Module 4 - notes

In the past 20 years, neuroimaging has revolutionized the study of cognition and aging.
Neuroimaging refers to a variety of techniques for investigating the brain, in both
humans and animals, and includes structural methods and functional methods.
Furthermore, Neuroimaging studies have led to the development of certain cognitive
models, such as HAROLD, CRUNCH, and STAC.

Structural Methods
Structural methods include computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI). These show a snapshot of the structure of the brain in time and can
demonstrate changes with age such as atrophy. They can also show certain types of
pathology, such as white matter disease.

Functional Methods
Functional methods include functional MRI (fMRI), positron emission tomography (PET),
single-photon emission computerized tomography (SPECT), near-infrared
spectroscopic imaging (NIRSI), and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). These show the
functioning of the brain in real time, either at rest or in response to a task. However,
“real time” is relative, because the signals of these various methods are not necessarily
instantaneous, but they may be showing activity from a few seconds prior. Of the
functional methods, fMRI is the most widely used and researched.

HAROLD (hemispheric asymmetry reduction in older adults)

The level of bilateral activations in the prefrontal cortex of aging brains demonstrates
compensatory processes for numerous cognitive tasks.

CRUNCH (compression-related utilization of neural circuit hypothesis)

More activation is seen on easy tasks, while equal or less activation is seen on difficult
tasks.

STAC (scaffolding theory of cognitive aging)

Compensatory scaffolding (i.e., recruiting of additional brain circuitry) allows
performance on various cognitive tasks to be maintained
4.2

The following figure shows the anatomy of the human brain. As we age, the frontal
lobes, hippocampus (in the temporal lobe), and parietal lobes are particularly vulnerable
to decline, which affects cognitive abilities such as executive functions and episodic
memory. Research varies as to why the brain changes and shrinks with age. It is due to
neuronal loss, loss of glial cells, reduced myelination, and a decrease in white matter
volume. Changes in neurotransmitters, most notably dopamine, serotonin, and
acetylcholine also occur with age.

B. Cognitive Reserve
Cognitive reserve (CR) was a concept that developed after numerous studies showed
the discrepancy between brain damage and cognitive/functional abilities. Two people
with similar levels of brain pathology can show significantly different levels of function.
Factors affecting CR are thought to include education, complex work experiences, and
an active lifestyle, although education is often the most common proxy measure. One
can contribute to CR throughout life. CR is believed to be one factor that can act as a
buffer against cognitive decline.

C. Effects of Bilingualism on Cognitive Reserve

Bilingualism can contribute to CR and is associated with better executive functions and
decreased risk of Alzheimer’s disease.

4.3
A. Overview of Memory and Changes in Normal Aging
There are many different aspects of memory, including sensory memory, short-term
memory (working memory), and long-term memory.

Sensory memory uses attentional processes to receive information and then to pass it
onto our short-term (working) memory. Sensory memory cannot be controlled and lasts
only a few seconds. Sensory memory is not strongly affected by age.
Short-term (working) memory refers to the active processes and structures that hold
information in mind and use it, sometimes in conjunction with incoming information, to
solve a problem, make a decision, or learn new information. Information in short-term
memory can last for about 20 and has a limited-span capacity, where only a few items
can be processed at once. It involves mental manipulation and consolidation/transfer of
information to long-term memory.

Long-term memory refers to multiple brain systems that work together to allow us to
remember extensive amounts of information over a few seconds to a few hours to
decades. The information can be classified as episodic (i.e., events) and semantic (i.e.,
information and facts). These are discussed in more detail in the next section.

Baddeley’s (2000) model in the figure below is highly influential. According to the model,
the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad are workers. The episodic buffer holds
information from the workers and from long-term memory. The central executive
controls and coordinates the other three components of working memory.

Short-term (working) memory has been heavily researched over the years. In general,
there are few, if any, changes in the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, and
the episodic buffer with age. However, short-term memory is affected by aging, largely
through declines in the central executive function over time, resulting in declines across
a range of cognitive tasks.

Not all forms of attention are affected similarly by age. Differences vary depending on
information provided, task type and complexity, gender, and life experience. For
example, some research suggests that declines in selective attention are due to general
slowing of processing speed. Furthermore, older adults have greater difficulty with
divided attention (i.e., doing more than one thing at once). In terms of task type, older
adults perform normally on simple sustained attention tasks, but they make more
omission and commission errors on more complex sustained attention tasks relative to
younger adults. In general, episodic memory declines more notably, whereas semantic
memory does not decline per se but information can be difficult to retrieve.

Declines in working memory have implications for everyday function. Many complex
cognitive tasks depend on the central executive for managing and coordinating the
different components of the task. For example, working memory is needed for everyday
abilities such as managing finances, shopping, and cooking, as well as for everyday
activities such as following spoken directions, actively participating in group discussion,
and organizing materials and activities.

B. Organizing Memory
As depicted in the figure below, long-term memory can be organized into implicit and
explicit memory. From there, explicit memory can be divided into the procedural memory
and declarative memory. Declarative memory further divides into episodic memory and
semantic memory (introduced in the section above).

Implicit memory refers to an unintended change in task performance that is due to

exposure to information at an earlier point in time. For example, you may know words in
another language because of exposure to them on television, even though you did not
explicitly try to learn the words. Although research results are mixed, this type of
memory is generally spared from age-related declines.
Explicit memory is deliberate and conscious remembering of information learned and
remembered at a specific time. Procedural memory refers to conscious memory for
procedures, such as how to ride a bike or do laundry (i.e., skills). Declarative memory
refers to memory for facts and events. These can be episodic or semantic.

Episodic memory is memory of information from a specific event or time (e.g., what you
did on spring break). Semantic memory concerns learning and remembering the
meaning of words and concepts that are not tied to specific occurrences of events in
time (e.g., knowing definitions of words).

C. Source of Age Differences in Memory

Because most activities we perform fall into episodic memory, it is the most researched
area of memory. Research often involves learning information and then recalling or
recognizing it at a later point. Recall involves remembering information without hints or
cues (i.e., an essay exam). Age differences are large for recall, with 80% of adults in
their 20s outperforming adults in their 70s. Recognition involves selecting previously
learned information from among several items (i.e., a multiple-choice exam). Age
differences are small for recognition. However, older adults are more likely to accept
never presented items, especially if they are conceptually or perceptually similar. Older
adults also are less spontaneous in their memory strategy use but do effectively when
instructed. Age differences can be reduced by slowing the presentation pace, providing
time to practice, and using familiar stimuli.

There appears to be very small changes in semantic memory with increased age. There
are no differences in language comprehension, structures of knowledge, and activation
of general knowledge, partly due to the ability to draw on prior experience, which taxes
working memory less. The main issue is accessibility, such as difficulty finding words.

D. Remote/Autobiographical Memory
Remote memory refers to information that is kept for a very long time, such things as
facts learned early, meanings of words, and past experiences. As shown in the diagram
below, they include flashbulb and autobiographical memories. Flashbulb memories are
remembered well because they are personally relevant or highly unusual, novel, or
emotional (e.g., September 11th).

Autobiographical memories involve aspects of remote memory based on events from

one's own life. Episodic autobiographical memory is conscious recollection of temporal
and spatial events from one's past (e.g., graduation). Semantic autobiographical
memory consists of knowledge and facts of one's past without having to remember
exactly when it occurred and in what order (e.g., past address).
For older adults, episodic details are more difficult to remember than semantic details.
Older adults have less vivid recollections of their past, but general memory of real-life
events contain more personal thoughts and feelings and are rated as more interesting.

E. Age Differences in Encoding and Retrieval

Research suggests age-related decrements in encoding, not in storage. Elaborative
rehearsal involves making connections between incoming information and information
already known. Age-related losses may be due to difficulty making connections with
incoming information. However, once connections are made, they are maintained at the
same rate as younger adults.

F. Strategies, Retrieval, and Misinformation

When we must remember large amounts of information, we tend to use strategies that
make the task easier and increase the efficiency of storage. Two effective strategies
include organizing the information and establishing links to help remember the
information. Older adults do not actively do either as well as younger adults.

Age-related differences occur at both encoding and retrieval, with encoding problems
being especially important. Tip-of-the-tongue and feeling-of-knowing states are more
likely to occur in older adults after failure to retrieve information.

In terms of misinformation, source information refers to the ability to remember the

source of a familiar event and whether the event was imagined or actually experienced,
which decline with age. False memory involves remembering items or events that did
not occur. False fame effect refers to when a previously observed nonfamous name is
mistakenly identified as a famous name during testing. Both forms of misinformation
occur more often with older adults.

G. Memory of Discourse
Discourse collectively includes reading books, magazine, newspapers, and pamphlets
and watching television and movies. It is investigated at two levels of linguistic structure
of the text: basic and situation model. The basic level involves specific propositions (i.e.,
each basic idea represented in the text), some of which may be central to the story and
some less important. The situation model level is a higher level of processing where
people use their world knowledge to construct a global understanding of the text.

Regarding text-based levels, older adults recall similar levels of main ideas as young
adults when the text is clearly organized and when the structure and the main ideas are
clearly emphasized. However, there are observed deficits under specific conditions:
higher presentation speeds, highly unpredictable or unorganized material, and highly
dense in propositions. Age-related slowing in cognitive processing explains much of
these differences. Prior beliefs about material may also make it more difficult to learn
and remember elements of text.

Situation models include features besides text-based information, such as emotional

information, goals, and personality characteristics of main characters as well as spatial
relationships among the people, objects, and events described. The model is influenced
by the reader’s characteristics, such as biases, social context during recall, and
personal motivations for remembering or forgetting certain pieces of information. Older
and younger adults construct and update situation models similarly.

H. Memory in Everyday Life

In unfamiliar environments, older adults are poorer at learning routes than younger
adults. In familiar environments, older and younger adults are equally able to learn a
route, but gender and age differences appear when people use maps. Older men do
more poorly when provided no aids, but with a map they are no different from younger
men. Older women do more poorly when they used a map, but there are no differences
between younger and older women when the map is labeled a diagram.

Prospective memory involves remembering to perform a planned action in the future,

such as taking medication. Event-based prospective memory is an action that is taken
when a certain external event happens, such as clapping at the end of a performance.
Time-based prospective memory involves performing an action after a fixed amount of
time or a fixed point in time, such as going to a monthly committee meeting. Age
differences are less likely on event-based prospective memory because there are more
contextual cues present compared to time-based prospective memory tasks, which
often rely on memory aids, such as calendar entries and reminders.

Memory of pictures is worse for older adults for some types of pictures, including faces
and objects placed in a colored three-dimensional array or on a distinctive map. To
compensate, older adults are more likely to rely on schemas to help them remember
scenes, especially disorganized scenes.

4.4

Vocabulary tends to maintain or accumulate over the lifespan, due to increased

semantic knowledge. However, there are some age-related declines in language ability
regarding word-finding, sentence complexity, and elderspeak.

A. Word-finding Difficulties
Word-finding difficulty, also known as “tip-of-the-tongue”, is one of the most common
age-related changes. Older adults report about twice as many word-finding difficulties
as younger adults, and they tend to use circumlocutions (i.e., talking around a topic) to
compensate for not being able to come up with the right word.

B. Sentence Complexity
Sentences complexity seems to decline, possibly due to a decline in working memory.
Having lots of clauses in a sentence can be mentally taxing, requiring the listener (or
speaker) to keep multiple pieces of information in mind while the sentence is produced.

C. Sentence Complexity
Elderspeak is a stereotyped way of speaking to older adults, akin to “baby talk”, which
involves slow speaking, exaggerated intonation, simplified vocabulary and grammar,
and a higher pitch. Although using elderspeak may be well-meaning, older adults report
that it feels patronizing, degrading, demeaning, and disrespectful. It assumes or implies
cognitive impairment or significant communication problems.

