PRESSURE

Pressure in Fluids

Definition: Pressure = Force/Area

P  (F/A)

F applied perpendicular to A
SI units: N/m2
1 N/m2 = 1 Pa (Pascal)
Fluid pressure is on account of exchange of momentum between the molecules of the fluid
and a container wall. The total exchange of momentum is dependent upon the total
number of molecules striking the wall per unit time and the average velocity of molecules.

For an ideal gas we can write

Static Pressures:
When a fluid is in equilibrium, the pressure at a point is identical in all directions and
is independent of orientation. This is called static pressure.

Dynamic Pressures :
when pressure gradients occur within a continuum of pressure, the attempt to
restore equilibrium results in fluid flow from regions of higher pressure to regions of
lower pressure. In this case the pressures are no longer independent of direction and
are called dynamic pressures.
Velocity and Impact Pressures: Pressure components of different nature exist in a
flowing fluid. For example, in case a small tube or probe for sampling, it is found that
the results depend upon how the tube is oriented. In case, the tube or probe is so
aligned that there is a direct impact of flow on the opening of the tube or probe as
shown. in Fig. (a) it senses a total or stagnation pressure.
If the tube or probe is oriented as shown in Fig.(b), the results are different and what
we obtain is called static pressure.

Static Pressure may be considered as the

pressure that is experienced if moving
along the stream, and the total pressure
may be defined as the pressure if the
stream is brought to rest isentrapically.

The difference or the two pressures is the

pressure due to fluid motion commonly
referred as the velocity pressure.
Velocity pressure = stagnation (total)
pressure ‐ static pressure.
Pressure is not an absolute quantity, but pressure measurements are usually
made relative to ambient air pressure. In other cases measurements are made
relative to a vacuum or to some other ad hoc reference.

When distinguishing between these zero references and the type of the
instrument using for measurement the following terms are used:

1. Absolute pressure : The absolute pressure is the difference between

pressure at a particular point in a fluid and the absolute Zero of pressure ie a
complete vacuum .

2. Gauge pressure : When the pressure measuring device measures the

difference between the unknown pressure and the local atmospheric
pressure the measurement is known as Gauge pressure and when gauge
pressure is negative, it is known as vacuum . so it is equal to absolute
pressure minus atmospheric pressure

3. Differential Pressure : when the pressure measuring device measures the

difference between the two unknown pressures , neither which is
atmospheric pressure , then the measurement is known as the differential
pressure
Atmospheric pressure, sometimes also
called barometric pressure, is the pressure
exerted by the weight of air in the atmosphere of
Earth
The standard atmosphere (symbol: atm) is a unit
of pressure defined as 101325 Pa (1.01325 bar),
equivalent to 760 mmHg (torr), 29.92 inHg and
14.696 psi.

Pressure as a function of the

height above the sea level
The concepts of total pressure and dynamic pressure arise from Bernoulli's equation
and are significant in the study of all fluid flows.

Bernoulli's equation for incompressible flows can be expressed as

where:
P is static pressure,
is dynamic pressure, usually denoted by ,
ρ is the density of the fluid,
ν is the flow velocity, and
P0 is total pressure which is constant along any streamline.

In incompressible fluid dynamics dynamic pressure (indicated with q, or Q, and

sometimes called velocity pressure) is the quantity defined by

Where (using SI units):

q = dynamic pressure in pascals,
ρ = fluid density in kg/m3 (e.g. density of air),
ν = fluid velocity in m/s.
Pascal’s law: The pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the
pressure throughout by the same amount.

The area ratio A2/A1 is called

the ideal mechanical
advantage of the hydraulic lift.

Lifting of a large weight

by a small force by the
application of Pascal’s
law. 12
Measuring techniques
There are three basic methods for pressure measurement

1. Balancing the unknown pressure against the pressure produced by a column of

liquid of known density. Ex manometers

2. Allowing the unknown pressure to act on a known area and measuring the
resultant force either directly or indirectly
Ex ; dead weight tester

3. Allowing the unknown pressure to act on a elastic member of known area and
measuring the resultant stress or strain or any other effects
Ex : Bourdon tubes , bellows , electrical types

In industrial applications pressure is normally measured by means of indicating gauges and

recorders. These instruments may be

1. mechanical,
2. electromechanical,
3. electrical or electronic in operation.
 Mechanical Instruments.

Mechanical instruments used for pressure measurement are based on comparison with known
dead weights acting on known areas or on the deflection of elastic elements subjected to
unknown pressures. Therefore these instruments may be classified into two groups.
The first group includes those instruments in which pressure measurement is made by
balancing the unknown force produced by pressure under measurement against a known force.
Instruments using this principle include manometers, piston gauges and ring and bell type of
gauges.
The second group includes those instruments which employ the balancing the unknown force
through a force produced on a known area due to stress in an elastic medium. This group
employs quantitative deformation of an elastic member for measurement of pressure. The elastic
members used are Bourdon tubes, bellows and diaphragms.

Electromechanical Instruments. ,
These instruments generally employ mechanical means for detecting pressure and electrical
means for indicating or recording pressure. Electromechanical instruments are very well suitable
for dynamic measurements as they have an excellent frequency response characteristics.
Electronic Instruments.
These pressure measuring instruments normally depend on some physical change that can be
detected and indicated or recorded through electronic means. These instruments are used for
vacuum measurements
 Manometers
• They essentially consist of a `U' shaped glass tube, which is filled with some liquid,
typically oil, water, or mercury. At its simplest, one end of the U tube will be open to
the atmosphere, while the other will be connected to whatever it is that one wishes
to measure the pressure of, say a pressurized tank of gas

• Also known as liquid column manometers, are used for low range pressure
measurement.

• Used for low range , generally used within a range of 2 kg/cm², i.e., 0.2 MPa.

