Case 04;

Pre-discussion

PBS: Metabolism during different types of exercises

Muscle fibers —> type I and type II (IIa and IIb)

slow twitch fast twitch

Endurance = more aerobic metabolism

Sprinter = anaerobic —> lactate —> painfull muscles

Diet sprinter = Low fat and high protein

Fast for a short term —> many muscles
Protein = for muscle repair

Diet marathon = High carbs to restore the glycogen

Marathon —> needs more glycogen

FA oxidation usage during exercise —> long term low intensity = because it takes quite some time to
get ATP form fats

ATP storage = low

- Molecule converted fast and directly into ATP —> phosphocreatinine = Storing more ATP

Lactate due to anaerobic

Learning Goals

1. Marathon
1. What are the different types of muscle fibers
2. What is the main form of respiration used
3. Why do they eat the diets they eat?
2. Sprinter
1. What are the different types of muscle fibers
2. What is the main form of respiration used
3. Why do they eat the diets they eat?
3. Which substrates are used during different intestines of exercise
1. Metabolic processes
4. Difference between relative and absolute respiration
5. How does training affect substrate use ….

Marieb

Muscle metabolism
Muscle contracts —> energy is supplied to move and detach cross bridges —> operate the calcium
pump in the ST and return NA and K to the cell exterior and interior.

= ATP is the only energy source used directly for contractile activities —> thus must be immediately
regenerated:
a. Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate
b. Anaerobic, glycolysis, which converts glucose to lactic acid
c. Aerobic respiration
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Direct Phosphorylation of ADP by Creatine Phosphate
Creatine phosphate (CP) is a unique high-high-energy molecule stored in muscles

Coupling CP with ADP transfers energy and a phosphate group from CP to ADP to form ATP almost
instantly:

Muscle cells: have 2 - 3x more CP than ATP

The CT-ADP reaction is catalyzed by creatine kinase

—> Together, stored ATP and CP provide for maximum muscle power for about 15 seconds—long
enough to energize a 100-meter dash (slightly longer if the activity is less vigorous).

Anaerobic pathway: Glycolysis and Lactic Acid Formation

When ATP and CP are exhausted —> more ATP is generated by breaking down (catabolizing)
glucose obtained from the blood or glycogen stored in the muscle.

Initial phase of breakdown —> glycolysis

- This pathway occurs in both the presence and the absence of oxygen, but because it does not use
oxygen

Glycolysis —> glucose is broken down to two pyruvic acid molecules, releasing enough energy to
form small amounts of ATP (2 ATP per glucose).
Pyruvic acid produced during glycolysis —> enters the mitochondria —> reacts with oxygen to
produce still more ATP in the oxygen-using pathway called aerobic respiration.

With vigorous contractility of the muscles —> impaired blood flow due to the bulging of the muscles
that compress the blood vessels (for example, when you run 600 meters with maximal effort).
= Anaerobic conditions —> pyruvic acid produced during glycolysis is converted into lactic acid = the
overall process is referred to as anaerobic glycolysis.

Liver cells can reconvert the lactate to pyruvic acid or glucose and release it back into the
bloodstream for muscle use, or convert it to glycogen for storage.

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Aerobic respiration
Amount of creatine phosphate is limited, muscles must metabolize nutrients to transfer energy from
foodstuffs to ATP.
—> Occurs in the mitochondria and requires oxygen

Glucose +︎ oxygen —> carbon dioxide ︎+ water +︎ ATP

—> Yields 32 ATP per glucose
—> Requires

As exercise begins, muscle glycogen provides most of the fuel. Shortly thereafter, blood-borne
glucose, pyruvic acid from glycolysis, and free fatty acids are the major sources of fuels. After about
30 minutes, fatty acids become the major energy fuels.

Energy systems during exercise

- Enough oxygen —> aerobic pathway
- Light to moderate activity for several hours
- Exercise demand > ability of muscle cells —> anaerobic pathways will contribute
- Activities that require a surge of power but last only a few seconds, such as weight lifting, diving,
and sprinting —> rely entirely on ATP and CP stores.
- Prolonged activities such as marathon runs and jogging, where endurance rather than power is the
goal —> depend mainly on aerobic respiration using both glucose and fatty acids as fuels.
- Levels of CP and ATP don’t change much during prolonged exercise
Aerobic endurance: The length of time a muscle can continue to contract using aerobic pathways
Anaerobic threshold: the point at which muscle metabolism converts to anaerobic glycolysis.

Muscle fatigue
—> Physiological inability to contract even though there are stimuli.

