by economic growth, while the
arrival of foreign tourists also made Spaniards aware of developments elsewhere. The
Church now had less in uence over everyday life. Many Spaniards listened to the radio.
From 1958, television became popular. Magazines, the zarzuela, cinema, dances,
parties and football were the main leisure activities. However, lms and
theatre were subject to censorship (*censura) and scenes which were
considered inappropriate were cut. Also, between 1943 and 1976, it
was compulsory for cinemas to show the NODO (Noticiarios y
Documentales) which spread propaganda about the regime.

In 1969, Franco made Juan Carlos de Borbón (the grandson of

Alfonso XIII) his successor. Juan Carlos had arrived in Spain at
the age of 10 (in 1948) to be trained as a future king under
Franco´s supervision.

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 3) The nal years (1973-1975)

The economic triumph of Franco's regime also led to its political failure. The spread
of education, the improvement in the standard of living, the opening up to Europe, etc.
generated a middle class that was also willing to achieve the political modernisation of
the country.

As a result, opposition to Francoism grew in the 1970s:

- The COMMUNIST PARTY (PCE)
- The SOCIALIST PARTY (PSOE)
- The TRADE UNIONS such as Comisiones Obreras
(CCOO)
- Intellectuals such as student movement in universities ,
artists…
- Terrorists organisations such as ETA.

Also, the oil crisis of 1973 a ected Spain greatly (fewer tourists ame to the country, less
money was sent home by Spanish emigrants, unemployment increased…). This
economic crisis led to social unrest, and a number of strikes were organised by
clandestine trade unions, many of them were arrested.

By 1973, Franco was in poor health and Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco was named head
of government in order to ensure continuity. However, he was assassinated by ETA later in
the year.

Franco responded with renewed repression. There were death

sentences against members of ETA and the communists.

Franco died on 20th November 1975 with 83 years old… His death marked the end of a
military dictatorship that lasted almost 40 years. But… NOW WHAT?

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