International Geology Review

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Metamorphic phase equilibria modelling

and zircon U–Pb geochronology of ultrahigh-
temperature cordierite granulites from the
Madurai Block, India: implications for hot
Gondwana crust

Li Tang, S. Rajesh, M. Santosh, Toshiaki Tsunogae, A.P. Pradeepkumar,

Yukiyasu Tsutsumi & Yusuke Takamura

To cite this article: Li Tang, S. Rajesh, M. Santosh, Toshiaki Tsunogae, A.P. Pradeepkumar,
Yukiyasu Tsutsumi & Yusuke Takamura (2017): Metamorphic phase equilibria modelling
and zircon U–Pb geochronology of ultrahigh-temperature cordierite granulites from the
Madurai Block, India: implications for hot Gondwana crust, International Geology Review, DOI:
10.1080/00206814.2017.1313711

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2017.1313711

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INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW, 2017
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2017.1313711

ARTICLE

Metamorphic phase equilibria modelling and zircon U–Pb geochronology of

ultrahigh-temperature cordierite granulites from the Madurai Block, India:
implications for hot Gondwana crust
Li Tanga,b, S. Rajeshc, M. Santosha,d, Toshiaki Tsunogaeb,e, A.P. Pradeepkumarc, Yukiyasu Tsutsumif
and Yusuke Takamurab
a
School of Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences Beijing, Beijing, China; bGraduate School of Life and
Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan; cDepartment of Geology, University of Kerala, Kariyavattom Campus,
Trivandrum, India; dCentre for Tectonics, Exploration and Research, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia; eDepartment of Geology,
University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, South Africa; fDepartment of Geology and Paleontology, National Museum of Nature and
Science, Ibaraki, Japan

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The Madurai Block (MB) is the largest Precambrian crustal block in the Southern Granulite Terrane Received 12 December 2016
(SGT) of India and hosts rare cordierite- and orthopyroxene-bearing granulites. Investigations based Accepted 28 March 2017
on field study, petrology, metamorphic P–T estimation, and detrital zircon geochronology of these KEYWORDS
granulites are crucial for understanding the ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) metamorphism and crustal Cordierite granulite;
evolution in this block. Here we investigate the petrology and zircon U–Pb geochronology of two new pseudosection modelling;
localities of cordierite granulites at Kottayam (southern MB; SMB) and Munnar (central MB; CMB). detrital zircon
Petrographic observations and phase equilibria modelling results indicate that these rocks experi- geochronology; Madurai
enced UHT metamorphism with the peak temperature exceeding 950℃ and involving clockwise P–T Block; Gondwana
paths. The prograde mineral assemblages define the P–T conditions of 6.8–8.7 kbar and 750–875℃.
The peak conditions are estimated using pseudosection modelling and geothermometry, which yield
P–T estimates of 7.1–9.1 kbar and 955–985℃. The retrograde cooling and decompression are inferred
at 860–790℃ and <6.5 kbar, respectively. Partial melting played an important role during metamorph-
ism and contributed to the overgrowth around detrital zircons. The melt production process was
probably related to biotite dehydration melting, and was mainly triggered by heating, with or without
the effect of decompression. Detrital zircons in cordierite granulite samples from the two localities
show similar age distributions and have dominantly Neoproterozoic ages (1024–760 Ma). The zircon
cores show oscillatory zoning with a wide range of Th/U ratios (0.01–0.96), implying complex
protoliths from multiple Neoproterozoic provenances from both southern and central domains of
the MBs. Zircon rims and homogeneous bright zircons yield mean ages of 549 ± 5 Ma, 536 ± 6 Ma, and
544 ± 6 Ma, which are interpreted to represent zircon overgrowths during the post-peak cooling and
decompression process. The timing of peak UHT metamorphism is constrained as 549–599 Ma, which
coincides with the assembly of the Gondwana supercontinent.

Introduction attention for investigations related to crustal evolution

and ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) metamorphism
The tectonic subdivision of southern India was earlier
(Sajeev et al. 2004; Kooijman et al. 2011; Teale et al.
based on the grades of metamorphism, but has been
2011; Santosh et al. 2017). Recent studies have shown
refined in recent studies from precise geochronologi-
that the MB is a collage of at least three sub-blocks
cal data and P–T–t histories, leading to the identifica-
rather than a single crustal block based on their dis-
tion of a number of distinct crustal blocks and
tinct age provinces, including the Northern Madurai
intervening suture/shear zones (e.g. Santosh et al.
Block (NMB), the Central Madurai Block (CMB), and the
2009, 2015, 2016; Chetty and Santosh 2013; Collins
Southern Madurai Block (SMB) (Plavsa et al. 2012, 2014;
et al. 2014; Kröner et al. 2015). The Madurai Block
Li et al. 2016; Santosh et al. 2017).
(MB) occupies the largest area of the Southern
Previous studies reported several localities of UHT
Granulite Terrane (SGT) and represents a composite
granulites within the MB, such as Mg–Al-rich granulite
mid- to lower crustal domain, attracting considerable

CONTACT Li Tang ltang@cugb.edu.cn School of Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences Beijing, 29 Xueyuan Road, Beijing,
100083 China; Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8572, Japan
Supplemental data for this article can be accessed here.
© 2017 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 L. TANG ET AL.
and sapphirine granulite from the Palni Hills (Raith et al.
1997; Brandt et al. 2011), garnet–gedrite rock and asso-
ciated mafic granulite from Karur (Tsunogae et al.
2008a), Mg–Al granulites from Ganguvarpatti (Sajeev
et al. 2004), Mg-rich orthopyroxene granulite from
Kambam (Shazia et al. 2012), and sapphirine-bearing
Mg–Al granulite and sapphirine–quartz-bearing meta-
pelite from Rajapalaiyam (Braun et al. 2007; Tsunogae
and Santosh 2010). Metamorphic P–T evolution
recorded by these rocks display UHT conditions of
880–1050℃ and clockwise trajectories (Raith et al.
1997; Sajeev et al. 2004; Braun et al. 2007; Tsunogae
et al. 2008a; Brandt et al. 2011; Shazia et al. 2012). The
southern boundary of the MB is defined by the
Achankovil Suture Zone (ACSZ), which has been inter-
preted as the reworked southern margin of the MB,
which underwent metamorphism during the assembly
of Gondwana (Taylor et al. 2015a), although a recent
study identified extensive Neoproterozoic arc magma-
tism and crustal outbuilding in this region (Santosh
et al. 2017). Cordierite granulites of ACSZ record UHT
metamorphic conditions exceeding 900℃ based on
petrology and metamorphic P–T studies (Santosh
1987, 2009; Nandakumar and Harley 2000; Cenki et al.
2002; Ishii et al. 2006; Shimizu et al. 2009; Taylor et al.
2015a). However, detailed elucidation of the meta-
morphic P–T conditions based on phase equilibria mod-
elling in combination with detrital and metamorphic
zircon geochronology in cordierite granulites in the
MB is still lacking, which limit the understanding of
UHT metamorphism in the MB and its relationship
with the ACSZ during the assembly of Gondwana.
In this study, we investigate two new locations of
cordierite-bearing granulites from the SMB and CMB
through field studies, petrology, metamorphic P–T esti-
mation, and detrital zircon geochronology. Our results,
in combination with previous data, provide further
insights into the UHT metamorphism during the
Gondwana assembly.
Regional geology
The SGT in Peninsula India comprises a series of tec-
tonic units with distinct protolith origins and tecto-
nothermal histories (Collins et al. 2014). The Dharwar
Craton gives way to the SGT across the Palghat Cauvery
Suture Zone (PCSZ) (Plavsa et al. 2012; Chetty et al.
2016). The PCSZ has been an area of considerable
interest in recent years as this zone preserves the
imprints of multiple cycles of Precambrian plate tec-
tonic regimes (Chetty et al. 2016). In the northernmost
domain of the SGT, the Mesoarchaean Coorg Block is
separated from the Dharwar Craton by the Mercara
Shear Zone (Santosh et al. 2015, 2017), which merges
with the Moyar Shear Zone to the SE (Figure 1). The
latter, together with the southern Bhavani Shear Zone,
bounds the Nilgiri Block. The Neoarchaean Salem and
Madras Blocks occur to the north and northeast of the
PCSZ, respectively (Rao et al. 2006; Clark et al. 2009).
The MB occurs to the south of PCSZ (Figure 1). The
southern boundary of this block is defined by the
ACSZ, beyond which lies the Trivandrum Block, which
is an accretionary complex of metasediments (Collins
et al. 2007). The southern tip of the peninsular is com-
posed of the Palaeoproterozoic Nagercoil Block
(Santosh et al. 2009; Rajesh 2012; Kröner et al. 2015).
The MB comprises dominantly of charnockite massifs
intercalated with elongate narrow belts of metasedimen-
tary rocks including quartzites and cordierite granulites.
The charnockite massifs constitute the highlands of the
Western Ghats mountain chains in south India (Rajesh
2007). Garnet-cordierite-sillimanite gneisses in the MB
have been reported to occur as bands along the
Kodaikannal and Madurai regions (Prakash 1999).
Recent studies suggested that the MB includes
Archaean to Neoproterozoic charnockite–granite associa-
tion along with gneiss, granulite, and quartzite (Ghosh
et al. 2004; Plavsa et al. 2012; Brandt et al. 2014). All the
rocks show metamorphic overprinting at ca. 535 Ma
(Collins et al. 2014). Plavsa et al. (2012) reported U–Pb
age (3000–2500 Ma) for the granite–charnockite associa-
tion from the northern MB. However, they reported that
the charnockites from the southern part of the MB are of
Neoproterozoic age (1007 ± 23 Ma and 784 ± 18 Ma). A
distinct boundary has been demarcated between the
north and west domains of the MB based on isotope
data from charnockite and other rock associations
(Plavsa et al. 2012). In a recent work, Santosh et al.
(2017) identified that the SMB is largely composed of
Neoproterozoic arc magmatic rocks developed during a
prolonged subduction–accretion event prior to the final
collision and high-grade metamorphism during the lat-
est Neoproterozoic–Cambrian. UHT metamorphic assem-
blages have been reported from several localities in this
block, with peak metamorphic P–T conditions in the
range of 7–13 kbar and 900–1150℃ (Sajeev et al. 2004;
Tateishi et al. 2004; Braun et al. 2007; Kondou et al. 2009;
Tsunogae and Santosh 2010; Brandt et al. 2011).
The ACSZ, which marks the southern boundary of the
MB, is composed of various metamorphic and magmatic
suites including garnet-biotite gneiss, garnet-sillimanite-
cordierite gneiss, charnockite (orthopyroxene-bearing fel-
sic granulite), two-pyroxene mafic granulite, calc-silicate
rock, and quartzite (Taylor et al. 2015a). Pressure and
temperature estimates from various rock types of this
region show P–T conditions in the range of 5–9.5 kbar

