Basic of Computer Engineering (Final - English Medium)

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We take an opportunity to present this book

BASICS OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING to the
students of second semester (R2023) Diploma in
Computer Engineering. This book covers entire
R2023 Syllabus prescribed by DOTE, Tamilnadu.
This book is prepared and ment only for
Polytechnic students. They can understand the
subject in simple, systematic and comprehensive
manner. Also the students can grasper wide
knowledge on this subject.
We thank Sri Krishna Publications, Chennai
for their efforts in bringing out this book
successfully.
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CS232120 – BASICS OF COMPUTER

ENGINEERING
UNIT I: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS 8

Introduction – Characteristics of Computers –
Evolution of Computers – Data, Information and
Program – Basic Computer organization – Central
Processing Unit, Processor Speed, Arithmetic and
Logic Unit (ALU), Memory Unit, Input and Output
Unit.
UNIT II: INPUT DEVICES AND OUTPUT

DEVICES 10
Introduction to Input Devices – Keyboard –
Scanner – Microphone – Mouse (Optical Mouse,
Mechanical Mouse), Touch Screen, Web Camera,
Wearable Devices – Computer Output Fundamentals
– Printers (Laser Printer, 3D Printers) – Monitors
(Liquid Crystal Display, Light Emitting Diodes) -
Projector – Speaker – Computer Cables (HDMI, VGA
PS/2, Ethernet, 3.5 mm jack.)
UNIT III: COMPUTER MEMORY AND

STORAGE 10
Introudction – Bits and Bytes – Memory
Hierarchy – Primary Memory – Random Access
Memory (RAM) – Read only Memory (ROM) –
Secondary Memory – Second Storage Devices – Hard
Disk, Optical Disks, Flash Drive, Solid State Drives
(SSD) – Catche Memory.
UNIT IV: COMPUTER SOFTWARE 10

Computer Software – Types of Software –
System Software: Compilers, Linker, Loader,
Operating Systems (Windowns, Linux Basics) –
Application Software: Word Processors, Presentation
Software, Graphics Software – Difference between
Program and Packages – Introduction to Python
Programming – Real Time Applications of Software:
ERP, Finance.
UNIT V: INTERNET AND SECURITY 7

Concept of Internet – Applications of Internet –
Popular Web Browsing Software – Search Engines –
Computer Ethics – Social Networks and E-Commerce
– Cloud Computing Basics – Security Issues Over
the Internet – Introduction to Cyber Security.
%%$
UNIT – I: INTRODUCTION TO
COMPUTERS
1.1 Introduction ............................................. 1.1
1.1.1 Functionalities of a computer ... 1.1
1.1.2 Applications of Computer ......... 1.2
1.2 Characteristics of Computers................. 1.3
1.2.1 Speed........................................... 1.3
1.2.2 Accuracy ..................................... 1.3
1.2.3 Diligence ..................................... 1.3
1.2.4 Versatility.................................... 1.4
1.2.5 Reliability.................................... 1.4
1.2.6 Automation ................................. 1.4
1.2.7 Memory....................................... 1.4
1.3 Evaluation of Computers ....................... 1.5
1.3.1 Data, Information and Program .. 1.8
1.3.2 Difference between Data and
Information ................................. 1.8
1.4 Basic Computer Organization ............... 1.9
1.4.1 Central Processing Unit............. 1.10
1.4.2 Processor Speed ......................... 1.10
1.4.3 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) .. 1.11
1.4.4 Storage Unit ............................... 1.12
1.4.5 Input and Output Units............. 1.15
1.5 Part B – Questions ................................ 1.16
UNIT – II: INPUT DEVICES AND
OUTPUT DEVICES
2.1 Introduction to Input Devices ............... 2.1
2.1.1 Keyboard..................................... 2.1
2.1.2 Scanner........................................ 2.7
2.1.3 Microphone................................. 2.10
2.1.4 Mouse.......................................... 2.11
2.1.5 Touch Screen ............................. 2.18
2.1.6 Web Camera............................... 2.21
2.1.7 Wearable Devices ...................... 2.22
2.2 Computer Output Fundamentals............ 2.23
2.2.1 Printers ........................................ 2.23
2.2.2 Monitor ....................................... 2.28
2.2.3 Projector...................................... 2.31
2.2.4 Speaker........................................ 2.32
2.2.5 Computer Cables........................ 2.35
2.3 PArt B – Questions ............................... 2.40
UNIT – III: COMPUTER MEMORY
AND STORAGE
3.1 Introduction ............................................. 3.1
3.1.1 Bits and Bytes ........................... 3.1
3.1.2 Difference between Bit and
Byte............................................. 3.2
3.2 Memory Hierarchy ................................. 3.3
3.2.1 Types of Memory Hierarchy .... 3.3
3.2.2 Memory Hierarchy Design........ 3.4
3.2.3 Types of Main Memory ........... 3.5
3.2.4 Characteristics of Memory
Hierarchy .................................... 3.7
3.2.5 Advantages of Memory
Hierarchy .................................... 3.8
3.3 Primary Memory .................................... 3.8
3.3.1 We Need Primary Memory? .... 3.8
3.3.2 Classification of Primary
Memory....................................... 3.9
3.4 Secondary Memory ................................ 3.12
3.4.1 Use of Secondary Memory....... 3.13
3.4.2 Types of Secondary Memory ... 3.14
3.5 Secondary Memory Devices.................. 3.16
3.5.1 Floppy Disk................................ 3.17
3.5.2 Compact Disc............................. 3.17
3.5.3 Digital Versatile Disc ................ 3.18
3.5.4 Blu-ray Disc ............................... 3.19
3.5.5 Hard Disk ................................... 3.19
3.5.6 Flash Drive................................. 3.19
3.5.7 Solid-state Disk .......................... 3.20
3.5.8 SD Card...................................... 3.20
3.6 Cache Memory ....................................... 3.21
3.6.1 Accessing Cache Memory......... 3.21
3.6.2 Types of Cache Memory .......... 3.22
3.6.3 Real-world Examples of Cache
Memory Usage........................... 3.24
3.7 Part B – Questions ................................ 3.25
UNIT – IV: COMPUTER SOFTWARE
4.1 Introduction - Computer Software........ 4.1
4.2 Types of Software ................................. 4.1
4.3 System Software..................................... 4.2
4.3.1 Types of System Software........ 4.3
4.3.2 Features of System Software.... 4.4
4.4 Compilers ................................................ 4.4
4.4.1 How does a compiler work?.... 4.5
4.4.2 Importance of Compilers........... 4.7
4.5 Linker ...................................................... 4.9
4.5.1 Function of Linker .................... 4.9
4.5.2 Types of Linker......................... 4.10
4.6 Loader ..................................................... 4.11
4.6.1 Types of Loader ........................ 4.12
4.6.2 Difference between Linker and
Loader ......................................... 4.14
4.7 Operating Systems.................................. 4.15
4.7.1 Architecture................................. 4.16
4.7.2 Windows Operating System...... 4.17
4.7.3 Features of Windows Operating
System......................................... 4.18
4.7.4 Versions of Windows Operating
System......................................... 4.20
4.8 Linux Operating System........................ 4.25
4.8.1 Architecture of Linux................ 4.26
4.8.2 Advantages of Linux ................. 4.28
4.8.3 Disadvantages of Linux............. 4.30
4.8.4 Linux Distribution...................... 4.30
4.8.5 Difference between Linux and
Windows Operating System...... 4.31
4.9 Application Software.............................. 4.32
4.9.1 Types of Application Software 4.33
4.9.2 Features of Application
Software ...................................... 4.33
4.9.3 Difference Between System
Software and Application
Software ...................................... 4.34
4.10 Word Processors..................................... 4.35
4.10.1 Example of word processors .... 4.35
4.11 Presentation Software............................. 4.37
4.11.1 Features ....................................... 4.37
4.11.2 Presentation softwares................ 4.38
4.12 Graphics Software .................................. 4.39
4.12.1 Characteristics............................. 4.39
4.12.2 Examples..................................... 4.40
4.12.3 Components ................................ 4.40
4.12.4 Types........................................... 4.42
4.12.5 Applications ................................ 4.42
4.12.6 Advantages.................................. 4.43
4.12.7 Disadvantages ............................. 4.44
4.13 Difference Between Program and
Packages .................................................. 4.45
4.14 Introduction to Python Programming ... 4.47
4.14.1 Language features ...................... 4.47
4.14.2 Writing our first program ......... 4.49
4.15 Real Time Applications of Software ... 4.49
4.15.1 Types of real-time applications 4.50
4.15.2 Features and benefits of
real-time applications ................. 4.51
4.15.3 Examples of real-time
applications ................................. 4.52
4.16 ERP ......................................................... 4.53
4.16.1 Benefits of ERP......................... 4.53
4.17 Finance .................................................... 4.55
4.17.1 Best Financial Software
Applications ................................ 4.57
4.18 Part B – Questions ................................ 4.58
UNIT – V: INTERNET AND SECURITY
5.1 Internet Concepts.................................... 5.1
5.2 Applications of Internet......................... 5.1
5.3 Popular Web Browsing Software ......... 5.3
5.4 Search Engines ....................................... 5.4
5.5 Computer Ethics ..................................... 5.6
5.5.1 Privacy Concerns ....................... 5.6
5.6 What Is Social Network and Ecommerce 5.7
5.6.1 Social network ........................... 5.7
5.6.2 E-commerce ................................ 5.7
5.7 Basics of Cloud Computing.................. 5.8
5.7.1 Service Models........................... 5.9
5.7.2 Deployment Models................... 5.10
5.7.3 Essential Characteristics............. 5.10
5.7.4 Common Cloud Services .......... 5.11
5.8 Security Issues Over The Internet........ 5.12
5.8.1 Common Security Issues........... 5.12
5.9 Introduction to Cyber Security ............. 5.15
5.9.1 Cyber Threats............................. 5.15
5.9.2 Assets in Cybersecurity............. 5.16
5.9.3 Cyber security Measures ........... 5.16
5.9.4 Intrusion Detection and
Prevention Systems (IDPS)....... 5.17
5.9.5 Cybersecurity Policies and
Compliance ................................. 5.17
5.9.6 Ethical Hacking and Penetration
Testing ........................................ 5.18
5.10 Part B – Questions ................................ 5.19
Part A – Two Marks Questions With
Answers................................................... 1-36
UNIT – I
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A computer is an electronic device that can
accept data (input), process the data according to
specified rules, produce information (output), and store
the information for future use.
1.1.1 Functionalities of a computer

Computer carries out five functions
z Takes data as input
z Store the data in its memory
z Process the data
z Generate the output
z Control the above four steps
Fig. 1.1
1.2 Basics of Computer Engineering
Modern computers are used for a variety of

purposes ranging from browsing the web, Billing,
writing documents, editing videos, creating
applications, playing video games, etc.
1.1.2 Applications of Computer
The usage of computer is in the following

places. They are
z Home
z Medical Purpose
z Entertainment
z Industry
z Education
z Government
z Banking
z Business
z Training
z Science and Engineering
z Space Research
z Aviation etc
Introduction to Computers 1.3
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Fig. 1.2
1.2.1 Speed
Computer device’s speed is extremely fast, as it

can perform any calculation in seconds. This is one
of their key characteristics. The speed of a computer
is measure in terms of GigaHertz and MegaHertz.
1.2.2 Accuracy
This is an incredible characteristic of computers,

which is their high level of accuracy. It is capable of
performing 100% accurate calculations. Errors in a
computer are caused only by human’s submitting
incorrect data.
1.2.3 Diligence
A computer can perform millions of tasks or

calculations with the same consistency and accuracy.
A computer is free of fatigue, lack of concentration,

and so on. This is what makes a computer work for
hours without making any mistakes.
1.2.4 Versatility
Computer perform different types of tasks with
the same accuracy and efficiency. A computer can
perform multiple tasks at the same time this is known
as versatility. For example, while listening to music,
we may develop our project using PowerPoint and
Wordpad, or we can design a website.
1.2.5 Reliability
A computer is reliable. The output and results
never differ unless the input varies. The output is
totally depending on the input. When an input is the
same the output will also be the same. A computer
produces consistent results for similar sets of data, if
we provide the same set of input at any time we will
get the same result.
1.2.6 Automation
Computer performs all the tasks automatically
i.e. it performs tasks without manual intervention.
1.2.7 Memory
A computer has built-in memory called primary
memory. Primary memory can store the data
temporarily. Once the power is switched off, the
content of the primary memory will be erased.

Secondary memory are removable devices such as
CDs, pen drives, etc., which are also used to store
data. Secondary memory can store the data and files
permanently.
A computer can store millions of records. These
records may be accessed with complete precision.
Computer memory storage capacity is measured in
Bits, Bytes, Kilobytes (KB), Megabytes (MB),
Gigabytes (GB), and Terabytes (TB).
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Since the evolution of humans, devices have
been used for calculations for thousands of years. One
of the earliest and most well-known devices was an
ABACUS. Then in 1822, the father of computers,
Charles Babbage began developing what would be
the first mechanical computer. And then in 1833 he
actually designed an Analytical Engine which was a
general-purpose computer.
1. First Generation Computers
The first generation computers (1946-1959) were

slow, huge and expensive. In these computers, vacuum
tubes were used as the basic components of CPU and
memory. These computers were mainly depended on
batch operating system and punch cards. Magnetic
tape and paper tape were used as output and input
devices in this generation.
2. Second Generation Computers

The second generation computers (1959-1965)
were the era of the transistor computers. These
computers used transistors which were cheap, compact
and consuming less power; it made transistor
computers faster than the first generation computers.
In this generation, magnetic cores were used as
the primary memory and magnetic disc and tapes were
used as the secondary storage. This computer uses
Assembly language and programming languages like
COBOL and FORTRAN. Batch processing and
multiprogramming operating systems were used in
these computers.
3. Third Generation Computers

The third generation computers (1966-1970)
used integrated circuits (ICs) instead of transistors. A
single IC can pack huge number of transistors which
increased the power of a computer and reduced the
cost. The computers also became more reliable,
efficient and smaller in size. These generation
computers used remote processing, time-sharing, multi
programming as operating system. Also, the high-level
programming languages like FORTRON-II TO IV,
COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, ALGOL-68 were used in
this generation.
4. Fourth Generation Computers
The fourth generation (1971-1980) computers

used very large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits; a chip
containing millions of transistors and other circuit
elements. These chips made this generation computers
more compact, powerful, fast and affordable. These
generation computers used real time, time sharing and
distributed operating system. The programming
languages like C, C++, DBASE were also used in this
generation.
5. Fifth Generation Computers
In fifth generation (1980-till date) computers, the

VLSI technology was replaced with ULSI (Ultra
Large Scale Integration). It made possible the
production of microprocessor chips with ten million
electronic components. This generation computers
used parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial
Intelligence) software. The programming languages
used in this generation were C, C++, Java, .Net, etc.
Some of the popular fifth generation computers

are;
z Desktop
z Laptop
z NoteBook computers
1.3.1 Data, Information and Program
Data
Data is a collection of discrete or continuous
values that convey information, describing the
quantity, quality, fact, statistics, other basic units of
meaning. A datum is an individual value in a
collection of data.
Information
Information is processed, organised and
structured data.
1.3.2 Difference between Data and Information
Table 1.1
Data Information
Data is unorganised and Information comprises
unrefined facts. processed, organised data
presented in a meaningful
context
Data doesn’t depend on Information depends on
information. data.
Raw data alone is Information is sufficient
insufficient for decision for decision making
making.
An example of data is a The average score of a
student’s test score. class is the information
derived from the given
data.
Program
Program is a set of instructions to perform a
particular task written by programmers in any
programming languages.
Example: C, C++, JAVA, Python etc.
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The basic organization of a computer system is
the processing unit, memory unit, and input-output
devices. The processing unit controls all the functions
of the computer system. It is the brain of the
computer. The block diagram shows the detailed
operations of computer.
Fig. 1.3
1.4.1 Central Processing Unit
A Central Processing Unit is the most important

component of a computer system. A control unit is a
part of the CPU. A control unit controls the operations
of all parts of the computer but it does not carry out
any data processing operations.
Central Processing Unit is the brain of the
computer. All types of data processing operations and
all the important functions of a computer are
performed by the CPU. It helps input and output
devices to communicate with each other and perform
their respective operations. It also stores data which
is input, intermediate results in between processing,
and instructions.
CPU consist of three different components,
z Control Unit (CU)
z Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
z Memory Unit (MU)
1.4.2 Processor Speed
Processor speed is measured in hertz (Hz) and

refers to the number of cycles per second that a CPU
can execute. Modern processors typically have speeds
in the range of 1 GHz (gigahertz) to 3.8 GHz. The
processor speed can be calculated by
CPU Time = I * CPI * T

I = number of instructions in program.
CPI = average cycles per instruction.
T = clock cycle time.
1.4.3 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) is responsible for

performing arithmetic and logical operations. It
consists of two subsections, which are:
1. Arithmetic Section
2. Logic Section
1. Arithmetic Section
Arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division, are performed by ALU.
Also, all the complex operations are done by making
repetitive use of the mentioned operations by
arithmetic section of ALU.
2. Logic Section
By Logical operations, and functions operations
or functions like selecting, comparing, matching, and
merging the data, and all these are performed logic
by logic section of ALU.
Note: CPU may contain more than one ALU and it
can be used for maintaining timers that help run the
computer system.
ALU is found in all advanced computers like,