• Manometers are of two basic types, (i) U‐tube type and (ii) well type. Variations in
these types are also known such as enlarged leg type, inclined tube type. etc.
Another commercial manometer is ring‐balance type
 both ends of the The point A, then, is at atmospheric
tube are open to pressure. pressure at C, then, is
the atmosphere. The point C is at the pressure of the gas in less than atmospheric
Thus both points A the closed end of the tube. pressure by the
and B are at The point B has a pressure greater than amount of pressure
atmospheric atmospheric pressure due to the weight of exerted by the column
pressure. The two the column of liquid of height h. of liquid of height h.
points also have Thus, in this case the pressure of the gas
the same vertical that is trapped in the closed end of the
height. tube is greater than atmospheric pressure
by the amount of pressure exerted by the
column of liquid of height h
 Absolute pressure Gauge pressure Differential pressure
measurement = h mm Hg measurement measurement
= h2 mm hg

pressure at A = Pressure at B
= atmospheric pressure + pressure due to column of liquid BC
= atmospheric pressure +h ρ =hρ
If the liquid is water the unit of measure is mm H2 O, and if the liquid is mercury
then the unit of measure is mm Hg 1 mm H2O = 9.80665 Pa , 1mm Hg = 133.322
Pa
Pressure in the left leg = pressure in
the right leg
P1+ ρ1 g h1 = P2+ ρm g h2
P1 – P2 = h g (ρm – ρl )
Pressure sensitivity = h / p = 1/g ρm

at balance we can write

P1 P2

In this case
P1 + ( h1 + h2 ) ρ2 = P2 +( h2 +hm) ρl
If the manometer legs are well then
A tube, normally made of polythene or
other light and transparent material,
bent into the form of a ring is
supported at the centre by a suitable
pivot. The tubular chamber is divided
into two parts by splitting, sealing and
filling with a suitable light liquid like
kerosene or paraffin oil for isolating the
two pressures
 Properties of Manometric Fluids.
The desirable properties of manometric fluids are:

1. Low viscosity: Fluids with low viscosity give quick response.

2. Low co-efficient of thermal expansion : The value of measured pressure

is affected by changes in density of manometreric fluids which is
dependent upon temperature. Therefore, in order to maintain constancy of
calibration, the density of monomeric fluid should not change with
temperature and hence fluids with low co-efficient of thermal expansion
should be used.

3. Low vapor pressure, negligible surface tension, and low capillary

effects, and non-sticky effects.

4. Non-corrosive, non-poisoness.

5. Long term stability.

 Advantages
The advantages of manometers are:

1. They are simple in construction, have high accuracy, and good

repeatability

2. They employ a wide range of filling fluids, thereby affording a great

deal of flexibility in practical applications.

3. They can be used both as measuring instruments and also as

primary standards for pressure measurement on account of their
inherent accuracy.

4. Apart from measurement of pressure, they can be used for

measurement of other process variables like temperature, flow and
liquid level.

5. The accuracy level of manometers and dead weight gauges of

similar ranges are quite comparable. However, manometers become
un wieldy at high pressures on account of long liquid columns
involved.
 Disadvantages

The disadvantages of manometers are :

(i) They have a fragile construction and hence lack portability.

(ii) When visual reading of height h is used, corrections must be applied for effect of
temperature on the engraved scale.

(iii) The value of gravitational constant g is dependent upon the altitude of the place
where measurements are made and due corrections must be made for this in the'
original calibration of the scale.

(iv) Errors are caused in measurements in case they are not made absolutely vertical.
Therefore, they need accurate leveling in order to have good accuracy.

(v) Errors are also caused on account of difficulty in accurately reading the value of h
because of the minuscus formed especially when tubes of small diameter are used.

(vi) They have a small range typically‐about 1000 kN/m2

 Elastic‐element mechanical pressure gauges
These sensors uses some form of elastic element whose geometry is altered by
changes in pressure
•Elastic members are also used for measurement of pressure up to about 700 MPa.
•Bellows elements and diaphragm. Gauges are suitable up to about 3 to 6 MPa
whereas Bourdon tubes have very high' ranges
Bourdon tube
• It is a tube closed at one end
• An internal cross section is elliptical
• With internal pressure variation the tube bends or unbends
• An internal pressure increase causes the cross section to become
more circular and the shape to straighten, resulting in motion of the
closed end of the tube
• A wide range of alloys can be used for making Bourdon elements
• For measuring over‐pressure as well as under‐pressure
• Measuring ranges:
– from (0 to 0,5) MPa to 2 000 MPa

a) Expansion Cross section wise

b) Extension length wise
c) Unwinding
 Materials used for Bourdon Tubes
Bourdon tubes are made of different materials brass,
• Alloy steel
• Stainless steel,
• Bronze phosphor
• Bronze
• beryllium copper
• K Monel, Monel
• Ni‐span C.
The choice of type of material to be used depends upon its elastic characteristics
suitable for the pressure range, process medium" temperature and corrosive
resistance of the media to be used.

• Phosphor bronze is used in low pressure applications where the atmosphere is

non‐corrosive while
• in applications where corrosion and/or high pressure is a problem, stainless
steel or Monel are used
Pressure gauges using bourdon tube elements are made with ranges from
760mm of mercury to 700 Mpa
One manufacturer, for example, lists spiral bourdon tube elements from 0
- 75 to 0 - 1500 kPa when bronze, beryllium copper and Ni-span C as the
materials for the element.
The same manufacturer uses the aforesaid materials for pressure ranges
1.5 - 550 MPa while using helical elements.
For bronze, the upper span limit is 0 - 30 MPa ; for beryllium copper and
Ni-span C, 0 - 40 MPa ;and for stainless steel 0 - 600 MPa.
Another manufacturer uses C type bourdon tube elements using bronze
upto a pressure of 7 MPa and steel and stainless steel to 150 MPa and
still another which uses these elements up to a pressure of 700 MPa.
So C-type bourdon tube elements may be used for measurement of
pressures ranging from vacuum to about 700 MPa and even higher, spiral
elements from vacuum to' 30 MPa and helical elements from 1.5 MPa to
550 MPa.
 Calibration of the pressure gauges
Dead weight tester
• A dead weight tester is a very handy piece of instrument for
calibrating a pressure gauge or other pressure transducers in an
industrial plant.
• A deadweight tester consists of a pumping piston with a screw that
presses it into the reservoir containing a fluid like oil, a primary
piston that carries the dead weight, W, and the pressure gauge or
transducer to be calibrated as shown in the schematic above.
• It works by loading the primary piston (of cross sectional area A),
with the amount of weight (W) that corresponds to the desired
calibration pressure (P = W/A).
• The pumping piston then pressurizes the whole system by pressing
more fluid into the reservoir cylinder.
• When the screw is turned the increase in fluid pressure is applied
to both the gauge and the weights.
• When the weights start to lift the gauge pressure should be the
same as the pressure indicated by the weights.
• You can calibrate pressure gauges and pressure transducers very
accurately if the weights are correct and there is minimum friction
between the weight piston and the cylinder.
• A good quality deadweight tester has a motor which keeps the
weights spinning all the time. This reduces the friction.
• If the tester has no spinning motor, operator should spin the
weights by hand. There are many kinds of deadweight testers.
• The operating fluid can be oil, water or air, depending on the
manufacturer.
• You might not be able to use an oil type dead weight tester on the
job site in certain applications especially sanitary industrial
environment. The oil left in the gauge can contaminate process
fluids, particularly some gases.
• Today’s deadweight testers are more accurate and more complex
than the schematic shown above but the essential operating
principles are the same.
• Sophisticated features include temperature compensation and the
means to rotate the primary piston in its cylinder to reduce or
eliminate the effects of friction.
• Modern dead weight testers do not use weights these days. The
weights are replaced with a digital read out. These modern units,
now used for calibrating industrial pressure transducers, contain a
precision power supply, an accurate digital readout, and a high‐
accuracy resonant (quartz) pressure sensor or Piezo‐electric
sensor as the unit for sensing pressure.
• These new generation dead weight testers are precise enough to
be used to calibrate most industrial pressure transducers.
Step By Step Procedure for Calibration:
• Step1: Connect the pressure gauge to the test port on the dead
weight tester as shown in the diagram above. Ensure that the test
gauge is reading zero, if not correct the zero error and ensure that
the gauge is reading zero before proceeding with the calibration
exercise.
• Step 2: Select a weight and place it on the vertical piston.
• Step 3: Turn the handle of the adjusting piston or screw pump to
ensure that the weight and piston are supported freely by oil.
• Step 4: Spin the vertical piston and ensure that it is floating freely.
• Step 5: Allow a few moments for the system to stabilize before
taking any readings. After system has stabilized, record the gauge
reading and the weight.
• Step 6: Repeat steps 2 through 5 for increasing weights until the
full range or maximum pressure is applied to the gauge and then
decreasing weights until the gauge reads zero pressure. Calculate
the error at each gauge reading and ensure that it is within the
acceptable accuracy limits.
• If you are doing a five point calibration, then increasing weights
should be added corresponding to 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%
of the full range pressure of the pressure gauge.
• For decreasing pressure you proceed in the order 100%, 75%,
50%, 25%, 0%.

