Chapter 15 & Applications of equilibrium and strain—displacement relationships Tthas been explained in principle in the last chapter how the stress ‘components may be determined in a body by use of the equilibrium, the compatibility equations and the particular boundary conditions of the problem. In «majority of cases, the solutions are complex and the stress-function method mentioned in the previous chapter is used. However there are a few problems in beams and axi-symmetrical bodies in which a simpler analysis is possible using the equilibrium, ‘strain-displacement and stress-strain relationships. AB itis important to ‘understand how to apply these principles, the present chapter commences with two simple beam-beiiding situations. These are followed by important engineering components, namely the thick-walled cylinder used typically in high-pressure chemical engineering and the rotating disc or rotor used in steam and ges turbines, ‘The distribution of transverse shear stress in a beam in terms of the shear force and the geometry of the cross-section was obtained in Chapter 6, using simple bending theory. An alternative approach will now be developed. ‘Consider the beam in Fig. 15.1, which, for simplicity of solution, is shown simply-supported and carrying a uniformly-cistributed load, w per unit length. The origin of Cartesian co-ordinates is taken on the neutral axis, with x positive left to right and y positive downwards. ‘This is treated as a two-dimensional problem with no variation of stress through the thickness of the beam, and therefore only two equations ofApplications of equilibrium and strain~dieplacement relationships Fig. 15. fit Length equilibrium are applicable. From page 377 30, , 3, 205 , Fy _ 5. = as 3p 0 (15.1) 20), 3, 2 Pe 2 ay or? s.2) Making use of the exact solution for pure bending = 15. Oe T (15.3) then eqn. (15.2) is not required, neither is any strain—displacement relationship, This is because, in the derivation of eqn. (15.3), the geometry of deformation and the stress-strain relationship were included. Substituting for a, in eqn. (15.1) gives But 8M/8x = Q the shear force on the section, so that ar, & oy (15.4) Integrating gives @ oy wy Pfyasc=-B ic (15.5) At the top and bottom free surface of the beam the shear stress must be zero therefore, 0 aty= af from which C: of and 2? od “2 8 (5.6)I ‘Traneverse normal stress in a beam At the neutral axis y =0 and the shear stress has its maximum value od wf ir \ tyr (15.7) ‘This agrees with the value obtained in Chapter 6 Sy A further example on the analysis of beams is that of the distribution of 1) direct stress in the y-direction due to the application of a distributed load w. For the beam in Fig, 15.1 the equilibrium equation which is applicable is 2) Ba, | at, Boy, Fy ae) as.8) Now, the shear stress, ry, was determined in eqn. (15.6), and 3) substituting that value in eqn. (15.8) gives 30, 8 /_Qy?_ Od 3%, 9 (_ Oy +5 (+) ay | ox But 30/ax 80, , wy? wd? va ay UW or o (15.9) —[(e_ we an-|(G- Bare wire _ ey 7(5-%) Using the boundary condition that at the upper surface y = — 4d, the compressive stress is ¢, = —w/b, where b is the beam thickness; then +e (15.10) 7 (-+40) 9 2,2) 5.11) ‘The distribution of stress is illustrated in Fig. 15.1 391Applications of equilibrium and strsin-dieplacement relationships é A check on this solution may be made by considering the condition at the lower free surface. Here y= + 4d; from which 0, =0, which is correct. RNG Wass Sn IN-APR This problem is of considerable practical importance in pressure vessels and gun barrels. Itis a further case which can be solved without using a stress-function solution and is an application of the cylindrical co-ordinate system, r, 0, z. A Iong hollow cylinder which is subjected to uniformly distributed internal and external pressure is shown in Fig. 15.2(a) and (b). The two 182 ; { © ‘methods of maintaining the pressure inside the cylinder are either by end caps which are attached ta the cylinder as shown in Fig. 15.2(a) or by pistons in each end of the oylinder Fig. 15.2(b). Considering a cross-sectional slice XX as shown in Fig. 15.3, the deformations produced are symmetrical about the longitudinal axis of the cylinder, and the small element of material in the wall supports the stress system shown. This is the same