Several ionic imbalances contribute to muscle fatigue. As action

potentials are transmitted, potassium is lost from the muscle cells,
and accumulates in the fluids of the T tubules. This ionic change
disturbs the membrane potential of the muscle cells and halts Ca2︎
release from the SR.

Force of muscle contraction

The force of muscle contraction depends on the number of myosin
cross bridges that are attached.
- Size of the muscle fibers —> the greater its cross-sectional
area: the more tension it can develop and the greater its
strength
- Frequency of stimulation

Muscle fiber types

Functional characteristics:
- Speed of contraction —> difference reflects how fast their
myosin ATPases split ATP
- Slow fibers and fast fibers
- Pathways of forming ATP
- The cells that rely mostly on the oxygen-using aerobic
pathways for ATP generation are oxidative fibers.
- Those that rely more on anaerobic glycolysis are glycolytic
fibers.

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—> Classify skeletal muscle cells as: slow oxidative fibers, fast oxidative fibers, or fast
glycolytic fibers.

Slow oxidative fiber

- Depends on oxygen delivery and aerobic pathways
- Resists fatigue and has high endurance
- Has relatively little power

Fast glycolytic fiber

- Contracts rapidly due to the activity of fast myosin ATPases
- Does not use oxygen
- Depends on plentiful glycogen reserves for fuel rather than on blood-delivered nutrients
- Tires quickly because glycogen reserves are short-lived and lactic acid accumulates quickly,
making it a fatigable fiber

Adaptations to exercise

Aerobic (endurance) exercise

—> Several changes occur in skeletal muscles
- The number of capillaries surrounding the muscle fibers increases.
- The number of mitochondria within the muscle fibers also increases.
- The fibers synthesize more myoglobin.

These occur in all fiber types which depend on aerobic pathways

—> Regular endurance exercise may convert fast glycolytic fibers into fast oxidative fibers.

Resistance training
—> No significant skeletal muscle hypertrophy

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Different types of fibers:

Type 1: slow twitch fibers. —> Slow oxidative fibers

- They are red in colour due to the presence of large volumes of myoglobin and so oxygen and high
numbers of Mitochondria.
- Due to this fact they are very resistant to fatigue and are capable of producing repeated low-level
contractions by producing large amounts of ATP through aerobic metabolic cycle.

Type 2a: Fast oxidative fibers

- These fibers contain a large number of mitochondria and Myoglobin, hence their red colour.
- They manufacture and split ATP at a fast rate by utilizing both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism
and so produce fast, strong muscle contractions, although they are more prone to fatigue than type
1 fibers.
- Resistance training can turn type 2b fibers into type 2a due to an increase in the ability to utilize the
oxidative cycle

Type 2b: Fast glycolytic fibers

- They are white in colour due to a low level of myoglobin and also contain few mitochondria.
- They produce ATP at a fast rate by anaerobic metabolism and break it down very quickly.
- This results in short, fast bursts of power and rapid fatigue.

LG 01: Marathon runner

a. What are the different types of muscle fibers
b. What is the main form of respiration used
c. Why do they eat the diets they eat?

a. The muscle fibers involved are predominantly the oxidative, Type I fibers.

It is called aerobic because, to maximize efficiency, substrates (fatty acids and glucose) are completely
oxidized.

b. It is typified by aerobic exercise

Aerobic exercise involves prolonged exercise but at a lower intensity than can be achieved
anaerobically. Here, the duration is such that it could not be maintained solely from the fuels stored
within muscle; the fuel stores in the rest of the body (fat in adipose tissue, glycogen in the liver) must
be used.

Characteristic of aerobic exercise is that it can be sustained for long periods —> this means that
stored fuels other than those in the muscles must be used and must be completely oxidized, so that
partial breakdown products such as lactic acid do not build up.

Complete oxidation of substrates also gives a much higher energy yield than partial breakdown
- Complete oxidation of one molecule of glucose gives rise to 30+ molecules of ATP
- Anaerobic glycolysis to two molecules of lactate generates 3 molecules of ATP

In order for these muscles to produce external work at a high rate over a long period, they must be
supplied with substrates (including O2), and the products of metabolism such as CO2 must be
removed, at a sufficiently high rate.