For pressure gauges with less accuracy specifications, calibration

at the points: 0%, 50% and 100% will suffice.
• At each pressure reading, the absolute error is calculated thus:
Absolute Error = DWT Pressure – Test Gauge Pressure
The absolute error at each point should be within the acceptable
accuracy limits of the gauge.
• If the gauge error is in % span proceed as follows to calculate the
error: Span = Maximum pressure – minimum pressure
%Error = [(DWT Pressure – Test Gauge Pressure)/Span]*100 for
each pressure gauge reading.
• The error in % span should be within the acceptable accuracy
limits otherwise the calibration will have to be repeated to correct
the errors. If the pressure gauge error is in % FSD(Full Scale
Deflection), proceed as follows to calculate the error:
S% Error = [(DWT Pressure ‐ Test Gauge Pressure)/FSD]*100
• CORRECTION FACTORS: The deadweight tester has been
calibrated to the Gravity, Temperature, and Air Density stated on the
calibration certificate right from the laboratory.
Equations and factors are given on the certificate to adjust for any
variations in these environmental conditions.
Always refer to the documentation for the Dead Weight Tester to
ensure that for maximum accuracy, the necessary calibration
correction factors are applied to any reading from the device.
• GRAVITY CORRECTION : Gravity varies greatly with geographic
location, and so will the dead weight tester
reading. Due to the significant change in gravity throughout the
world (about 0.5%), ensure that the tester in your possession has
been manufactured with the specification of your local gravity,
otherwise you may have to apply the correction for the calibrated
gravity.
• To correct for gravity use:
True Pressure = [(Gravity (CS))/(Gravity(LS))]*P(Indicated)
Where:
P(Indicated) = Pressure indicated by gauge being calibrated
Gravity(CS) = Gravity at Calibration Site
Gravity (LS) = Gravity at Laboratory Site
• TEMPERATURE CORRECTION : Temperature and Air Density variations
are less significant than gravity. Variations should be corrected for when
maximum accuracy is required.
To correct for Temperature variation use:

True Pressure = P(Indicated) [1+ {T(DWTCT) – T(OT)}*{ΔP/100}]

Where:
P(Indicated) = Pressure indicated by gauge being calibrated
T(DWTCT) = Dead Weight Tester calibrated temperature in the laboratory
T(OT) = Operating temperature at calibration site
ΔP = Percentage pressure change per unit temperature change
PRESSURE 2
 Bell Gauges
Bell gauges operate on pressure or force balance principle.

The different types of Bell gauges used are:

• Balanced lever gauge.
• Beam bell gauge. (Double bell gauge)
• Spring balanced bell gauge and
• Dubrovin vacuum gauge.

In each case the bell or the bells are immersed in a liquid and measure
differential pressure in the range of 250 Pa to 4000 Pa except for Dubrovin
gauge which measures pressures lower than 250 Pa.
Balanced Lever Gauge

The pressure P2 is admitted to the bell well. For zero indication balance is obtained when
P2 = PI. The indicator is at zero position under this condition. A change in pressure P2,
under the bell, either increases or decreases the difference in pressures between PI and
P2. The pressure difference causes an unbalancing torque on the lever which is balanced
by the counter weight W.

The movement of the lever arm is limited to about 5°.

When a balanced lever gauge is used for dynamic' pressure changes, it is necessary to use
a damping mechanism such as a dash pot to slow down the movement of the indicator.
Beam Bell Gauge.

consists of two light metal bells supported on a balanced beam. The beam is pivoted on
knife edges and a counterweight is used to balance the deflection of the system. This
counterweight is supported directly below the pivot point on the beam, and a pointer is
attached to the pivot point.

The pointer in this instrument indicates pressure as a function of the angle of deflection of
the beam from the horizontal position as it moves on its Y axis. The pressure measured is
the differential pressure, which is given by the following expression :

where
W = weight of counterweight ; kg ,
d = distance of counterweight from pivot; m,
A = area of each bell; m2,
s = distance of each bell support
from the pivot point; m,
θ = angle of deflection of the beam.
Spring Balanced Bell Gauge.
The spring balanced bell gauge has a portion of the bell weight supported
by a coil spring as shown in Fig. The bell is sealed with a light oil, and
variations in pressure tend to change the position of the bell. The bell is
moved up and down on account of changes in pressure till an equilibrium is
established between the weight of the bell and the force produced by the
coiled spring.

