ME - 413

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES
Teacher In-charge
PROF. DR. ASAD NAEEM SHAH
anaeems@uet.edu.pk
 C−THE DUAL CYCLE
▪ Modern CI engines resemble neither the constant-volume not
the constant-pressure cycle, but rather an intermediate cycle
in which some of the heat is added at constant volume and
then the remaining heat is added at constant pressure.
▪ The Dual cycle is a gas cycle model that can be used to more
accurately model combustion processes that are slower than
constant volume, but more rapid than constant pressure.
▪ The distribution of heat added in the two processes is
something the designer can specify approximately by choice
of fuel, the fuel injection system, and the engine geometry to
limit the peak pressure in the cycle.
▪ Consequently, this cycle is also referred to as the limited-
pressure (lp) cycle. The cycle is illustrated in Fig. 1.
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
THE DUAL CYCLE Cont.
In this cycle, it is assumed that heat
addition is equally split into constant
volume and constant pressure.
Heat addition
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑇2.5 − 𝑇2 + 𝑚𝑐𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2.5 )
Heat rejection:
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑇4 − 𝑇1
The thermal efficiency is given by:

𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝜂𝑡 = =
𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑄𝑖𝑛
𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑇4 − 𝑇1
⇒ 𝜂𝑡 = 1 −
𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑇2.5 − 𝑇2 + 𝑚𝑐𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2.5 )

Fig. 1: The Dual Cycle. Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 THE DUAL CYCLE Cont.
𝑇4 −𝑇1
⇒ 𝜂𝑡 = 1 − → (1)
𝑇2.5 −𝑇2 + 𝛾 𝑇3 −𝑇2.5
Compression Stroke (1→ 2):
𝛾−1
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑐 → (2)
Isometric process (2→ 2.5):

𝑃2.5 𝛾−1
𝑇2.5 = 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑝 𝑟𝑐 → 3 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐸𝑞𝑛. (2)
𝑃2
where 𝑟𝑝 is the pressure ratio during constant-volume
heat addition.
Isobaric process (2.5→ 3):
The cut-off ratio or the load ratio i.e., 𝛼 = 𝑉3 Τ𝑉2.5 is related as:
⇒ 𝑇3 = 𝑇2.5 𝑉3 Τ𝑉2.5 = 𝑇2.5 𝛼
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 THE DUAL CYCLE Cont.
𝛾−1
⇒ 𝑇3 = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑝 𝑟𝑐 𝛼→ 4 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐸𝑞𝑛. (3)

Expansion Stroke(3→ 4):

𝛾−1
𝑉3
𝑇4 = 𝑇3
𝑉4

𝑉3 1
∵ = 𝛼 × = 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑉4 𝑟𝑐

𝛾−1
𝛾−1 𝛼
⇒ 𝑇4 = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑝 𝑟𝑐 𝛼 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐸𝑞𝑛. (4)
𝑟𝑐

⇒ 𝑇4 = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑝 𝛼 𝛾 → 5

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

 THE DUAL CYCLE Cont.
▪ Putting the Eqns. (2) to (5) in Eqn. (1):

𝑇1 𝑟𝑝 𝛼 𝛾 − 1
⇒ 𝜂𝑡 = 1 − 𝛾−1 𝛾−1 𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝑇1 𝑟𝑝 𝑟𝑐 − 𝑟𝑐 + 𝛾 𝑇1 𝑟𝑝 𝑟𝑐 𝛼 − 𝑟𝑝 𝑟𝑐

1 𝑟𝑝 𝛼 𝛾 − 1
⇒ 𝜂𝑡 = 1 − 𝛾−1
→ 6
𝑟𝑐 𝑟𝑝 −1 + 𝑟𝑝 𝛾 𝛼 − 1
➢ KEY FINDINGS:
▪ The Dual cycle can be considered as constant-volume when
𝛼 = 1, and constant-pressure cycles if 𝑟𝑝 = 1.
▪ Use of the Dual cycle model requires information about the
fractions of constant volume and constant pressure heat
addition (or the maximum pressure 𝑃3 ). A common assumption
is to equally split the heat addition.
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 THE DUAL CYCLE Cont.
▪ Thus, it is clear from Fig. 2 that 𝜂𝑡 of the Dual cycle lies
between that of the Otto and Diesel cycles for the same
compression ratio.

𝑟𝑐
Fig. 2: Effect of 𝑟𝑐 on thermal efficiency.

