Chapter 5: Motivation I: Basic Concepts

课 题 Chapter 5: Motivation I: Basic Concepts

过本章学习，掌握能够对组织行为产生影响的重要个体因素——
教学目标 动机，能够深刻领会早期激励理论的内涵，如马斯洛的需要层次
理论、赫茨伯格的激励保健理论等。
1.张德，《组织行为学》，清华大学出版社，2000 年。
2.[美]罗宾斯，《组织行为学》（第 14 版），中国人民大学出
版社，2012 年。
3.周文霞等，《组织行为学教学案例精选》，复旦大学出版
社，1998 年。
参考教材
4.俞文钊，《管理心理学》（上、下册），东方出版中心，2002
参考书目、文
年。
献
5.苏东水，《管理心理学》，复旦大学出版社，2002 年。
6. [美]安杰洛 基尼奇， 《组织行为学：关键概念、技能与最
佳实践》（第四版，注释版），中国人民大学出版社，2011.
7.张岩松，王艳洁. 《组织行为学——理论、案例、实训》，清
华大学出版社，2016 年。

教学重难点 早期不同激励理论的内容。

教学方法
讲授课、讨论课
教学手段
课程类别 √理论课 □实验课 □技能课
课 时 □1 课时 √2 课时 □3 课时 □4 课时
教学设计 详见后页

Chapter 5:
Motivation I: Basic Concepts

Chapter Overview

Motivation is one of the major areas of interest in OB. Properly motivating a workforce
can lead to gains in productivity, innovation, and employee retention. This chapter will
review the basics of motivation, assess the number of motivation series, and provide an
integrative model that shows how the best of these theories fits together.

Chapter Objectives

59
After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:
1. Describe the three key elements of motivation.
2. Identify four early theories of motivation and evaluate their applicability today.
3. Compare and contrast goal-setting theory and self-efficacy theory.
4. Demonstrate how organizational justice is a refinement of equity theory.
5. Apply the key tenets of expectancy theory to motivating employees.
6. Explain to what degree motivation theories are culture bound.

I. INTRODUCTION

Motivation is a problem in the U.S. workforce. Poorly motivated

workers express themselves through detrimental behaviors such as
time wasting, absenteeism, and high turnover. It is important that Slide
motivational theories are understood and applied in the workplace. # 5-2
II. DEFINING MOTIVATION

Motivation: the processes that account for an individual’s

intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a Slide
goal, specifically for OB, toward attaining an organizational # 5-3
goal.

A. Three Key Elements in the Definition:

1. Intensity: how much effort a person puts forth to meet a

goal.

2. Direction: efforts are channeled toward organizational

goals.

3. Persistence: how long a person maintains effort toward a

goal.

III. EARLY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Slide
These early theories have been heavily attacked and are now # 5-4
considered questionable in terms of validity. However, it is still
important to learn them both as the basis for current theories and
because many practicing managers still use these theories. It is
important to remember that no matter how intuitively valid these
theories appear to be, without research evidence to support them;
they’re merely of historical interest.
Slide
A. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory. In this, perhaps best # 5-5
known (and least supported) of all motivational theories,
Abraham Maslow proposed that there are five levels of human
needs. As each of the lower level needs are satisfied, the next
Exhibit
Exhibit
##5-1
5-1
60
 Chapter 5: Motivation I: Basic Concepts

unsatisfied need becomes dominant. Satisfied needs no longer

motivate; only unsatisfied needs motivate people.

1. Physiological: lower order need, includes hunger, thirst,

shelter, sex, and other bodily needs. Lower order needs are
satisfied externally, through forces outside of the person.

2. Safety: lower order need, includes security and protection

from physical and emotional harm.

3. Social: upper order need, includes affection, belongingness,

acceptance, and friendship. Upper order needs are satisfied
internally, that is, from within the person.

4. Esteem: upper order need, includes internal (self-respect,

autonomy, and achievement) and external (status,
recognition, and attention) esteem factors.

5. Self-actualization: upper order need, defined as the drive to

“be all one can be” it includes growth, achieving one’s
potential, and self-fulfillment.

B. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y. Douglas McGregor’s

theory proposed that there were two basic views of human Slide
nature, one essentially negative (Theory X) and the other # 5-6
positive (Theory Y). Which view a manager believed was true
would give that manager a pre-set series of assumptions and
related behaviors.