Figure 1. Generalized geological and tectonic framework of the Southern Granulite Terrane of India showing the major crustal
blocks and intervening suture zones (after Collins et al. 2014; Santosh et al. 2015, 2017). The tectonic subdivision of the Madurai
Block is modified after Plavsa et al. (2012, 2014).
and 700–1040℃ (Santosh 1987, 2009; Nandakumar and
Harley 2000; Cenki et al. 2002; Ishii et al. 2006; Shimizu
et al. 2009; Taylor et al. 2015a). The metasedimentary
rocks in the ACSZ have Neoproterozoic maximum deposi-
tional ages based on detrital zircon and monazite studies
(Santosh et al. 2006, 2009; Collins et al. 2007), and the
metamorphic ages of 580–480 Ma are interpreted to
record the final assembly of the Gondwana superconti-
nent (Collins et al. 2007, 2014).
Sampling and petrography
Cordierite-bearing granulites were collected for this
study from Kottayam (SMB) and Munnar (CMB)
(Figures 1 and 2). The bluish-coloured coarse cordier-
ite-bearing rocks are composed of quartz, plagioclase,
INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 3
cordierite, garnet, K-feldspar, orthopyroxene, and bio-
tite as the major minerals (Supplementary table 1). In
hand specimen, the rock shows weak migmatization
with patches or laths of cordierite aggregates, and
foliation defined by biotite (Figure 3).
Kottayam: VDR-1
Location VDR-1 is an abandoned quarry near
Vadavathur (9°35ʹ52ʺN and 76°34ʹ05ʺE) in Kottayam
District, consisting predominantly of cordierite granu-
lite, charnockite, and quartzo-feldspathic gneiss. All the
lithologies show a gneissose structure with WNW–ESE-
trending foliations consistent with the regional foliation
trend of the ACSZ. The garnet-bearing cordierite gran-
ulite occurs along the lithological boundary between
4 L. TANG ET AL.
Figure 2. Detailed geological map of the study area showing
sample locations of the present study, a) Kottayam area (after
resource map of Geological Survey of India); b) Munnar area.
charnockite and quartzo-feldspathic gneiss. The layers
extend sub-parallel to the trend of the ACSZ.
Peak metamorphic assemblage
The peak metamorphic phase assemblage in this
rock is defined by the medium- to coarse-grained
and porphyroblastic garnet (1–3 mm), orthopyrox-
ene (0.8–2 mm), quartz (0.5–2 mm), plagioclase (1–
4 mm), and Al-rich opaque aggregate (magnetite +
ilmenite + spinel). The garnet porphyroblasts contain
rare mineral inclusion of quartz (Figure 4(a,b)).
Strongly pleochroic and porphyroblastic orthopyrox-
ene occurs commonly with garnet, plagioclase,
K-feldspar, and quartz, displaying a near-equigranu-
lar texture. Some orthopyroxene grains contain
minor inclusions of biotite (Figure 4(a)). The Al-bear-
ing Fe-Ti oxide exsolved aggregates range in size
between 1 and 5 mm, which are likely to be
magnetite-ilmenite-spinel. The exsolution texture
suggests that spinel formed by later exsolution
(Figure 4(d)).
Retrograde metamorphic assemblage
In the matrix, the medium- to fine-grained and xeno-
blastic minerals of cordierite, biotite, plagioclase, quartz,
orthopyroxene, magnetite, and ilmenite define the ret-
rograde assemblage. The peak garnet commonly has an
embayed shape and is surrounded by symplectite of
cordierite + quartz and coronas of cordierite (Figure 4(b,
d)). The texture of garnet embayed by cordierite implies
the following reaction:
Garnet þ Sillimanite þ Quartz ! Cordierite: (1)
The cordierite + quartz symplectites surrounding the
porphyroblastic garnet have close relationship with
fine-grained ilmenite and magnetite in the matrix
(Figure 4(b)), suggesting the following reaction:
Garnet þ O2 ! Cordierite þ Quartz
þ Fe2 O3 inMagnetite: (2)
Locally, coarse-grained Fe-Ti oxide aggregates are sur-
rounded by cordierite + quartz coronas (Figure 4(a,c)).
Medium- to fine-grained biotites (<1 mm) occur as a
retrograde phase in the matrix, and are oriented parallel
to foliation (Figure 4(a,b)). Xenoblastic orthopyroxene is
observed around the plagioclase crystal, implying the
retrograde phase of orthopyroxene (Figure 4(d)).
Kottayam: VDR-2
Location VDR-2 is a large abandoned quarry at 9°34ʹ35ʺN
and 76°34ʹ38ʺE. The rocks types are mainly garnet-bear-
ing cordierite granulite, charnockite, and garnetiferous
quartzo-feldspathic gneiss. The rocks also display NNW–
SSE foliations similar to the VDR-1 location. Garnet-bear-
ing cordierite granulite occurs along the boundary of
charnockite. Garnet is often surrounded by cordierite,
suggesting the formation of cordierite by the breakdown
of garnet due to decompression or dehydration.
Foliations of these rocks are relatively weak compared
to those in VDR-1. Characteristic mineral assemblages are
garnet, cordierite, orthopyroxene, feldspar and quartz.
Magnetite is the accessory mineral.
Peak metamorphic assemblage
The peak mineral assemblage of sample VDR-2 is defined
as medium- to coarse-grained garnet (1–2 mm), orthopyr-
oxene (1–3 mm), quartz (0.8–2 mm), plagioclase (1–3 mm),
magnetite (1–4 mm), and ilmenite (0.5–2 mm), with the
porphyroblastic grains showing a near-equigranular tex-
ture (Figure 5(a,–b)). The coarse-grained garnet and ortho-
pyroxene display a close relationship and they carry rare
mineral inclusions of quartz and biotite. The Al-bearing Fe-
Ti oxide exsolved aggregates are similar to those in sample
 INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 5

Figure 3. Field relationships of the studied cordierite granulites from Munnar and Kottayam areas of Madurai Block showing the
mineralogical assemblages a) pegmatitic veins intruding the cordierite granulite at location MN-SL-2; b) cordierite granulite at MN-
SL-2 with cordierite-quartz-biotite-garnet assemblages; c) coarse cordierite in the cordierite granulite at VDR-1; d) well-foliated
cordierite granulite at VDR-2.