The differential pressure is given by

the following expression

Ks = spring constant ; N/ m,
h = vertical movement of the
bell; m.
A = area of the bell; m2
Dubrovin Vacuum Gauge.
•is a floating bell pressure gauge.
•a glass bell is attached to the base of a mercury filled glass tube to provide
buyoancy to a glass color in, which in turn is supported in a second glass tube
partially filled with mercury

At zero pressure, both the sides are at the same pressure. In this case the bell is
deepest in the mercury filled in the out side tube. As the pressure decreases, the
bell becomes more buoyant and the inner glass column rises to indicate the
absolute pressure of the system being measured
 Bellows
A metallic bellows is a series of circular parts, resembling the folds in an accordion as
shown in Fig.

The displacement of bellows

element is given by,

P = Pressure ; N/m 2 ,
These parts are formed or joined in such a b = radius of each corrugation ; m,
manner that they are expanded or contracted n = number of semi-circular
axially by changes in pressure. The metals used in corrugations,
the construction of bellows must be thin enough t = thickness of wall ; m.
D = mean diameter; m,
to be flexible, ductile enough for reasonably easy
E = Modulus of elasticity; N/m2,
fabrication, and have a high resistance to fatigue v = Poisson's ratio.
failure. Materials commonly used are brass,
bronze, beryllium copper, alloys of nickel and
copper, steel and monel
 spring loaded bellows
Normally a Bellows has the ability to move over a
greater distance than required in a pressure
application and, therefore, to give it maximum life
and to have better accuracy, its movement is
generally opposed by a calibrated spring so that
only a part of the maximum stroke is used.
Deflection of bellows when opposed by a spring is

where . Ab = effective area of bellows; m2,

Kb, K, = stiffness constants of bellows and spring " respectively ;
N/m 2.

Pressure if the bellows assembly

operates an electric switch or
some other mechanism, we
Where have,
F = force required to operate switch or mechanism; N,
ds = deflection required to operate switch or mechanism ; m
There are three main configurations in which bellows elements are used and these are for
measurement of absolute, gauge and differential pressures.

There are two bellows, A and B. The

pressure applied to bellows A is PI and that
to bellows B is P2.

If it is desired to measure the absolute

pressure, bellows B is evacuated and the
resultant pressure, PI is the absolute
pressure.

When measurement of gauge pressure is

desired, bellows B is opened up to
atmosphere with pressure P2 equal to the
atmospheric pressure and the reading of the
gauge is the gauge pressure.

The measurement of differential pressure P =

PI. - P2 is done when pressure PI is applied
to bellows A and pressure ii is applied to
bellows B.
The Double Bellows Differential Pressure Gauge as shown in Fig. is designed for low
differential pressure measurement of high static pressures.

Rate of flow
controller
Liquid may be
ethyline glycol
water
advantages of bellows

• simple and rugged construction

• moderate price,

• their usefulness for measurement of low, medium and high pressures

• applicability for use in measurement of absolute, gauge and differential

pressures.

• The reduction of drift and hysteresis allows their use in functions requiring ±
0.5% of full span accuracy.

• They deliver relatively high forces and are well adapted to vacuum and low
pressure measurements.

disadvantages of bellows

• not suited for dynamic measurements on account of their greater mass and
longer relative movement.

• need temperature compensating devices to avoid errors 'resulting from changes

in ambient temperature. '
 Diaphragms
• A diaphragm pressure transducer is used for low pressure
measurement. They are commercially available in two types –
metallic and non-metallic.
• Metallic diaphragms are known to have good spring
characteristics and non-metallic types have no elastic
characteristics.
• Thus, non-metallic types are used rarely, and are usually opposed
by a calibrated coil spring or any other elastic type gauge.
• The non-metallic types are also called slack diaphragm.

Working
The diagram of a diaphragm pressure gauge is shown below. When
a force acts against a thin stretched diaphragm, it causes a
deflection of the diaphragm with its centre deflecting the most.
Diaphragm Gauge:
Since the elastic limit has to be maintained, the deflection of the
diaphragm must be kept in a restricted manner.
This can be done by cascading many diaphragm capsules as
shown in the figure below.
A main capsule is designed by joining two diaphragms at the
periphery.
• A pressure inlet line is provided at the central position.
• When the pressure enters the capsule, the deflection will be
the sum of deflections of all the individual capsules.
• As shown in figure, corrugated diaphragms are also used
instead of the conventional ones.
 The diaphragm element is essentially a flexible disc which may be either flat or
corrugated as shown

Method of increasing the sensitivity The action of the Corrugated

of the diaphragm gauge capsule Diaphragm shells
Diaphragm Pressure Transducer
• Corrugated designs help in providing a linear deflection and
also increase the member strength. The total amount of
deflection for a given pressure differential is known by the
following factors:
Number and depth of corrugation
Number of capsules
Capsule diameter
Shell thickness
Material characteristics
• Materials used for the metal diaphragms are the same as
those used for Bourdon Tube.
• Non-metallic or slack diaphragms are used for measuring very
small pressures. The commonly used materials for making the
diaphragm are polythene, neoprene, animal membrane, silk,
and synthetic materials.
• Due to their non-elastic characteristics, the device will have to be
opposed with external springs for calibration and precise operation.
The common range for pressure measurement varies between 50
Pa to 0.1 MPa.

• The best example for a slack diaphragm is the draft gauge. They are
used in boilers for indication of the boiler draft. The device can
control both combustion and fuel.

• With the draft, usually of pressure less than the atmosphere,

connected, the power diaphragm moves to the left and its motion is
transmitted through the sealing diaphragm, sealed link and pointer
drive to the pointer.

• The power diaphragm is balanced with the help of a calibrated leaf

spring. The effective length of the spring and hence the range is
determined by the range adjusting screw.