(i) Personal computer and laptops
(ii) Mainframes and servers
(iii) Embedded systems and IoT
(iv) Mobile devices Etc.
1.4.4 Storage Unit

The computer storage unit is divided into two
types. Given below are details about the two types of
computer storage:
1. Primary Storage
2. Secondary Storage
1. Primary Storage
This is the direct memory which is accessible
by the Central Processing Unit (CPU).
Fig. 1.4
z This is also known as the main memory and

is volatile.
z This is temporary storage.
z Data is lost once the power is switched off
z It is smaller in size
z It is the working memory of the computer
z Computer cannot work without primary

memory
z Examples of primary storage include RAM,

cache memory, etc.
z This type of storage does not have direct

accessibility to the Central Processing Unit.
Fig. 1.5
z The input and output channels are used to

connect such storage devices to the
computer, as they are mainly external
z It is non-volatile and larger storage capacity

in comparison to primary storage
z This type of storage is permanent until

removed by an external factor
z It comprises of both internal and external

memory
z Examples of secondary storage are Hard

Disk, USB drives, floppy disks, etc.
Computer Memory Measurement
The computer storage space is measured as,
A Binary Digit = 1 Bit
8 Bit = 1 Byte
1024 Byte = 1 KB (Kilo Byte)
1024 KB = 1 MB (Mega Byte)
1024 MB = 1 GB (Giga Byte)
1024 GB = 1 TB (Terra Byte)
1024 TB = 1 PB (Peta Byte)

1.4.5 Input and Output Units
1. Input Unit
Computer Input unit is a part of the computer
hardware which is used for the transport of the data
processing system involves the information devices of
the computer with the control and data signals of the
computer.
Example
Mouse, Camera, Keyboard, Scanner, etc
Fig. 1.6
2. Output Unit
Computer Output is the device which deals with
transmitting the data of the computer among the
device and the clients. The computer is designed for
humans in the form of the audio and video format.
Example
Monitors, printers, headphone, Screen Projector,
GPS Location Tracker, Speaker, etc.
Fig. 1.7
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1. Explain briefly about the characteristics of

computer with neat diagram.
2. Explain briefly about the evaluation of computer

in detail.
3. Explain briefly about computer organisation with

neat diagram.
4. Explain briefly about computer memory units.
5. Explain briefly about Input and Output units of

the computer.
UNIT – II
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In computing, an input device is a piece of
equipment used to get the data and control signals
from the users. The most common input devices are,
z Keyboard
z Scanner
z Microphone
z Mouse
z Touch Screen
z Web Camera
z Wearable Devices
2.1.1 Keyboard
Keyboard is the main input device to enter

information into your computer. Also it is used as a
text entry interface for typing text, numbers, and
symbols into application software such as a word
processor, web browser or social media app.
Fig. 2.1
The keys on the keyboard can be divided into

several groups based on their functions:
Fig. 2.2
Input Devices and Output Devices 2.3
1. Typing (Alphanumeric) Keys
These keys include the alphabetical letters,

numbers, punctuation, and symbol keys.
(i) Control keys
These keys are used alone or in combination

with other keys to perform certain actions. The most
frequently used control keys are Ctrl, Alt, the
Windows logo key and Esc.
(ii) Function keys
The function keys are used to perform specific

tasks. They are labeled as F1, F2, F3, and so on, up
to F12. The functionality of these keys differs from
program to program.
(iii) Navigation keys
These keys are used for moving around in

documents or web pages and editing text. They
include the arrow keys, Home, End, Page Up, Page
Down, Delete, and Insert.
(iv) Numeric keypad
The numeric keypad is handy for entering

numbers quickly. The keys are grouped together in a
block like a conventional calculator or adding
machine.
Key name How to use it

Shift Press Shift in combination with a letter
to type an uppercase letter. Press Shift
in combination with another key to
type the symbol shown on the upper
part of that key.
Caps Lock Press Caps Lock once to type all
letters as uppercase. Press Caps Lock
again to turn this function off. Your
keyboard might have a light indicating
whether Caps Lock is on.
Tab Press Tab to move the cursor several
spaces forward. You can also press
Tab to move to the next text box on
a form.
Enter Press Enter to move the cursor to the
beginning of the next line. In a dialog
box, press Enter to select the
highlighted button.
Spacebar Press the Spacebar to move the cursor
one space forward.
Backspace Press Backspace to delete the character
before the cursor, or the selected text.
2. Types of Keyboard
Keyboards are classified based on the size and
their mode of usage. Those types are,
(i) Multimedia Keyboard

The keyboard that has all multimedia buttons is
called multimedia keyboard. The buttons include play,
pause, previous, next, volume up, volume down, mute
and special button to launch media.
(ii) Mechanical Keyboard

The primitive keyboard which uses physical
buttons for each key is called a mechanical keyboard.
It makes noise when each key is pressed. A button
is pushed down, and an electrical signal is sent to the
computer device which then shows the characters.
(iii) Wireless Keyboard

Bluetooth, IR technology or Radio Frequency is
used to connect the keyboard with the computer
device. We can port the keyboard and the parent
system is not needed near the keyboard. These
keyboards are lightweight and smaller in size.
(iv) Virtual Keyboard

The keyboard used in smart phones is called a
virtual keyboard. This keyboard appears when needed
and disappears when typing is completed. This can
be automatically set as per need. Also in the windows
system, we can use a virtual keyboard that appears

on the screen. There is no physical object to carry
for a virtual keyboard.
(v) USB Keyboard

Universal Serial Bus Keyboard has a USB stick
with a wire which has to be inserted into the USB port
of the system. And then the keyboard works well. While
rebooting the system, the keyboard is not supported and
hence the users may face an issue. Installation of suitable
drivers helps to resolve this issue.
(vi) QWERTY Keyboard

The earlier typewriters had keys in the range
QWERTY due to the arrangement of letters. Early
computer keyboards were also built in the same
manner for the easy use for typewriter users.
(vii) Flexible Keyboard

The keyboards made of silicone which has most
of the keys and flexible in appearance is called a flexible
keyboard. The distances between the keys are less. The
keyboards are meant for rolling and not foldable.
(viii) Bluetooth Keyboard

The keyboard is connected with the system
using Bluetooth and hence the USB port can be used
for other purposes. This keyboard provides flexibility
to the wired keyboard.
(ix) PS2 Keyboard

These keyboards are connected through PS2
ports of the computer.
Fig. 2.3
2.1.2 Scanner
A scanner is a device that takes a picture of
an image that exists outside the computer, such as a
photograph or a drawing on paper. As the scanner
takes the picture, it digitizes the image (breaks it up
into dots that can be recreated on the computer screen
with electronic signals), and send this digital
information to the computer as a file. Then you can
take this file of the scanned image and use it in your
work.
A scanner also needs software to get the job
done. Various software can give you different kinds
of options, such as dithering patterns, resolution, file
formats, etc. Although software is always supplied
with the scanner.
Fig. 2.4
The number of pixels captured by the scanner

sensor and is measured in dots per inch (dpi) is called
scanner resolution.
1. Types of Scanner
There are various types of scanners. They are,
(i) Flatbed Scanners
Fig. 2.5
The most popular type of optical scanner is a

flatbed scanner, which scans documents on a flat
surface. These scanners do not require the document

to be moved and are capable of capturing all of the
document’s elements. A flatbed scanner looks like as
shown in the picture.
(ii) Sheet fed Scanners

They are made to scan each document that is
fed into the scanner one after the other. This scanner
allows only paper to be scanned. These scanners are
a little smaller than regular flatbed scanners, and they
feature a lesser image resolution. They are great for
scanning enormous amounts of paper.
Fig. 2.6
(iii) Handheld Scanner
Fig. 2.7
A portable scanner is a compact manual

scanning device that functions similarly to a flatbed
scanner. It is positioned above the thing to be scanned.
It is much efficient for scanning the bar codes.
(iv) Film Scanner
Fig. 2.8
It scans camera films and uploads the image to

the computer. The photographer can directly handle a
number of tasks, including determining the original
image on the film’s aspect ratio, cropping, adjusting,
and more.
2.1.3 Microphone
A microphone is a device that translates sound

vibrations in the air into electronic signals and scribes
them to a recording medium or over a loudspeaker.
Microphones use electrical energy in the form

of induction to produce the audio signal. These
microphones are well suited to stage performance.
Fig. 2.9
Types of Microphones
The commonly classified microphones are listed
below.
z Directional microphones
z Bidirectional microphones
z Condenser microphones
z Laser microphones
z Ribbon microphones
2.1.4 Mouse
A mouse is a small hardware input device used
by hand. It controls the movement of the cursor on
the computer screen and allows users to move and
select folders, text, files, and icons on a computer.
A mouse is capable of performing various
functions on a computer, which are as follows:
Fig. 2.10
1. Move the mouse pointer
The main function of a mouse is to move the

mouse cursor on the screen in the desired direction.
2. Select
A mouse provides users the option to select the

text, file, or folder and many files at once. For
example, if you want to send multifile to anyone, you
can select many files at once and can send them.
3. Open or execute a program
You can open a folder, icon, or other objects

by a mouse. You are required to move the cursor to
a file, folder, or an icon, then double click on the
object that you want to open or execute.
4. Drag-and-drop
When you select something, it can also be

moved from one location to another by using the
drag-and-drop method. In this method, first, you need
to highlight the file or an object that you want to move.
Then, move this file while pressing the mouse button and
drop it on the desired location.
5. Scroll Up & Down
If you are viewing a long web page or working

with a large document, you need to scroll up or down
a page. The mouse’s scroll button helps to up and
down your document page; otherwise, you can also
click and drag the scroll bar.
1. Optical mouse
An optical mouse is a computer mouse which

uses a light source, typically a light-emitting diode
(LED), and a light detector, such as an array of
photodiodes, to detect movement relative to a surface.
The Benefits of the optical mouse are as follows,
(i) No moving parts
In practice, an optical mouse doesn’t need

cleaning because it has no moving parts. Its
all-electronic design also eliminates mechanical fatigue
and failure.
Fig. 2.11
(ii) Improved accuracy
If the device is used with the proper surface,

sensing is more precise than is possible with any
pointing device using the old electromechanical
design. This is an asset in various optical mouse uses,
such as computer-aided design graphics applications
and gaming. It also makes computer operation, in
general, easier.
(iii) No special surface required
While there are some surface restrictions with

optical mice, they can be used on more surfaces than
mechanical mice, eliminating the need for a mouse
pad. The best surfaces reflect but scatter light; an

example is a blank sheet of white drawing paper,
traditional desk, glossy surface or fabric surface.
2. Mechanical mouse
A mechanical mouse is a computer hardware
input device comprised of a metal or rubber ball in
its underside. Moving the mouse causes the ball to
roll, and sensors inside the mouse detect the
movement of the ball and consequently send signals
to the cursor on the screen.
A mechanical mouse makes use of the motion
of a ball inside it, which is connected to two wheels
placed perpendicular to each other. These wheels are
responsible for left/right and up/down movement
detection of the ball, and hence send the
corresponding motions to cursor on the screen.
Fig. 2.12
Components of Mechanical Mouse

Mechanical mouse is made up of various
external and internal components. They are listed
below.
(i) External Components
(a) Right button / Left button

When any of the buttons is being clicked it
triggers the chip and accordingly chip sends the signal
to system.
(b) Rubber ball

When the mouse is moved the ball will rotates
over the surface by the user.
(c) Scroll
With the help of scroll users can scroll the page
up or down in the vertical direction.
(d) Sliders
Sliders help to make the movement easily on
smooth surface.
(e) Cables
Cable is used to connect mouse with the local
machine.
(f) Covers
Covers are used to protect the internal circuits.
(ii) Internal Components
(a) Switches
When user clicks on right and left button switch

receives the impulses.
(b) Hardware controller
Hardware controller is responsible for processing

the signals that are produced by mouse and then sends
it to wave emitter.
(c) Mechanical sensors
Mechanical sensors work with spears and

generates the impulses that interprets on the monitor
screen.
(d) Wheel
Wheel is a button that helps to raise and lower

and the display screen vertically.
(e) Cable
Cable is used to send the received signals to the

computer ports.
Difference between Optical Mouse and

Mechanical Mouse
Table 2.1
Sl.
Mechanical mouse Optical mouse
No
1 Uses a trackball that is Uses LED to move the
used to move the cursor
cursor
2 Heavier than an optical Lightweight and are
mouse available in different
shapes and sizes
3 Mechanical mouse are Optical mouse can be
wired wired and wireless
4 Require cleaning to Require almost no
protect it from dust cleaning and have to
better life
5 Works even on a rough Require a flat surface
surface to work
6 Mechanical mouse is Optical mouse is cheap
expensive
2.1.5 Touch Screen

A touch screen is an electronic display screen.
It is an input device. User can interacts with the
computer, tablet, smart phone or touch-controlled
appliance by using hand gestures and fingertip
movements. The screens are pressure-sensitive and can

be used or manipulated using fingers.
Fig. 2.13
Touch screens are alternative of keyboard and

mouse. Some devices also use touch screens with a
grid of infrared beams that sense a finger.
A touch screen digitizer is a glass layer designed
to convert physical interactions (like touching the
screen with a finger) into digital signals. Both
capacitive and resistive touch screens have a built-in
digitizer, a glass layer placed on top of the
liquid-crystal display (LCD) layer. The primary
objective of the digitizer is to transform analog signals
generated from touch commands into digital signals
that the device can read and process.
Types of Touch Screen
(i) Resistive touch screen
Resistive touch screen can be divided into 4, 5,6,

7 or 8-wired models, which differentiate between the
coordinates of touch.
(ii) Capacitive Touch screen
Commonly utilised for industrial purposes,

capacitive touch screens consist of a glass overlay,
coated with a conductive material such as Indium Tin
Oxide.
(iii) SAW (Surface Acoustic Wave) Touch Screen
SAW touch screen technology is based upon two

transducers and a reflector placed on the glass surface.
The waves are dispersed across the screen by
bouncing off the reflector arrangement and received
by the transducers.
(iv) Infrared Touchscreen
Infrared touch screen technology does not

incorporate an overlay. Instead, a frame surrounding
the display consists of LEDs on one side and
phototransistor detectors on the other.
(v) Optical Imaging Touchscreen

This touch screen technology is popular for its
versatility and scalability. Optical imaging relies on
infrared lights.
2.1.6 Web Camera

A web cam is a small digital video camera that
connects to a computer. It can capture pictures or
motion video.
It has the ability to take pictures, including HD
videos, but its video quality can be lower as compared
to other camera models. It is an input device.
Fig. 2.14
1. Features of webcam
The webcams can differ in terms of size, shape,

specification, and price. The major features of webcam
are listed below.
(i) Megapixels
(ii) Frame Rate

(iii) Lens Quality
(iv) Autofocus
(v) Low Light Quality
(vi) Resolution
2. Applications of webcam
Webcams are widely used in many applications

to capture images and record the video. There are
different applications of a webcam are,
1. Video calling
2. Banking Sector
3. Buildings
4. Robotic Technology
5. Home Security Systems
6. Roads and Parking areas
2.1.7 Wearable Devices
These are electronic devices that can be wear

on human body. These wearable devices are used for
tracking information on real time basis. They have
motion sensors that take the snapshot of your day to
day activity and sync them with mobile devices or
laptop computers.
Fig. 2.15
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Computer Output is the device which deals with
transmitting the data of the computer among the
device and the clients. The computer is designed for
humans in the form of audio and video format.
Example
Printers, Monitor, Projector, Speaker, etc.
2.2.1 Printers
A printer is a device that accepts text and graphic
output from a computer and transfers the information to
paper. Printers vary in size, speed, and cost. In general,
more expensive printers are used for more frequent

printing or high-resolution color printing.
1. Types of printer
(i) Inkjet Printers
(ii) Laser Printers
(iii) 3D Printers
(iv) Dot Matrix Printers
(v) Solid Ink Printers
(vi) LED Printers
(i) Laser Printer

A laser printer is a printer for computers. It uses
laser or LED-technology that uses cartridge for
printing.
Fig. 2.16
A laser printer makes use of a beam of light

for printing. This light of the laser changes the
electrical charge on the drum, wherever it hits because
as the paper passes through the printer, the laser beam
strikes at the surface of the drum and this is known
as a photo receptor.
The laser beam can print patterns onto the photo
receptor. Once the design created on the drum, it
coated with toner from a toner cartridge. In most of
the cartridges, the toner is black, but the laser printers
are also colored.
Working of Laser Printer
Fig. 2.17
(a) The laser beams of your print onto a metal

drum.
(b) The drum uses static electricity to attract
powdered toner to the drums cylinder.
(c) The drum rolls the toner onto the paper in
the form of your print.
(d) The toner is melted & pressed onto the
paper by heat from a fuser as it passes
through its rollers.
(e) Your print comes out of the printer.
Advantages of laser printers

Laser printers have several advantages.
(a) Speed
(b) Running Costs
(c) Reliability
(d) Quality
(ii) 3D Printer
3D printing is a process of making three
dimensional objects from a digital file.
Few examples of 3D Printing are,
(a) Consumer products (eyewear, footwear,
design, furniture)
(b) Industrial products (manufacturing tools)
(c) Dental products

(d) Architectural scale models
(e) Movie industry
(f) Aviation Etc
The Advantages of 3D Printing

(a) Print complex designs
(b) No need of special tools
(c) Speed and ease of printing
(d) Less waste
The Limitations of 3D Printing