Figure 4. Representative photomicrographs showing mineral assemblages and textures of cordierite granulite sample VDR-1 from
southern India. (a) Coarse-grained garnet porphyroblasts and magnetite-ilmenite-spinel exsolution. Orthopyroxene occurs as
porphyroblast and as corona around plagioclase, biotite occurs as xenoblastic mineral in the matrix (plane polarized light).
(b) Coarse-grained garnet, orthopyroxene, quartz, and plagioclase porphyroblasts. Garnet is embayed by cordierite and cordier-
ite-quartz symplectite (plane polarized light). (c) Cordierite and quartz corona around ilmenite (BSE image). (d) Magnetite-ilmenite-
spinel exsolution. Cordierite-quartz symplectite surrounds garnet porphyroblast (BSE image).
6 L. TANG ET AL.

Figure 5. Representative photomicrographs showing mineral assemblages and textures of cordierite granulite samples (VDR-2 and
MN-SL-2) from southern India. (a) Porphyroblastic garnet + orthopyroxene + quartz + plagioclase + magnetite. Biotite occurs as
fine-grained mineral in the matrix (VDR-2, plane polarized light). (b) Garnet relict is resorbed by cordierite corona. Cordierite and
orthopyroxene corona occurs around magnetite (VDR-2, cross polarized light). (c) Coarse-grained magnetite is rimmed by cordierite
and orthopyroxene corona. Magnetite-ilmenite-spinel exsolution (VDR-2, BSE image). (d) Porphyroblastic garnet carries numerous
mineral inclusions of sillimanite, quartz, magnetite, ilmenite, and plagioclase (MN-SL-2, plane polarized light). (e) Coarse-grained
mineral assemblage of orthopyroxene, quartz, plagioclase, and magnetite. Garnet occurs as fine-grained relict (MN-SL-2, plane
polarized light). (f) Porphyroblastic garnet carries mineral inclusions of biotite and quartz and is embayed by quartz, cordierite, and
plagioclase corona (MN-SL-2, BSE image).

VDR-1 with a grain size of 1–5 mm, and comprise magne-
tite-ilmenite-spinel (Figure 5(c)).
Retrograde metamorphic assemblage
The retrograde textures are characterized by cordierite +
orthopyroxene coronas, fine-grained and xenoblastic
matrix minerals of biotite + plagioclase + quartz + mag-
netite + ilmenite (Figure 5(a–c). Two types of reaction
texture are recognized: i) cordierite corona surrounding
the isolated and resorbed garnet (Figure 5(a,b)), and ii)
cordierite + orthopyroxene corona around magnetite
(Figure 5(b,c). The retrograde cordierite partly replaces
garnet and separates the porphyroblastic garnet and
orthopyroxene, suggesting reaction (1) above. The
cordierite + orthopyroxene coronas are commonly sur-
rounded by coarse-grained magnetite and are closely
associated with garnet and quartz (Figure 5(b,c)), sug-
gesting the following reaction:
Garnet þ Quartz ! Cordierite þ Orthopyroxene: (3)
Munnar: MN-SL-2
Location MN-SL-2 is at a road cutting along the road
towards Silent Valley Estate from Munnar, with co-ordi-
nates of 10°05ʹ04ʺN latitude and 77°05ʹ07ʺE longitude.
The cordierite granulites here are foliated and are asso-
ciated with alkali granites. A number of pegmatite veins
intruded into the cordierite granulites and these are