• By adjusting the zero adjustment screw, the right hand end of the
power diaphragm support link as also the free end of the leaf spring,
is adjusted for zero adjustment through the cradle.
ELECTROMECHANICAL PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS

The measurement of pressure is done by converting the applied pressure into a

displacement by elastic, pressure elements like Bourdon tubes, bellows, and
diaphragms. The displacement of elastic pressure elements is transuded into electrical
form through use of secondary transducers. The output of electrical transducers is a
function of displacement, which in turn is a function of pressure
 Electronic pressure sensors
• Potentiometric
Uses the motion of a wiper along a resistive mechanism to detect the strain
caused by applied pressure
• Piezoresistive Strain Gage
Uses the piezoresistive effect of bonded or formed strain gauges to detect strain
due to applied pressure.
• Capacitive
Uses a diaphragm and pressure cavity to create a variable capacitor to detect
strain due to applied pressure.
• Magnetic
Measures the displacement of a diaphragm by means of changes in inductance
(reluctance), LVDT, Hall Effect, or by eddy current principal.
• Piezoelectric
Uses the piezoelectric effect in certain materials such as quartz to measure the
strain upon the sensing mechanism due to pressure.
• Optical
Uses the physical change of an optical fiber to detect strain due applied pressure.
• Resonant
Uses the changes in resonant frequency in a sensing mechanism to measure
stress, or changes in gas density, caused by applied pressure.
Some of the secondary transducers used are
•potentiometer,

•strain gauges,

•inductive transducers

•LVDTs

•capacitive transducers,

•eddy current probes

•piezoelectric elements

•photoelectric transducers

•oscillation type transducers

In this arrangement the wiper of a potentiometer with good linear characteristics is
attached to a diaphragm or bellows for the measurement of pressure. Fig shows the
wiper of a potentiometer attached to a bellows element which acts as the primary
sensor.
Advantages : The main advantages of potentiometric type pressure transducers
are

•high range,
•simplicity of instrumentation and
•ruggedness.

Disadvantages: The disadvantages are

•poor resolution,
•large size,
•poor frequency response and problems on account of noise produced by
movement of wiper
 Piezoresistive Strain Gage
The piezoresistive effect describes the changing resistivity of a semiconductor due
to applied mechanical stress. The piezoresistive effect differs from the piezoelectric
effect

Mechanism
In semiconductors, changes in inter‐atomic spacing resulting from strain affects the
band gaps making it easier (or harder depending on the material and strain) for
electrons to be raised into the conduction band. This results in a change in
resistivity of the semiconductor. Piezoresistivity is defined by

Where
∂ρ = Change in resistivity
ρ = Original resistivity
ε = Strain
Piezoresistivity has a much greater effect on resistance than a simple change in
geometry and so a semiconductor can be used to create a much more sensitive
strain gauge, though they are generally also more sensitive to environmental
conditions (esp. temperature) .
Resistance change in metals
The resistance change in metals is only due to the change of geometry
resulting from applied mechanical stress and can be calculated using the
simple resistance equation derived from ohm's law;

Where
Conductor length [m]
A Cross-sectional area of the current flow [m²]

This resistance change is sometimes confused with piezoresistive effects although no change
in resistivity takes place. Piezoresistivity cannot occur in metals.

Piezoresistive effect in semiconductors

The piezoresistive effect of semiconductor materials can be several orders of
magnitudes larger than the geometrical effect in metals and is present in materials
like germanium, polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, silicon carbide, and
single crystal silicon.
Piezoresistors
Piezoresistors are resistors made from a piezoresistive material and are usually used
for measurement of mechanical stress. They are the simplest form of piezoresistive
devices.
Fabrication
Piezoresistors can be fabricated using wide variety of piezoresistive materials. The
simplest form of piezoresistive silicon sensors are diffused resistors. Piezoresistors
consist of a simple two contact diffused n- or p-wells within a p- or n-substrate. As the
typical square resistances of these devices are in the range of several hundred ohms,
additional p+ or n+ plus diffusions are necessary to facilitate ohmic contacts to the
device.

Schematic cross‐section of the basic elements of a silicon n‐well piezoresistor

Strain Gauges.:

A strain gauge can be used to produce an electrical signal in proportion to the

change in resistance caused by the distortion of an elastic element to which it is
attached.

Strain gauges can be used for absolute, gauge and differential pressure
applications.

linearity can be achieved for small values of dm/t. However, small dm/t ratio leads to
small strains and consequently low output voltages for the strain gauge bridge with
resultant low sensitivity

radial stress Sr and tangential stress St on the low pressure side of metal foil
diaphragms clamped at the edges as shown in Fig. and subjected to uniform
pressure are respectively :
Figure : Strain‐Gage Based Pressure Cell
 Inductive Transducers
Inductance is the property of an electrical circuit causing voltage to be generated
proportional to the rate of change in current in a circuit. This property is also called as
self inductance
mutual inductance, describing the voltage induced in one electrical circuit by the rate
of change of the electric current in another circuit.

Inductive transducers have been successfully used as secondary transducers along with a
diaphragm and bourdon tube for measurement of pressure.

Consider a system of K wire loops, each with one or several wire turns. The flux linkage
of loop m is given by

Here Nm denotes the number of turns in loop m, Φm the magnetic flux through
this loop, and Lm,n are some constants.
two coils an upper coil and a lower coil which form the two arms of an a.c. bridge. The coils
are identical and have equal number of turns and are wound on ferrite cores. The other two
arms of the bridge are formed by two equal resistances each of value R.

suppose PI becomes greater than P2 and the differential pressure P = PI ‐ P2 deflects the
diaphragm downwards through a distance d. For small displacements of diaphragm, the
reluctance of the flux path for upper coil becomes: Rl = Ro + K(D + d)

and for the lower coil becomes R2 = Ro + K(D ‐ d)

where Ro and K are constants.

Inductances of the upper and lower coils are respectively,

The bridge, therefore, becomes unbalanced and hence an output voltage appears
across its terminals and the value of this output voltage is,

Advantages. The major advantages of a variable reluctance transducers are :

•The mechanical linkage or any other form of loading on the diaphragm is absent
and this results in improvement in dynamic response.

•They are ideally suitable for low pressure applications as their sensitivity is high.

•They are rugged in construction and, therefore, insensitive to vibrations.

•The pressure gauges using inductive transducers have ranges 0 - 5 kPa and 0 -
100 kPa ..
Linear Variable Differential Transducers LVDT.

The LVDT is one of the most widely used transducers for converting a mechanical
displacement to a proportional output voltage. The force sensing elements that are
commonly used with L VDTs acting as the secondary transducers are Bellows and
Bourdon tubes. The measurement of pressure using Bellows and Bourdon tubes
acting as primary transducers with L VDT acting as secondary transducer are shown
in Fig.
Advantages. The advantages of gauges using L VDT are :

•The sensitivity of pressure gauges using LVDTs is good, and therefore, stiff primary sensors
with very little movement can be used to reduce environmental effects.

•The frequency response is good, with commercial gauges able to respond to pulse signals
greater than a frequency of 0.1 MHz. .

•The linearity is also good in case the displacements are small.

Disadvantages : The disadvantages are :

•The response is linear over a small range of displacement.

•The greatest drawback is that the dynamic response of the transducer is limited on account of
mass of core.
 Capacitive Transducers
Current-voltage relation

Taking the derivative of this, and

multiplying by C, yields the derivative
form

Sensing

Changing the dielectric:

The effects of varying the physical and/or electrical characteristics of the dielectric can be
used for sensing purposes.