(a) Higher cost
(b) Less material colors and finishing
(c) Lower accuracy
Fig. 2.18
2.2.2 Monitor
A monitor is an output device that displays
information being processed in a computer. It is also
known as VDU (Visual display unit).
Fig. 2.19
Types of Monitors
There are several types of monitors; some are

as follows:
1. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Monitors
2. LCD Monitor
3. Plasma Monitor
4. LED Monitors
5. OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode) Monitor

1. LCD Monitor
LCD (Liquid crystal display) screen contains a

substance known as liquid crystal. The particles of this
substance are aligned in a way that the light located
backside on the screens, which allow generating an
image or blocking. Liquid crystal display offers a clear
picture as compared to CRT display and emits less
radiation. Furthermore, it consumes less power and
takes less space than a CRT display.
LCDs have several advantages over older display
technologies like CRT. LCDs are thinner, lighter, and
more energy efficient. They also produce less heat,
have better image quality, and offer a wider viewing
angle.
2. LED Monitors
It is a flat screen computer monitor, which

stands for light-emitting diode display. It is
lightweight in terms of weight and has a short depth.
As the source of light, it uses a panel of LEDs.
Nowadays, a wide number of electronic devices, both
large and small devices such as laptop screens, mobile
phones, TVs, computer monitors, tablets, and more,
use LED displays.
Advantages of LED Monitor
z It includes a broader dimming range.

z It is a more reliable monitor.
z It is often less expensive.
z It consumes less power (20 watts), and run

on a lower temperature.
z It has a more dynamic contrast ratio
Table 2.2: Difference between LED and LCD
S.No LED LCD

1. LED has a better LCD is slower than
response time than LED in terms of
LCD. response time.
2. LED consumes more Whereas it consumes

power in comparison less power in
to LCD. comparison to LED.
3. LED delivers good LCD also delivers

picture quality in good picture quality
comparison to the but less than LED.
LCD display.
4. LED is costlier than While it is less costly

LCD. than LED.
5. LED delivers better LCD delivers good

color accuracy color accuracy
2.2.3 Projector
A projector is an output device that presents
images onto a projection screen. It is connected with
computer, and can replace a monitor. It projects the
computer screen to a group of people. Projectors come
in various forms and sizes and are used in auditoriums
and movie theatres. Some projectors can support
Wi-Fi and Bluetooth connectivity. Most projectors use
either an HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia
Interface) cable or VGA (video graphics array) cable
from a computer as their input source.
Fig. 2.20
Below are the different ways a projector can be

used today.
z Project a PowerPoint presentation at a
business meeting.
z Project a computer screen to teach a class
in school.
z Project a TV or computer with a movie
playing to a large screen.
z Demo a product or service at a convention
center.
Working Diagram of Projector is shown below.
Fig. 2.21
2.2.4 Speaker
Speaker is the output device that converts
electromagnetic waves into sound waves. The
computer provides audio output through speakers.
The computer’s sound card has the signal used
to generate the sound from a computer speaker.
Fig. 2.22
Speakers are made up of a cone, an iron coil,

a magnet, and housing (case). When the speaker
receives electrical input from a device, it sends the
current through the causing it to move back and forth.
This motion then vibrates the outer cone, generating
sound waves picked up by our ears.
Here is a simplified cross-sectional diagram of
a speaker
1. Cone
The thin membrane is attached to the voice coil
at the inner circumference and is designed to move
inward and outward along with the movement of the
voice coil. It is attached to the voice coil at its centre
and the surround at its outer circumference.
Fig. 2.23
2. Dust cap (dome)
Keeps dust and other airborne debris out of the

voice coil. To do so, it must attach to the cone and,
in effect, become part of the speaker’s diaphragm.
3. Suspension
Connects the diaphragm to the housing/basket of

the speaker. It allows for the proper amount of
diaphragm excursion (Z-axis) while keeping the
diaphragm and voice coil in their appropriate range
of motion (restricting motion in the X and Y axes).
The speaker suspension is made up of the surround
and the spider.
4. Surround
The ring-shaped component that connects the

cone/diaphragm to the basket/chassis of the speaker
driver. It determines the limits of the diaphragm
excursion and absorbs energy to reduce resonance.
5. Spider
The interior portion of the speaker suspension.

Its main purpose is to keep the voice coil where it
should be, allowing movement along the Z-axis and
restrictive movement in the X and Y axes. The spider
is connected to the voice coil to its interior and the
basket at its exterior.
6. Voice Coil
A tightly-wound (typically cylindrical-shaped)
coil of conductive wire. It has a lead wire attached
to either of its ends and becomes part of a circuit
that passes the AC audio signal.
7. Magnetic structure
The structure that provides a concentrated
permanent magnetic field in the driver and, in
particular, the voice coil.
8. Magnet
The main source of the speaker driver’s
magnetic field (the pole piece extends the magnetic
poles of the main magnet).
9. Top pole plate
Extends one magnetic pole of the magnet to the
exterior of the voice coil.
10. Basket
The stationary physical housing that connects to
the magnetic structure at the bottom, the surround at
the top, and the spider somewhere in the middle.
2.2.5 Computer Cables

A cable that transmits power or data between
devices which is covered in plastic by one or more wires.
A power cable and data cable are the primary types of
computer cables. The cable that creates communication

between devices is known as a data cable.
The most commonly used data cables are HDMI,
VGA, USB, PS/2, Ethernet Etc
1. HDMI Cable
HDMI is a type of computer cable that has the
potential to transmit audio and video signal with the
original quality of images. It stands for High
Definition Multimedia Interface, which can send
crystal clear images. The use of HDMI cable is to
connect electronic devices such as TVs, cable boxes,
HDTV, Projector, DVD players, and more.
Fig. 2.24
2. VGA Cable
VGA stands for Video Graphics Array. A VGA

cable is a device used to transfer video signals. It does
this by acting as a link between the computer and
the monitor or between the computer and the

television screen. The video graphic cable comes in
two types, male and female connector.
Fig. 2.25
3. SB Cables
The USB cable is a popular, standard cable that

enables a computer device to interact with peripheral
and other devices. It stands for Universal Serial Bus,
and there are various devices that are connected
through USB cable, such as keyboards and mouse,
Fig. 2.26
Printer, scanner etc. The USB ports are presented on

the computer system, which is used to connect USB
cables. Whenever the device is connected through the
USB cable, and you need to remove the USB cable
while the device is running, first you should eject
safely, and then you can remove it from the system.
The below picture is an example of a USB cable.
4. PS/2 Cable
The PS/2 cable is a standard cable, which
contain a round connector and a total of 6 pins, and
generally, two sizes of PS/2 cable are available on
the market. It is used to attach the mouse and
keyboard to the computer system, and its length is
long enough. It stands for Personal System/2 that was
developing by IBM. The example of PS/2 cable is
given below:
Fig. 2.27
5. Ethernet cable
The Ethernet cable is generally used for a wired
network, and the quality of the connection is described
by the length and durability of the Ethernet cable. It
can be used to connect the devices such as PCs,

routers, and switches within a LAN, and the quality
of the connection will not be best if the cable is not
durable and too long. The Ethernet port is presented
on the motherboard, which is used to plug Ethernet
cable. This cable looks similar to a phone cable, but
it has more wires as compared to a phone.
Additionally, users can buy Ethernet cable in different
colors, and it contains eight wires. The below image
is the example of Ethernet cable.
Fig. 2.28
6. 3.5 mm JACK
Fig. 2.29
The 3.5 mm headphone jack is an industry

standard audio plug. Most commonly used for
connecting a pair of stereo headphones to your
smartphone or ’piping’ your audio from your phone
to an external amp.
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1. Explain Keyboard in detail with neat sketch.
2. Explain the different types of scanners with
diagram.
3. What is mouse? Explain briefly with neat
diagram.
4. Explain the types of printers with neat sketch.
5. Explain the concept of monitor in detail with
neat sketch.
6. Explain the different types of computer cables
with neat diagrams.
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Computer memory is just like the human brain.
It is used to store data/information and instructions.
It is a data storage unit or a data storage device where
data is to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored.
Computer data storage is a technology
consisting of computer components and recording
media that are used to retain digital data.
Storage is where data is permanently kept on
computer. For example, when you install a program,
computer copies the program’s files from the
installation disc or downloaded install file to your
storage. Computer also uses storage to save your
documents, photos, music, and videos.
3.1.1 Bits and Bytes
A bit is a binary digit, the smallest increment

of data on a computer. A bit can hold only one of
two values: 0 or 1, corresponding to the electrical
values of off or on, respectively.
Because bits are so small, you rarely work with

information one bit at a time. Bits are usually
assembled into a group of eight to form a byte. A
byte contains enough information to store a single
ASCII character, like “h”.
A kilobyte (KB) is 1,024 bytes, not one
thousand bytes as might be expected, because
computers use binary (base two) math, instead of a
decimal (base ten) system.
Computer storage and memory is often measured
in megabytes (MB) and gigabytes (GB). A
medium-sized novel contains about 1 MB of
information. 1 MB is 1,024 kilobytes, or 1,048,576
(1024 × 1024) bytes, not one million bytes.
3.1.2 Difference between Bit and Byte

Table 3.1
Bit Byte
It is the smallest unit of It can be understood as a
data. collection of 8 bits. It is
quite greater.
It is represented either in It is represented in 256
form of 0 or 1. different types. It also
consist of additional
special characters.
It is represented by the It is represented by the
symbol ‘b’ in lowercase symbol ‘B’ in upper case.
Computer Memory and Storage 3.3
Bit Byte
It is of different sizes There are different sizes
Kilobit(Kb), Megabit (Mb), like KiloByte(KB),
Gigabit(Gb), Terabit (Tb), megaByte (MB), gigaByte
etc. (GB), terabyte (TB),
HexaByte (HB), PetaByte
(PB), etc.
Example: Used in Radio, Example: Used in data
Telecommunications, files storage Movies,
Data Speed, Voltage, etc images, etc.
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Memory Hierarchy is one of the most required
things in Computer Memory as it helps in optimizing
the memory available in the computer. There are
multiple levels present in the memory, each one
having a different size, different cost, etc.
Some types of memory like cache, and main
memory are faster as compared to other types of
memory but they are having a little less size and are
also costly whereas some memory has a little higher
storage value, but they are a little slower. Accessing
of data is not similar in all types of memory, some
have faster access whereas some have slower access.
3.2.1 Types of Memory Hierarchy

This Memory Hierarchy Design is divided into
2 main types:
1. External Memory or Secondary Memory

Comprising of Magnetic Disk, Optical Disk, and
Magnetic Tape i.e. peripheral storage devices which
are accessible by the processor via an I/O Module.
2. Internal Memory or Primary Memory

Comprising of Main Memory, Cache Memory &
CPU registers. This is directly accessible by the
processor.
Fig. 3.1
3.2.2 Memory Hierarchy Design
1. Registers
Registers are small, high-speed memory units

located in the CPU. They are used to store the most
frequently used data and instructions. Registers have
the fastest access time and the smallest storage
capacity, typically ranging from 16 to 64 bits.
2. Cache Memory
Cache memory is a small, fast memory unit
located close to the CPU. It stores frequently used
data and instructions that have been recently accessed
from the main memory. Cache memory is designed
to minimize the time it takes to access data by
providing the CPU with quick access to frequently
used data.
3. Main Memory
Main memory, also known as RAM (Random
Access Memory), is the primary memory of a
computer system. It has a larger storage capacity than
cache memory, but it is slower. Main memory is used
to store data and instructions that are currently in use
by the CPU.
3.2.3 Types of Main Memory
1. Static RAM
Static RAM stores the binary information in flip
flops and information remains valid until power is
supplied. It has a faster access time and is used in
implementing cache memory.
2. Dynamic RAM
It stores the binary information as a charge on
the capacitor. It requires refreshing circuitry to
maintain the charge on the capacitors after a few
milliseconds. It contains more memory cells per unit

area as compared to SRAM.
Secondary storage, such as hard disk drives (HDD)

and solid-state drives (SSD), is a non-volatile memory
unit that has a larger storage capacity than main memory.
It is used to store data and instructions that are not
currently in use by the CPU. Secondary storage has the
slowest access time and is typically the least expensive
type of memory in the memory hierarchy.
4. Magnetic Disk
Magnetic Disks are simply circular plates that

are fabricated with either a metal or a plastic or a
magnetized material. The Magnetic disks work at a
high speed inside the computer and these are
frequently used.
5. Magnetic Tape
Magnetic Tape is simply a magnetic recording

device that is covered with a plastic film. It is
generally used for the backup of data. In the case of
a magnetic tape, the access time for a computer is a
little slower and therefore, it requires some amount
of time for accessing the strip.
3.2.4 Characteristics of Memory Hierarchy
1. Capacity
It is the global volume of information the

memory can store. As we move from top to bottom
in the Hierarchy, the capacity increases.
2. Access Time
It is the time interval between the read/write

request and the availability of the data. As we move
from top to bottom in the Hierarchy, the access time
increases.
3. Performance
Earlier when the computer system was designed

without a Memory Hierarchy design, the speed gap
increased between the CPU registers and Main
Memory due to a large difference in access time. This
results in lower performance of the system and thus,
enhancement was required. This enhancement was
made in the form of Memory Hierarchy Design
because of which the performance of the system
increases. One of the most significant ways to increase
system performance is minimizing how far down the
memory hierarchy one has to go to manipulate data.
4. Cost Per Bit
As we move from bottom to top in the

Hierarchy, the cost per bit increases i.e. Internal
Memory is costlier than External Memory.
3.2.5 Advantages of Memory Hierarchy
z It helps in removing some destruction, and

managing the memory in a better way.
z It helps in spreading the data all over the
computer system.
z It saves the consumer’s price and time.
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Primary Memory is a section of computer
memory that the CPU can access directly. Primary
Memory has a faster access time than secondary
memory and is faster than cache memory in a memory
hierarchy. Primary Memory, on average, has a storage
capacity that is lower than secondary memory but
higher than cache memory.
3.3.1 We Need Primary Memory?
Memory is structured in such a way that the

access time for the ready process would be minimized
in order to improve system efficiency. To reduce
access time for the ready procedure, the following
strategy is used.
1. All applications, files, and data are kept on

secondary storage, which is larger and has
a longer access time.
2. A CPU or processor cannot access

secondary memory directly.
3. The operating system loads any process

into Primary Memory, which is
comparatively smaller and can be directly
accessed by the CPU in order to execute
it.
4. Because only those programmes are loaded

in Primary Memory and are ready to be
performed, the CPU may access them
quickly, thus improving the system’s
speed.
Memory Hierarchy refers to the step-by-step

organising of memory.
3.3.2 Classification of Primary Memory
We can broadly classify Primary Memory into

two parts:
1. Random Access Memory or RAM
2. Read-Only Memory or ROM

1. Random Access Memory (RAM)

Any system process that has to be executed is
put into RAM, where it is processed by the CPU
according to the program’s instructions. If we click
on an application like Browser, the Operating System
will first load browser code into RAM, following
which the CPU will execute and open the Browser.
Types of RAM
We can broadly classify RAM into SRAM or
Static RAM and DRAM or Dynamic RAM on the
basis of behaviour.
(a) DRAM
To keep data, dynamic RAM, or DRAM, must

be refreshed every few milliseconds. DRAM is made
up of capacitors and transistors, and capacitors leak
electric charge; hence DRAM must be charged on a
regular basis. Because DRAM is less expensive than
SRAM, it is commonly used in personal computers
and servers.
(b) SRAM
The data is stored in static RAM, or SRAM, as
long as the system is powered on. SRAM stores a
bit using sequential circuits, similar to a flip-flop, so
it does not need to be refreshed on a regular basis.
Because SRAM is so expensive, it’s only used when
speed is critical.
2. Read-Only Memory (ROM)

Any data that does not need to be changed is
saved in ROM. The ROM contains both programmes
that run when the system boots up (known as a
bootstrap programme that initialises the OS) and data
such as the algorithm that the OS requires. Nothing
can be tampered with or modified in ROM.
Types of ROM
We can classify ROM into four major types on
the basis of their behaviour. They are:
(a) MROM
Masked ROM is pre-programmed and hardwired
ROM. Any text that has already been written cannot
be changed in any way.
(b) PROM
The user can only change the programmable
ROM once. The user purchases a blank PROM and
writes the required text on it; however, the content

cannot be changed once it has been written.
(c) EPROM
ROM that can be erased and programmed by
removing the original material, which can be done by
exposing EPROM to UV radiation, and the content
can be modified. The charge on the ROM is dissipated
by the ultraviolet light, allowing content to be
rewritten on it.
(d) EEPROM
The initial content of an electrically erasable and
programmable ROM can be modified by erasing the
content that can be easily deleted electrically. Instead
of removing everything at once, one byte can be
wiped at a time. As a result, reprogramming an
EEPROM is a time-consuming procedure.
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Memory in a computer refers to the physical
components that are used to temporarily or
permanently store programmes or data. It’s a
collection of registers.
Primary memory is very volatile and has a finite
amount of storage space. As a result, having a second
type of memory with a bigger storage capacity- from
which programs and data are not lost whenever the
computer is turned off is critical. Secondary memory
is the term for this form of memory. Programs and
data are stored in secondary memory. Auxiliary

memory is another name for it. It differs from primary
memory in that it is non-volatile and not directly
accessible by the CPU. Secondary storage devices,
often known as external storage devices, have
substantially more storage space and are less
expensive than primary memory.
Fig. 3.2
3.4.1 Use of Secondary Memory
Secondary memory is mainly used for different

purposes. The primary purpose of using it is as follows:
1. Permanent storage
Primary memory, as we all know, retains data
only when the power is on and loses data when the
power is turned off. As a result, we require a
secondary memory that can keep data indefinitely

even if the power supply is turned off.
2. Large storage
Secondary memory provides a significant
amount of storage space, allowing us to store large
amounts of data such as films, photographs, audio
files, and other items permanently.
3. Portable
Some of the secondary devices can be removed.
As a result, one can store data and transfer them
effortlessly from one device to another.
3.4.2 Types of Secondary Memory