mostly parallel to the foliation. In certain locations around
MN-SL-2, patches of charnockites are found within the
granite gneiss and migmatite. Cordierite granulite at the
contact between granite and calc-granulite was found at
Devimalai. These occur along the intersection of the Attur
and Karur–Kambam–Painavu–Thrissur lineaments.
Prograde mineral assemblage
The prograde mineral inclusions of quartz, sillimanite,
magnetite, ilmenite, plagioclase, and biotite are well
preserved in coarse-grained garnet porphyroblasts
(Figure 5(d,f)). Quartz, biotite, and opaque mineral
inclusions display a rounded shape, implying resorption
of the prograde minerals to form the peak assemblage.
The fibrolitic sillimanites are fine-grained, and occur as
inclusions in specific domains of garnet.
Peak metamorphic assemblage
The peak metamorphic phase assemblage of this sample
comprises garnet, orthopyroxene, quartz, plagioclase,
opaque aggregate (magnetite + ilmenite + spinel), and
K-feldspar (Figure 5(d–f)). Garnet occurs as coarse-grained
porphyroblasts (2–8 mm, Figure 5(d)) and fine-grained
sparse isolated relicts (<1 mm, Figure 5(e)). The equigra-
nular orthopyroxene, quartz, K-feldspar, and plagioclase
are medium-grained (0.8–1.5 mm), and are stable with
garnet in the peak metamorphic stage (Figure 5(e)). The
Al-bearing Fe-Ti oxides also show exsolved aggregates of
magnetite-ilmenite-spinel (Figure 5(f)).
Retrograde metamorphic assemblage
The retrograde mineral assemblages are defined by
cordierite + quartz + plagioclase + biotite + orthopyr-
oxene + magnetite + ilmenite. The garnet relict is
resorbed and is mantled by cordierite, suggesting the
retrograde reaction (1). Mineral inclusions are absent in
the garnet relict because of consumption (Figure 5(e)).
In some domains, garnets are embayed by quartz +
plagioclase aggregates (Figure 5(d,f)). Cordierite also
occurs as xenoblastic mineral in the matrix (0.5–2 mm).
Analytical methods
Electron microprobe analysis (EMPA) for mineral chem-
istry was carried out using an electron microprobe
analyser (JEOL JXA8530 F) at the Chemical Analysis
Division of the Research Facility Center for Science
and Technology, University of Tsukuba, Japan. The ana-
lyses were performed under conditions of 15 kV accel-
erating voltage and 10 nA sample current, and the data
were regressed using an oxide-ZAF correction program
supplied by JEOL. The detection limits are 0.01%.
INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 7
Chemical compositions of the representative minerals
are given in Supplementary table 2.
Whole-rock major elements were analysed at the
Activation Laboratories of Ontario, Canada. Fresh rock
chips were initially reduced to avoid surface alteration
or weathering. Contents of major elemental oxides
were measured by ‘lithium metaborate/tetraborate
fusion ICP whole rock (Code 4B)’, and the fused samples
were diluted and analysed by Perkin Elmer Sciex ELAN
6000, 6100, or 9000 ICP/MS. The detection limits of
major elements are 0.01%. The detailed analytical con-
ditions and detection limits are summarized in http://
www.actlabs.com/.
Three cordierite granulite samples were crushed and
milled, followed by gravimetric and magnetic separa-
tion and hand picking of zircon grains under a binocu-
lar microscope at the Yu’neng Geological and Mineral
Separation Survey Center, China. Representative zircon
grains, zircon standard FC1 (206Pb/238U = 0.1859; Paces
and Miller 1993), and NIST SRM 610 standard glass were
mounted on a transparent epoxy resin disk and then
polished to expose the crystals. Backscattered electron
and cathodoluminescence (CL) images, and U–Th–Pb
isotopic analyses were performed at the National
Museum of Nature and Science, Japan. Zircon U–Pb
analyses were conducted using an Agilent 7700x induc-
tively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-MS)
equipped with an ESI NWR213 laser ablation system.
Detailed analytical procedures and work conditions are
similar to those described in Tsutsumi et al. (2012). A
Nd-YAG laser (213 nm wavelength and 5 ns pulse),
25 μm spot size, and 4–5 J/cm2 laser power were used
in this study. All measurements were carried out using
time-resolved analysis. U and Th concentrations were
calibrated using 29Si as an internal calibrant. The zircon
OT4 (191 Ma, Horie et al. 2013) and NIST SRM 610
standard glass were used as the reference material.
Common Pb corrections for the concordia diagrams
and each age were made using 208Pb based on the
model for common Pb compositions proposed by
Stacey and Kramers (1975). Age data and plots were
processed using the Isoplot/Ex software (Ludwig 2003).
Mineral chemistry
Garnet
Garnet porphyroblasts in the cordierite-bearing granu-
lites are mainly almandine-pyrope solid solutions with
minor spessartine (XSps < 0.05) and grossular (XGrs <
0.04) (Supplementary table 2, Figure 6). In the sample
VDR-1, garnet is almandine rich and shows near-homo-
geneous composition (Alm57-59Pyr34-37Grs3–4Sps3-4). The
garnet rim shows slightly higher almandine
8 L. TANG ET AL.
Figure 6. Compositional profiles of the porphyroblastic garnets
in cordierite granulites from southern India.
(XAlm = 0.58–0.59) and lower pyrope (XPyr = 0.34–0.35)
than the core, suggesting weak Fe–Mg exchange
between the garnet rim and the matrix minerals. In
the sample VDR-2, garnet consists predominantly of
almandine (XAlm = 0.56–0.59) and pyrope (XPyr = 0.34–
0.37), with a slight increase of Fe contents towards the
rim (XAlm = 0.58–0.59) associated with a concomitant
slight increase of Mg contents (XPyr = 0.34–0.35). Garnet
core and rim in sample MN-SL-2 are homogeneous
(Figure 6), and the unzoned garnet shows a composi-
tion of Alm55-56Pyr37-39Grs3Sps3-4.
Orthopyroxene
Orthopyroxene compositions in samples VDR-1 and VDR-
2 are correlated with the textural setting (Figure 7(a)). The
cores of porphyroblastic orthopyroxenes show higher Al
contents (6.48–7.50 wt.%), whereas the rims of orthopyr-
oxene porphyroblasts and the orthopyroxene corona
have relatively lower Al contents (5.28–6.13 wt.%), sug-
gesting different orthopyroxene generations. However,
these two types of orthopyroxenes have consistent FeO
(23.40–24.54 wt.%) and XMg (0.58–0.60) values. Only one
generation of orthopyroxene is observed in sample MN-
SL-2, and the porphyroblastic orthopyroxene shows high
Al content (6.77–7.66 wt.%), and constant FeO, MgO, and
XMg values of 23.49–23.97 wt.%, 19.50–19.97 wt.%, and
0.59–0.60, respectively.
Cordierite
Cordierites occur as retrograde corona and matrix
phase. Cordierites in all samples are magnesium rich,
with XMg in sample VDR-1 ranging from 0.79 to 0.82, in
sample VDR-2 varying from 0.79 to 0.81, and in sample
MN-SL-2 ranging from 0.73 to 0.74 (Supplementary
table 2). Cordierites in the corona and matrix display
uniform composition.
Feldspar
Two generations of plagioclase occur in our samples,
one as peak coarse-grained phase and the other as
retrograde corona or fine-grained matrix phase. The
plagioclase grains are albite-rich (Ab61-66) with moder-
ate anorthite (An31-34) and minor orthoclase (Or1-7) con-
tents (Supplementary table 2). In sample VDR-1, the
coarse-grained plagioclase cores show slightly higher
anorthite contents (An33-34) than those in the retro-
grade phase (An31-33). Plagioclases in VDR-2 display
constant compositions of albite (Ab63) and anorthite
(An33-34). In sample MN-SL-2, plagioclase coronas
around garnet (Figure 5(f)) have slightly higher
anorthite contents (An32-33) than those in the cores of
coarse-grained plagioclase (An31-32).
K-feldspars in sample VDR-1 show constant composi-
tions of Or90-91 and Ab9. K-feldspars from MN-SL-2 con-
tain relatively lower orthoclase contents (Or82-86) and
higher albite contents (Ab14-16).
Sillimanite
Sillimanite occurs only as inclusions in garnet in sample
MN-SL-2. The sillimanite inclusions show near-constant
Al2O3 from 62.05 to 62.24 wt.% (=1.97 to 1.99 p.f.u.).

Figure 7. Compositional diagrams of orthopyroxene (a) and biotite (b) in cordierite granulites. PG, prograde stage; PK, peak stage;
RG, retrograde stage.
Biotite
Two generations of biotite are recognized, one as pro-
grade mineral inclusion and the other as retrograde
matrix phase (Figure 7(b)). Biotite inclusions in ortho-
pyroxene of sample VDR-1 have Al2O3 contents of
14.39–14.42 wt.% (=1.26–1.27 p.f.u.) and XMg values of
0.66, whereas those in the matrix contain slightly higher
Al2O3 contents (14.62–14.90 wt.%, 1.29–1.32 p.f.u.) and
lower XMg values (0.63–0.65). In sample VDR-2, biotite
inclusions in garnet display relatively higher Al contents
(16.41–16.51 wt.%, 1.42 p.f.u.) and XMg contents (0.75),
compared with those in the biotite matrix of 1.33–1.35
p.f.u. and 0.67–0.68, respectively. In sample MN-SL-2,
biotite inclusions in garnet have relatively higher Al
contents (15.56–17.69 wt.%, 1.35–1.53 p.f.u.) and XMg
contents (0.69–0.77) than those in the matrix with con-
stant Al2O3 of 15.00–15.14 wt.% (=1.31–1.32 p.f.u.) and
XMg values (0.69).
Oxide minerals
Ilmenite exhibits moderate TiO2 (46.87–50.20 wt.%) and
FeO (47.10–50.51 wt.%). Magnetite has constant FeO con-
tents of 89.66–93.54 wt.% and variable Al2O3 contents of
0.28–2.02 wt.% (Supplementary table 2). Spinel from the
magnetite-ilmenite-spinel solid solution displays Al2O3
content of 58.14–58.78 wt.%, XMg value of 0.37–0.39, and
a minor composition of ZnO (0.28–2.02 wt.%).
Pseudosection modelling
A model system of NCKFMASHTO (Na2O–CaO–K2O–
FeO–MgO–Al2O3–SiO2–H2O–TiO2–Fe2O3) was chosen
for the P–T pseudosection calculations of the cordier-
ite-bearing granulites. The effective bulk-rock composi-
tions for pseudosection calculation, normalized into
mole proportions in the model system, were calculated
based on the bulk-rock geochemical results
(Supplementary table 3). MnO, P2O5, Cr2O3, and V2O5
INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 9
were neglected because of their low concentrations.
Fe2O3 was taken into account for the calculations
because the rocks contain 3.34–4.77 wt.% Fe2O3 and
magnetite is present, and these values have been used
for the calculation of O values in the pseudosection.
The FeO contents were determined by titration. The
occurrence of limited water-bearing mineral biotite sug-
gests the moderate amount of unsaturated water con-
tent during metamorphism; thus water contents were
fixed from loss on ignition (LOI) values.
The P–T pseudosection calculations were performed
using THERMOCALC 3.33 (Powell and Holland 1988,
updated October 2009) and the internally consistent ther-
modynamic data set of tcds55 s (Holland and Powell
1998). The phases considered in the modelling and the
corresponding activity–composition (a–x) models include
garnet, biotite, and melt (White et al. 2007), orthopyrox-
ene, spinel, and magnetite (White et al. 2002), plagioclase
and K-feldspar (Holland and Powell 2003), ilmenite (White
et al. 2000), cordierite (Holland and Powell 1998), and
sapphirine (Taylor-Jones and Powell 2010). The alumino-
silicates and quartz were considered as pure endmember
phases. The P–T pseudosections were constructed in the
ranges of 2–10 kbar and 700–1050℃ for all samples. The
pseudosections are interpreted by taking into account the
observations made in previous sections on the petrogra-
phy and mineral chemistry.
VDR-1
The P–T pseudosection of sample VDR-1 is shown in
Figure 8(a). In this P–T diagram, quartz, plagioclase, mag-
netite, and ilmenite are always present. The melt phase
appears at the high-temperature field (>850℃) by the
consumption of biotite, sillimanite, and quartz.
Orthopyroxene is stable in the low-pressure field and
sapphirine is stable in the high P–T field (Figure 8(a)).
The peak mineral assemblage of garnet + orthopyroxene
10 L. TANG ET AL.