Changing the distance between the plates:

Capacitors with a flexible plate can be used to measure strain or pressure.

Changing the effective area of the plates:

a three terminal variable differential circuit capacitor is shown in Fig. Spherical
depressions of a depth of about 0.025 mm are ground into the glass discs. These
depressions are coated with gold to form the two fixed plates of the differential
capacitor. A thin stainless steel diaphragm clamped between the discs, acts as the
movable plate.

The use of capacitive transducers is not common because of low sensitivity. Also
capacitive transducers require high carrier frequencies (typically 2500 Hz) for
dynamic pressure measurements.
Advantages
The advantages of capacitive transducers for measurement of pressure are their
(I) Good frequency response, relative simplicity of construction and relative by low
cost.
(II) Suitability for both static and dynamic measurements.
(iil) Small volumetric displacement for minimum diaphragm mass and continuous
resolution.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of capacitive transducers are their. (i) Limited temperature range
of operation.
(ii) Poor thermal stability.
(iii) High output impedance which results in loading errors and consequently low
accuracy. To avoid this they require impedance matching.

The accuracy of most capacitive transducers is of the order of ± 0.1 to 0.2% of the
span and they are used in the range 750 Pa to 35 kPa.
 Piezoelectricity
• Piezoelectricity is the charge which accumulates in certain solid materials (notably
crystals, certain ceramics, and biological matter such as bone, DNA and various
proteins) in response to applied mechanical strain.
• The piezoelectric effect is understood as the linear electromechanical interaction
between the mechanical and the electrical state in crystalline materials with no
inversion symmetry.
• The piezoelectric effect is a reversible process in that materials exhibiting the
direct piezoelectric effect (the internal generation of electrical charge resulting
from an applied mechanical force) also exhibit the reverse piezoelectric effect (the
internal generation of a mechanical force resulting from an applied electrical field)

Piezoelectricity is the combined effect of the

electrical behavior of the material

where D is the electric charge density

displacement (electric displacement), ε is
permittivity and E is electric field strength
 Materials

Many materials, both natural and man-made, exhibit piezoelectricity:

Naturally-occurring crystals
•Berlinite (AlPO4), a rare phosphate mineral that is structurally identical to quartz
•Cane sugar
•Quartz
•Rochelle salt
•Topaz
•Tourmaline-group minerals

Man‐made crystals
Gallium orthophosphate (GaPO4), a quartz analogic crystal
Langasite (La3Ga5SiO14), a quartz analogic crystal

Polymers
Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF): PVDF exhibits piezoelectricity several times greater than
quartz. Unlike ceramics, where the crystal structure of the material creates the
piezoelectric effect, in polymers the intertwined long‐chain molecules attract and repel
each other when an electric field is applied.
Advantages.

(i) They are admirably suited for dynamic measurements on account of their good high
frequency response.

(ii) They have self generation capabilities (as they are active transducers) which results in
simplicity of construction and negligible phase shift between input and output.

(iii) They are small in size and rugged in construction.

Disadvantages.

(I) Sensitivity to temperature changes, on account of this, reproducible results are not
obtained unless the temperature is kept within close limits.

(ii) They are unsuitable for static measurements.

(iii) They have a high output impedance which leads to loading effects.

(iv) They are sensitive to cross accelerations, and zero shift after extreme shock.

A typical pressure transducer employing synthetic piezoelectric crystals has a pressure range
of 0 - 20 MN/m 2, linearity of ± I % and operatingꞏ temperatures range of - 40° to 150°C.
 Photoelectric Transducers.
• Photometry
• Photometry is the science concerned with measurement of light with in visible band ,
with respect to the response of human eye as the main optical sensor
The response of human eye under normal light conditions is photopic vision and it peaks at
555 nm . The effect of different colors on the eye is clearly shown in this diagram. For
example the eye has almost ten times as much response to green as it has to blue
OPTICAL TRANSDUCERS

A large number of different optical transducers have been

developed using a variety of techniques.
These transducers include
(i) Photo-emissive cells,
(ii) Semi-conductor photo-electric transducers.

PHOTO∙ EMISSIVE CELLS

They are basically of two types of photo‐emissive cells,
1. Vacuum type and
2. gas field type.
The current through the tube depends upon the following:

1. intensity of light
2. colour of light or its wavelength
3. voltage applied between cathode and anode.

The sensitivity of photoelectric transducers can be increased by using:

•gas filled tubes

• photomultipliers
SEMI CONDUCTOR PHOTOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS

The process of energy absorption produces movable charges or a change of mobility

of the charge carriers in the semiconductors thereby producing one of the following
effects depending upon the type of transducer used :

(i) change in resistance, ∆R

(ii) change in current output, ∆i and

(iii) change in voltage output, ∆V

By using the change in the above properties we have

•Photoconductive cells

•Photodiodes

•Photo transistors

•Photovoltaic

•Photothyristors
Advantages.

(l) High efficiency

(ii) Suitability of both static and dynamic measurements.

Disadvantages.

(i) Poor long term stability

(ii) The requirement of a large displacement of the force summing device in order
to produce a detectable . output.
 Hall effect
• The Hall effect is the production of a voltage difference (the Hall voltage)
across an electrical conductor, transverse to an electric current in the conductor
and a magnetic field perpendicular to the current. It was discovered by Edwin
Hall in 1879

• For a simple metal where there is only one type of charge carrier (electrons)
the Hall voltage VH is given by

where I is the current across the plate length, B is the magnetic flux density, d is
the depth of the plate, e is the electron charge, and n is the charge carrier
density of the carrier electrons.
Hall effect devices when appropriately packaged are immune to dust, dirt,
mud, and water. These characteristics make Hall effect devices better for
position sensing than alternative means such as optical and
electromechanical sensing.
 MEASUREMENT OF HIGH PRESSURE
Pressures up to about 70000 MPa can be easily measured with strain gauge cells or
Bourdon tubes.
Bourdon tubes for such high pressures have nearly circular cross-sections and thus give
little output displacement resulting in poor sensitivity.
For measurement of pressures above 7000 MPa, electrical gauges based upon the
principle of change of resistance with change of pressure are used. It is known that
resistance of fine wires changes with pressure according to a linear relationship. .
R = R1 ( l + b ∆ P) . .. 37
where R = resistance in n at a pressure of 1 atmosphere, b is the pressure co-efficient of
resistance and ∆P is the gauge pressure.
A pressure transducer based upon this principle is called a Bridgman Gauge. Shown in fig.
A typical gauge employs fine wire of Manganin or Gold chrome. Manganin has a
pressure co‐efficient of resistance of 25 x 10‐12 Pa ‐I and the total resistance of wire is
100 Ω.