1. Theory X. In this negative view of human nature, workers

are inherently dislike work and must be directed or even
coerced into performing it.

2. Theory Y. In this positive view, employees view work as

being as natural as rest or play. Therefore, they can learn to
accept and even seek responsibility.

3. In Maslow’s terms:

a. A Theory X viewpoint means that lower-order needs

dominate individual needs.

b. A Theory Y viewpoint means that higher-order needs

dominate individual needs. Per McGregor’s guidance,
managers who hold to this view tend to use
participative decision-making, create responsible and
challenging jobs, and build good group relations in an
attempt to motivate employees.

61
 4. Unfortunately, as with Maslow’s theory, there is no
research evidence that either view of human nature is valid
or that taking actions based on Theory Y will increase
motivation in workers.

C. Herzberg’s Two-Factor (Motivation-Hygiene) Theory.

Frederick Herzberg proposed that an individual’s relation to
work is basic and that one’s attitude toward work can very well
determine success or failure. In other words, things that people
feel good about at work are motivating and those things they Exhibit
don’t feel good about are de-motivating. Exhibit
##5-2
5-2
1. In his research, Herzberg realized that the opposite of
satisfaction is not dissatisfaction; rather there are two
different factor scales, one ranging from satisfaction to no
satisfaction and the other from dissatisfaction to no
dissatisfaction. When he related a number of workplace
factors against these two scales, he realized they were very Slide
different concepts. He called the first set of factors # 5-7
motivation factors and the second hygiene factors.

a. Hygiene Factors. These workplace factors, when not

met, lead to job dissatisfaction. When they are met,
they do NOT lead to job satisfaction, but rather, to a
lack of dissatisfaction. Therefore, meeting hygiene
factors does NOT increase motivation it merely
placates the workers. Hygiene factors include quality
of supervision, pay, company policies, physical
working conditions, relations with others, and job
security.

b. Motivation Factors. These are intrinsically rewarding

factors in the work environment such as promotion and
personal growth opportunities, recognition,
responsibility, and achievement. Meeting these factors
will increase motivation by creating a satisfying work
environment.

2. As with the other two main motivational theories, this very

popular theory is also not well supported in the research
literature. There are many criticisms of the Two-Factor
Theory, mostly dealing with the methodology Herzberg
used in his initial studies.

D. McClelland's Theory of Needs. David McClelland and his

associates created a theory based on three subconscious needs: Slide
# 5-8

62
 Chapter 5: Motivation I: Basic Concepts

1. Need for Achievement (nAch): the drive to excel and to

achieve in relation to a set of standards. High achievers
perform best when they have a 50-50 chance of success.
Achievers perform best in jobs with a high degree of
personal responsibility and feedback with an intermediate
degree of risk..

a. High achievers tend to be successful entrepreneurs.

b. A high need for achievement does not necessarily mean

the person would be a good manager for larger
organizations, as his or her desire for personal
recognition supersedes his or her concern for the
organization.

2. Need for Power (nPow): the need to make others behave in

a way they would not have behaved otherwise.

3. Need for Affiliation (nAff): the desire for friendly and close
interpersonal relationships. Slide
# 5-9
4. The best managers appear to be those with a high need for
power and a low need for affiliation.

5. McClellan’s theory has the best research support, but has

the least practical effect of any of the early motivational
theories.

IV. CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Slide
Unlike the historic theories of motivation, these current theories of # 5-10
motivation do have a reasonable degree of supporting
documentation. It is important to remember that these are still
theories. None of these has been totally proven true.

E. Cognitive Evaluation Theory. This theory proposes that the Slide

introduction of extrinsic rewards, such as pay, in what was # 5-11
previously intrinsically rewarding work tends to decrease
overall motivation. The major implications of this theory relate
to work rewards.

1. Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are negatively

interconnected: as one is increased the other declines.

2. One of the implications of this theory is that a truism in

management, pay or other extrinsic rewards should be tied
to effective performance, is false. This technique will
actually decrease the internal satisfaction the employee

63
 receives from doing the job. Therefore, the cognitive
evaluation theory suggests that an individual's pay should
be non-contingent on performance, in order to maintain
maximum intrinsic motivation.

3. This is not a hard and fast rule, however. The type of

rewards makes a difference. Verbal rewards are intrinsic
and can increase intrinsic motivation, while tangible
rewards, such as pay, undermine it. Managers should
provide intrinsic rewards in addition to any extrinsic
incentives in order to make employees more motivated.