as in Fig. 14.2 for the general stress system except that for axial symmetry tj» = 0 and og is constant at any particular radius. Hence og and 9, are principal stresses and additionally are quite independent of the method of end closure of the cylinder. Considering axial stress 0, and axial strain ¢, then both of these occur in the case of end cap closures (Fig. 15.2(a)). For closure by pistons (Fig. 15.2(b)) it is evident that 4, = 0 and e, occurs only due to the Poisson's ratio effect of o, and os. From the symmetry of the system and for a long cylinder, we come to the conclusion that plane cross-sections remain plane when subjected to pressure and therefore axial deformation, w, across the section is independent of r and dw/dr =0.I SSS SSN d Stress distribution in a pressurized thick-walled cylinder Fig. 153 o, + Bar ar +t & | CYLINDER WITH The equations of equilibrium for an element of material are END CAPS ae ar =o '=0 (eqn. (14.12)) (45.12) (15.13) ‘The strain~displacement equations, from page 383 are (15.14) (15.15) (15.16) (1s.17) (15.18) (15.19)Applications of equilibrium and strain—displacement relationships ‘Substituting for due/dr and u/r from ‘eqns. (15.17) and (15.18) and simplifying, ity dog_ doz do, a — 09) = Ce yS2e_ 90 15.20) 7 00 a Wa ar (5.20) Now, since ¢, = constant, de, /dr = 0 and differentiating eqn. (15.19) gives doz _, (do, doe Fim (Se 15. oats) asap ‘Substituting into eqn. (15.20) for do, /dr from eqn. (15.21) and (0, ~ 09)/r from eqn. (15.12) and simplifying gives z (We , do.) _ : 1-99 (Fe) 20 (15.22) ‘From eqns. (15.22) and (15.21) we see that do. /dr = 0 and therefore o, is Constant through the wall thickness. Integrating eqn. (15.22) shows that (0 + 0,) = constant =2A (15.23) Eliminating 9, between eqns. (15.23) and (15.12) gives $e, 2a.=28 from which, multiplying by 7, (15.24) dar 210, — P&S: and By integration, Ar -7o,=B Hence - = A~S (15.25) and from eqn. (15,23); B RATS (45.26) Where A and B are constants which may be found using the boundary ‘conditions. CYLINDER In this case, Fig. 15.2(b), 0, =0 and there isa condition of plane stress. WITH PISTONS This solution has been inchided to show that we can arrive atthe same expressions for 0, and 0 by deriving a differential equation for displacement, u,BOUNDARY CONDITIONS 1. Internal and external pressure ‘Stross distribution in a pressurized thick-walled cylinder Putting o, =0 in eqns. (15.17) and (15.18) and solving for a, and oy in terms of u gives dum) EB a= (5) aa as2n a a= (vst Fi (15.28) From eqn. (15.27), do,_ (fu, du Se (Ga ot (15.29) Substituting eqns. (15.27), (15.28) and (15.29) into eqn. (15.12) and simplifying gives Pu ldu_u pie 15.30) wre i?) This is the differential equation for the radial displacement in the cylinder wall. ‘The general solution of this equation is wn oree 5.31) ‘Substituting for w and du in eqns. (15.27) and (15.28), o-{ca+9-Sa-v} as (1.32) o={ca+») +Sa-v} 5 (15.33) where C and C’ are constants. ‘These equations may be rewritten with different constants as a=a-3 and = At which are the same as eqns. (15.25) and (15.26). ‘The next stage is the determination of the constants A and B. The boundary conditions of the problem are: at r= 7, 0, = ~p, (pressure being negative in sign); and at r= 1, 0, = ~po,"Aaptications of equilibrium and strain=displacoment roletionshipe 2. Internal pressure only -n=A-3 and -pp=a-4 ; Fs from which, eliminating A, we get aE and An Pen Pe Therefore the radial and hoop stresses become Gi pot? genre (15.34) PGE oder ee) sce ‘These equations were first derived by Lamé and Clapeyron in 1833. Let the radius ratio ro/r, = k then eqns. (15.34) and (15.35) may be written as Pi=Kpo_ (pipe) (sy P11 My. ast Geney Itis important to note that the stresses depend on the k ratio rather than on the absolute dimensions, ‘An important special case of the above is when the external pressure is atmospheric only and can be neglected in relation to the internal pressure, Then with pp =0, ° ~£5 (1 -") mgt -#) (5.36) oo= BE (1 4) =P (tt) as.37 At the inner surface, o, and gg each have their maximum value so that at + 0,= =p, (radial compressive stress) tis appropriate at this point to note that the radial stress shown on the element in Fig. 15.3 in the positive sense i.e. tension, is in fact in the opposite sense, i.e. compression, ‘The