The wire is wound in the form of a coil enclosed in the pressure container filled with
kerosene oil. One end of the coil is grounded to the cell body and the other end is
brought through a suitable insulator.

The coil is enclosed in a flexible kerosene filled bellows which transmits the pressure
under measurement to the coil. The change in resistance with change in pressure is
measured with Wheatstone bridge
Advantages. Bridgman gauges have the following advantages:
. (i) They are commercially available with full scale up to pressures of 15
MPa with accuracies of 0.1 to 0.5 percent when properly calibrated.
(ii) They have a good dynamic response.
The resistance wire itself can respond to variations in MHz range but the
overall frequency response of the pressure measurement system is
limited to much lower values because of the .acoustic response of the
transmitting fluid.
 Styles of
Pressure Transducers
PC Board Mountable
Pressure Transducers

PC board mountable
pressure transducers
are generally compact
economical pressure
transducers designed to
mount on an electrical
PC board and be
integrated into other
products
General Purpose
Transducers

General purpose
pressure transducers are
the most common since
they are designed to fit
the broadest set of
applications.
Heavy Duty/Industrial Pressure
Transducers
Heavy Duty/Industrial Pressure
transducers feature a much more
rugged enclosure than other
transducers. They are designed to
accommodate heavy industrial
environments. They also often
feature a scalable 4‐20mA output
that provides much greater
immunity to electrical noise
which is not uncommon in
industrial environments
High Stability/High
Accuracy Pressure
Transducers
Most pressure transducers
feature an accuracy of
0.25% of full scale or
higher. High stability and
high accuracy pressure
transducers can offer
errors as low as 0.05% of
full scale, depending on
model. Although more
expensive than general
purpose transducers, they
may be the only option if
high precision is required.
Flush Diaphragm Pressure
Transducers
With flush diaphragm
pressure transducers, the
diaphragm is flush to the
process. This eliminates a
cavity above the
diaphragm that could
collect fluid matter from
the process. In certain
applications, this may be
very undesirable. Those
applications include
monitoring the pressure
of foods or liquids that
have very high viscosity
Special Purpose
Transducers
OMEGA offers a variety of
pressure transducers with
special features. These
include pressure
transducers designed for
pressure measurement in
very high or low
temperatures,
submersible pressure
transducers, barometric
pressure transducers and
pressure transducers with
digital communications
output or wireless
outputs.
 LOW PRESSURE (VACUUM) MEASUREMENTS
Pressures below that of atmosphere and this pressure is commonly
referred to as vacuum.
Two commonly used units of vacuum measurement are
• torr and
• micrometer.
One torr is pressure equivalent to 1 mm Hg at standard conditions
and one micrometer is 10‐3 torr.

The wide range of pressures to be measured ranging from the

Normal atmospheric pressure of 760 torr down to 10 x 10‐9 torr
There are two basic methods of measurement of low pressure.

Direct Methods: involve measurement of a displacement produced by

Elastic pressure transducers as a result of application of pressure

spiral Bourdon tubes, flat and corrugated diaphragms, capsules and many
forms of manometers can be used for pressures up to 0.1 torr, Bourdon
gauges to 10 torr and diaphragm gauges to 10-3 torr and for the bellow
indirect measurements are used

Indirect or Inferential Methods.. uses change in volume and change in

thermal conductivity as the pressure changes

In indirect method the commonly used devices for the measurement of low
pressures are:
•McLeod,
•Kundsen,
•Viscosity
• thermocouple,
• Pirani and
•Ionization gauges
McLeod Gauge:
• McLeod gauge amplifies the low pressure and was developed to
extend the range of vacuum measurement significantly.
• The McLeod Gauge measures the vacuum pressure in the range
between 10‐1 and 10‐5 torr.
• This can be used as a primary standard device for calibrating other
low‐pressure gauges.
Working Principle:
• McLeod gauge is essentially a mercury manometer in which a
volume of gas is compressed before measurement.
• It operates by compressing a low‐pressure gas of known volume
into a smaller volume so that its pressure is sufficiently higher
enough to be read.
• The resultant final volume and pressure provide the indication of
applied low pressure.
Construction:
• The McLeod gauge consists of a reservoir containing mercury.
• A plunger is attached on the top of the reservoir which is used to
raise or lower the level of mercury into the reference column and
bulb.
• Above the reservoir, there is a bulb and reference column.
• The point of connection of bulb and reference column is the
opening or cut‐off point.
• The other end of the reference column is open to vacuum
pressure and it has a reference capillary.
• The reference capillary has a zero reference point up to which the
mercury is raised.
• The mercury rises in the capillary as much as it rises in the column
but only the volume differs.
• The reference column is attached to a measuring capillary which is
a sealed chamber and from which the final volume of gas is read.
Operation:
• The working of McLeod Gauge is based on Boyle’s law. pV = 𝑝 𝑉
where, p & V – Pressure and Volume of gas before compression
pc & Vc – Pressure and Volume of gas after compression.
• The unknown vacuum pressure source is connected to the
reference column and the pressure is applied.
• The level of mercury is adjusted so that it at the opening or cut‐off
point.
• Now, the unknown pressure, p, fills the bulb and capillary. The
volume of unknown pressure is the volume of bulb and capillary
which is given by V.
• The mercury is forced into the bulb and capillary by operating the
plunger.
• Once the level of mercury crosses the cut‐off point or opening, it
stops the entry of applied pressure into the bulb and measuring
capillary.
• The level of mercury is raised until it reaches the zero reference
point. The pressure and volume of gas trapped in measuring
capillary are read and unknown vacuum pressure is calculated.
• The pressure of gas remaining in the measuring capillary is given
by, 𝑝 = p + h
• The volume of gas remaining in the measuring capillary is given by,
𝑉=𝐴 ℎ
Where, h – the difference in height of mercury in reference and
measuring capillary, 𝐴 – Area of the cross‐section of measuring
capillary

By Boyle’s Law, pV = (p+h)𝐴 ℎ

=p𝐴 ℎ+𝐴 ℎ
p(V ‐ 𝐴 ℎ) = 𝐴 ℎ here 𝐴 ℎ <<<<<V, so it can be neglected.
=> p = 𝐴 ℎ / V
Advantages
1. McLeod gauge is an inexpensive standard that measures vacuum
pressure without any electronics or sophisticated equipment.
2. It is used for calibrating other low pressure measuring gauges.
3. It is not influenced by gas composition.
4. The readings obtained from McLeod gauge do not require any
correction.
Disadvantages
1. The McLeod gauge is useful for measuring pressures of true gases
that obey Boyle’s law, Condensable gases cannot be used.
2. The gauge is to be handled only by skilled technicians.
3. It cannot give continuous output.
4. Precautions are to be taken to remove any condensable vapors
present inside otherwise the gauge will show a false low reading.
5. There are chances for the gauge to get contaminated.
 KNUDSEN GAUGE

The separation distance between the

fixed plates and the movable vane
must be less than the mean free path
of the surrounding gas.