F. Goal-Setting Theory. This theory studies the effects goal Slide

specificity, challenge, and feedback has on performance. The # 5-12
study of goal setting has created the following general rules:

1. Specific goals produce a higher level of output than do

generalized goals.

2. Typically, the more difficult the goal, the higher level of

performance, assuming that goal has been accepted by the
employee. This is because:

a. Difficult goals focus attention on the task and away

from distractions.

b. Difficult goals energize employees.

c. Difficult goals tend to make people persist in efforts

toward attaining them.

d. Difficult goals force employees to discover strategies to

help them perform the task or job more effectively.

3. Feedback is important in goal-setting theory, especially

self-generated feedback.

4. The question of whether participative goal-setting increases

motivation has not yet been resolved. The assumption is
that when employees are involved in setting the goals, they
have greater buy-in and therefore will have a higher level
of commitment. When employees don’t participate in goal
setting, the manager must take pains to explain the purpose
and importance of the goal.

5. Contingencies in goal-setting theory:

64
 Chapter 5: Motivation I: Basic Concepts

a. Goal Commitment. Commitment increases when goals

are made public, when the individual has an internal
locus of control, and when goals are self-set rather than
assigned.

b. Task Characteristics. Goals are better in terms of

performance on simple rather than complex tasks, when
tasks are familiar, and when they are accomplished by a
single individual.

c. National Culture. Goal-setting theory is culture-bound.

It is important that the key components of goal-setting
theory match the culture traits.

6. Implementing Goal-Setting. Setting specific, challenging

goals for employees is the best thing managers can do to
improve performance. However, it appears that few
managers actually set goals for their employees. One of the
ways an organization can ensure this happens is through
Management by Objectives (MBO).
Slide
G. Management by Objectives (MBO). To formalize goal-
# 5-13
setting theory into an organization one of the more effective
ways to do this is through management by objectives. MBO
emphasizes participatively set goals that are tangible,
verifiable, and measurable.
Exhibit
Exhibit
MBO operationalizes the concept of objectives by devising a ##5-3
5-3
process by which objectives cascade down through the
organization. The result of MBO is a hierarchy of objectives
that build toward organizational objectives. It also provides
specific performance goals for individuals.

1. Four ingredients common to MBO programs:

a. goal specificity,

b. participation in decision-making,

c. an explicit time period, and

d. performance feedback.

2. MBO and Goal-Setting. The primary difference between

MBO programs and goal-setting theory relates to the issue
of participation. MBO strongly advocates it, while goal-
setting theory demonstrates that having managers assign
goals is usually just as effective.

65
H. Bandura's Self-Efficacy Theory (also known as "social
cognitive theory" or "social learning theory"). Typically,
people with high self-efficacy respond better to challenges and
negative feedback than those with low self-efficacy.

Self-efficacy: an individual's belief that he or she is

capable of performing a task. Slide
# 5-14
1. Goal-Setting Theory and Self-Efficacy Theory Complement
Each Other. When managers set difficult goals for
employees, this leads employees to have a higher level of
self-efficacy and they set higher goals on their own. This is Exhibit
Exhibit
because when managers set difficult goals for people, it ##5-4
5-4
communicates their confidence in those people.

2. Four Ways to Increase Self-Efficacy:

a. Enactive Mastery: gaining relevant experience with the

task or job. Past success in a task increases future
confidence.

b. Vicarious Modeling: becoming more confident because

another person is observed doing the task.

c. Verbal Persuasion: confidence gained because another

person convinces the target individual of the target's
abilities.

d. Arousal: an energized state, which may drive a person

to complete a task. Not always effective in tasks that
require detail-orientation or finesse.

3. Personality and Intelligence. While not part of self-

efficacy theory, intelligence, conscientiousness, and
emotional stability have all been shown to increase self-
efficacy. In fact, the relationship is so strong that some
researchers believe that self-efficacy itself is merely a
reflection of the effects of a highly confident personality.

I. Adams' Equity Theory. This view holds that motivation can

be affected by the comparisons employees make of their job Slide
inputs (effort, experience, education, confidence) and the job's # 5-15
outcomes (salary levels, raises, recognition) relative to the
inputs and outcomes of other employees. If the ratios of inputs
to outputs are roughly equal between employees, a state of
equity is said to exist. The situation is perceived to be fair. Exhibit
Exhibit
##5-5
5-5

66
 Chapter 5: Motivation I: Basic Concepts

However, when the ratios are seen as unequal, employees may

experience tension and emotion. Employees who believe they
are under-rewarded may be angry, while those who feel they
are over-rewarded might feel guilty. This emotional tension
provides the motivation to do something to correct the
situation.