Figure 8. P–T pseudosection for cordierite granulite samples calculated in the system NCKFMASHTO, (a) VDR-1, (b) VDR-2, (c) MN-
SL-2. The yellow line is the solidus. Mineral abbreviations: Grt, garnet; Crd, cordierite; Opx, orthopyroxene; Pl, plagioclase; Qtz,
quartz; Kfs, K-feldspar; Bt, biotite; Ilm, ilmenite; Mt, magnetite; Sill, sillimanite; Ky, kyanite; Sa, sapphirine; Liq, liquid. PG, prograde
stage; PK, peak stage; RG, retrograde stage.

+ quartz + plagioclase + magnetite + ilmenite +
K-feldspar occupies a field in the range 7.3–8.2 kbar
and 955–1030℃. The field is confined by the cordierite-
in line for the down-temperature, garnet-out line for the
down-pressure, and sapphirine-in line for the up-pres-
sure. The retrograde mineral assemblage of cordierite +
orthopyroxene + biotite + quartz + plagioclase + mag-
netite + ilmenite + K-feldspar defines the P–T condition
of <5.8 kbar and <840℃. The retrograde field is well
constrained by the garnet-in line at the upper pressure
and the biotite-out line at the upper temperature. The
above results and the occurrence of cordierite, orthopyr-
oxene, and quartz coronas suggest a clockwise P–T path.
VDR-2
The P–T pseudosection of sample VDR-2 is shown in
Figure 8(b). Quartz, plagioclase, magnetite, and ilmenite
are also present in all fields. Cordierite and orthopyroxene
are stable in the lower-pressure parts, whereas garnet is
stable in the higher-pressure fields. Melt phase is absent in
the low P–T fields (Figure 8(b)). The P–T conditions of the
peak metamorphic stage are constrained at 7.6–9.3 kbar
and >960℃, using the peak mineral assemblage of garnet
+ orthopyroxene + quartz + plagioclase + magnetite +
ilmenite. The peak field is restricted by the cordierite-in
line for the down-temperature, the garnet-out line for the
down-pressure, and the sillimanite-in and orthopyroxene-
out lines for the up-pressure. The retrograde minerals are
characterized by the orthopyroxene and cordierite coro-
nas, and biotite in the matrix. The retrograde P–T condi-
tions are set as <6.5 kbar and 790–860℃, as the field is
defined by the orthopyroxene-out line at the down-tem-
perature, the biotite-out line at the up-temperature, and
the garnet-in line at the up-pressure. The result displays a
clockwise P–T path, involving the appearance of cordierite
and biotite.

MN-SL-2
The P–T pseudosection of sample MN-SL-2 is shown in
Figure 8(c). In the diagram, quartz, plagioclase, and
ilmenite are always present. K-feldspar is absent only
at the high-temperature low-pressure field. The melt
phase occurs at the higher-temperature parts
(>870℃). The prograde mineral inclusions sillimanite +
biotite + quartz + plagioclase + ilmenite + magnetite
are well preserved in porphyroblastic garnet. The pro-
grade field is well constrained by the magnetite-out,
biotite-out, orthopyroxene-in, and cordierite-in lines
with P–T conditions of 6.8–8.7 kbar and 750–875℃.
Coarse-grained and porphyroblastic minerals of garnet,
orthopyroxene, quartz, plagioclase, magnetite, and
ilmenite provide evidence for the peak P–T conditions
of 7.1–8.4 kbar and >960℃. The peak field is confined
by the cordierite-in line for the down-temperature, the
garnet-out line for the down-pressure, and the ortho-
pyroxene-out line for the up-pressure. The following
retrograde stage is not constrained due to the very
rare reaction texture, whereas the cooling and decom-
pression path is inferred by the occurrence of cordierite
and the absence of garnet. The above-mentioned
results define a clockwise P–T path with isobaric heat-
ing from the prograde stage to the peak stage, and
involve the subsequent cooling and decompression
process (Figure 8(c)).
Geothermobarometry
Based on petrographic and mineral chemical studies,
the porphyroblastic garnet, orthopyroxene, plagioclase,
and quartz are considered to be in equilibrium at the
peak stage (Figures 4 and 5). The garnet-orthopyroxene
geothermometer (Harley and Green 1982; Lee and
Ganguly 1988) and the garnet-orthopyroxene-plagio-
clase-quartz geobarometer (Perkins and Chipera 1985;
Moecher et al. 1988) are therefore used to estimate the
peak metamorphic P–T condition. The calculations were
based on the core compositions and the results are
listed in Supplementary table 4.
The garnet-orthopyroxene geothermometer of Lee and
Ganguly (1988) is based on the experimental calibration of
Fe–Mg exchange between garnet and orthopyroxene at
20–45 kbar and 975–1400℃ in the FeO-MgO-Al2O3-SiO2
(FMAS) system. The peak metamorphic temperatures were
calculated at 8 kbar and the results were estimated at
854–892℃, 847–873℃, and 902–984℃ for samples VDR-
1, VDR-2, and MN-SL-2, respectively (Supplementary table
4). The garnet-orthopyroxene geothermometer suggested
by Harley and Green (1982) is based on experimental
results of the mineral pair at 5–20 kbar and 800–1200℃.
Application of the method of Harley and Green (1982)
yields temperature estimates at 968–981℃ (VDR-1),
INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 11
976–985℃ (VDR-2), and 957–985℃ (MN-SL-2) at 8 kbar.
The geothermometer of Aranovich and Berman (1997),
based on the solubility of Al2O3 in ferrosilite in equilibrium
with almandine garnet over the P–T range 12–20 kbar and
850–1100℃, gives temperature estimates at 903–922℃
(VDR-1), 904–926℃ (VDR-2), and 906–954℃ (MN-SL-2).
The pressures were calculated at 950℃, a reference
temperature inferred from the peak temperature esti-
mated by phase equilibria modelling and a geotherm-
ometer as described above. The garnet-orthopyroxene-
plagioclase-quartz geobarometer (Mg endmember reac-
tion), based on the experimental calibration of Perkins and
Chipera (1985), gives pressures of 8.6–9.1 kbar (VDR-1),
8.7–9.0 kbar (VDR-2), and 8.9–9.3 kbar (MN-SL-2).
Moecher et al. (1988) applied new thermodynamic and
experimental data on this geobarometer, which shows
near-consistent pressure estimates of 8.3–8.7 kbar, 8.3–
8.6 kbar, and 8.5–9.0 kbar for samples VDR-1, VDR-2, and
MN-SL-2, respectively (Supplementary table 4).
Zircon U–Pb geochronology
VDR-1
A total of 80 spots were analysed from 68 zircon grains
in sample VDR-1. The dated zircon grains have rounded
to subhedral morphologies with aspect ratios of 2:1 to
1:1 (Figure 9(a)). In transmitted light, the grains are
translucent, colourless, or light brownish in colour. The
CL images of most grains are dark, showing core–man-
tle–rim or core–rim textures. Most grains contain dis-
tinct irregular cores with black to white heterogeneous
domains and weak oscillatory zoning. Thin homoge-
neous mantles are well preserved around the relict
cores and display recrystallization features, enclosed
by highly luminescent rims with isometric morphology,
which may reflect granulite-facies metamorphic over-
print (Vavra et al. 1999). Minor grains show homoge-
neous bright CL images without zoning patterns
(Figure 9(a)).
The dating results are shown in Figure 10(a,b) and the
data are given in Supplementary table 5. he Based on the
internal structure and the U–Th–Pb isotopic results, four
types of zircon have been recognized: (1) type I, relict
zircon cores with 206Pb/238U ages varying from
954 ± 12 Ma to 635 ± 8 Ma, and where the older ages
(954–780 Ma) are concordant and distributed near the
concordia, whereas the younger ages (750–635 Ma) are
distributed along the Pb loss line or fall away from the
concordia, implying that the latter might correspond to
Pb loss or isotopic mixing; (2) type II, zircon mantles and
some rims with 206Pb/238U ages ranging from 627 ± 15 Ma
to 587 ± 9 Ma; (3) type III, highly luminescent rims and
homogeneous bright zircons with 206Pb/238U ages
12 L. TANG ET AL.
Figure 9. Cathodoluminescence (CL) images of representative zircons in cordierite granulite samples VDR-1 (a), VDR-2 (b), and MN-
SL-2 (c), showing analytical positions, spot numbers, and 206Pb/238U ages. Scale bars are in 100 μm.
ranging from 576 ± 7 Ma to 527 ± 6 Ma; and (4) type IV,
one spot at the zircon rim showing the youngest age of
483 ± 5 Ma. The type I detrital zircons scatter along the
concordia and can be divided into two age populations of
881–954 Ma and 780–841 Ma, suggesting various detrital
provenances. The type II zircons contain 12 spots and
yield a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of 599 ± 6 Ma
(MSWD = 1.4); the results display Th, U, and Th/U ratios
of 261–576 ppm, 11–60 ppm, and 0.02–0.16, respectively,
implying typical metamorphic origin. The type III zircon
rims have Th, U, and Th/U values in the range of
223–677 ppm, 4–61 ppm, and 0.01–0.26, respectively.
The 32 analyses on the rim domains are concordant and
show a mean age of 549 ± 5 Ma (MSWD = 4.4). The spot on
the type IV zircon rim has low Th/U = 0.09, suggesting the
youngest thermal overgrowth.
VDR-2
A total of 77 spots from 68 zircon grains were dated for
sample VDR-2. The zircon grains are rounded to subhe-
dral, translucent and colourless or light brownish in
colour, showing grain size of 40–150 μm and length
to width ratios of 2:1 to 1:1. In the CL images, the
zircons show similar core–mantle–rim or core–rim tex-
tures with sample VDR-1, although the zircons are
much brighter because of their lower U contents
(Figure 9(b), Supplementary table 5). Most zircons are
characterized by oscillatory zoned or fractured hetero-
geneous cores, bright luminescent rims, and with or
without homogeneous mantles that separate the
cores and rims. The majority of the mantles and rims
display isometric and stubby zoning (Figure 9(a)), which
is common in granulite-facies rocks where the stability
of planar faces is low (Vavra et al. 1999). Minor grains
show a homogeneous bright colour without zoning
patterns in CL images (Figure 9(b)).
The dating results are shown in Figure 10(c,d) and
are listed in Supplementary table 5. The zircons from
this sample can also be divided into four types based
on their internal structure and ages. (1) Type I, relict
zircon cores display 206Pb/238U age range of
1024–649 Ma and have Th/U ratios varying from 0.01
to 0.96. The 1024–958 Ma ages are concordant, whereas
the 892–649 Ma ages are distributed along the Pb loss
line, implying the former as detrital origin and the latter
as the result of Pb loss. (2) Type II, 10 analyses on
mantles and some rims display 206Pb/238U ages ranging
from 630 ± 9 Ma to 582 ± 13 Ma with a mean age of
613 ± 11 Ma (MSWD = 2.4), with Th, U, and Th/U ratios
of 94–459 ppm, 5–33 ppm, and 0.01–0.17, respectively.