Major fuels used in aerobic exercise:

- Light exercise —> non-esterified fatty acids delivered from adipose tissue.
- Hgher intensities —> carbohydrate tends to predominate early on, fat becoming more important
later as glycogen stores are depleted.
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The carbohydrate used during endurance exercise comes from glycogen stores, both in exercising
skeletal muscle and in the liver. In principle, it might also come from gluconeogenesis: exercising
muscles always produce some lactic acid, even in aerobic exercise, and this should be a good
substrate for hepatic gluconeogenesis.

c. High carbohydrate diet

Oxidation of glucose provides a major source of energy for the working muscles during intense
aerobic exercise.

Prolonged, strenuous (︎75% VO2max) exercise:

- Progressive decline in the rate of muscle glycogenolysis and lipolysis
- Increased muscle glucose uptake
- Progressive increase in FA oxidation with elevated plasma FA levels

Fatigue during such exercise is often associated with muscle and liver glycogen depletion and
hypoglycemia, with a consequent decrease in muscle carbohydrate oxidation and neuroglucopenia.
Increased dietary carbohydrate intake to maximize pre-exercise carbohydrate stores and
carbohydrate ingestion during exercise are effective nutritional strategies to enhance endurance
exercise performance.

LG 02: Sprinter
a. What are the different types of muscle fibers
b. What is the main form of respiration used
c. Why do they eat the diets they eat?

a. Sprinting is dominated by the activity of the fast-twitch (Type II) muscle fibers

b. It is typified by anaerobic exercise

The key feature of anaerobic exercise is rapid generation of energy over a short period. Energy is
generated too rapidly for the diffusion into the muscle of substrates, including O2, from the blood and
this is achieved by utilization of the muscle’s own energy stores, phosphocreatine and glycogen.

On arrival of the impulse at the nerve terminal, acetylcholine is

liberated and attaches to the nicotinic receptors at the sole-
plate. The binding of acetylcholine to these receptors sets a
number of events in motion:

ATP is hydrolyzed as the muscle contracts

—> Needs to be rapidly replaced
Mechanisms for resynthesizing ATP must be turned on extremely
rapidly.
1. Phosphocreatine system
—> Small amount of phosphocreatine —> The phosphagen
store (phosphocreatine + ATP) must then be replenished and this
occurs initially by glycogen breakdown and glycolysis.

During intense exercise, energy is thus derived very rapidly from

anaerobic glycolysis —> produces lactic acid

c. High protein low fat diet

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High protein is for muscle restoration —> due to high strain on muscle you need proteins.
low fat —> because the sprinter ruses mainly carbohydrates
- Don’t use fat —> short burst of carbohydrates
- Low body fat to keep the mass as low as possible —> no excessive weight
- fats twitch run primarily on carbohydrates

LG 03: Which substrates are used during different intensities of exercise

https://documents.library.maastrichtuniversity.nl/open/412fd1d7-8966-415f-9573-b230a0574f05
The maintenance of contractile activity during exercise is critically dependent on:
- The supply of ATP to the myosin, Na-K and sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2 ATPases that are essential
for myofilament force production and the maintenance of sarcolemmal excitability
- Sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2 re-uptake and release during excitation-contraction coupling.

Metabolic pathways must be activated to re-synthesize ATP:

- Substrate-level phosphorylation, without any need for oxygen
- Oxidative phosphorylation

Carbohydrates and fats are the primary substrates for oxidative

metabolism during exercise.

Exercise metabolism
During maximal, “all-out” exercise, with a peak power output of ︎900W,
which declines over the next 30 sec, the degradation of creatine
phosphate and of glycogen to lactate provide the majority of ATP, while
oxidative phosphorylation accounts for ︎25% – 30% of energy
turnover.

Increase in muscle glycogenolysis is the result of activation of

Glycogen phosphorylase by:
- Increased sarcoplasmic [Ca2+] and inorganic phosphate (Pi)
- Elevated cyclic AMP
- Increased circulating adrenaline, and allosteric activation by ATP
breakdown products (AMP, ADP, and IMP)

Ca increase + elevated muscle pyruvate —> activates pyruvate

dehydrogenase (PDH).
= Aerobic

Sub-maximal exercise: the oxidative metabolism of carbohydrates

and lipids provides almost all of the ATP required for contractile
activity.

Major substrates for oxidation are:

- Muscle glycogen and blood glucose derived from liver glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis and the
gut when carbohydrate is ingested
- FAs derived from both adipose tissue and intramuscular triglyceride (IMTG) breakdown

—> Substrate contribution is dependent on exercise intensity and duration

BUT also: training status, gender, preceding diet, and environmental conditions.
• Lower intensities: lipid oxidation dominates
• Increasing exercise intensity: muscle glycogen and blood glucose

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- Glucose uptake also increases in relation to exercise intensity, although glucose utilization may
decrease during intense exercise because of high rates of muscle glycogenolysis and glucose-6-
phosphate-mediated inhibition of hexokinase activity.