1. Referent Comparisons. The individuals that the employees

compare themselves to (their referents) can vary widely and
add complexity to the model. The four basic comparisons
are:

a. Self-Inside: an employee's own experiences in a

different position within the current organization.

b. Self-Outside: an employee's experiences in the situation

or position outside the current organization.

c. Other-Inside: other individuals within the current

organization.

d. Other-Outside: other individuals outside the employee's

current organization.

e. Moderating Variables. The selection of which referent

to use in comparison depends upon moderating
variables such as gender. Both genders prefer same-sex
comparisons.

2. Equity Theory and Inequitable Pay. The purpose of each

of the prepositions is to bring the ratios back into balance. Slide
# 5-16
a. When paid based on time (hourly wages or salary),
over-rewarded employees will produce more than will
equitably paid employees.

b. When paid by quantity of output (piecework), over-

rewarded employees will produce fewer, but higher-
quality, units than will equitably paid employees.

c. When paid based on time, under-rewarded employees

will produce less output or output of poorer quality.

d. When paid by the piece, under-rewarded employees

will produce a large number of low quality units in
comparison with equitably paid employees.

67
 Research has shown that overpayment does not have a very
significant effect on behavior in most work situations and
that not all people are equally equity sensitive.

3. Justice and Equity. Equity is closely tied to a desire for

fairness and fairness is normally associated with justice. Slide
Four views of justice relate to equity theory. # 5-17

a. Distributive Justice. The historical type of justice used

in equity theory, distributive justice is the perceived
fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among
individuals. This form of justice is most strongly
related to satisfaction with outcomes and organizational
commitment.

b. Organizational Justice. In this, more recently accepted

view of justice, justice is the employee’s overall
perception of what is fair in the workplace.

1) One key element in organizational justice is

perception, and since we've already learned that
perception is a highly individual process, it should
be obvious that judgments of fairness in
organizations can vary significantly between
individuals.
Exhibit
2) Another important element of organizational justice Exhibit
##5-6
is that its view of justice is multidimensional. It 5-6
includes both distributive justice and procedural
justice.

c. Procedural Justice. This view of justice focuses on the

fairness of the process used to distribute rewards. The
two key elements of procedural justice are:

1) Process Control: the opportunity to present one's

point of view about desired outcomes to decision-
makers.

2) Explanations: the clear reasons given to a person by

managers for the outcome.

It is important that managers be consistent, unbiased,

use accurate information, and are open to appeals for
procedural justice to work.

In the absence of distributive justice, research has

shown that procedural justice becomes more important

68
 Chapter 5: Motivation I: Basic Concepts

to employees. The use of post-hoc excuses is more

effective than justifications.

Procedural justice relates most strongly to overall job

satisfaction, employee trust, withdrawal from the
organization, job performance, and citizenship
behaviors.

d. Interactional Justice. Defined as the individual's

perception of the degree to which he or she is treated
with dignity, concern, and respect. This is a more
interpersonal view of justice, normally related directly
between supervisor and employee.

To promote fairness in the workplace, managers should

consider openly sharing information on how allocation
decisions were made, and following consistent unbiased
procedures, to increase the perception of procedural justice.
When addressing perceived injustices, managers need to
focus their attentions on the source of the problem.

J. Vroom's Expectancy Theory. This widely accepted theory

explains motivation as a coupling of three beliefs: (1) effort
Slide
will lead to a good performance appraisal, (2) good appraisals
# 5-18
will lead to organizational rewards, and (3) organizational
rewards will satisfy the employee's personal goals. The
relationship between these three beliefs and the strength of the
links between them are the focus of this theory.