Figure 10. Tera-Wasserburg concordia diagrams and relative probability diagrams of cordierite granulite samples. (a–b) Sample
VDR-1; (c–d) VDR-2; (e–f) MN-SL-2.
(3) Type III, 28 analyses on rims and homogeneous
domains with 206Pb/238U ages varying from
559 ± 9 Ma to 509 ± 7 Ma, and yielding a mean age
of 536 ± 6 Ma (MSWD = 2.8). They show a large range of
Th/U ratios from 0.01 to 0.38 (mean = 0.15; 26 analyses
have Th/U < 0.27). (4) Type IV, four analyses on highly
luminescent rims comprising the youngest age cluster
on the concordia line, with 206Pb/238U ages varying
from 495 ± 6 Ma to 467 ± 8 Ma and yielding mean
age at 488 ± 13 Ma (MSWD = 2.0; Th/U = 0.03–0.13).
MN-SL-2
A total of 84 spots were analysed on 76 zircon grains
from sample MN-SL-2. The zircon grains showed
INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 13
rounded to subhedral morphologies, and were translu-
cent and colourless or light brownish in colour. The
grain size shows a range of 50–150 μm and the aspect
ratios vary from 2:1 to 1:1. In CL images, the zircons also
show similar core–mantle–rim or core–rim textures with
rounded rims, implying overgrowth during granulite-
facies metamorphism (Vavra et al. 1999). The relict
cores are usually small and irregular with distinct oscil-
latory zoning and fractured domains, which are con-
sumed and enclosed by thin zones of mantle or bright
rims. The homogeneous mantles show a distinct dark
colour and separate the cores and rims, suggesting
recrystallization features. Some grains are homogenous
and bright without zoning patterns (Figure 9(c)).
14 L. TANG ET AL.

The age data are plotted in Figure 10(e) and the

analytical results are listed in Supplementary table 5.
The zircons from this sample can be also divided into
three types based on their internal textures and ages.
(1) Type I, 13 analyses on small zircon cores show
206
Pb/238U ages ranging from 977 ± 12 Ma to
694 ± 7 Ma. The results scatter along the concordia
line and can be divided into two age populations:
915–977 Ma (Th/U = 0.29–0.88) and 760–843 Ma (Th/
U = 0.06–0.44), except for three discordant data (694–
741 Ma). (2) Type II, 37 analyses on dark mantles give
206
Pb/238U ages ranging from 621 ± 7 Ma to
575 ± 13 Ma and a mean age of 601 ± 4 Ma
(MSWD = 3.0). Their relatively low Th/U ratios (0.01–
0.11) imply recrystallization origin. (3) Type III, 32 ana-
lyses on rims and homogeneous bright zircons showing
concordant ages between 568 ± 11 Ma and
513 ± 10 Ma, and yielding a mean age of 544 ± 6 Ma
(MSWD = 3.5). The type III zircons show Th, U, and Th/U
contents of 89–908 ppm, 3–42 ppm, and 0.01–0.07,
respectively, suggesting metamorphic overprint
(Figure 11).
In summary, the detrital zircon cores display two
groups of ages in the range of 881–1024 Ma and
760–843 Ma. The zircon mantles and rims give three age
groups of 599–613 Ma, 536–549 Ma, and 483–488 Ma,
representing multiple stages of metamorphism.

Figure 11. Th/U versus 206Pb/238U age of zircons from cordierite

Discussion
Metamorphic evolution: UHT metamorphism and
clockwise P–T path
The combination of petrographic textures, mineral
compositions, and quantitative P–T pseudosection
modelling has allowed us to constrain the P–T evolution
of the cordierite granulite samples from two new loca-
tions in the MB. The results define clockwise P–T paths,
which involve isobaric heating from prograde to peak,
and decompression and cooling during the retrograde
stage. The peak metamorphic temperature constrained
by pseudosection modelling and geothermobarometers
of garnet-orthopyroxene reaches 950℃, suggesting
UHT metamorphism.
The prograde stage is represented by mineral inclu-
sions of sillimanite + biotite + quartz + plagioclase +
ilmenite + magnetite preserved in porphyroblastic gar-
net of sample MN-SL-2. The mineral inclusions are rarely
preserved in samples VDR-1 and VDR-2 due to extreme
annealing during the subsequent peak metamorphic
stages. The proposed mineral assemblage defines the
prograde P–T condition of 6.8–8.7 kbar and 750–875℃
(Figure 8(c)). The peak metamorphic P–T conditions are
constrained by the medium- to coarse-grained mineral
granulite samples analysed in this study. The Th/U discrimina-
tion between magmatic zircon and metamorphic zircon is 0.1
(Vavra et al. 1999).
assemblage of garnet + orthopyroxene + quartz + pla-
gioclase + ilmenite + magnetite ± K-feldspar. The tem-
perature estimates for the peak metamorphic stage are
defined by pseudosection modelling and geotherm-
ometers (Harley and Green 1982; Aranovich and
Berman 1997), and the results show consistent tem-
peratures of 955–980℃, 960–985℃, and 960–985℃
for samples VDR-1, VDR-2, and MN-SL-2, respectively
(Supplementary table 4). Notably, the temperatures
estimated by Al in the orthopyroxene thermometer
(Harley and Green 1982; Aranovich and Berman 1997)
are 50–100℃ higher than the Fe–Mg exchange thermo-
meter (Lee and Ganguly 1988), probably due to the
different diffusion rates of Al, Fe, and Mg during retro-
grade metamorphism as the diffusion of Al is slower
than that of Fe and Mg. Correspondingly, these three
samples display peak pressures at 7.3–9.1 kbar, 7.6–
9.3 kbar, and 7.1–9.3 kbar, respectively, based on pseu-
dosection modelling and geobarometers (Perkins and
Chipera 1985; Moecher et al. 1988). The retrograde

reaction textures are only preserved in samples VDR-1
and VDR-2, and the mineral assemblages of biotite +
cordierite + orthopyroxene + quartz + plagioclase +
ilmenite + magnetite ± K-feldspar imply that retrograde
decompression and cooling occur at <5.8 kbar, <840℃
and <6.5 kbar, 790–860℃, respectively.
UHT rocks are exposed in several localities in the MB
and have been the focus of several studies (Raith et al.
1997; Sajeev et al. 2004; Braun et al. 2007; Tsunogae
et al. 2008a; Brandt et al. 2011; Shazia et al. 2012). Raith
et al. (1997) reported clockwise P–T evolution for sap-
phirine granulites from the Palni Hills, involving peak
UHT metamorphism (1000℃, 13 kbar), followed by an
initial stage of near-isothermal decompression and a
further stage of near-isobaric cooling. Brandt et al.
(2011) proposed that the Mg–Al-rich granulites from
the Palni Hills have experienced the heating process
to UHT conditions (ca. 1000℃, 13 kbar) at the deep
crustal level and post-decompressional cooling to sub-
solidus conditions of <800℃, yielding a clockwise P–T
path. Tsunogae et al. (2008a) reported peak UHT meta-
morphism at 880–1040℃ and 9.8–12.5 kbar as indi-
cated by thermobarometric computations in the
garnet gedrite rock and the associated mafic granulite
from Karur in the northernmost part of the MB. The
subsequent retrograde metamorphism at 720–760℃
and 4.2–5.1 kbar implies a clockwise exhumation trajec-
tory (Tsunogae and Santosh 2010). Tsunogae and
Santosh (2010) suggested that the sapphirine-bearing
Mg–Al granulites from Rajapalaiyam underwent
T > 1000℃ peak metamorphism. Sajeev et al. (2004)
estimated near-peak metamorphic conditions of
950–1050℃ and 11 kbar for Mg–Al granulites from
Ganguvarpatti. The proposed multistage evolution pro-
cess of the Mg–Al granulites implies an initial decom-
pression deduced from multi-phase symplectites,
followed by cooling during biotite formation. Shazia
et al. (2012) suggested that the Mg-rich orthopyroxene
granulites of Kambam have experienced high-grade
metamorphism with temperatures of 1025℃ and pres-
sures around 8 kbar, followed by an isobaric cooling,
inferred by the sapphirine–cordierite pods. Our study
on cordierite granulites from two different locations in
CMB and SMB confirms that the MB experienced the
same UHT metamorphism, and the clockwise P–T evo-
lution is interpreted as resulting from extreme thermal
metamorphism related to continent–continent collision
during the assembly of Gondwana.
Partial melting and the role of melt phase
Melt phase, the result of partial melting, usually plays
an important role during UHT metamorphism, with
temperatures exceeding 900℃ (Moraes et al. 2002;
INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 15
Tsunogae and Van Reenen 2014; Karmakar and
Schenk 2015; Pownall 2015). The general lines of evi-
dence of the melt phase in the rocks of the present
study include: (I) weakly migmatized nature (Figure 11);
(II) the melt phase present in the higher-temperature
field and absent in the lower-temperature field with
steep solidus in the pseudosections, and the peak
metamorphic phases are stable above the solidus
(Figure 8)
There is a general consensus on the major factors that
led to the partial melting of meta-pelitic rocks in the
deep continental crust: (I) dehydration melting involving
the breakdown of prograde hydrous minerals biotite
and/or muscovite (Vielzeuf and Holloway 1988; White
et al. 2004; Guilmette et al. 2011; Zhang et al. 2015a;
Tian et al. 2016); (II) the effects of temperature during
prograde heating (Douce and Harris 1998; White and
Powell 2002; Johnson et al. 2008; Kelsey and Hand
2015); and (III) decompression melting (Auzanneau
et al. 2006; Groppo et al. 2012; Xu et al. 2013; Zhang
et al. 2015b). The cordierite-bearing granulites investi-
gated in this study carry rounded and corroded inclu-
sions of biotite and quartz (Figures 4 and 5), implying
that they are reactants during the biotite dehydration
reaction. The sample MN-SL-2 preserves integrated P–T
evolution from the prograde to peak stages involving
near-isobaric heating from 750–875℃ to 960–985℃,
suggesting that the partial melting was triggered by
the prograde heating process. Thus, the melt production
of cordierite granulite in this study was probably related
to biotite dehydration melting, and was mainly triggered
by heating, with or without the effect of decompression.
The melt-producing and melt-consumption processes of
cordierite granulites in the Kerala Khondalite Belt have
also been proposed in previous studies (Cenki et al. 2002;
Sreejith and Kumar 2012).
Detrital zircon geochronology and provenance
Cores of detrital zircons in three cordierite granulite
samples from the CMB and SMB show similar age dis-
tributions and have dominantly Neoproterozoic ages
(Figure 10(e)). The analysed zircon cores show various
features of oscillatory zoning, fractured domains with
different appearances in CL images, together with wide
ranges of Th/U ratios (0.01–0.96, Figure 10(d)), implying
complex protoliths from both magmatic and meta-
morphic provenances (Hoskin and Black 2000).
Figure 12 compiles available zircon geochronological
data from the CMB and SMB, ACSZ, and the
Trivandrum Block (207Pb/206Pb ages were used for
ages older than 1.0 Ga and 238U/206Pb ages were used
for ages younger than 1.0 Ga). The results suggest that
16 L. TANG ET AL.
Figure 12. Summary of geochronological data for this study
(A), Northern Madurai Block (B), Southern Madurai Block (C),
Trivandrum Block (D), and Achankovil Suture Zone (E).
the Neoproterozoic detritus were mainly derived from
granitoid rocks from both SMB and CMB (Figure 12).
Early to middle Neoproterozoic magmatic and meta-
morphic events were widely reported from the NBM,
which are correlated to the Cryogenian subduction–
collision process prior to the closure of the
Mozambique Ocean (Kooijman et al. 2011; Sato et al.
2011; Teale et al. 2011). In the Kadavur region, mag-
matic zircons from the gabbro–anorthosite complex
and felsic gneiss yield crystallization age of
829 ± 14 Ma and 766 ± 8 Ma, respectively, and the
zircon rims present in quartzite give a metamorphic age
of 843 ± 23 Ma (Teale et al. 2011). Kooijman et al. (2011)
reported concordant metamorphic ages of 955 ± 16 Ma
and 810 ± 7 Ma for zircon rims from the Kadavur
anorthosite complex. Sato et al. (2011) proposed the
mean age of 760 ± 16 Ma, marking the timing of active
mid-Neoproterozoic arc magmatism associated with
the subduction of the Mozambique Oceanic slab. The
Munnar A-type granite has been dated as 804 ± 6 Ma
(Brandt et al. 2014). Plavsa et al. (2015) reported the
crystallization age of 762 ± 7 Ma of a granodiorite from
the NE MB. The above-mentioned magmatic and meta-
morphic lithologies are considered as the most prob-
able source materials detritus of these cordierite
granulites exposed at Munnar (CMB).
In the SMB, the Neoproterozoic magmatic events
mark two periods of granitoid crystallization at
1007 ± 23 Ma and 784 ± 18 Ma (Plavsa et al. 2012). In
a recent study, Santosh et al. (2017) analysed zircons in
a large suite of magmatic rocks including alkali granites,
charnockites, enderbites, and gabbros from the south-
ern margin of the MB, and their data reveal multiple arc
magmatism along the SMB during distinct pulses
throughout the early to late Neoproterozoic, suggesting
an active convergent margin along this zone at this
time. Thus the proximal Neoproterozoic sources from
the SMB might have contributed the detritus to the
protoliths of the cordierite granulites exposed at
Kottayam (SMB). Li et al. (2016) reported two quartzite
samples from the SMB with exclusively Neoproterozoic
(950–550 Ma) ages, sharing similar Neoproterozoic pro-
venances from the SMB.
Southern India was located at the central domain of
the Gondwana supercontinent, with Madagascar and
East Africa to the west, Sri Lanka and East Antarctica
to the east, and Australia to the north (Collins et al.
2014). Potential Neoproterozoic sources for cordierite
granulites in the MB might also include those in the
adjacent fragments of Gondwana. Central Madagascar
contains abundant early to mid-Neoproterozoic arc-
related mafic-felsic plutons and orthogneisses formed
during the subduction of the Mozambique Ocean
(Handke et al. 1999; Kröner et al. 2000; Tucker et al.
2011). Middle Neoproterozoic magmatic arcs are abun-
dant in the East Africa orogen, which record the closure
of the oceanic basin (Kröner et al. 2000; Jöns and
Schenk 2008; Raharimahefa and Kusky 2010). In Sri
Lanka, the latest Mesoproterozoic to Cryogenian arc-
related mafic and granitoid plutons (1.1–0.75 Ga) are
widely exposed in the Wanni Complex (Kröner et al.
2003; Santosh et al. 2014; Dharmapriya et al. 2016;
Takamura et al. 2016). In addition, the Lützow–Holm
Complex in East Antarctica marks a prominent Early
Neoproterozoic magmatic event (965–999 Ma,
Tsunogae et al. 2015). Thus, the provenances for the
cordierite granulites in this study are mainly derived
from the Neoproterozoic provenances of both SMB

and CMB/NMB with possible contributions from the
adjacent Gondwana fragments (Madagascar, East
Africa, Sri Lanka, and East Antarctica).
Timing of the UHT metamorphism and tectonic
implication for the Gondwana Assembly
In high-grade granulite-facies metamorphic rocks, zir-
con overgrowths usually occur during the cooling and
decompression process after the peak, rather than
recording the peak metamorphism (Wei et al. 2014;
Clark et al. 2015; Johnson et al. 2015). Two mechanisms
have been proposed for metamorphic zircon growth in
high-grade metamorphic rocks. I) For granulite-facies
metamorphism accompanied by partial melting, zirco-
nium tends to be dissolved in the melt in the prograde
heating process and zircon growth occurs during melt
crystallization in the post-peak cooling process (Wei
et al. 2014; Johnson et al. 2015). II) The growth of
metamorphic zircon is attributed to the release of zir-
conium held in garnet and ilmenite when these miner-
als break down (Bingen et al. 2001; Clark et al. 2015;
Taylor et al. 2015b). Hence, silicate melt formed by
biotite dehydration melting and prograde quartz con-
sumption (Figure 5(d)), and breakdown of garnet are
two possible mechanisms of zircon overgrowths.
The isometric morphology of zircon mantles and
rims and their relatively low Th/U ratios (most <0.1)
suggest that most of these domains grew during
high-grade metamorphism (Vavra et al. 1999).
Analyses on zircon mantles and some rims display
mean ages of 599 ± 6 Ma, 613 ± 11 Ma, and
601 ± 4 Ma, implying the timing of early prograde
metamorphism, and the related partial melting was
triggered by isobaric heating from prograde to peak
stages at 599–613 Ma (Figure 10). Raith et al. (2010)
proposed that the ca. 615 Ma age was probably
related to the earlier high-temperature metamorph-
ism within the MB. In the adjacent fragments of
Gondwana, the 600–620 Ma metamorphic ages were
correlated with the East African Orogen that formed
during the closure of the Mozambique Ocean (Fritz
et al. 2013). In the Anoysen and Androyen domains of
southern Madagascar, the early stage of metamorph-
ism is dated as 600–620 Ma with P–T conditions of
>835℃ and >7 kbar (Tucker et al. 2011; Fritz et al.
2013).
Analyses on zircon rims and homogeneous bright
zircons in the three cordierite granulite samples give
mean ages of 549 ± 5 Ma, 536 ± 6 Ma, and 544 ± 6 Ma.
The results suggest that the peak UHT metamorphism
occurred before ca. 549 Ma. Thus, the timing of peak
UHT metamorphism is constrained during 549–599 Ma.
Many previous studies interpreted the 500–550 Ma ages
INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 17
obtained from southern India and other Gondwana
fragments to represent the peak metamorphic ages
during the assembly of the Gondwana supercontinent
(e.g. Santosh et al. 2006; Collins et al. 2007; Sato et al.
2011; Taylor et al. 2015a). Santosh et al. (2009) proposed
that the 500–550 Ma age peaks commonly defined in
previous studies might represent the subsequent ther-
mal events, and the UHT metamorphism probably
occurred at ca. 580–600 Ma. Clark et al. (2015) sug-
gested that the UHT metamorphic conditions recorded
by two meta-sedimentary gneisses from the MB were
achieved at ca. 560 Ma. Brandt et al. (2011) identified ca.
555 Ma HP-UHT metamorphism in Mg–Al granulites
from the Palni Hills in the SGT.
In summary, the cordierite granulites from the central
and southern domains of the MBs in this study, together
with data from other high-grade metamorphic rocks in
the SGT in southern India (e.g. Collins et al. 2007, 2014;
Santosh et al. 2008, 2009; Tsunogae et al. 2008b;
Korhonen et al. 2011; Tsunogae and Santosh 2011; Yano
et al. 2016), suggest the following processes. I) The early
prograde metamorphism with isobaric heating and bio-
tite dehydration occurred during 599–613 Ma, corre-
sponding to the closure of the Mozambique Ocean. II)
The regional UHT metamorphism occurred during
549–599 Ma, related to the final assembly of the
Gondwana supercontinent. III) The peak metamorphism
was followed by retrograde cooling and decompression
at 530–549 Ma, marking the post-collisional extension of
the Gondwana supercontinent (Clark et al. 2009). IV) The
latest thermal event occurred at 480–490 Ma, which is
correlated to the intrusion of the undeformed pegmatites
(Plavsa et al. 2015).
Conclusions
(i) Peak temperature estimates of 955–980℃
(VDR-1), 960–985℃ (VDR-2), and 960–985℃
(MN-SL-2) for three cordierite granulites from
the CMB and SMB define UHT metamorphism.
The corresponding peak pressures were esti-
mated at 7.3–9.1 kbar, 7.6–9.3 kbar, and 7.1–
9.3 kbar, respectively. The results define clock-
wise P–T paths, which involve isobaric heating
from prograde to peak, and decompression
and cooling during the retrograde stage.
(ii) Melt plays an important role during the meta-
morphism and overgrowth of metamorphic zir-
cons, and the melt production in the studied
rocks was probably related to biotite dehydra-
tion melting, and was mainly triggered by heat-
ing, with or without the effect of
18 L. TANG ET AL.
decompression. Partial melting event probably
occurred during 599–613 Ma.
(iii) Cores of detrital zircons in three cordierite
granulite samples from CMB and SMB show
similar age distributions and have dominantly
Neoproterozoic ages. They were mainly derived
from Neoproterozoic provenance in both SMB
and CMB with probable contributions from the
adjacent Gondwana fragments (Madagascar,
East Africa, Sri Lanka, and East Antarctica).
(iv) The timing of peak UHT metamorphism is con-
strained as 549–599 Ma, related to the assem-
bly of the Gondwana supercontinent.
Acknowledgements
We thank Editor-in-Chief Professor Robert Stern, referee Diana
Plavsa, and an anonymous referee for helpful comments that
improved this article. This study was jointly supported through
the Foreign Expert grant from China University of Geosciences
Beijing to M. Santosh, and Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research
(B) from Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) to
Toshiaki Tsunogae (No. 26302009). The first author thanks
award of the China Scholarship Council (No. 201506400008)
for one year’s study at the University of Tsukuba, Japan.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Funding
This study was jointly supported through the Foreign Expert
grant from China University of Geosciences Beijing to M.
Santosh, and Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (B) from
Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) to
Toshiaki Tsunogae (number 26302009). The first author thanks
award of the China Scholarship Council (number
201506400008) for one year’s study at the University of
Tsukuba, Japan.
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