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

 PROBLEM
The pressure and temperature at the beginning of
compression, in a dual-cycle operating on gas, are 1 bar and
27℃, respectively. The compression ratio of the cycle is 10:1.
The maximum pressure and temperature of the cycle are 42
bar and 1500℃, respectively.
Assuming 𝑐𝑝 = 1.004 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 𝐾 ; 𝑐𝑣 = 0. 717 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 𝐾, and 𝛾 =
1.4; compute the following:
a) Load ratio
b) Work done per kg of the gas, and
c) Thermal efficiency of the cycle.
Answers: (a) 1.407; (b) 513 kJ; and (c) 58.42%

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

 SOLUTION
Compression Stroke (1→ 2):
𝛾−1
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑐 = 753.6 𝐾
𝑃2 𝛾
= 𝑟𝑐 = 25.12 ⇒ 𝑃2 = 25.12 × 105 𝑁Τ𝑚2
𝑃1
Isometric process (2→ 2.5):
𝑃2.5 42
𝑇2.5 = 𝑇2 = 753.6 × = 𝟗𝟖𝟕℃
𝑃2 25.12
Isobaric process (2.5→ 3):
The cut-off ratio or the load ratio is related as:
𝑇3
𝛼 = 𝑉3 Τ𝑉2.5 ⇒ = 𝑉3 Τ𝑉2.5
𝑇2.5
𝑇3 1773
⇒𝜶= = = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟎𝟕
𝑇2.5 987
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 Expansion Stroke(3→ 4):
𝛾−1
𝑉3 𝑉3 1
𝑇4 = 𝑇3 ∵ = 𝛼 × = 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑉4 𝑉4 𝑟𝑐
⇒ 𝑇4 = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑝 𝛼 𝛾 = 𝟖𝟎𝟗. 𝟐 𝑲

∵ 𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡

Where
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑇2.5 − 𝑇2 + 𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝑇3 − 𝑇2.5 = 878.1 𝑘𝐽
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑇4 − 𝑇1 = 365.1 𝑘𝐽
∴ 𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 878.1 − 365.1 = 𝟓𝟏𝟑 𝒌𝑱

𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 513
𝜂𝑡 = = = 𝟓𝟖. 𝟒𝟐%
𝑄𝑖𝑛 878.1

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

 FUEL-AIR CYCLES
▪ The fuel-air cycle (FAC) represents the closest approximation
to the actual design commonly performed by mathematical
analysis.
▪ During the compression process, the working medium in the
SI engine is assumed to be a mixture of fuel, air, and residual
gas; while a mixture of air and residual gas in the CI engine.
▪ After combustion occurs, the working medium contains the
products of combustion such as 𝐶𝑂2 , 𝐶𝑂, 𝐻2 𝑂, 𝑁2 , which
results in a greater variation in specific heats (Fig. 1).
▪ A further variation in the specific heats is caused by the
dissociation of some of the lighter molecules that occur at
high temperatures.
▪ Dissociation process can be considered as the disintegration
of combustion products at high temperature.
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
FUEL-AIR CYCLES Cont.

Fig. 1: Variation of specific

heats of representative gases
with temperature.
𝛾

𝜸 𝛾
𝛾 Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 FUEL-AIR CYCLES Cont.
▪ The increase in specific heats and the dissociation reactions
reduce the peak temperatures and pressures, and the thermal
efficiency below those calculated by the gas cycle analysis.
▪ However, it is still assumed that heat may be supplied or
rejected instantaneously and that no heat is lost across the
boundaries of the system in the FAC.
▪ In order to make a fuel-air analysis, it is necessary to use
experimentally determined thermodynamic data for the
combustion products. The data are presented in the form of
charts considering the effects of the products of combustion
and dissociation.
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 ACTUAL CYCLES
▪ The actual cycles for IC engines differ from the fuel-air cycles
and air-standard/gas cycles in many respects. The actual
cycle efficiency is much lower than the gas cycle efficiency
due to the following losses occurring in the actual engine:
o Variation of specific heats with temperature
o Dissociation of combustion products
o Incomplete combustion of fuel, and progressive combustion.
o Heat transfer into the walls of the combustion chamber
o Blowdown at the end of the exhaust process i.e., loss of work
on the expansion stroke due to early opening of the exhaust
valve &
o Gas exchange process.
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 ACTUAL CYCLES Cont.
▪ The actual cycle is obtained by experimental means using any
one of several types of engine indicators to obtain a diagram
of the pressures and volumes existing within the cylinder of an
operating engine.
▪ These indicators produce the so-called indicator card
diagrams (ICDs) which account for all variations and
assumptions.
▪ For example, the ICDs take into account the effect of heat
losses, finite combustion rates, internal fluid friction losses,
valve timing, spark or injection timing, and exhaust blowdown
losses.
▪ The ICDs measure the cylinder pressures in relation to
cylinder volume (i.e., piston stroke) leading to the Pressure-
Volume (P-V) diagram. The principle of ICDs is illustrated:
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 INDICATOR CARD DIAGRAM
▪ A sliding plate is supported in Frame
B by a spring and is connected to the
engine piston by cord O (Fig. 1).
▪ The plate is covered by a sheet of
paper on which marks are produced
by pencil T.
▪ Cylinder D is connected by a
passage to the engine cylinder and
carries piston P to which rod R is
attached through calibrated spring S.
▪ The plate will move up and down in
unison with piston travel, and vertical
marks on the paper are proportional
to piston travel (i.e., displacement
volume).
Fig. 1: A CI indicator card mechanism. Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 INDICATOR CARD DIAGRAM Cont.
▪ Gases from the cylinder enter indicator cylinder D at whatever
pressure exists in the cylinder. This pressure acts on piston P to
compress spring S and moves rod R and pencil T laterally in
proportion to cylinder pressure.
▪ As area of piston P and rate of spring 𝑆 are known, lateral
deflection of pencil T can be calibrated in terms of pressure.
▪ Thus, the card drawn by pencil T graphically represents
quantitative changes in cylinder pressure in relation to volume.
▪ Work of compression is represented by A-B. Injection has taken
place and is continuing with a slight rise in pressure from B to
C, and the expansion stroke is represented by C to E (Fig. 2).
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
INDICATOR CARD DIAGRAM Cont.