circumferential or hoop stress 5 Re5.34) 15.35) han 5.36) 5.37) tat AXIAL STRESS AND STRAIN 1. Cylinder with end caps but free to change in length 2, Pressure retained by piston in each end of cylinder 3. Cylinder built-in between rigid end supports SHEAR STRESS IN THE CYLINDER Stress distribution in 8 pressurized thick-walled cylinder At the outer surface, where r= 7, 2p. Ri Now that expressions have been developed for the radial and circumferential stresses within the cylinder, the next step is to consider ‘what conditions of stress and strain can exist axially along the cylinder. ‘These will depend on the boundary conditions at the ends of the cylinder. “ and 99 =: In this case there must be equilibrium between the force exerted on the end cover by the internal pressure and the force of the axial stress integrated across the wail of the vessel. Therefore el anre? — ar?) — per? =0 so that (5.38) o= OY (= 2v)p, on pO+ = FG py Since there is no connection between the piston and the cylinder, the axial force due to pressure is reacted entirely by the pistons, and therefore there can be no axial stress in the wall of the cylinder. Thus o,=0 (18.39) and ae) eee crm ROH On Ree For this case &, = 0; in other words, plane strain exists. ‘Therefore o y FZ (o, +04) =0 0,= (0, + 0) (15.40) Substituting for 0, and oo from eqns. (15.36) and (15.37), 2vpure o=ae (as.41) Since the radial and circumferential stresses are principal stresses the maximum shear stress in the plane of the cross-section is given by a= 9, te (*y (13.42) r 397Applications of equilibrium and strain—displacement relationships YIELDING IN THE CYLINDER STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS FOR o AND o, Equations (15.36), (15.37) and (15.38) may be written as where 0 = hydrostatic stress, and ¢ = maximum shear stress. Thus the stress distribution in the. wall of the cylinder consists of pure shear stress and superimposed hydrostatic stress. ‘Yielding will commence at the inner surface and for the Tresca criterion we have Or=09-0, at r=n Using eqn. (15.42), 2kp ora A hence the internal pressure to cause yielding is (15.43) The von Mises criterion is employed as follows, using eqn. (13.15) (0 —0,) + (o,—~ 0," + (0, — 09) = 20> ‘Substituting the expressions for the three principal stresses and simplifying gives (as.44) which is the internal pressure to cause initial yielding at the bore. ‘The difference between these two criteria is approximately 15%. ‘To complete the basic analysis of the elastically-deformed thick-walled pressure vessel, the variation of the two principal stresses 0 and 9, is shown plotted through the wall thickness in Fig. 15.4 for internal pressure and a k ratio of 3.he sess 5.43) 5.44) sure high pressure Fig. 15.4 ‘The cylinder of a hydraulic jack has a bore (internal diameter) of 150mm and is required to operate up to 13.8 MN/m?. Determine the required wall thickness for a limiting tensile stress in the material of 41.4 MN/m?, MESSMO The given boundary conditions are that at -= 75 x 10", ¢, = ~13.8 x 106 and 9 = 41.4 x 10°, since the maximum tensile hoop stress occurs at the inner surface, Therefore B -ext=a-z 2 Adding the two equations, 2A = 27.6 x 106 A=13.8X10°N/m? and B=154.5KN therefore 154.5 x10? At the outside surface, 0, = B 0=A-5=13.8x 10°— 7?=0.0112m* r=0.106m me ‘From Fig. 15.4 it will be observed that there is a marked variation in the stress in the wall of a thick cylinder subjected to internal pressure, and‘Applications of equilibrium end strein-displacement relationships Fig. 15.5 (2) Compound cylinder; (b) wire-wound cylinder; (e) autofret- ‘aged cylinder © G { SG wire Blasticzone 4 Prati one ® ® © this situation gets worse when designing for even higher pressures. In order to secure a more uniform stress distribution, one method is to build up the cylinder by “shrinking” one tube on the outside of another (Fig. 15.5(a)). The inner tube is subjected to hoop compression by the shrink fit of the external tube, which will therefore be subjected to pressure causing hoop tension. When the compound tube is subjected to working pressure, the resultant stresses are the algebraic sum of that duc to the shrinking and that due to the internal pressure. The resultant tensile stress at the inner surface of the inner tube is not so large as if the coylinder