1. The Three Key Relationships:

a. Effort-Performance Relationship. The probability

perceived by the individual that exerting a given Exhibit
Exhibit
amount of effort leads to successful performance. If the ##5-7
5-7
employee believes that effort will not result in
successful performance or that the performance will not
be accurately reflected in the performance appraisal,
little effort will be expended.

b. Performance-Reward Relationship. The degree to

which the individual believes that performing at a
particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired
outcome. Unless the relationship between strong
performance appraisals and rewards is clear, little effort
will be expended to achieve those high appraisal marks.

c. Rewards-Personal Goals Relationship. The degree to

which organizational rewards satisfy an individual's

69
 personal goals (or needs) and the attractiveness of those
potential rewards for the individual. Unless
organizational rewards are tailored to individual
employee wants and needs, they will not be very
motivational and little effort will be expended.

While the research results are mixed, there is reasonable

support for this theory. It may be considered somewhat
idealistic, considering the current realities of the workplace.
This theory may explain why such a large portion of the
workforce exhibits low levels of effort in carrying out job
responsibilities as most companies do not reward for
performance.

IV. GLOBAL IMPLICATIONS

Slide
It must be noted that most motivational theories have been # 5-19
developed in the United States; based on, and for, Americans. For
instance, both goal setting and expectancy theories emphasize goal
accomplishment and rational individual thought: characteristics
consistent with U.S. culture. Other cultures that do not share the
cultural traits of the United States may not find these theories very
useful.

A. Maslow's Needs Hierarchy. In cultures that do not share

American traits, the hierarchical order of needs may be out of
sequence.

B. McClelland's Three Needs Theory. The need for

achievement presupposes certain cultural characteristics such
as moderate degree of risk acceptance and a concern with
performance. These two cultural characteristics are not
universal, and therefore the need for achievement may not be
as powerful in other cultures.

C. Adams' Equity Theory. This theory is very closely tied to

American pay practices and may not be relevant in
collectivistic or former socialistic cultures in which there is
more of a sense of entitlement or the desire to be paid based on
need rather than performance.

D. Hertzberg's Two-Factor Theory. This theory does show

some cross-cultural consistency. The desire for interesting
work, growth, achievement, and responsibility, all intrinsic
motivation factors in Hertzberg's theory, do seem to be
supported across a number of cultures.

V. IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS Slide

# 5-20

70
 Chapter 5: Motivation I: Basic Concepts

A. An important consideration for managers when reviewing these

motivational theories is to determine their relevance, which
outcomes they are measuring or influencing, and their relative
predictive power.

1. Need Theories (Maslow, Hertzberg, and McClelland). In

general, need theories are not very valid explanations of
motivation, although McClellan’s theory of the relationship
between achievement and productivity comes the closest.
Maslow’s theory, although popular, is not particularly
useful.

2. Goal-Setting Theory. This theory is very effective in

explaining the effect of clear and difficult goals and
productivity.

3. Equity Theory/Organizational Justice. While this theory

does address a number of managerial concerns, the primary
aid to managers is an understanding of the more supported
concept of organizational justice.

4. Expectancy Theory. A relatively powerful tool to explain

employee productivity, absenteeism, and turnover.
However, it may not be directly applicable as many of its
assumptions, similar to those of the rational model of
decision-making, are not very realistic.

B. Overall, motivation theories of the most research, and the most

recent support, probably deserve the most attention by
managers. Fortunately, these theories (goal-setting,
organizational justice, and expectancy) do contain within them
practical suggestions for how to make workplaces more
motivating.

C. Keep in Mind… Slide

# 5-21
 Managers should make goals specific and difficult.

 Managers can increase motivation by increasing employee

confidence in their abilities (self-efficacy).

 Managers should openly share information on allocation Slide

decisions, especially when the outcome is likely to be # 5-22
viewed negatively.

Discussion Questions
1. Describe the three key elements of motivation.

71
 Answer: The three key elements of motivation are: (1) intensity: how much effort
a person puts forth to meet a goal, (2) direction: efforts are channeled toward
organizational goals, and (3) persistence: how long a person maintains effort
toward a goal.

2. Describe one of the four early theories of motivation and evaluate its applicability
today.

Answer: Answers will vary depending on which of the four theories (Maslow,
McGregor, Hertzberg, or McClelland) is selected. Maslow, Hertzberg, and
McClelland are generally not very valid explanations of motivation, although
McClellan’s theory of the relationship between achievement and productivity
comes the closest. Both Maslow’s and McGregor's theories, although popular,
are not particularly useful or supported by literature.

3. Describe the relationship between goal-setting theory and self-efficacy theory.

Answer: Goal-setting theory and self-efficacy theory complement each other.