There are two types of secondary memory:
1. Fixed Storage
A fixed storage device in secondary memory is
an internal media device used to store data in a
computer system. Fixed storage is sometimes known
as hard drives or the fixed disc drives. In most cases,
the computer system’s data is saved in the fixed
storage device that’s incorporated into a given system.
Fixed storage does not preclude their removal from
the computer system; with the assistance of an expert
or engineer, you may remove the fixed storage device
for repairs, upgrades, or maintenance, among other
things.
Types of fixed storage:

Here are the different types of fixed storage:
(i) Hard disk drives (HDD)
(ii) SSD (solid-state disk)
(iii) Internal flash memory (rare)
2. Removable Storage
Removable storage refers to an external media
device that is mainly used to store data on a computer
system in secondary memory. The disk drives or the
external drives are common names for removable
storage. It’s a removable storage device that can be
inserted or withdrawn from the computer as needed.
We can uninstall them effortlessly from a computer
system while it’s still running. We can transfer data
from any computer to another one simply using
removable storage devices because they are portable.
Also, removable storage devices provide high data and
information transfer speeds that the storage area
networks (or SANs) are known for.
3. Types of Removable Storage

Here are the types of removable storage:
(i) Optical discs (such as DVDs, CDs, Blu-ray
discs, etc.)
(ii) Floppy disks
(iii) Memory cards
(iv) Disk packs
(v) Magnetic tapes
(vi) Paper storage (such as punched cards,

punched tapes, etc.)
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A secondary storage device refers to any
non-volatile storage device that is internal or external
to the computer. It can be any storage device beyond
the primary storage that enables permanent data
storage. A secondary storage device is also known as
an auxiliary storage device, backup storage device, tier
2 storage, or external storage.
Here are the most commonly utilized secondary

memory devices:
Fig. 3.3
3.5.1 Floppy Disk
A floppy disc refers to a magnetic disc housed

in a square plastic container. It is primarily used to
store information and then transfer it from one device
to another. There are two sizes of floppy discs (a)
Size: 3.5 inches, 1.44 MB storage capacity (b) Size:
5.25 inches and 1.2 MB storage capacity. A computer
must consist of a floppy disc drive for using a floppy
disc. Such a storage device is now obsolete, and
DVDs, CDs, and flash drives have taken its place.
3.5.2 Compact Disc
A Compact Disc or the CD is a type of

secondary storage media that is widely utilised. Its
surface is covered in tracks and sectors. It is composed
of polycarbonate plastic and has a round form. CDs
have a data storage capacity of up to 700 MB. A CD
is also known as a CD-ROM (Compact Disc
Read-Only Memory) because computers can read the
data on it but not write new data onto it.
There are two types of CDs:
1. CD-R or compact disc recordable
It is not possible to remove data that has been

written onto it; it can only be read.
2. CD-RW or compact disc rewritable
It’s a particular kind of CD that allows us to

wipe and rewrite data as many times as we desire,
so It’s also known as an erasable CD.
3.5.3 Digital Versatile Disc
DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disc. It

resembles a CD, but it has a larger storage capacity;
up to 4.7 GB of data can be stored. To use a DVD
on a computer, a DVD-ROM drive is required. Video
files, such as movies or video recordings, are
commonly saved on DVDs, which may be played with
a DVD player. There are three different kinds of
DVDs available:
1. DVD-ROM or Digital Versatile Disc

Read-Only Memory
The manufacturer writes the data on the

DVD-ROM, and the users can only read it; they
cannot create new data on it. For example, a movie
DVD has already been written by the maker, and we
can only watch it; we cannot add new data to it.
2. DVD-R or Digital Versatile Disc Recordable
You can write data on a DVD-R, but only once.

It is not possible to remove data that has been written
onto it; it can only be read.
3. DVD-RW or Digital Versatile Disc RW

(Rewritable and Erasable)
It’s a particular kind of DVD that allows us to
wipe and rewrite data as many times as we desire.
It’s also known as an erasable DVD.
3.5.4 Blu-ray Disc

It resembles a CD/VD, but it can actually hold
up to 25 GigaBytes data or information. You’ll need
a Blu-ray reader if you wish to use a Blu-ray disc.
The name Blu-ray comes from the technology used
to read the disc: ‘Blu’ comes from a blue-violet laser,
and ‘ray’ comes from an optical ray.
3.5.5 Hard Disk

Hard discs are storage devices designed to hold
a lot of information. Hard discs, often known as hard
disc drives, are available in a variety of storage
capacities. (For example, 256 GB, 500 GB, 1 TB, and
2 TB). It is made up of platters, which are a collection
of discs. The dishes are stacked one on top of the
other. They have a magnetic coating on them. Each
platter is made up of a number of invisible circles,
each of which has the same central track. Internal and
external hard discs are the two types of hard discs.
3.5.6 Flash Drive

A flash drive or pen drive is available in a
variety of storage capacities, including 1, 2, 4, 8, 16,
32, 64 GB, and 1 TB. Data is transferred and stored

using a flash drive. To use a flash drive, it must be
plugged into a computer’s USB port. A flash drive
is quite popular nowadays because it is simple to use
and small in size.
3.5.7 Solid-state Disk
A Solid-state Disk (SSD) is a data storage and

retrieval device that is non-volatile. It’s faster, makes
no noise (since it doesn’t have any moving parts like
a hard drive), uses less electricity, and so on. If the
price is right, it’s a perfect replacement for regular
hard drives in laptops and desktops, and it’s also ideal
for tablets, notebooks, and other devices that don’t
require a lot of storage.
3.5.8 SD Card
A Secure Digital Card (SD Card) is commonly

used to store data in portable devices such as cell
phones and cameras. It comes in a variety of
capacities, including 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, and 64 GB.
You can access the data present in the SD card by
removing it from the device and inserting it into a
computer using a card reader. The data in the SD card
is stored in memory chips (which are included in the
SD card), and there are no moving elements like there
are on a hard disc.
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Cache memory refers to high-speed memory. It
is small but faster than RAM (the main memory). The
CPU can access the cache comparatively more quickly
than its primary memory. Thus, we use it to
synchronize with a high-speed CPU and also to
improve its overall performance.
3.6.1 Accessing Cache Memory
Only the CPU can access the cache memory.

This memory can be the reserved part of a main
memory/storage device outside the CPU. The cache
holds the data and programs that the CPU uses
frequently. Thus, it ensures that the information is
instantaneously available for the CPU as and when
the CPU needs this information. In simpler words, if
the CPU finds the required instructions or data in the
system’s cache memory, it does NOT need to access
its primary memory or RAM. Thus, it speeds up the
performance of the system by operating as a buffer
between the RAM and the CPU.
Fig. 3.4
3.6.2 Types of Cache Memory
1. Cache
This refers to the first level of any cache
memory, usually known as the L1 cache or Level 1
cache. In L1 cache memory, a very small memory
exists inside the CPU itself. In case the CPU consists
of four cores (A quad-core CPU), each core will then
have its own L1 cache.
Since this memory exists in the CPU, it can
operate at the very same speed as that of the CPU.
The actual size of such a memory ranges from 2
kilobytes to 64 kilobytes. The Level 1 cache has two
further types of caches: The Instruction cache storing,
the instructions that are required by a CPU, along with
the data cache storing, the data that is required by a
CPU.
2. Cache
This cache refers to the L2 cache or Level 2

cache. The level 2 cache may reside both inside or
outside any given CPU. Here, all the cores of the CPU
can consist of their separate (own) level 2 cache, or
they can even share a single L2 cache among
themselves. Now, in case it’s outside the CPU, it
connects with the CPU using a very high-speed bus.
Here, the memory size of a cache ranges from 256
kilobytes to 512 kilobytes. If we go for the speed,
these are comparatively slower than the Level 1 cache.
3. Cache
This cache is known as the L3 cache or Level

3 cache. This type of cache isn’t present in all of the
processors. Only a few of the high-end processors may
contain this type of cache. We use the L3 cache to
enhance the overall performance of the L1 and the
L2 cache. This type of memory is located outside a
CPU. It is also shared by all CPU cores. The memory
size of the L3 cache ranges from 1 to 8 megabytes.
Though the L3 cache is slower than that of the L1
cache and the L2 cache, it is much faster than that
of the RAM or Random Access Memory.
3.6.3 Real-world Examples of Cache

Memory Usage
Cache memory is utilized in a wide variety of
applications and industries. Here are a few real-world
examples that illustrate its importance:
1. Web Browsing
When you visit a website, your web browser
stores elements of the webpage, such as images, CSS,
and JavaScript files, in its cache. The next time you
visit the same site, the browser can load these
elements from the cache instead of downloading them
again from the web server. This speeds up page load
times and reduces network traffic.
2. Video Streaming
Services like Netflix and YouTube use cache
memory to provide a smoother streaming experience.
When you watch a video, the next few minutes of
the video are stored in cache. If your internet
connection slows down or drops out momentarily, the
video can continue playing from the cache without
interruption.
3. Database Systems
In database systems, cache memory is used to
store the results of frequently run queries. If the same
query is run again, the database can return the cached
result instead of running the query again. This can
significantly speed up database operations, especially

in large databases with millions of records.
4. Gaming
Video games uses cache memory to store
frequently used game assets, such as textures and
sound files. This allows the game to load these assets
more quickly, reducing lag and providing a smoother
gaming experience.
3$57 % ² 48(67,216

1. Explain in detail about memory hierarchy.
2. Discuss briefly primary memory and its types.
3. Explain about secondary memory and its types.
4. Explain about secondary storage devices.
5. Explain the concept of cache memory in detail.
UNIT – IV
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The software is basically a set of instructions or
commands that tell a computer what to do. In other
words, the software is a computer program that
provides a set of instructions to execute a user’s
commands and tell the computer what to do. For
example, like MS-Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc.
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It is a collection of data that is given to the
computer to complete a particular task. The chart
below describes the types of software:
Above is the diagram of types of software. Now

we will briefly describe each type and its subtypes:
1. System Software
(i) Operating System
(ii) Language Processor
(iii) Device Driver
2. Application Software
(i) General Purpose Software
(ii) Customize Software
(iii) Utility Software
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System software is software that directly
operates the computer hardware and provides the basic
functionality to the users as well as to the other
software to operate smoothly Or in other words,
system software basically controls a computer’s
internal functioning and also controls hardware
devices such as monitors, printers, and storage
devices, etc. It is like an interface between hardware
and user applications, it helps them to communicate
with each other because hardware understands
machine language (i.e. 1 or 0) whereas user
applications are work in human-readable languages
like English, Hindi, German, etc. so system software
converts the human-readable language into machine
language and vice versa.
Computer Software 4.3
4.3.1 Types of System Software

It has two subtypes which are:
1. Operating System
Operating system acts as a in the face between
user and the computer hardware.
It is the main program of a computer system.
When the computer system ON it is the first software
that loads into the computer’s memory. Basically, it
manages all the resources such as computer memory,
CPU, printer, hard disk, etc., and provides an interface
to the user, which helps the user to interact with the
computer system.
Examples of operating systems

z Linux
z Apple macOS
z Microsoft Windowset
2. Language Processor
As we know that system software converts the
human-readable language into a machine language and
vice versa. So, the conversion is done by the language
processor. It converts programs written in high-level
programming languages like Java, C, C++, Pythonetc
(known as source code), into sets of instructions that
are easily readable by machines (known as object code
or machine code).
3. Device Driver
A device driver is a program or software that
controls a device and helps that device to perform its
functions. Every device like a printer, mouse, modem,
etc. needs a driver to connect with the computer
system eternally. So, when you connect a new device
with your computer system, first you need to install
the driver of that device so that your operating system
knows how to control or manage that device.
4.3.2 Features of System Software

1. System Software is closer to the computer
system.
2. System Software is written in a low-level
language in general.
3. System software is difficult to design and
understand.
4. System software is fast in speed (working
speed).
5. System software is less interactive for the
users in comparison to application
software.
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A Compiler is a software that typically takes a
high level language (Like C++ and Java) code as input
and converts the input to a lower level language at
once. It lists all the errors if the input code does not
follow the rules of its language. This process is much

faster than interpreter but it becomes difficult to debug
all the errors together in a program.
A compiler is a translating program that
translates the instructions of high level language to
machine level language. A program which is input to
the compiler is called a Source program. This
program is now converted to a machine level language
by a compiler is known as the Object code.
4.4.1 How does a compiler work?
The process of compiling code involves several

steps. Basically, Code passes through these steps
sequentially and if there is any mistake in code then
it will be examined through these steps and thus
compilation process stops in-between and show
compilation error. Otherwise if everything is OK then
compiler does not show any error and compile the
source code. There are the following steps which are
involved during compiling:
1. Lexical Analysis
The source code is first tested by the compiler’s

lexer, which breaks the source code into tokens, such
as keywords, identifiers, operators, and punctuation.
2. Syntax Analysis
The next step is syntax analysis, where the

compiler’ parser checks the code for syntax errors and
ensures that it follows the rules of the programming
language. The compiler generates an Abstract Syntax
Tree (AST) that represents the structure of the code.
3. Semantic Analysis
Once the code is syntactically correct, the

compiler performs semantic analysis on parsed code
to find the meaning. The compiler check for logical
errors, such as type mismatches, undeclared variables,
and incorrect usage of operators.
4. Optimization
The compiler may perform various optimizations

to improve the performance of the resulting code. It
is an optional phase of compiler. It removes dead code
and arranges the sequence of instructions in order to
boost the program execution.
5. Code generations
The last step is code generation, where the

compiler translates the AST into machine-readable
code. The code generator creates assembly language
code, which is then translated into binary code that
can be executed by the computer.
4.4.2 Importance of Compilers
There are the following reasons why compilers

are important to us:
1. Enabling concept of High-Level Language
They enable developers to write code in

high-level programming languages, which are easier
to understand and more human-readable than machine
code.
2. One-time effort (Efficiency)
Compilers convert high-level code into machine

code .Now, this machine code is stored in a file
having extension(.exe) which is directly executed by
computer. So, programmer need only one time effort
to compile code into machine code and after that they
can use code whenever they want using (.exe) file.
This process allows programs to run much faster and
more efficiently than if they were interpreted at
runtime.
3. Portability
Compilers translates source code which is

written in high-level programming language into
machine code. And thus, it enable portability feature
because this machine code can be runned on many
different operating systems and hardware architectures
because it is platform independent.
4. Security
Compiler can provide programmer security by

preventing memory-related errors, such as buffer
overflows, by analyzing and optimizing the code. It
can also generate warnings or errors if it detects
potential memory issues.
There are different Compilers:
(i) Cross-Compiler
The compiled program can run on a computer

whose CPU or Operating System is different from the
one on which the compiler runs.
(ii) Bootstrap Compiler
The compiler written in the language that it

intends to compile.
(iii) Decompiler
The compiler that translates from a low-level

language to a higher level one.
(iv) Transcompiler
The compiler that translates high level

languages.
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Every programming language has libraries that
have some prewritten codes. The purpose of these
prewritten codes is to perform a specific task. The
programmer uses these codes to optimize their task
while designing code.
For example, printf(), and scanf() functions that
a programmer directly uses in a C program are defined
in the standard header file <stdio.h> of the C library.
The programmer does not define this printf(), scanf()
function; he can directly use them from the standard
C library.
Usually, the codes in libraries are designed to
perform functions such as:
1. Creation
2. Reading
3. Writing to files
4. Displaying results
5. Evaluating mathematical expressions
6. Other functions
4.5.1 Function of Linker
Linker accepts the object module and extracts

all the information out of it. The linker then locates
the required library routine and other programs and
combines them with the target code.
Fig. 4.1
4.5.2 Types of Linker

There are two forms of linking a target program
produced by the translator with the library routines
and other external references:
1. Static Linking
2. Dynamic Linking
1. Static Linking
In static linking, all the external references

present in the object module are resolved before the
execution of the program. Static linking might create
an overhead. Suppose several programs refer to the
same library routine.
Now, if these programs are linked statically, then

all of these programs will have a private copy of that
library routine. Many of these programs may be in
execution simultaneously. If so, those many copies of
the same library routine will be in the memory,
occupying the memory unnecessarily. So, we came up
with the concept of dynamic linking.
2. Dynamic Linking
Dynamic linking is where all the external

references are resolved at the time of execution of
the machine language program. This kind of linker is
invoked at the time of program execution.
Here, the linker combines the machine language
program with external references, such as library
routines and other referred programs, as they occur
in the machine language program and resumes the
execution of the program.
A linker is an important utility program that
takes the object files, produced by the assembler and
compiler, and other code to join them into a single
executable file. There are two types of linkers,
dynamic and linkage.
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A loader is a system program that loads or
places the machine language program or the binary
program in the main memory for its execution. The
linker generates this binary program and places it on
the hard disk. The loader locates this executable

binary program from the hard disk and loads it on
the main memory. The loader is even responsible for
performing relocation. Now you must be thinking,
what is relocation?
What is Relocation in System Programming?

Sometimes a programmer may code a program
with the intention of executing the program from a
specific area of the memory. But it may happen that
the operating system may occupy the same specific
area of memory for some other purpose. In such a
case, the loader has to allocate a different memory
area to the program for its execution.
In short, relocation is a process where the loader
changes the memory addresses mentioned in the
program with the available memory addresses. So that
program can correctly execute in the allocated area.
4.6.1 Types of Loader
Loading can be performed in three different

ways such as:
1. Compile and Go Loader

2. Absolute Loading
3. Relocatable Loading
4. Dynamic Run-time Loading

In this kind of loading, the assembler is placed
in one part of the memory. It reads the compiled
program line by line and generates the machine
program that is directly placed in the assigned memory
location. A large portion of memory is wasted as it
holds the combination of assembler and loader
activities.
Program execution with this scheme takes more
time as the program must be assembled and executed
each time.
2. Absolute Loader
In this scheme, the language translator generates
a relocated object file. The absolute loader accepts this
file and places it in the specified memory location.
In this scenario, the loader does not require relocation
information as it is already provided by the
programmer itself in the program or by the assembler.
3. Relocatable Loader
The language translators do not generate a
relocated object file in this scheme. Instead, the loader
can allocate the space to executable code anywhere

in the main memory for its correct execution.
4. Dynamic Run-time Loader
This loader identifies and loads all the

executable code and shared libraries when executing
the program.
What is Bootstrap Loader?
The bootstrap loader is also a system program

in the computer’s read-only memory (ROM). This
loader gets activated as soon as you switch on your
computer. It reads your computer’s hard disk and
loads the operating system onto the main memory.
4.6.2 Difference between Linker and Loader
Sl.
Linker Loader
No
1 A linker is an A loader is a vital
important utility component of an
program that takes the operating system that is
object files, produced accountable for loading
by the assembler and programs and libraries.
compiler, and other
code to join them into
a single executable file.
Sl.
Linker Loader
No
2 It uses an input of It uses an input of
object code produced executable files
by the assembler and produced by the linker.
compiler.
3 The foremost purpose The foremost purpose
of a linker is to of a loader is to load
produce executable executable files to
files. memory.
4 Linker is used to join Loader is used to
all the modules. allocate the address to
executable files.
5 It is accountable for It is accountable for
managing objects in setting up references
the program’s space. that are utilized in the
program.
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An Operating System (OS) is an interface
between a computer user and computer hardware. An
operating system is a software which performs all the
basic tasks like file management, memory
management, process management, handling input and
output, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk
drives and printers.
The primary purposes of an Operating System

are to enable applications (softwares) to interact with
a computer’s hardware and to manage a system’s
hardware and software resources.
Example
z Windows operating system
z Linux separating system
z IOS
z Android mobile system
4.7.1 Architecture
We can draw a generic architecture diagram of
an Operating System which is as follows:
Fig. 4.2
Following are some of important functions of an

operating System.
1. Memory Management
2. Processor Management
3. Device Management
4. File Management
5. Network Management
6. Security
7. Control over system performance
8. Job accounting
9. Error detecting aids
10. Coordination between other software and users
4.7.2 Windows Operating System

Windows Operating System (OS) is a graphical
user interface (GUI) based operating system developed
by Microsoft Corporation. It is designed to provide
users with a user-friendly interface to interact with
their computers. The first version of the Windows
Operating System was introduced in 1985, and since
then, it has undergone many updates and upgrades.
Windows Operating System is compatible with a wide
range of hardware and software applications, making
it a popular choice for both personal and business
computing. It has a built-in security system to protect
the computer from malware and viruses and provides
a comprehensive file management system that makes

it easy for users to organize and access their files.
Windows Operating System also allows users to run
multiple applications simultaneously, making it easy
to work on multiple tasks at the same time.
4.7.3 Features of Windows Operating System

Here are some features of the Windows
Operating System:
1. Control Panel
The control Panel is a centralized location within
Windows where users can manage various system
settings, including security and privacy, display,
hardware and sound, and programs. It provides users
with access to a range of tools and settings, making
it easy to customize the Windows experience.
2. Internet Browser
An Internet Browser is a software application
that allows users to access and browse the Internet.
Windows provides a built-in internet browser called
Microsoft Edge, which includes features such as
tabbed browsing, search suggestions, and web notes.
3. File Explorer
File Explorer is a file management tool that
allows users to browse, open, and manage files and
folders on their computers. It provides a user-friendly
interface for users to view and manage files and includes
features such as search, copy, move, and delete.
4. Taskbar
Taskbar is a horizontal bar that appears at the

bottom of the Windows desktop. It provides quick
access to frequently used applications and displays
open windows and programs. The taskbar also
includes system icons such as volume, network, and
battery status.
5. Microsoft Paint
Microsoft Paint is a graphics editing software

that allows users to create and edit images. It provides
users with basic drawing tools such as a pencil, brush,
and eraser, and allows users to add shapes, text, and
images to their designs.
6. Start Menu
Start Menu is a menu that appears when users

click the Start button on the Windows taskbar. It
provides access to frequently used applications,
settings, and files, and includes a search bar that
allows users to quickly find files and applications.
7. Task Manager
Task Manager is a system tool that allows users

to view and manage running applications and
processes. It provides users with information about
CPU and memory usage and allows users to end
unresponsive programs and processes.
8. Disk Cleanup
Disk Cleanup is a system tool that allows users

to free up space on their hard drives by removing
unnecessary files and data. It scans the system for
temporary files, cache, and other unnecessary data,
and provides users with the option to remove them.
9. Cortana
Cortana is a virtual assistant software that allows

users to interact with their computers using voice
commands. It provides users with access to
information, and reminders, and can perform tasks
such as sending emails and setting reminders.
4.7.4 Versions of Windows Operating System
1. Windows 1.0
This was the first version of the Windows

Operating System, released in 1985. It was a graphical
user interface (GUI) for MS-DOS and included
features such as a calculator, calendar, and notepad.
2. Windows 2.0
This version was released in 1987, and introduced
features such as support for VGA graphics, keyboard
shortcuts, and improved memory management.
3. Windows 3.0
This version was released in 1990, and was the
first widely successful version of the Windows
Operating System. It introduced features such as
Program Manager, and File Manager, and improved

support for graphics and multimedia.
4. Windows 95
This version was released in 1995, and was a
major milestone for Windows. It introduced the Start
menu, taskbar, and support for plug-and-play devices.
It also included the Internet Explorer web browser.
5. Windows 98
This version was released in 1998, and included
improvements to the Start menu and taskbar, as well
as support for USB devices.
6. Windows 2000
This version was released in 2000, and was
designed for business use. It included features such
as Active Directory, improved network support, and
support for the NTFS file system.
7. Windows XP
This version was released in 2001, and was a
major overhaul of the Windows interface. It
introduced a new visual style, improved performance,
and support for wireless networks.
8. Windows Vista
a new interface called Aero, as well as improved
security features.
9. Windows 7
improvements to the Start menu, taskbar, and Aero
interface. It also introduced new features such as Jump
Lists and Libraries.
10. Windows 8
This version was released in 2012, and was

designed for touch screens and tablets. It introduced
the Start screen, as well as new apps and features
such as Charms and Snap.
11. Windows 10
This version was released in 2015. It includes
a redesigned Start menu, support for virtual desktops,
and new apps and features such as Cortana and the
Edge browser.
12. Windows 11
It is the latest version of the Windows operating
system, released by Microsoft in October 2021. It
builds upon the foundation of Windows 10, with a
focus on enhancing the user experience and improving
performance and security.
/,18; 23(5$7,1* 6<67(0
Linux is a powerful and flexible family of

operating systems that are free to use and share. It
was created by a person named Linus Torvalds in
1991. What’s cool is that anyone can see how the
system works because its source code is open for

everyone to explore and modify. This openness
encourages people from all over the world to work
together and make Linux better and better. Since its
beginning, Linux has grown into a stable and safe
system used in many different things, like computers,
smartphones, and big super computers. It’s known for
being efficient, meaning it can do a lot of tasks
quickly, and it’s also cost-effective, which means it
doesn’t cost a lot to use. Lots of people love Linux,
and they’re part of a big community where they share
ideas and help each other out. As technology keeps
moving forward, Linux will keep evolving and staying
important in the world of computers.
4.8.1 Architecture of Linux
Linux architecture has the following components:
Fig. 4.3
1. Kernel
Kernel is the core of the Linux based operating
system. It virtualizes the common hardware resources
of the computer to provide each process with its
virtual resources. The kernel is also responsible for
preventing and mitigating conflicts between different
processes. Different types of the kernel are:
(i) Monolithic Kernel
(ii) Hybrid kernels
(iii) Exo kernels
(iv) Micro kernels
2. System Library
Linux uses system libraries, also known as
shared libraries, to implement various functionalities
of the operating system. These libraries contain
pre-written code that applications can use to perform
specific tasks. System libraries act as an interface
between applications and the kernel, providing a
standardized and efficient way for applications to
interact with the underlying system.
3. Shell
The shell is the user interface of the Linux
Operating System. The shell serves as a bridge
between the user and the kernel, forwarding the user’s
requests to the kernel for processing. It provides a
convenient way for users to perform various tasks,
such as running programs, managing files, and
configuring the system.
4. Hardware Layer
The hardware layer encompasses all the physical
components of the computer, such as RAM (Random
Access Memory), HDD (Hard Disk Drive), CPU (Central
Processing Unit), and input/output devices. This layer is
responsible for interacting with the Linux Operating
System and providing the necessary resources for the
system and applications to function properly.
5. System Utility
System utilities are essential tools and programs
provided by the Linux Operating System to manage and
configure various aspects of the system. System utilities
simplify system administration tasks, making it easier for
users to maintain their Linux systems efficiently.
4.8.2 Advantages of Linux

1. The main advantage of Linux is it is an
open-source operating system. This means
the source code is easily available for
everyone and you are allowed to
contribute, modify and distribute the code
to anyone without any permissions.
2. In terms of security, Linux is more secure
than any other operating system. It does
not mean that Linux is 100 percent secure,
it has some malware for it but is less
vulnerable than any other operating system.
So, it does not require any anti-virus
software.
3. The software updates in Linux are easy

and frequent.
4. Various Linux distributions are available so
that you can use them according to your
requirements or according to your taste.
5. Linux is freely available to use on the
internet.
6. It has large community support.
7. It provides high stability. It rarely slows
down or freezes and there is no need to
reboot it after a short time.
8. It maintains the privacy of the user.
9. The performance of the Linux system is
much higher than other operating systems.
It allows a large number of people to work
at the same time and it handles them
efficiently.
10. It is network friendly.
11. The flexibility of Linux is high. There is
no need to install a complete Linux suite;
you are allowed to install only the required
components.
12. Linux is compatible with a large number
of file formats.
13. It is fast and easy to install from the web.
It can also install it on any hardware even
on your old computer system.
14. It performs all tasks properly even if it has

limited space on the hard disk.
4.8.3 Disadvantages of Linux

1. It is not very user-friendly. So, it may be
confusing for beginners.
2. It has small peripheral hardware drivers as
compared to windows.
4.8.4 Linux Distribution

Linux distribution is an operating system that is
made up of a collection of software based on Linux
kernel or you can say distribution contains the Linux
kernel and supporting libraries and software. Some of
the popular Linux distributions are:
1. MX Linux
2. Manjaro
3. Linux Mint
4. Elementary
5. Ubuntu
6. Debian
7. Solus
8. Fedora
9. openSUSE
10. Deepin
4.8.5 Difference between Linux and

Windows Operating System
Windows Linux Operating

Feature
Operating System System
Command Allows use of Offers more
Line command line, but features for
not as powerful as administration and
Linux. daily tasks.
Reliability Less reliable than More reliable and
Linux. secure than
Windows.
Usability Easier to use, but The installation
the installation process is
process can take complicated but
more time. once installed it can
perform complex
tasks easily.
Security Vulnerable to More secure than
malware and Windows, with less
viruses, but security vulnerability to
is improved in malware and
recent years. viruses.

Feature
Updates Regular updates can Gives users full
be frustrating for control over
users, and take updates, which are
longer to install. quicker to install
and do not require
a reboot.
Licensing Does not allow Allows
modification of modification and
software, only reuse of source
available on code on any
systems with a number of systems.
Windows license
key.
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Software that performs special functions or
provides functions that are much more than the basic
operation of the computer is known as application
software. Or in other words, application software is
designed to perform a specific task for end-users. It
is a product or a program that is designed only to
fulfill end-users’ requirements. It includes word
processors, spreadsheets, database management,
inventory, payroll programs, etc.
4.9.1 Types of Application Software

There are different types of application software
and those are:
1. General Purpose Software

This type of application software is used for a
variety of tasks and it is not limited to performing a
specific task only. For example, MS-Word, MS-Excel,
PowerPoint, etc.
2. Customized Software
This type of application software is used or
designed to perform specific tasks or functions or
designed for specific organizations. For example,
railway reservation system, airline reservation system,
invoice management system, etc.
3. Utility Software
This type of application software is used to support
the computer infrastructure. It is designed to analyze,
configure, optimize and maintains the system, and take
care of its requirements as well. For example, antivirus,
disk fragmenter, memory tester, disk repair, disk cleaners,
registry cleaners, disk space analyzer, etc.
4.9.2 Features of Application Software

1. An important feature of application
software is it performs more specialized
tasks like word processing, spreadsheets,
email, etc.
2. Mostly, the size of the software is big, so

it requires more storage space.
3. Application software is more interactive for
the users, so it is easy to use and design.
4. The application software is easy to design
and understand.
5. Application software is written in a
high-level language in general.
4.9.3 Difference Between System Software

and Application Software
System Software Application Software

It is designed to manage like memory and process
the resources of the management, etc.
computer system
Written in a low-level Written in a high-level
language language.
Less interactive for the More interactive for the
users. users
System software plays Application software is
vital role for the effective not so important for the
functioning of a system. functioning of the system,
as it is task specific.
It is independent of the It needs system software
application software to run. to run
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Word Processing refers to the act of using a
computer to create, edit, save and print documents.
In order to perform word processing, specialized
software (known as a Word Processor) is needed. One
example of a Word Processor is Microsoft Word, but
other word processing applications are also widely
used. Examples include: Microsoft Works Word
Processor, Open Office Writer, Word Perfect and
Google Drive Document..
These programs allow users to create a wide
variety of documents including reports, letters, memos,
newsletters and brochures. In addition to typing text,
the word processor allows you to add content such
as pictures, tables, and charts to your documents as
well as decorative items including borders and clipart.
4.10.1 Example of word processors
1. Microsoft Word.
2. Word star.
3. Word perfect.
4. Corel.
5. Lotus.
6. Word pro.
7. K Word.
8. Abiword.
Fig. 4.4
Word processors have the following main

functionalities:
(i) Insert
(ii) Copy
(iii) Cut and paste
(iv) Delete
(v) Find and replace
(vi) Print
(vii) Word wrap

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A presentation software (sometimes called a
presentation program) is a digital tool. It utilizes
sequences of graphics, text, audio, and video to
accompany a spoken presentation. These sequences,
often called slides, are consolidated in virtual files
called “slide decks.”
4.11.1 Features
1. Pre-built templates
The best presentation tools should have
attractive, professional-looking templates to build
presentations in a hurry.
2. Sharing and collaboration options

Whether you plan to share your webinar slides
later, or you just want to collaborate with a coworker
on a presentation, it should be easy to share files and
collaborate in real-time.
3. Flexibility and customization options

Templates are great, but top presentation apps
should enable you to customize just about
everything—giving you the flexibility to build exactly
what you need.
4. Affordability
Creating compelling presentations is important,
but you shouldn’t have to bust your budget to make
it happen. With capable free tools on the market,

affordability is a top consideration.
5. Standalone functionality
There’s no reason to use multiple tools when
one can do it all, so I didn’t test any apps that require
and work on top of another presentation app like
PowerPoint or Google Slides.
6. Familiar, deck-based UI
For our purposes here, I only tested software that
uses slides, with the familiar deck-based editor you
expect from a “presentation” tool (versus, for example,
a video creation app).
4.11.2 Presentation softwares

1. Canva for a free presentation app
2. Beautiful AI for AI-powered design
3. Prezi for non-linear, conversational
presentations
4. Powtoon for video presentations
5. Genially for interactive, presenter-less
presentations
6. Pitch for collaborating with your team on
presentations
7. Zoho Show for a simple presentation app
8. Gamma for generative AI features
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Graphics software is a type of computer program
that is used to create and edit images. There is a wide
range of graphics software available on the market,
ranging from simple programs that allow users to
create and edit basic images, to complex tools that
can be used to create detailed 3D models and
animations. Some of the most popular graphics
software programs include
1. Adobe Photoshop
2. Corel Painter
3. Autodesk Maya.
4.12.1 Characteristics
1. A graphics software program is a computer
application used to create digital images.
2. Graphics software programs can be used to
create both vector and raster images.
3. Common features of graphics software
programs include the ability to create, edit,
and save images in a variety of formats.
4. Some graphics software programs also
offer features such as the ability to create
animations or 3D models.
5. Popular examples of graphics software
programs include Adobe Photoshop,
GIMP, and Inkscape.
4.12.2 Examples
Some popular graphics software programs are
Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Illustrator, and
CorelDRAW. These programs can be used to create
and edit digital images, illustrations, and logos. They
offer a variety of features and tools that allow users
to manipulate photos and graphics to create custom
designs.
1. Adobe Photoshop is a popular graphics
software used by photographers and
graphic designers.
2. Adobe Illustrator is another popular
graphics software used by graphic
designers, especially for creating vector
illustrations.
3. CorelDRAW is a graphics software used
by both professionals and hobbyists.
4. GIMP is a free and open source graphics
software with capabilities similar to
Photoshop.
5. Inkscape is a free and open source vector
graphics software used by graphic
designers and illustrators.
4.12.3 Components
The graphics software components are the tools
that you use to create and manipulate your graphic
images. These components include the following:
1. Image editors
These are the tools that you use to create or

edit your graphic images. Common image editors
include Photoshop, Illustrator, and Inkscape.
2. Vector graphics editors
These are the tools that you use to create or

edit vector graphics. Common vector graphics editors
include CorelDRAW and Inkscape.
3. 3D modeling software
This is the software that you use to create

three-dimensional models. Common 3D modeling
software includes Maya, 3ds Max, and Cinema 4D.
4. Animation software
This is the software that you use to create

animations. Common animation software includes
Adobe After Effects, Apple Motion, and Autodesk
Maya.
5. Video editing software
This is the software that you use to edit videos.

Common video editing software includes Adobe
Premiere Pro, Apple Final Cut Pro, and Avid Media
Composer.
4.12.4 Types
1. Vector graphics software

This type of software is used to create images
made up of lines and shapes, which can be scaled
without losing quality. Vector graphics are often used
for logos, illustrations, and diagrams.
2. Raster graphics software
This type of software is used to create images
made up of pixels, which cannot be scaled without
losing quality. Raster graphics are often used for
photos and web graphics.
3. 3D graphics software
This type of software is used to create
three-dimensional images and animations. 3D graphics
are often used for product visualization and gaming.
4. Animation software
This type of software is used to create moving
images, either by animating existing graphics or by
creating new ones from scratch. Animation software is
often used for movies, commercials, and video games.
4.12.5 Applications
The applications are used by professionals in a
variety of fields, including graphic design,
photography, video editing, and web design. There are
a wide variety of graphics software applications
available, each with its own unique set of features
and capabilities. It is important to choose the right

application for the specific task at hand.
1. It can be used to create and edit logos,
and other graphical elements.
2. It can be used to create website layouts
and design elements.
3. It can be used to create illustrations, visual
presentations, and digital art.
4. It can be used to edit and enhance photos,
images, and animation.
5. It can be used to create and edit website
designs, presentation slides, and marketing
materials.
4.12.6 Advantages
There are many advantages of using graphics
software, including the ability to create high-quality
images, edit images and create custom graphics.
1. Graphics software provides users with a
wide range of tools to create, edit and
manipulate images.
2. It is often easy to use and can be used by
people with little or no experience in
image editing.
3. It can be used to create images for a wide
range of purposes, including web design,
advertising, and printing.
4. It often provides a wide range of features,

making it possible to create complex
images with ease.
5. It is often able to create images in a range
of different formats, making it easy to
share images with others.
6. It provides users with a wide range of tools
to create, edit, and manipulate images.
7. It can be used to create both vector and
bitmap images.
8. It offers a variety of features and options
that allow users to create images that are
both creative and professional.
9. It is often used in conjunction with other
software programs, such as word processors
and spreadsheets, to create comprehensive
documents and presentations.
4.12.7 Disadvantages
1. Many graphics software programs are

expensive, and the cost can be a barrier
for some people who want to use them.
2. It requires a lot of memory to store huge files.
3. Some graphics software programs can be
complex and difficult to use, which can be
complicated for some users.
4. It requires a powerful computer to work
with the project smoothly.
5. It can be time-consuming to create graphics.

6. It can be expensive to purchase the
software, and then you also have to pay
for the subscription regularly.
7. It can be difficult to learn how to use the
software, especially if you are not familiar
with graphic design.
8. Some graphics software programs only
offer limited functionality, which can be
frustrating for users who want to do more
with their images.
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$1' 3$&.$*(6
Sl.No Program Packages

1 Programs are set of Packages are set of
instructions behind software programs.
particular application
or software.
2 These are one piece These are multiple
of software. pieces of software.
3 Programs are Packages are
something that something that is
provide instruction to packed.
computer to perform
particular task.
Sl.No Program Packages

4 Program is especially It is a special method
developed by highly of distributing and
skilled programmer i.e. installing software to
single programmer. computer.
5 Programs are easy to Package is especially
develop and requires developed by group
less time as compared of programmers i.e.
to packages i.e. few more than one
hours or minutes. programmer.
6 Programmers need Packages are not easy
knowledge of to develop and
programming require more time to
languages to develop develop than program
program but not that i.e. weeks or months.
much as compared to
develop packages.
7 It simply includes Programmers need
compiled code that more knowledge i.e.
run from operating intensive knowledge of
system. programming languages
to develop package.
8 Program include It include methods or
programming code information regarding
written to solve distributing and
specific problem. installing software to
computer.
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Python is a widely used general-purpose, high
level programming language. It was created by Guido
van Rossum in 1991 and further developed by the
Python Software Foundation. It was designed with an
emphasis on code readability, and its syntax allows
programmers to express their concepts in fewer lines
of code.
Python is a programming language that lets you
work quickly and integrate systems more efficiently.
There are two major Python versions: Python 2
and Python 3. Both are quite different.
It is used for:
1. web development (server-side)
2. software development
3. mathematics
4. system scripting
4.14.1 Language features
1. Interpreted
(i) There are no separate compilation and
execution steps like C and C++.
(ii) Directly run the program from the source
code.
(iii) Internally, Python converts the source code

into an intermediate form called bytecodes
which is then translated into native
language of specific computer to run it.
(iv) No need to worry about linking and
loading with libraries, etc.
2. Platform Independent
(i) Python programs can be developed and
executed on multiple operating system
platforms.
(ii) Python can be used on Linux, Windows,
Macintosh, Solaris and many more.
(iii) Free and Open Source Redistributable
3. High-level Language
In Python, no need to take care about low-level
details such as managing the memory used by the
program.
4. Simple
(i) Closer to English language;Easy to Learn
(ii) More emphasis on the solution to the
problem rather than the syntax
5. Embeddable
(i) Python can be used within C/C++ program
to give
(ii) Scripting capabilities for the program’s users.
6. Robust
(i) Exceptional handling features
(ii) Memory management techniques in built
4.14.2 Writing our first program

Just type in the following code after you start
the interpreter.
# Script Begins
print("GeeksQuiz")
# Scripts Ends
Output:
GeeksQuiz
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A real-time application, or RTA, is an
application that functions within a time frame that the
user senses as immediate or current. The latency must
be less than a defined value, usually measured in
seconds. The use of real-time applications is part of
real-time computing.
To determine if a specific application qualifies
as real time is a function of its worst-case execution
time. WCET is the maximum amount of time a
defined task or set of tasks requires on a given
hardware platform.
Real-time applications are often used to process

streaming data. Real-time software should have the
ability to sense, analyze and act on streaming data as
it comes in without ingesting and storing the data in
a back-end database. Real-time applications often rely
on event-driven architecture to process streaming data
asynchronously.
4.15.1 Types of real-time applications
Real-time applications are categorized according

to the severity of the consequence of failing to operate
within a given time constraint.
Real-time application classifications include the
following:
1. Hard real-time apps
A hard real-time system causes an entire system

to fail if it misses its deadline or time constraint. For
example, an industrial safety system with an
unacceptable latency may cause the industrial
equipment to physically break.
2. Firm real-time apps
With this type of app, a missed deadline is

tolerable but causes significant degradation in quality.
For example, in video conferencing, latency may
degrade the quality of a call, but the computer system
is still usable.
3. Soft real-time apps

With these apps, results degrade after their
deadline, whether the deadline is met or not. A video
game is an example of a soft real-time system. Video
games rely on user input and have limited time to
process; degradation is sometimes expected for this
reason.
4.15.2 Features and benefits of real-time

applications
Key features and benefits of real-time
applications include the following:
1. Engagement
Real-time applications offer an immediacy that
engages users in a way that traditional applications
cannot. This enables businesses to connect with their
customers in more meaningful ways.
2. Communication
These applications enable two-way
communication that is more efficient than the one-way
communication that is typical of nonreal-time
applications. This improves collaborations and overall
communication within businesses.
3. Response time
Real-time apps can respond faster to user input
than traditional ones. This enables real-time programs
to respond to user needs faster and more efficiently.
4. Workflow
Real-time applications provide more streamlined
workflows because workflow tasks are scheduled and
completed in coordination with real-time data. As data
comes in, tasks can be structured around it. This
approach benefits businesses because it increases
efficiency and productivity.
4.15.3 Examples of real-time applications

Real-time applications are used when it is
imperative that data is processed without lag time.
They are often used to avoid causing a system to stop
functioning or endanger a user.
Examples of applications that often function in
real time include the following:
1. video conferencing
2. voice over Internet Protocol
3. online gaming
4. community storage applications
5. some e-commerce applications
6. real-time operating system, or RTOS
7. instant messaging (IM) applications
8. team collaboration
9. internet of things (IoT)
10. business intelligence
11. geolocation
12. fraud detection
13. online marketing analytics
14. radiology and medical imaging
15. banking and financial
(53
Enterprise resource planning (ERP) is a software
system that helps you run your entire business,
supporting automation and processes in finance,
human resources, manufacturing, supply chain,
services, procurement, and more.
ERP stands for enterprise resource planning, but
what does ERP mean? The simplest way to define
ERP is to think about all the core business processes
needed to run a company: finance, HR, manufacturing,
supply chain, services, procurement, and others. At its
most basic level, ERP helps to efficiently manage all
these processes in an integrated system. It is often
referred to as the system of record of the organization.
4.16.1 Benefits of ERP
1. Higher productivity
Streamline and automate your core business

processes to help everyone in your organization do
more with fewer resources.
2. Deeper insights
Eliminate information silos, gain a single source

of truth, and get fast answers to mission-critical
business questions.
3. Accelerated reporting
Fast-track business and financial reporting and

easily share results. Act on insights and improve
performance in real time.
4. Lower risk
Maximize business visibility and control, ensure

compliance with regulatory requirements, and predict
and prevent risk.
5. Simpler IT
By using integrated ERP applications that share

a database, you can simplify IT and give everyone
an easier way to work.
6. Improved agility
With efficient operations and ready access to

real-time data, you can quickly identify and react to
new opportunities
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The financial industry has already merged
technology and innovation to solve corporate needs
and provide customers with an engaging experience
even when dealing with difficult money management
tasks. There are a lot of financial application software
types, each of which is aimed at achieving a specific
goal for the financial corporation or its users.
1. Payment gateways
Payment gateways are used by eCommerce
websites to allow users to seamlessly pay for their goods
with their debit or credit cards using MasterPass or LiqPay
gateways, or PayPal.
2. Budgeting apps
Budgeting apps are familiar financial
technologies that are usually directly connected to a
person’s bank account. In this case, budgeting apps
work according to the open banking approach where
a bank shares users’ transactions with an app and the
user gets statistical insights on their spending.
3. Financial forecasting apps

Financial forecasting apps are high-end
technologies mostly used by banks and other financial
companies. Powered by artificial intelligence, they
make it possible to accurately evaluate the risks of
making an investment or issuing a loan.
4. Bookkeeping software
Bookkeeping software is used by all enterprises
without exception, allowing bookkeepers and company
owners to keep track of their expenses and profits in
one place.
5. Online banking apps
Online banking apps are popular solutions
created by banks to enrich their customers’ experience
and free up the bank’s support team. As a rule, these
apps allow users to track their spending, apply for a
loan, create an account, and make payments.
Advanced online banking apps are often powered by
artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML).
6. Tax management software
Tax management software are solutions that help
users fill in their tax forms using pre-developed
templates, and more innovative ones powered by AI
are able to track expenses and profits, and they can
suggest the right amount of taxes the users should pay
during a reporting period.
7. Peer-to-peer (P2P) lending and investment
software
There are also P2P applications that people can
use to invest their money or borrow a certain sum
on better terms than traditional banks may offer. P2P
lending and investing is a promising industry. The
amount of loans issued is predicted to reach $1 trillion
by 2025.
4.17.1 Best Financial Software Applications
1. Quicken
This is an all-in-one budgeting and bookkeeping

solution. With its help, users can track their budget,
plan spending, stay updated on debt, and get
investment advice.
2. Mint
This is one of the most popular personal

budgeting apps in the world. It allows users to easily
track their income and expenses and manage their
money wisely by receiving notifications of payment
deadlines and overspending.
3. You Need a Budget (YNAB)
If you have no budget planning skills, this app

will help you develop them. The app extracts
information from the user’s bank account, analyzes
spending patterns, and suggests some financial
management rules the user should follow.
4. Mvelopes
This is a personal budgeting app that suggests

using digital “envelopes” to plan how much money
you can spend on your needs by category each month.
5. Turbo Tax
This app makes the process of filing tax forms
seamless and intuitive. What’s more, the users can ask
for consulting services and find out what additional
opportunities are available for minimizing their tax
liability.
6. Future Advisor
This AI-powered app suggests the best
investment strategies, and it can be a great support
system and counselor for novice investors.
7. Prosper
This is one of the leading apps in the p2p
lending market in the US. With its help, anyone is
able to invest or borrow money with low risk, high
returns, and simple procedures.
3$57 % ² 48(67,216

1. Explain about system software.
2. Explain the architecture of windows operating
system in detail.
3. Explain the architecture of linux.
4. Explain the word processors in detail.
5. Describe about presentation software and its
features.
6. Explain about python programming and its
features.
UNIT – V
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Internet is a global network that connects
billions of computers across the world with each other
and to the World Wide Web. It uses standard internet
protocol suite (TCP/IP) to connect billions of
computer users worldwide.
Fig. 5.1
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There are various applications of internet in
points, which are given below.
1. Communication
2. Job Search
3. Online Shopping
4. Web Browsing
5. Entertainment
6. Travel
7. Research
8. E-Commerce
9. Online Payments
10. Social Networking
11. E-banking
12. Education
13. Entertainment
1. Communication
Communication is also one of the most used

applications of the Internet because today it is very
easy to talk through the Internet and today almost
everyone is communicating with each other through
the Internet.
2. Job Search
Through these internet job applications, you can

find jobs for yourself sitting at home, these job portals
have all kinds of jobs for all types of people, all you
have to do is use these job applications and just send
your resume.
Internet and Security 5.3
3. Online Shopping
Through these shopping applications, you can

order any item of your need sitting at home. We have
given below the names of some shopping applications,
from which you can shop.
4. Web Browsing
Web browser is also an important Internet
application, today there is more than one web browser
which you can use to search anything on the internet.
5. Entertainment
If you are getting bored alone, then there is no

need for you to worry, because today you can be
entertained through the medium of the internet.
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The most popular web browsing software
includes
1. Google Chrome
Google Chrome is a web browsing software

developed in the year 2008 by Google Inc. First, it
was designed for windows platform, and later adopted
to Linux, Macintosh, and even Android. It is written
using C++, Assembly, Python, and JavaScript.
2. Mozilla Firefox
Mozilla Firefox is a web browsing software

developed in the year 2002 by the Mozilla Foundation.
It is designed to work on all operating systems like
Windows, Macintosh, Linux, and Android. It is
written using C++, JavaScript, Rust, C, CSS, XUL,
and XBL.
3. Opera
Opera is a web browsing software developed in
the year 1995 by Opera Software. It is designed to work
on all operating systems like Windows, Macintosh, and
Linux and is written using C++ language.
4. Internet Explorer
Internet Explorer is a web browsing software
developed in the year 1995 by Microsoft. It is
designed to work on all operating systems like
Windows, Macintosh, Linux and Android and is
written using C++ language.
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A search engine is a software system that

collects information from the and presents it to users
who are looking for specific information.
A search engine conducts the following

processes:
1. Web crawling
Searching websites by navigating on web pages,

both with a site, and from one site to another. A
website owner can exclude areas of the site from
being accessed by a search engine’s web crawler (or
spider), by defining “robot exclusion” information in
a file named robots.txt.
2. Indexing
Associating keywords and other information with

specific web pages that have been crawled. This
enables users to find relevant pages as quickly as
possible.
3. Searching
Looking for relevant web pages based on queries

consisting of key words and other commands to the
search engine. The search engine finds the URLs of
pages that match the query, and ranks them based on
their relevance. It then presents results to the user in
order of the ranking.
The most popular search engine is Google. Other

top search engines include Yahoo!, Bing, Baidu and
AOL.
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Computer ethics are a set of moral standards
that govern the use of computers. It is society’s views
about the use of computers, both hardware and
software. Privacy concerns, intellectual property rights
and effects on society are some of the common issues
of computer ethics.
5.5.1 Privacy Concerns
1. Hacking
Hacking is unlawful intrusion into a computer
or a network. A hacker can intrude through the
security levels of a computer system or network and
can acquire unauthorised access to other computers.
2. Malware
Malware means malicious software which is
created to impair a computer system. Common
malware are viruses, spyware, worms and trojan
horses. A virus can delete files from a hard drive
while a spyware can collect data from a computer.
3. Data Protection
Data Protection also known as information
privacy or data privacy is the process of safeguarding
data which intends to influence a balance between
individual privacy rights while still authorising data
to be used for business purposes.
The commandments of computer ethics are as

follows:
1. Commandment 1: Do not use the
computer to harm other people’s data.
2. Commandment 2: Do not use a computer
to cause interference in other people’s work.
3. Commandment 3: Do not spy on another
person’s personal data.
4. Commandment 4: Do not use technology
to steal personal information.
5. Commandment 5: Do not spread
misinformation using computer technology.
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5.6.1 Social network

A social network is an online platform or service
that allows individuals to create and share content,
connect with others, and build networks of friends,
family, or professional contacts.
Examples of social networks include Facebook,
Twitter, Instagram, LinkedIn, and Snapchat.
5.6.2 E-commerce
1. E-commerce, on the other hand, stands for
electronic commerce. It refers to the
buying and selling of goods and services
over the internet.
2. E-commerce involves online shopping,

electronic payments, and the entire process
of conducting business online.
3. E-commerce platforms enable businesses to
reach a global audience.
4. Popular examples of e-commerce platforms
include Amazon, eBay, Alibaba, and Shopify.
5. While social networks primarily focus on
building and facilitating social connections,
e-commerce platforms focus on facilitating
online transactions for goods and services.
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Fig. 5.2
Cloud computing refers to the delivery of

computing services, networking, analytics and
software over the internet to offer faster innovation.
Flexible resources and economics of scale. Here are
some key concepts and components of cloud
computing.
5.7.1 Service Models
1. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
Provides virtualized computing resources over

the internet. Users can rent virtual machines, storage,
and networking components.
2. Platform as a Service (PaaS)
Offers a platform allowing customers to develop,

run, and manage applications without dealing with the
complexity of infrastructure, including hardware and
operating systems.
3. Software as a Service (SaaS)
Delivers software applications over the internet

on a subscription basis. Users access the software
through a web browser without worrying about
installation or maintenance.
5.7.2 Deployment Models
1. Public Cloud
Services are provided over the public internet

and available to anyone who wants to purchase them.
Examples include Amazon Web Services (AWS),
Microsoft Azure, and Google Cloud Platform (GCP).
2. Private Cloud
Cloud resources are used exclusively by a single

business or organization. It can be physically located
on-premises or hosted by a third-party provider.
3. Hybrid Cloud
Combines both public and private cloud models,

allowing data and applications to be shared between
them. This offers greater flexibility and more
deployment options.
5.7.3 Essential Characteristics
1. On-Demand Self-Service
Users can provision and manage computing

resources as needed without requiring human
intervention from the service provider.
2. Broad Network Access
Services are available over the network and can

be accessed through standard mechanisms such as web
browsers or mobile devices.
5.7.4 Common Cloud Services
1. Compute Services
Virtual machines, containers, serverless

computing.
2. Storage Services
Object storage, block storage, file storage.
3. Database Services
Relational databases, NoSQL databases.
4. Networking Services
Content delivery networks (CDN), virtual

networks, load balancers.
5. Analytics and Big Data Services
Data processing, machine learning, data

warehousing.
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Fig. 5.3
5.8.1 Common Security Issues
1. Cyber attacks
(i) Malware
Malicious software includes viruses, worms,
Trojans, ransomware, and spyware, which can
compromise data and systems.
(ii) Man-in-the-Middle Attacks

Attackers intercept and potentially alter the
communication between two parties without their
knowledge.
2. Data Breaches
(i) Unauthorized access to sensitive data, such
as personal information, financial records,
or intellectual property.
(ii) Weaknesses in security measures, such as
poor encryption or insufficient access
controls, can lead to data breaches.
3. Identity Theft
(i) Theft of personal information to
impersonate individuals for fraudulent
activities.
(ii) Stolen credentials, social engineering, or
data breaches can contribute to identity
theft.
4. Weak Authentication and Authorization:

(i) Weak passwords, lack of multi-factor
authentication, and inadequate
authorization mechanisms can lead to
unauthorized access.
(ii) Ensuring strong authentication methods
and proper access controls is crucial.
5. Insecure Internet of Things (IoT) Devices

(i) Vulnerabilities in connected devices, such
as smart home devices or industrial IoT
systems, can be exploited to gain
unauthorized access or disrupt operations.
6. Unsecured Wi-Fi Networks

(i) Open or poorly secured Wi-Fi networks
can be exploited by attackers to intercept
data and launch various types of attacks,
including man-in-the-middle attacks.
7. Insufficient Software Security
(i) Bugs, vulnerabilities, and insecure coding
practices in software applications can be
exploited by attackers. Regular software
updates and secure coding practices are
essential.
8. Cloud Security Concerns

(i) Issues related to the security of data stored
in the cloud, including data breaches,
misconfigured security settings, and the
shared responsibility model between cloud
providers and users.
9. Social Engineering
(i) Manipulating individuals into divulging
confidential information through
psychological tactics, often exploiting
human trust and social relationships.
10. Denial-of-Service (DoS) Attacks
(i) Overloading a system, network, or website
with traffic to disrupt its normal
functioning and deny access to legitimate
users.
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Cybersecurity, or information security, is the
practice of protecting computer systems, networks, and
data from theft, damage, unauthorized access, or any
form of cyberattack.
5.9.1 Cyber Threats
Some of the most common cyber threats are
1. Malware
Malicious software designed to harm or exploit

computer systems. This includes viruses, worms,
Trojans, ransomware, and spyware.
2. Phishing
Attempts to trick individuals into revealing

sensitive information, often through deceptive emails,
messages, or websites.
3. Social Engineering
Manipulating individuals to divulge confidential

information through psychological tactics.
4. Cyber Espionage
Unauthorized access to computer systems or

networks to gather intelligence or sensitive
information.
5.9.2 Assets in Cybersecurity

Some of the assets in cyber securities are
1. Data
Information is a valuable asset, and protecting
it from unauthorized access, modification, or
destruction is a primary concern.
2. Hardware
Devices such as compus, servers, routers, and
IoT devices need protection against physical and cyber
threats.
3. Software
Applications and operating systems must be
secure to prevent exploitation by attackers.
4. Networks
The infrastructure connecting devices must be
defended against unauthorized access and attacks.
5.9.3 Cyber security Measures

Some of the most cyber security measures are,
1. Authentication and Authorization

Verifying the identity of users and determining
their access permissions to systems or data.
2. Encryption
Securing data by converting it into a code that
can only be deciphered with the correct key.
3. Firewalls
Protective barriers that monitor and control
incoming and outgoing network traffic based on
predetermined security rules.
5.9.4 Intrusion Detection and Prevention

Systems (IDPS)
Monitoring network and/or system activities for
malicious actions or security policy violations.
1. Regular Software Updates

Patching vulnerabilities in software to prevent
exploitation by attackers.
2. Employee Training
Educating users about cybersecurity best
practices and potential threats.
5.9.5 Cybersecurity Policies and Compliance
1. Security Policies
Defined rules and procedures to ensure the
confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information.
2. Compliance
Adhering to legal and regulatory requirements
related to data protection and privacy.
3. Incident Response
Developing plans and procedures to respond to
and recover from cybersecurity incidents. This
includes identifying, managing, and mitigating the
impact of security breaches.
5.9.6 Ethical Hacking and Penetration Testing
Employing ethical hackers or penetration testers

to identify and address vulnerabilities in systems
before malicious actors can exploit them.
1. Cybersecurity Awareness
Fostering a culture of cybersecurity awareness
among individuals and organizations to recognize and
address potential threats.
2. Emerging Technologies and Threats
Keeping abreast of new technologies and

evolving threats to adapt cybersecurity measures
accordingly.
3$57 % ² 48(67,216

1. Explain web browsing software?
2. Explain in a detail about search engine.
3. Briefly explain “applications of internet”.
4. Explain search engine?
5. Write in detail computer ethics?
6. Explain security issues over the interne?
7. Briefly explain cyber security?
3$57 $ ² 7:2 0$5.6 48(67,216
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UNIT – I: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
1. What is a computer?
Computer is an electronic device that can accept
data as input, process the data according to specified
rules, produce information (output), and store the
information for future use.
2. What are the functions of computer?
(i) Takes data as input
(ii) Store the data in its memory
(iii) Process the data
(iv) Generate the output
(v) Control the above four steps
3. List any five applications of computer.
(i) Banking
(ii) Entertainment
(iii) Education
(iv) Training
(v) Space Research
4. Define Data.
Data is a collection of discrete or continuous
values that convey information, describing quantity,
quality, fact etc.
PAQA2 Basics of Computer Engineering
5. Define information.
Information is processed, organised and
structured data.
6. List the difference between data and information.
Data Information
Data is unorganised and Information comprises
unrefined facts. processed, organised data
presented in a meaningful
context
Data doesn’t depend on Information depends on
information. data.
Raw data alone is Information is sufficient
insufficient for decision for decision making
making.
An example of data is a The average score of a
student’s test score. class is the information
derived from the given
data.
7. Define program.
Program is a set of instructions to perform a
particular task written by programmers in any
programming language.
Part A - Two Marks Questions with Answers PAQA3
8. What is ALU?
ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit) is responsible
for performing arithmetic and logical operations. It
consists of two subsections, which are Arithmetic
section and Logic section.
9. Define input unit. List some examples.
Input units ar the computer hardware devices
which is used to give data, information and signals
to the computer.
Example: Keyboard, mouse, scanner webcam,
microphone etc.
10. Define output unit. List some examples.
Output units are the computer hardware devices
which is used to get data, Information, results and
signals from the computer.
Examples: Printer, Monitor, Speaker etc.
UNIT – II: INPUT DEVICES AND

OUTPUT DEVICES
1. List out the various types of keys available in

keyboard.
(i) Typing (Alphanumeric) keys
(ii) Control keys
(iii) Function keys
(iv) Navigation keys
(v) Numeric keys
2. List any five types of keyboard.
(i) Multimedia keyboard
(ii) Mechanical keyboard
(iii) Wireless keyboard
(iv) Virtual keyboard
(v) USB keyboard
3. What is scanner?
Scanner is a device that takes picture of an
image that exists outs the computer.
4. List any four types of scanner.
(i) Flatbed scanners
(ii) Sheet fed scanners
(iii) Handheld scanners
(iv) Film scamer
5. What is microphone?
Microphone is a device that translates sound
vibrations in the air into electronic signals and scribes
them to a recording medium.
6. Write the difference between optical mouse and
mechanical mouse.
Sl.
Mechanical mouse Optical mouse
No
1 Uses a trackball that is Uses LED to move the
used to move the cursor
cursor
2 Heavier than an optical Lightweight and are
mouse available in different
shapes and sizes
3 Mechanical mouse are Optical mouse can be
wired wired and wireless
4 Require cleaning to Require almost no
protect it from dust cleaning and have to
better life
5 Works even on a rough Require a flat surface
surface to work
6 Mechanical mouse is Optical mouse is cheap
expensive
7. What is web camera?

Web camera is a small digital video camera that
connected to the computer. It has the ability to take
pictures and videos.
8. List any five applications of webcamera.
1. Video calling
2. Banking Sector
3. Building
4. Robotic Technology
5. Home Security Systems
9. List out different types of printer.
1. Inkjet Printer
2. Laser Printer
3. 3D Printer
4. Dot Matrix Printer
5. Solid Ink Printers
6. LED Printers
7. Business Inject Printers
8. Home Inject Printers
7. Multifunction Printers
10. List out different types of monitor.
1. LCD (Liquid crystal display) Monitor
2. LED (Light Emitting Diode) Monitor
3. OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode) Monitor
4. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) Monitor
5. Plasma Monitor
11. List the difference between LCD & LED

monitor
S.No LED LCD

1. LED has a better LCD is slower than
response time than LED in terms of
LCD. response time.
2. LED consumes more Whereas it consumes
power in comparison less power in
to LCD. comparison to LED.
3. LED delivers good LCD also delivers
picture quality in good picture quality
comparison to the but less than LED.
LCD display.
4. LED is costlier than While it is less costly
LCD. than LED.
5. LED delivers better LCD delivers good
color accuracy color accuracy
12. List few commonly used computer cables.

(i) HDMI Cable
(ii) VGA Cable
(iii) VSB Cable
(iv) PS/2 Cable
(v) Ethernet Cable

UNIT – III: COMPUTER MEMORY AND

STORAGE
1. Define the term memory

Computer memory is just like the human brain.
It is used to store data/information and instructions.
It is a data storage unit or a data storage
device where data is to be processed and instructions
required for processing are stored.
2. What is meant by bit?

A bit is a binary digit, the smallest increment
of data on a computer. A bit can hold only one of
two values: 0 or 1, corresponding to the electrical
values of off or on, respectively.
3. Write difference between bits and bytes
Bit Byte
It is the smallest unit of It can be understood as a
data. collection of 8 bits. It is
quite greater.
It is represented either in It is represented in 256
form of 0 or 1. different types. It also
consist of additional
special characters.
It is represented by the It is represented by the
symbol ‘b’ in lowercase symbol ‘B’ in upper case.
Bit Byte
It is of different sizes There are different sizes
Kilobit(Kb), Megabit(Mb), like KiloByte(KB), mega
Gigabit(Gb), Terabit(Tb), Byte(MB), gigaByte(GB),
etc. terabyte(TB), HexaByte
(HB), PetaByte(PB), etc.
Example: Used in Radio, Example: Used in data
Telecommunications, files storage Movies,
Data Speed, Voltage, etc images, etc.
4. What is meant by memory hierarchy?

Memory Hierarchy is one of the most required
things in Computer Memory as it helps in optimizing
the memory available in the computer. There are
multiple levels present in the memory, each one
having a different size, different cost, etc.
5. List some characteristics of memory hierarchy.
Capacity: It is the global volume of information the
memory can store. As we move from top to bottom
in the Hierarchy, the capacity increases.
Access Time: It is the time interval between the
read/write request and the availability of the data. As
we move from top to bottom in the Hierarchy, the
access time increases.
Performance: Earlier when the computer system
was designed without a Memory Hierarchy design, the
speed gap increased between the CPU registers and
Main Memory due to a large difference in access time.
This results in lower performance of the system and

thus, enhancement was required. This enhancement
was made in the form of Memory Hierarchy Design
because of which the performance of the system
increases. One of the most significant ways to increase
system performance is minimizing how far down the
memory hierarchy one has to go to manipulate data.
Cost Per Bit: As we move from bottom to top in
the Hierarchy, the cost per bit increases i.e. Internal
Memory is costlier than External Memory.
6. List the different types of memory hierarchy.
1. External Memory or Secondary Memory
Comprising of Magnetic Disk, Optical Disk, and

Magnetic Tape i.e. peripheral storage devices which
are accessible by the processor via an I/O Module.
2. Internal Memory or Primary Memory
Comprising of Main Memory, Cache Memory

& CPU registers. This is directly accessible by the
processor.
7. List the types of RAM
Types of RAM
We can broadly classify RAM into SRAM or

Static RAM and DRAM or Dynamic RAM on the
basis of behavior.
1. DRAM
To keep data, dynamic RAM, or DRAM, must

be refreshed every few milliseconds. DRAM is made
up of capacitors and transistors, and capacitors leak
electric charge; hence DRAM must be charged on a
regular basis. Because DRAM is less expensive than
SRAM, it is commonly used in personal computers
and servers.
2. SRAM
The data is stored in static RAM, or SRAM, as

long as the system is powered on. SRAM stores a
bit using sequential circuits, similar to a flip-flop, so
it does not need to be refreshed on a regular basis.
Because SRAM is so expensive, it’s only used when
speed is critical.
8. List the types of ROM
Types of ROM
We can classify ROM into four major types on

the basis of their behaviour. They are:
1. MROM
Masked ROM is pre-programmed and hardwired

ROM. Any text that has already been written cannot
be changed in any way.
2. PROM
The user can only change the programmable
ROM once. The user purchases a blank PROM and
writes the required text on it; however, the content
cannot be changed once it has been written.
3. EPROM
ROM that can be erased and programmed by
removing the original material, which can be done by
exposing EPROM to UV radiation, and the content
can be modified. The charge on the ROM is dissipated
by the ultraviolet light, allowing content to be
rewritten on it.
4. EEPROM
The initial content of an electrically erasable and
programmable ROM can be modified by erasing the
content that can be easily deleted electrically. Instead
of removing everything at once, one byte can be
wiped at a time. As a result, reprogramming an
EEPROM is a time-consuming procedure.
9. Expand: (i) RAM (ii) ROM (iii) MROM (iv)
PROM (v) EPROM (vi) EEPROM
(i) RAM – Randam Access Memory
(ii) ROM – Read Only Memory
(iii) MROM - Masked Read Only Memory
(iv) PROM – Programmable Read Only
Memory
(v) EPROM - Erasable And Programmable

Read Only Memory
(vi) EEPROM – Electrically Erasable and
Programmable Read Only Memory
10. Define Secondary memory.

Secondary memory is computer memory that is
non-volatile, persistent and not immediately accessible
by a computer or processor. It allows users to store
data and information that can be retrieved, transmitted,
and used by apps and services quickly and easily.
Secondary storage is another name for secondary
memory.
11. State the uses of secondary memory.