were composed of one thick tube. The final tensile stress at the inner surface of the outer tube is larger than ifthe cylinder consisted of one thick tube, Thus a more even stress distribution is obtained. Tn gun-making, it is not an easy matter to tum and bore long tubes to the degree of accuracy required for shrinking. It is usual in this case to wind around the outside of a tube a high-tensile-strength ribbon of a rectangular section with sufficient tension to bring the tube into a state of hoop compression (Fig. 15.5(b)). Subsequent internal pressure then has to overcome the hoop compression before tensile stress can be set up in the tube. ‘A further method for creating hoop compression at the bore of a cylinder is known as autofrettage. This consists in applying internal pressure to a single cylinder until yielding and a prescribed amount of plastic deformation occurs at the bore (Fig. 15.5(c)). Since the hoop stress falls in magnitude from the inner to the outer surface, a part of the wall from the bore will be in the plastic range of the metal while the remainder will still be elastic. On the release of pressure the elastic material cannot return to its original geometry owing to the permanent deformation at the inside of the vessel. Therefore the material that had been in the plastic range will be subjected to hoop compression, and the clastic outer material to hoop tension. This technique is discussed further in Chapter 16. ae A shrink fit between two components is a very important and secure method of assembly. It consists, in the casc of two cylindrical objects, of“8 RTE = me a8 he ‘Stresses set up by a shrink-fit assembly the inner. diameter of the outer cylinder being slightly less (by a fraction of a millimetre) than the outer diameter of the inner cylinder. Consequently, when they are at the same temperature the outer cannot be passed over the inner. However, if the outer cylinder is heated and the inner cylinder is cooled then the thermal expansion and contraction can ‘be made sufficient to allow one cylinder to pass over the other. On returning each to room temperature there is “interference” at the mating surface since they cannot regain their original dimensions at the interface. The two components are locked firmly together and a system of radial and circumferential stresses are sét up at the interface and through the wall of each cylinder. For elastic conditions the principle of superposition can be used to add together the stresses due to shrink-fit interference to those due to internal pressure or rotation. For two cylindrical components we require eqns. (15.25) and (15.26), for each component given by B 7 (inner component) (15.45) (outer component) wt where the constants A, B, C and D are determined from the boundary conditions. For shrink-fit stresses only, the boundary conditions are that ¢, is zero at the inside of the inner cylinder and outside of the outer cylinder, and at the mating surface r,, the radial stress in each vessel must be the same, therefore (15.46) Finally, at the mating surface the radial interference 6 is the sum of the displacement of the inner cylinder inwards, ~u', and the outer cylinder outwards, +u", thus b= ‘We next substitute into eqn. (15.47) the expressions for 9” and ¢9", UW! + "= Ilo" — E9!) (as.47) and ep Eee and thence the relationships (eqns. (15.45)), for 09’, 09", 0,’ and 0," at PI We now have sufficient equations to solve for the constants A, B, C and D. | The following example illustrates the analytical process. anApplications of equilibrium and strain-, E=207GNIm* ‘A steel rotor disc of uniform thickness 0 mm has an outer rim of diameter 750 mm and a central hole of diameter 150 mm. There ate 200 blades cach of, ‘weight 0.2 kg at an effective radius of 430 mm pitched evenly around the penphery. Determine the rotational speed at which yielding first oceurs according {o the maximum shear stress criterion. Yield stress in simple tension forthe stee! is 00MN/ai, v= 0.29, p=7.3Mgim?, E =207 GN/as*. {A dise is to be designed having uniform strength, that is, the radial and hoop ‘stresses are the same at any point inthe dsc, Show that the required profile of {thickness variation is given by renee where 2% is the thickness at r= 0, os the uniform stress, and e is the base of ‘Napieran logarithms ay