Fig. 2: Various events on ICD

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

 INDICATOR CARD DIAGRAM Cont.
▪ Blowdown occurs at E to A, dropping pressures to the
atmospheric line A-X (Fig. 1).
▪ Area enclosed by A-B-C-E is measured by a polar planimeter
𝐴𝑝 and divided by the length 𝑙𝑣 (i.e., vertical distance) of the
card. This gives the average height (i.e., lateral movement) that
can be converted to the corresponding pressure (i.e., indicated
pressure or indicated mean effective pressure 𝑃𝑖𝑚 ), when
multiplied with spring rate 𝑆:
𝑃𝑖𝑚 = 𝐴𝑝 Τ𝑙𝑑 × 𝑆 → (1)
where 𝑆 = spring rate 𝑏𝑎𝑟Τ𝑚𝑚 ; 𝐴𝑝 = the net area
measured by the planimeter 𝑚𝑚2 ; 𝑙𝑣 = vertical
distance/length of the diagram 𝑚𝑚 .
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 PROBLEM
An engine operating on an air standard Otto cycle has the
pressure and temperature at the beginning of compression
as 1 bar and 310 K, respectively. The pressure at the end
of compression and at the end of heat addition are 28 bar
and 75 bar, respectively. If the ratio of specific heats is 1.4,
compute the following:
a) Clearance to swept ratio
b) The maximum temperature in the cycle
c) Work ratio, &
d) Thermal efficiency

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

 SOLUTION
𝑃2
∵ = 𝑟𝑐 𝛾 ⇒ 𝑟𝑐 = 𝑃2 Τ𝑃1 1Τ𝛾
𝑃1
⇒ 𝑟𝑐 = 28 1Τ1.4 = 10.8
𝑉𝑑 + 𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑑
∵ 𝑟𝑐 = =1+
𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑐
𝑉𝑐 1 1
⇒ = = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟐
𝑉𝑑 𝑟𝑐 − 1 10.8 − 1
𝑇2
∵ = 𝑟𝑐 𝛾−1 ∴ 𝑇2 = 310 10.8 0.4
= 803 𝐾
𝑇1
𝑃3 𝑃𝑉
∵ 𝑇3 = 𝑇2 × ∵ =𝐶
𝑃2 𝑇
75
⇒ 𝑇3 = 803 × = 𝟐𝟏𝟓𝟏 𝑲
28
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 ∵ WR = Net WD/𝑊𝑒 = 𝑊𝑒 − 𝑊𝑐 Τ𝑊𝑒
But compression work is:
𝑊𝑐 = 𝑚𝑅 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 Τ 𝛾 − 1
And expansion work is:
𝑊𝑒 = 𝑚𝑅 𝑇3 − 𝑇4 Τ 𝛾 − 1
𝑇2
𝑇2 − 𝑇1 𝑇1 −1
𝑇1
⇒ 𝑊𝑅 = 1 − =1−
𝑇3 − 𝑇4 𝑇
𝑇3 1 − 4
𝑇3
𝑇2 𝛾−1
𝑇3
∵ = 𝑟𝑐 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 = 𝑟𝑐 𝛾−1
𝑇1 𝑇4
𝑇1 𝑟𝑐 𝛾−1 − 1 𝑇1 𝛾−1
⇒ 𝑊𝑅 = 1 − = 1 − 𝑟𝑐
𝑇3 1 − 1Τ 𝑟𝑐 𝛾−1 𝑇3
310
⇒ 𝑊𝑅 = 1 − 10.8 0.4 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝟕
2151
1 1
𝜂𝑡 = 1 − 𝛾−1 =1− 0.4 = 𝟔𝟏. 𝟒%
𝑟𝑐 10.8
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah