Lung Structure

 The lungs are enclosed in the thorax (chest region).

 They have a spongy texture and can be expanded and compressed by movements of the thorax in such a way
that air is sucked in and blown out.
 The lungs are joined to the back of the mouth by the windpipe or trachea (Figure 1).
 The trachea divides into two smaller tubes, called bronchi (singular = bronchus), which enter the lungs and
divide into even smaller branches.
 When these branches are only about 0.2mm in diameter, they are called bronchioles (Figure 3(a)).
 These fine branches end in a mass of little, thin-walled, pouch-like air sacs called alveoli (Figures 3(b), (c)).
 The epiglottis and other structures at the top of the trachea stop food and drink from entering the air
passages when we swallow.

Figure 1: Diagram of lungs, showing position of heart

Figure 2 shows a section through the thorax.

The ribs, shown in cross section, form a cage, which has two main functions:

i. to protect the lungs and heart

ii. to move and ventilate the lungs.
Figure 2: Section through the thorax

 The alveoli have thin elastic walls, formed from a single-cell layer or epithelium.
 Beneath the epithelium is a dense network of capillaries (Figure 3(c)) supplied with deoxygenated blood.
 This blood, from which the body has taken oxygen, is pumped from the right ventricle, through the
pulmonary artery.
 In humans, there are about 350 million alveoli, with a total absorbing surface of about 90m2.
 This large absorbing surface makes it possible to take in oxygen and give out carbon dioxide at a rate to meet
the body’s needs
Figure 3: Lung Structure

Gaseous exchange
 Ventilation refers to the movement of air into and out of the lungs.
 Gaseous exchange refers to the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide, which takes place between the air
and the blood vessels in the lungs.
 The 1.5 litres of residual air in the alveoli is not exchanged during ventilation and oxygen has to reach the
capillaries by the slower process of diffusion.
 Figure 4 shows how oxygen reaches the red blood cells and how carbon dioxide escapes from the blood.
 The oxygen combines with the haemoglobin in the red blood cells, forming oxyhaemoglobin.
 The carbon dioxide in the plasma is released when the hydrogencarbonate ions (—HCO3) break down to CO2
and H2O.

Figure 4: Gaseous exchange in the alveolus

 The capillaries carrying oxygenated blood from the alveoli join up to form the pulmonary vein, which returns
blood to the left atrium of the heart.
 From here it enters the left ventricle and is pumped all around the body, so supplying the tissues with
oxygen.
 Table 1 shows changes in the composition of air as it is breathed in and out.
Table 1: Changes in composition of breathed air

 Sometimes the word respiration or respiratory is used in connection with breathing.

 The lungs, trachea and bronchi are called the respiratory system; a person’s rate of breathing may be called
his or her respiration rate.
 This use of the word should not be confused with the biological meaning of respiration, namely the release
of energy in cells.
 This chemical process is sometimes called tissue respiration or internal respiration to distinguish it from
breathing.

Lung capacity and breathing rate

 The total volume of the lungs when fully inflated is about 5 litres in an adult.
 However, in quiet breathing, when asleep or at rest, you normally exchange only about 500cm3.
 During exercise you can take in and expel an extra 3 litres.
 There is a residual volume of 1.5 litres, which cannot be expelled no matter how hard you breathe out.
 At rest, you normally inhale and exhale about 12 times per minute.
 During exercise, the breathing rate may rise to over 20 breaths per minute and the depth also increases.

Breathing rate and exercise

 The increased rate and depth of breathing during exercise allows more oxygen to dissolve in the blood and
supply the active muscles.
 The extra carbon dioxide that the muscles put into the blood is detected by the brain, which instructs the
intercostal muscles and diaphragm muscles to contract and relax more rapidly, increasing the breathing rate.
 Carbon dioxide will be removed by the faster, deeper breathing.