Secondary memory is mainly used for different
purposes. The primary purpose of using it is as
follows:
1. Permanent storage
Primary memory, as we all know, retains data

only when the power is on and loses data when the
power is turned off. As a result, we require a
secondary memory that can keep data indefinitely
even if the power supply is turned off.
2. Large storage
Secondary memory provides a significant

amount of storage space, allowing us to store large
amounts of data such as films, photographs, audio

files, and other items permanently.
3. Portable
Some of the secondary devices can be removed.
As a result, one can store data and transfer them
effortlessly from one device to another.
12. Define cache memory.
Cache memory refers to high-speed memory. It
is small but faster than RAM (the main memory). The
CPU can access the cache comparatively more quickly
than its primary memory. Thus, we use it to
synchronize with a high-speed CPU and also to
improve its overall performance.
14. List the types of cache memory.
Types of Cache Memory
L1 Cache
This refers to the first level of any cache
memory, usually known as the L1 cache or Level 1
cache. In L1 cache memory, a very small memory
exists inside the CPU itself. In case the CPU consists
of four cores (A quad-core CPU), each core will then
have its own L1 cache.
Since this memory exists in the CPU, it can
operate at the very same speed as that of the CPU.
The actual size of such a memory ranges from 2
kilobytes to 64 kilobytes. The Level 1 cache has two
further types of caches: The Instruction cache storing,

the instructions that are required by a CPU, along with
the data cache storing, the data that is required by a
CPU.
L2 Cache
This cache refers to the L2 cache or Level 2

cache. The level 2 cache may reside both inside or
outside any given CPU. Here, all the cores of the CPU
can consist of their separate (own) level 2 cache, or
they can even share a single L2 cache among
themselves. Now, in case it’s outside the CPU, it
connects with the CPU using a very high-speed bus.
Here, the memory size of a cache ranges from 256
kilobytes to 512 kilobytes. If we go for the speed,
these are comparatively slower than the Level 1 cache.
L3 Cache
This cache is known as the L3 cache or Level

3 cache. This type of cache isn’t present in all of the
processors. Only a few of the high-end processors may
contain this type of cache. We use the L3 cache to
enhance the overall performance of the L1 and the
L2 cache. This type of memory is located outside a
CPU. It is also shared by all CPU cores. The memory
size of the L3 cache ranges from 1 to 8 megabytes.
Though the L3 cache is slower than that of the L1
cache and the L2 cache, it is much faster than that
of the RAM or Random Access Memory.
14. List the application of cache memory.
Web Browsing
When you visit a website, your web browser

stores elements of the webpage, such as images, CSS,
and JavaScript files, in its cache. The next time you
visit the same site, the browser can load these
elements from the cache instead of downloading them
again from the web server. This speeds up page load
times and reduces network traffic.
Video Streaming
Services like Netflix and YouTube use cache

memory to provide a smoother streaming experience.
When you watch a video, the next few minutes of
the video are stored in cache. If your internet
connection slows down or drops out momentarily, the
video can continue playing from the cache without
interruption.
Database Systems
In database systems, cache memory is used to

store the results of frequently run queries. If the same
query is run again, the database can return the cached
result instead of running the query again. This can
significantly speed up database operations, especially
in large databases with millions of records.
Gaming
Video games use cache memory to store
frequently used game assets, such as textures and
sound files. This allows the game to load these assets
more quickly, reducing lag and providing a smoother
gaming experience.
UNIT – IV: COMPUTER SOFTWARE
1. Define the term software

The software is basically a set of instructions or
commands that tell a computer what to do. In other
words, the software is a computer program that
provides a set of instructions to execute a user’s
commands and tell the computer what to do. For
example, like MS-Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc
2. List out the types of software
It is a collection of data that is given to the
computer to complete a particular task. The chart
below describes the types of software:
Above is the diagram of types of software. Now

we will briefly describe each type and its subtypes:
System Software
z Operating System
z Language Processor
z Device Driver
Application Software
z General Purpose Software

z Customize Software
z Utility Software
3. Define system software.

System software is software that directly
operates the computer hardware and provides the
basic functionality to the users as well as to the other
software to operate smoothly or in other words,
system software basically controls a computer’s
internal functioning and also controls hardware
devices such as monitors, printers, and storage
devices, etc.
It is like an interface between hardware and user
applications, it helps them to communicate with each
other because hardware understands machine language
(i.e. 1 or 0) whereas user applications are work in
human-readable languages like English, Hindi,
German, etc. so system software converts the
human-readable language into machine language and
vice versa.
4. List out the types of system software

It has two subtypes which are:
Operating System: It is the main program of
a computer system. When the computer system ON
it is the first software that loads into the computer’s
memory. Basically, it manages all the resources such
as computer memory, CPU, printer, hard disk, etc.,
and provides an interface to the user, which helps the
user to interact with the computer system. It also
provides various services to other computer software.
Examples of operating systems are Linux, Apple
macOS, Microsoft Windows, etc.
Language Processor: As we know that system
software converts the human-readable language into a
machine language and vice versa. So, the conversion
is done by the language processor. It converts
programs written in high-level programming
languages like Java, C, C++, Pythonetc(known as
source code), into sets of instructions that are easily
readable by machines(known as object code or
machine code).
5. Write down the features of system software.

z System Software is closer to the computer
system.
z System Software is written in a low-level
language in general.
z System software is difficult to design and
understand.
z System software is fast in speed (working

speed).
z System software is less interactive for the
users in comparison to application software.
6. Define compiler
A Compiler is a software that typically takes a
high level language (Like C++ and Java) code as input
and converts the input to a lower level language at
once. It lists all the errors if the input code does not
follow the rules of its language. This process is much
faster than interpreter but it becomes difficult to debug
all the errors together in a program.
A compiler is a translating program that
translates the instructions of highlevel language to
machine level language. A program which is input to
the compiler is called a Source program. This
program is now converted to a machine level language
by a compiler is known as the Object code.
7. Define linker
Every programming language has libraries that
have some prewritten codes. The purpose of these
prewritten codes is to perform a specific task. The
programmer uses these codes to optimize their task
while designing code.
For example, printf(), and scanf() functions that
a programmer directly uses in a C program are defined
in the standard header file <stdio.h> of the C library.
The programmer does not define this printf(), scanf()
function; he can directly use them from the standard

C library.
Usually, the codes in libraries are designed to
perform functions such as:
z Creation
z Reading
z Writing to files
z Displaying results
z Evaluating mathematical expressions
z Other functions
8. Write down the different types of linker.
There are two forms of linking a target program
produced by the translator with the library routines
and other external references:
1. Static Linking
2. Dynamic Linking
Static Linking
In static linking, all the external references
present in the object module are resolved before the
execution of the program. Static linking might create
an overhead. Suppose several programs refer to the

same library routine.
Now, if these programs are linked statically, then
all of these programs will have a private copy of that
library routine. Many of these programs may be in
execution simultaneously. If so, those many copies of
the same library routine will be in the memory,
occupying the memory unnecessarily. So, we came up
with the concept of dynamic linking.
Dynamic Linking
Dynamic linking is where all the external

references are resolved at the time of execution of
the machine language program. This kind of linker is
invoked at the time of program execution.
Here, the linker combines the machine language
program with external references, such as library
routines and other referred programs, as they occur
in the machine language program and resumes the
execution of the program.
A linker is an important utility program that
takes the object files, produced by the assembler and
compiler, and other code to join them into a single
executable file. There are two types of linkers,
dynamic and linkage.
9. Define loader
A loader is a system program that loads or
places the machine language program or the binary
program in the main memory for its execution. The

linker generates this binary program and places it on
the hard disk. The loader locates this executable
binary program from the hard disk and loads it on
the main memory. The loader is even responsible for
performing relocation.
10. List the types loader.
Loading can be performed in three different
ways such as:
2. Absolute Loading
3. Relocatable Loading
4. Dynamic Run-time Loading
Compile and Go Loader
In this kind of loading, the assembler is placed in

one part of the memory. It reads the compiled program
line by line and generates the machine program that is
directly placed in the assigned memory location. A large
portion of memory is wasted as it holds the

combination of assembler and loader activities.
Program execution with this scheme takes more
time as the program must be assembled and executed
each time.
Absolute Loader
In this scheme, the language translator generates
a relocated object file. The absolute loader accepts this
file and places it in the specified memory location.
In this scenario, the loader does not require relocation
information as it is already provided by the
programmer itself in the program or by the assembler.
Relocatable Loader
The language translators do not generate a
relocated object file in this scheme. Instead, the loader
can allocate the space to executable code anywhere
in the main memory for its correct execution.
Dynamic Run-time Loader
This loader identifies and loads all the

executable code and shared libraries when executing
the program.
11. Write the difference between linker and loader.
Sl.No Linker Loader

1 A linker is an A loader is a vital
important utility component of an
program that takes the operating system that
object files, produced is accountable for
by the assembler and loading programs and
compiler, and other libraries.
code to join them into
a single executable
file.
2 It uses an input of It uses an input of
object code produced executable files
by the assembler and produced by the
compiler. linker.
3 The foremost purpose The foremost purpose
of a linker is to of a loader is to load
produce executable executable files to
files. memory.
4 Linker is used to join Loader is used to
all the modules. allocate the address to
executable files.
5 It is accountable for It is accountable for
managing objects in setting up references
the program’s space. that are utilized in the
program.
12. Define operating systems.

An Operating System (OS) is an interface
between a computer user and
Computer hardware
An operating system is software which performs
all the basic tasks like file management, memory
management, process management, handling input and
output, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk
drives and printers.
13. State any three differences between linx and
windows operating system.

Feature
Command Allows use of Offers more
Line command line, but features for
not as powerful as administration and
Linux. daily tasks.
Reliability Less reliable than More reliable and
Linux. secure than
Windows.

Feature
Usability Easier to use, but The installation
the installation process is
process can take complicated but
more time. once installed it
can perform
complex tasks
easily.
Security Vulnerable to More secure than
malware and Windows, with
viruses, but less vulnerability
security is to malware and
improved in recent viruses.
years.
Updates Regular updates Gives users full
can be frustrating control over
for users, and take updates, which are
longer to install. quicker to install
and do not require
a reboot.
Licensing Does not allow Allows
modification of modification and
software, only reuse of source
available on code on any
systems with a number of systems.
Windows license
key.
14. Define application software and its types.

Software that performs special functions or
provides functions that are much more than the basic
operation of the computer is known as application
software. Or in other words, application software is
designed to perform a specific task for end-users. It
is a product or a program that is designed only to
fulfill end-users’ requirements. It includes word
processors, spreadsheets, database management,
inventory, payroll programs, etc.
15. State the difference between application

software and system software.
System Software Application Software

It is designed to manage It is designed to fulfill the
the resources of the requirements of the user
computer system, like for performing specific
memory and process tasks.
management, etc.
Written in a low-level Written in a high-level
language language.
Less interactive for the More interactive for the
users. users
System software plays Application software is
vital role for the effective not so important for the
functioning of a system. functioning of the system,
as it is task specific.
It is independent of the It needs system software
application software to run. to run
16. Write the difference between software program

and packages
Sl.No program packages

1 Programs are set of Packages are set of
instructions behind software programs.
particular application
or software.
2 These are one piece These are multiple
of software. pieces of software.
3 Programs are Packages are
something that something that is
provide instruction to packed.
computer to perform
particular task.
4 Program is especially It is a special method
developed by highly of distributing and
skilled programmer installing software to
i.e. single computer.
programmer.
5 Programs are easy to Package is especially
develop and requires developed by group
less time as compared of programmers i.e.
to packages i.e. few more than one
hours or minutes. programmer.
Sl.No program packages

6 Programmers need Packages are not easy
knowledge of to develop and require
programming more time to develop
languages to develop than program i.e.
program but not that weeks or months.
much as compared to
develop packages.
7 It simply includes Programmers need
compiled code that more knowledge i.e.
run from operating intensive knowledge
system. of programming
languages to develop
package.
8 Program include It include methods or
programming code information regarding
written to solve distributing and
specific problem. installing software to
computer.
17. Write the history of python programming.

Python is a widely used general-purpose, high
level programming language. It was created by Guido
van Rossum in 1991 and further developed by the
Python Software Foundation. It was designed with an
emphasis on code readability, and its syntax allows
programmers to express their concepts in fewer lines
of code.
Python is a programming language that lets you

work quickly and integrate systems more efficiently.
There are two major Python versions: Python 2
and Python 3. Both are quite different.
It is used for:
z web development (server-side),
z software development,
z mathematics,
z system scripting.
18. Define the term ERP.
Enterprise resource planning (ERP) is a software
system that helps you run your entire business,
supporting automation and processes in finance,
human resources, manufacturing, supply chain,
services, procurement, and more.
19. List some benefits of ERP.
1. Higher productivity: Streamline and
automate your core business processes to
help everyone in your organization do
more with fewer resources.
2. Deeper insights: Eliminate information
silos, gain a single source of truth, and get
fast answers to mission-critical business
questions.
3. Accelerated reporting: Fast-track
business and financial reporting and easily
share results. Act on insights and improve

performance in real time.
4. Lower risk: Maximize business visibility
and control, ensure compliance with
regulatory requirements, and predict and
prevent risk.
5. Simpler IT: By using integrated ERP
applications that share a database, you can
simplify IT and give everyone an easier
way to work.
6. Improved agility: With efficient
operations and ready access to real-time
data, you can quickly identify and react to
new opportunities.
20. Write the different types of financial application

software.
Payment gateways are used by eCommerce
websites to allow users to seamlessly pay for their
goods with their debit or credit cards using MasterPass
or LiqPay gateways, or PayPal.
Budgeting apps are familiar financial
technologies that are usually directly connected to a
person’s bank account. In this case, budgeting apps
work according to the open banking approach where
a bank shares users’ transactions with an app and the
user gets statistical insights on their spending.
Financial forecasting apps are high-end
technologies mostly used by banks and other financial
companies. Powered by artificial intelligence, they

make it possible to accurately evaluate the risks of
making an investment or issuing a loan.
Bookkeeping software is used by all enterprises
without exception, allowing bookkeepers and company
owners to keep track of their expenses and profits in
one place.
Online banking apps are popular solutions
created by banks to enrich their customers’ experience
and free up the bank’s support team. As a rule, these
apps allow users to track their spending, apply for a
loan, create an account, and make payments.
Advanced online banking apps are often powered by
artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML).
Tax management software are solutions that
help users fill in their tax forms using pre-developed
templates, and more innovative ones powered by AI
are able to track expenses and profits, and they can
suggest the right amount of taxes the users should pay
during a reporting period.
Peer-to-peer (P2P) lending and investment
software. There are also P2P applications that people
can use to invest their money or borrow a certain sum
on better terms than traditional banks may offer. P2P
lending and investing is a promising industry. The
amount of loans issued is predicted to reach $1 trillion
by 2025.
UNIT – V: INTERNET AND SECURITY
1. Whhat is Internet?
Internet is a global network that connects
billions of computers across the world with each other
and to the World Wide Web. It uses standard internet
protocol suite (TCP/IP) to connect billions of
computer uses worldwide.
2. What is meant by Search Engine?

A search engine is a coordinated set of programs
that searches for and identifies items in a database
that match specified criteria. Search engines are used
to access information on the World Wide Web.
3. Define computer ethics?

Computer ethics are a set of moral standards that
govern the use of computers. It is society’s views
about the use of computers, both hardware and
software. Privacy concerns, intellectual property rights
and effects on society are some of the common issues
of computer ethics.
4. Define cloud computing?

computing service, networking, analytics, and software
over the internet to offer faster innovation, flexible
resources, and economics of scale.
5. What is application of internet?

computing service, networking, analytics, and software
over the internet to off faster innovation, flexible
resources, and economics of scale.
6. What is application of internet?
There are various applications of internet in
points, which are given below.
z Communication
z Job Search
z Online Shopping
z Web Browsing
z Entertainment
7. Define cyber security?
Cyber security, or information security, is the
practice of protecting computer systems, networks, and
data from theft, damage, unauthorized access, or any
form of cyber-attack.

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We take an opportunity to present this book

CS232120 – BASICS OF COMPUTER

UNIT I: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS 8

UNIT II: INPUT DEVICES AND OUTPUT

UNIT III: COMPUTER MEMORY AND

UNIT IV: COMPUTER SOFTWARE 10

UNIT V: INTERNET AND SECURITY 7

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1.1.1 Functionalities of a computer

Modern computers are used for a variety of

1.1.2 Applications of Computer

The usage of computer is in the following

z Science and Engineering

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Computer device’s speed is extremely fast, as it

This is an incredible characteristic of computers,

A computer can perform millions of tasks or

A computer is free of fatigue, lack of concentration,

content of the primary memory will be erased.

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1. First Generation Computers

The first generation computers (1946-1959) were

2. Second Generation Computers

3. Third Generation Computers

4. Fourth Generation Computers

The fourth generation (1971-1980) computers

5. Fifth Generation Computers

In fifth generation (1980-till date) computers, the

Some of the popular fifth generation computers

1.3.1 Data, Information and Program

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1.4.1 Central Processing Unit

A Central Processing Unit is the most important

1.4.2 Processor Speed

Processor speed is measured in hertz (Hz) and

CPU Time = I * CPI * T

I = number of instructions in program.

CPI = average cycles per instruction.

T = clock cycle time.

1.4.3 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) is responsible for

ALU is found in all advanced computers like,

1.4.4 Storage Unit

z This is also known as the main memory and

z This is temporary storage.

z Data is lost once the power is switched off

z It is the working memory of the computer

z Computer cannot work without primary

z Examples of primary storage include RAM,

z This type of storage does not have direct

z The input and output channels are used to

z It is non-volatile and larger storage capacity

z This type of storage is permanent until

z It comprises of both internal and external

z Examples of secondary storage are Hard

Computer Memory Measurement

The computer storage space is measured as,

A Binary Digit = 1 Bit

1024 Byte = 1 KB (Kilo Byte)

1024 KB = 1 MB (Mega Byte)

1024 MB = 1 GB (Giga Byte)

1024 GB = 1 TB (Terra Byte)

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