When managers set difficult goals for employees, this leads employees to have a
higher level of self-efficacy and they set higher goals on their own. This is
because when managers set difficult goals for people, it communicates their
confidence in those people.

4. Explain why organizational justice can be considered a refinement of equity

theory.

Answer: Equity is closely tied to a desire for fairness and fairness is normally
associated with justice. Of the four views of justice, one relates closely to equity
theory: organizational justice. In this view of justice, justice is the employee’s
overall perception of what is fair in the workplace. It’s view of justice is
multidimensional and includes both distributive justice and procedural justice.

5. Describe the key relationships in expectancy theory.

Answer: There are three key relationships in expectancy theory:

a. Effort-Performance Relationship. Defined as the probability perceived by

the individual that exerting a given amount of effort leads to successful
performance. If the employee believes that effort will not result in
successful performance or that the performance will not be accurately
reflected in the performance appraisal, little effort will be expended.

b. Performance-Reward Relationship. The degree to which the individual

believes that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of
a desired outcome. Unless the relationship between strong performance
appraisals and rewards is clear, little effort will be expended to achieve
those high appraisal marks.

72
 Chapter 5: Motivation I: Basic Concepts

c. Rewards-Personal Goals Relationship. The degree to which

organizational rewards satisfy an individual's personal goals or needs and
the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual. Unless
organizational rewards are tailored to individual employee wants and
needs, they will not be very motivational and little effort will be expended.

6. How are motivational theories culturally bound?

Answer: The motivational theories described in the text were created out of the
U.S. culture and significantly reflect its values. For instance, both goal setting
and expectancy theories emphasize goal accomplishment and rational individual
thought. Maslow's hierarchy may not appear in the same order in other cultures.
McClelland's need for achievement presupposes a cultural desire for a moderate
degree of risk acceptance and a concern with performance. Adams' equity theory
is very closely tied to American pay practices and may not be relevant in
collectivistic or former socialistic cultures in which there is more of a sense of
entitlement or the desire to be paid based on need rather than performance.

Exercises
1. Self-analysis. After reviewing all of the motivational theories of this chapter,
select the one you believe to be the most accurate in describing human behavior.
Justify your selection and describe how the motivational theory would explain the
actions you have taken in your own life.

2. Web Crawling. Using your favorite search engine, find webpages that relate to
McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y. Read five of the most interesting pages.
What overall impressions do you get on the perceived validity of this theory on
those pages? Did everyone explain the theory in the same way? What may have
caused the differences if there were any?

3. Teamwork. In small groups, discuss the motivations that each of you had when
you made the decision to attend this college and this class in particular. Were
they the same motivations? What motivates you to expend more effort in this
class? What motivates you to continue to attend college and expend the effort
necessary to graduate?

As a group, decide which motivational theory best fits the results of your
discussion. Be ready to give a short description of the most common motivators
found in your group. Justify your application of the chosen motivational theory.

What motivational suggestions would your team make to your professor or the
college administrators to increase the likelihood of student performance, that is,
successful graduation or increased study?

4. Analyzing Your Organization (Cumulative Project) . Discuss with your manager

the various motivational theories outlined in this chapter. Interview the manager

73
 to determine his or her beliefs regarding the validity of each of these theories.
How might these beliefs affect organizational effectiveness? Be prepared to
present your findings either orally in class or as a paper.

5. An Application of Motivation—MBO. Instructor notes: The goal here is to help

students apply MBO. The emphasis should be on creating measurable realistic
objectives. You may wish to use this as part of your grading for the course by
holding the students accountable for their objectives at the end of the term.

Review the principles of MBO with the class. Carefully describe the nature of
effective outcomes. The criteria for effective objectives are that they should be
specific, challenging, and measurable. Generalized outcomes, with no means of
measuring their accomplishment, should not be accepted.

As writing effective objectives is quite often a difficult task for both students and
managers, it is strongly recommended that the first objective is written as a class
activity. Typically, the students’ first version of an objective is “Get an A in the
course.” Be gentle as you point out why this is not an effective objective.

Assignment:

a. Review the course objectives (outcomes) as given in the course materials.

b. Create five personal objectives relating to the successful completion of

this course’s objectives. Submit the objectives to your instructor, retaining
a copy for yourself.

c. In small groups, share your objectives and discuss. Present the five best
objectives from the group to the class.

d. At the end of the course, when the instructor directs, write a short paper
describing how well you believe you have met your own objectives.

74