Heaters are installed so that the

absolute temperature of the plates T,
is higher than that of the surrounding
gas.

The force produced on the vane is directly proportional to the pressure for given values
of T and Tg according to the following relationship

where K is a constant
Advantages.
:
•This gauge is relatively insensitive to gas composition and can be
developed into a standard for measurements of pressures which are too
low for the McLeod gauge to measure.

•This gauge can be used for measurement of pressures ranging from 10 x

10-9 to 10 x 10-3 torr.
 VISCOSITY GAUGE.
the viscosity of a gas is directly proportional to its pressure in case the pressure is below 10 x 10-
3 torr.
By measuring the viscosity of the gas we can measure the pressure

One way of measurement of viscosity is to measure it in terms of the torque required to rotate at constant
speed a cylinder within another cylinder containing the gas whose pressure is to be measured.

The rotation is produced by a electric motor rotating at a constant speed of 3000 r.p.m. For pressures
above I torr, the viscosity is independent of pressure

This can be used for measurement of pressure of dry air

in the range 0 to 20 torr.

The range from 0 to 10 x 10‐3 torr occupies about 10

percent of the total scale range.

While measuring pressures above 1 torr when the

viscosity becomes independent of the gas pressure,
bladed wheels are used in place of smooth concentric
cylinders. These wheels cause a turbulent momentum
exchange which is dependent upon pressure in case it is
more than 1 torr and the range can be extended to 20 torr.
Advantages:

they can be conveniently used for measurement of vacuum pressures down to 10

x 10-3 torr.

Disadvantage:

variation of viscosity with pressure is different for different gases. Thus gauges
working on the principle of variation of viscosity with pressure must be calibrated
differently for different gases.
 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY GAUGES
If the pressure of a gas becomes smaller and smaller, the mean free path, λ, of the
molecules becomes greater and greater. In fact, at very low pressures, the mean free
path may be significantly greater than the pertinent dimension of the apparatus.

At low pressures a linear relationship between thermal conductivity and pressure is

predicted by the kinetic theory of gases.

The pertinent dimension is the spacing between the relatively moving surfaces in the
case of viscosity gauges while in the case of thermal conductivity gauges. it is the
spacing between two surfaces, one of them is hot and the other is cold.

The transition region, between dependence and non-dependence of thermal

conductivity on pressure is approximately in the range of 10 x 10-3 to I torr for an
instrument of a convenient and manageable size to construct and use.

This element reaches a thermal equilibrium i.e. it reaches a steady temperature when
the heat energy supplied to it just equals the heat energy lost by it by conduction and
radiation.
The most commonly used types of conductivity gauges are of the following two types:
Thermocouple gauge, and
Pirani gauge.
 Thermocouple Gauge
The hot surface is a thin metal strip whose temperature may be varied by changing the value
of current passing through it. The temperature of the heated strip lies between 50°C to 400°C.
The temperature of the metal strip is measured with the help of a thermocouple which is
welded to the hot surface.
The thin metal strip and the thermocouple are enclosed in a glass tube which is sealed into the
vacuum system whose pressure is to be measured. The cold surface is formed by the glass
tube which is at the room temperature

The thermocouple provides an output

voltage which is a function of the
temperature of the heated strip which in
turn in a function of the pressure of the
gas whose pressure is being measured.
The output voltage of the thermocouple is
measured with a help of PMMC meter
whose scale can be directly calibrated in
terms of pressure being measured.
Thermocouple gauges of one type or
another are available to measure
pressures in the range 0.1 x 10-3 to I torr.
 Pirani Gauge

The Pirani‐gauge like Thermocouple gauge is a device that measures the pressure through change in
thermal conductivity of a gas which changes the temperature of a heated element.

Unlike in the case of a thermocouple gauge, the functions of heating and temperature measurement
are combined in a single element. The resistance element is in the form of four coiled wires of
tungsten or platinum connected in parallel and supported inside a glass tube to which the gas,
whose temperature is to be measured is admitted as shown in Fig

Two identical Pirani tubes generally are, connected in the

bridge circuit. One of the tubes is evacuated to a very low
pressure and then sealed off while the other has the gas
admitted to it. The evacuated tube acts ,as a compensator to
reduce the effect of bridge excitation voltage changes and
temperature changes on the output reading.
 IONIZATION GAUGES
The working principle of an Ionization gauge is when an electron passing through an electric field in a
gas produced by two electrodes acquires a kinetic energy which is proportional to the potential
difference between the two electrodes.

When this electron strikes a gas molecule and when this acquired energy is large enough, there is
definite probability that the electron will drive an electron out of the molecule leaving it a positively
charged ion. The driven out electron, is called a secondary electron.

The number of positive ions formed is directly

proportional to Ie and directly proportional to the gas
pressure.

Therefore, if Ie is kept constant (as in most gauges), the

rate of production of positive ions (ion current) is, for a
given gas, a direct measure of SET ie the number of gas
molecules per unit volume and hence of the pressure of
gas.

The positive ions are attracted by a negatively charged

electrode, which collects them and carries the ion current.

The sensitivity of the ionization gauge is defined as

S = Ii / P Ie
where Ii = ion current, gauge output
Ie = electron current
P = gas pressure, gauge input.
The main advantage of ionization gauges is their linearity i.e. the value of sensitivity S is
constant over a wide range of pressures for a particular gas.

Disadvantages

(i) Their filament can burn out quickly if exposed to air when hot or before the pressure is at
low value. For this reason it is necessary to have a Pirani or thermocouple gauge in the
system to ensure low enough vacuum.

(ii) Some gases get decomposed by the hot filament.

(iii) The gas whose pressure is measured gets contaminated by gases which are forced out by
hot filament.

(iv) These gauges must be provided with automatic cut out in order to protect them in case of
system leak or break.