4.5

Training programs have been designed to improve cognitive functioning in later life.
Cognitive training programs involve directed practice of specific cognitive tasks as a
method to improve or prevent age-related cognitive decline in older adults. Cognitive
stimulation programs are designed to increase general cognitive functioning. Training is
often used in healthy older adults and stimulation is often used in individuals with more
significant cognitive impairment, such as dementia.

The ACTIVE study (Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly) is a
well-known cognitive training program conducted in the US. The ACTIVE study focused
on memory, processing speed, and reasoning in community-dwelling older adults. The
findings showed that this training improved cognitive skills in these targeted domains
but this training did not transfer to other cognitive domains. Nonetheless, these
improvements could still be observed up to five years later in many of the participants.

Evidence of program effectiveness and transfer of training is inconsistent and often

limited to very similar tasks as those on which the person was trained (i.e., near
transfer), but the training rarely transfers to daily functioning (i.e., far transfer). Findings
are mixed in part because the methods, duration, and dose of these interventions vary
so dramatically across studies, making general conclusions difficult to reach.

A. Effects of Lifestyle Factors on Cognition

It is well-known that healthy living improves cognitive functioning over the lifespan. This
includes moderate activity and a balanced diet, both of which are largely in our control.
4.6

A. What is Intelligence?
According to Wechsler (1939), intelligence is an individual’s overall capacity to act
purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with situations.

B. A Few Key Theories of Intelligence

The psychometric approach assumes that intelligence can be measured. For example,
Spearman’s G suggests that all mental tests measure a global general intellectual ability
(G) as well as specific cognitive skills (Spearman, 1904). The Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is one of the most widely used measures of intelligence used
by neuropsychologists and clinical psychologists during assessments. It measures
verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, processing speed, and working memory
and provides and Intelligence quotient (IQ) score for each.

Thurstone (1938) argued that G was a statistical artifact, and that intelligence consisted
of the following seven primary mental abilities:

Word fluency – expressing oneself easily and articulately

Verbal comprehension – understanding words

Spatial visualization – organizing and manipulating spatial patterns

Numerical ability – understanding basic math

Memory – recalling previously experienced or learned information

Reasoning – thinking logically

Perceptual speed – performing cognitive tasks efficiently

Comparatively, Gardner (1983) outlined multiple intelligences, which includes eight
types of intelligence that go beyond traditional ways of considering intelligence. The
eight factors include interpersonal, visual-spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic,
intrapersonal, verbal-linguistic, logical-mathematical, and naturalistic intelligence.

Raymond Cattell and John Horn argued that G should be divided into secondary mental
abilities of fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence. Fluid intelligence refers to
abilities needed for problem-solving in novel situations. Crystallized intelligence refers to
accumulated skills, knowledge, and life experience, influenced by culture.

Over time, the model was revised and has come to be known as the Cattell-Horn-Carroll
(CHC) model of intelligence. It has had tremendous influence over the study of
intelligence. Many psychologists today believe that the CHC model of intelligence is the
most comprehensive and empirically supported psychometric theory of the structure of
cognitive abilities to date. The model is shown in the following figure.
C. Does Intelligence Change with Age?
Studies consistently show declines in fluid and increases in crystallized intelligence over
the lifespan, with only modest declines in crystallized intelligence after age 70, if at all.
These findings have come to be known as the classic aging pattern. The general
consensus among researchers is that fluid intelligence is influenced by biology and
therefore subject to early decline, whereas crystallized abilities are acquired through
experience, learning, and culture, and are thought to grow and develop with age.

D. Cohort Differences in Intellectual Abilities

The Seattle Longitudinal Study (SLS) is a landmark research study first initiated in 1956
by K. Warner Schaie. It assesses changes in performance on intelligence tests
associated with age. Data collection is ongoing and occurs every seven years. To date,
over 6000 adults from 22 to over 100 years of age have participated in the study. The
following figures show changes over time in various mental abilities for two different
cohorts.

Study results over the years have consistently shown that there is no uniform pattern of
age-related decline in intellectual abilities. While the findings did lend support to the
classic aging pattern, the rate of decline in fluid intelligence was much slower than
originally thought. Furthermore, there were significant individual differences in
performance across measures of both fluid and crystallized intelligence.

E. Factors That Can Affect Intelligence Scores in Older Adults

Health in late life can impact intelligence. Terminal drop refers to a rapid decline in
cognitive function immediately prior to death. Regardless of age, lower IQ scores are
associated with cardiovascular disease, obesity, and stroke.

F. Variables Associated with the Maintenance of Intelligence

Beyond health, other factors related to the maintenance of intelligence in late life include
high socioeconomic status, engagement in stimulating environments, high intellectual
status of spouse, strong social connections, high levels of processing speed, positive
beliefs, a flexible attitude, and high openness to experience.

There are various reasons for why intelligence influences mortality. It could be that
individuals with higher intelligence engage in more healthful behaviors. Conversely,
individuals with lower IQ test scores likely experience numerous disadvantages all
through their lives that contribute to an increased rate of mortality. Interestingly, the
effects of social class, income, and the role of education, when adjusted statistically,
have been shown to reduce (but not eliminate) the effect of intelligence on mortality.
However, this finding is being debated by other researchers. However, we still don’t fully
understand the relationship of intelligence and mortality, nor do we fully understand the
direction of causality.

4.7
Although all of the stages have been highly influential, recently researchers have
proposed the idea of post-formal thought as an entirely different adult stage of cognitive
development. This stage involves greater tolerance for ambiguity and incorporation of
emotion into thinking. There have been limited studies investigating post-formal thinking
abilities, and there is some controversy regarding the theoretical definition of concepts.

King and colleagues have identified a systematic progression of reflective judgment that
begins in young adulthood. This is a stage model in which there are seven distinct but
developmentally related sets of assumptions about the process of knowing and how
knowing is acquired. As an individual moves throughout each stage, knowledge of what
is true becomes less certain. The seven stages are summarized into three distinct levels
of thinking. Specifically, pre-reflective thinkers (stages 1 to 3) tend to be
black-and-white. Quasi-reflective thinkers (stages 4 and 5) understand knowledge can
be subjective, and judgments are highly personal. Reflective thinkers (stages 6 and 7)
recognize that knowledge claims cannot be made with certainty. Beliefs are fluid and
receptive to revision based on further accumulation of knowledge and experience.

4.8

A. Variations in the Definition of Wisdom

There is no single consensus definition of wisdom. In turn, this makes measuring it
equally challenging. Personal wisdom has cognitive, reflective, and affective
components (Ardelt, 2015). General wisdom refers to wisdom concerning life in general.

B. Does Wisdom Increase With Age?

Although there is a stereotype that wisdom increases with age, the research does not
necessarily support this belief.

C. Measuring Wisdom
Wisdom can be measured across multiple dimensions, including cognitive, reflective,
and affective dimensions. Each dimension is described as follows.
The cognitive dimension considers a need for a deep and thorough understanding of
both interpersonal and intrapersonal aspects of life, while recognizing that knowledge
has its limits. An individual is very much aware of, and accepts, both the positive and
negative aspects of human nature.

The reflective dimension enables profound insight and ability to self-reflect or perceive
events from multiple viewpoints. Individuals learn to control their feelings through the
practice of self-examination and self-awareness and, little by little, rise above their
subjectivity and the tendency to blame external factors for one’s shortcomings. This
does not mean that wise individuals hold back or deny negative emotions; rather, they
are able to acknowledge, regulate, and eventually dissolve negative emotions.

The affective dimension includes empathy, social connectedness, and generativity. This
dimension essentially represents how wise one feels about the circumstances of others
as well as their own circumstances, particularly in relation to accomplishments.

It is unclear which dimension of wisdom is the most important. The level of importance
may differ across culture or context. Overall, wisdom is not just an internal process.
Jeste and Oswald (2014) argue that wise individuals both think and act wisely.