Prolonged, strenuous (︎75% VO2max) exercise:

- Progressive decline in the rate of muscle glycogenolysis and lipolysis
- Increased muscle glucose uptake
- Progressive increase in FA oxidation with elevated plasma FA levels

Skeletal muscle glucose uptake = fascinated diffusion with 3 regulation sites:

1. Glucose delivery
2. Sarcolemmal glucose transport (GLUT4)
3. Glucose phosphorylation by hexokinase

h t t p s : / / w w w. c a m b r i d g e . o r g / c o r e / s e r v i c e s / a o p - c a m b r i d g e - c o r e / c o n t e n t / v i e w /
0E70D572E2419C37727472D6155FEE52/S095442240300009Xa.pdf/
physiological_factors_that_regulate_the_use_of_endogenous_fat_and_carbohydrate_fuels_during_en
durance_exercise.pdf

The relative contribution of carbohydrate and fat as fuel for

working muscle is largely dependent on exercise intensity and
duration.

Short term exercises; sprinting

- Carbohydrate —> predominant source of energy

Endurance training increases:

- Increases muscle oxidative capacity
- Fat oxidation

Immediately after the onset of exercise (0–30 s) energy is derived

predominantly from anaerobic metabolism.

LG 04: Difference between relative and absolute respiration

https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/j.1469-7793.2001.00295.x
As exercise intensity increases there is a progressive decline in fat oxidation and the relative oxidation
of carbohydrate increases.

Relative = proportional contributes of fat and

carbohydrate oxidation
—> Mixture of substrates

Absolute = amount of energy needed during

exercise
—> Total quantity you need of energy

Absolute = “biggest box" on scale

relative = percentage of total

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Relative oxidation of FFA
= Highest at rest —> because then more than half comes from FA
= lowest at at 75

Absolute oxidation of FFA

= Highest at 55 (but 40 also approx similar)

Maximal = All out Sub-Maximal Prolonged

>75% VO2 max <75% VO2 max (after +/- 3 hrs)

Substrates - Creatine Phosphatase - Glycogen - Fatty acids

- Glycogen (carbohydrates)
- Lipids (FA)
Effect - Increase in muscle - Glycogenolysis Switch from muscle
glycogenolysis - Gluconeogenesis stores —> go to blood
- Increase in Glycolysis - Increased FA stream source = FA or
- Increase in PHD oxidation (low glucose
activity intensity)

- Increase in lactate - Decline in

fermentation —> After 30 minutes body glycogenolysis and
makes muscles sore starts using FA’s lipolysis
—> Lactate in converted - Increase in glycolysis
back into pyruvate in the
liver

Mainly Anaerobic Mainly Aerobic (low Mainly Aerobic

intensity)

Lower intensity = More

FA oxidation (after 30min
of exercise)

Higher intensity = More

gluconeogenesis and
glycogenolysis taking
place.

2000 kcal —> 2,5-3 hrs of running on only glycogen

- Substrates depends on DURATION and INTENSITY

LG 05: How does training affect substrate use

Glycogen and training

Training and/or sleeping with low muscle glycogen levels enhances intracellular signaling and
consequent adaptations that upregulate the oxidative capacity of muscle cells and possibly improve
endurance performance.

Muscle glycogen is an important substrate for resistance training because repeated contractions of
near-maximal loads stimulate glycogenolysis, resulting in a reduction in glycogen stores of 25%–40%.

Athletes that train a lot —> glycogen stores that are rarely fully replenished.
—> High car diet = maintain their glycogen stores from day to day on the high-carbohydrate diet but
experienced a 30%–36% decline in muscle glycogen on the moderate-carbohydrate diet.

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BUT the lower muscle glycogen levels did not impair training capacity or exercise performance

Can you enhance storage of carbohydrates?

—> Yes, if you eat more than usual

- Normal = 2000 kcal

- Maximal increase of carbohydrates —> 15 grams per Kg of body mass

https://www.physiology.org/doi/pdf/10.1152/jappl.1999.87.4.1413

- Increase mitochondria
- Increase capillary density —> more blood supply —> more 02
- Increase in carnation transferase —> increases transport
- Switching muscle fiber type —> glycolytic to oxidative

Stop training —> can switch back

Trained individual will use more lipid oxidation and spare their glycogen

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