SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE GOVERNMENT & POLITICS

1. ALL POLITICAL STRUCTURES-The scope of comparative politics includes the study of all the formal and
informal, governmental and extragovernmental, which are directly or indirectly involved in the struggle for power
taking place in each state. it is not confined only to the study of the three formal governmental organs-legislature,
executive and judiciary.

2. Functional Studies• Comparative Politics seeks to study politics less from the point of view of the legal
institutions in terms of their powers, and more from the point of view of the functions which constitute the political
process and their actual operation in the environment.

3. STUDY OF POLITICAL BEHAVIOR:is the study of the actual behavior of the people in the process of politics. Voting
behavior, political participation, leadership recruitment, elite behavior, mass politics, populism etc. Form an integral
part of comparative politics.

4. Study of Similarities and Differences:Comparative Politics also undertakes an analysis of the similarities and
differences among political processes and functions. However, the approach is not descriptive, legalistic and
formalistic. It is on the basis of the actual functioning of political structures and processes that the similarities and
dissimilarities are empirically explained, analyzed and compared

5. Study of all Political Systems:• Comparative Politics seeks to analyze the actual behavior and performance of
political systems-Western as well as non-Western. Political Systems are analyzed and compared in terms of their
structures, functions, capabilities and performances. Here again, the objective is not to decide which political
system is the best. The actual working of various political systems is analyzed with a view to gather systematic
knowledge for theorybuilding

6.Study of the Environment and Infrastructure of Politics The study of Politics demands a study of the
psychological, sociological, economic and anthropological environment, in fact, the social environment as whole, in
which each political system operates. For studying this, modern political scientists have developed concepts like
political culture, political socialization, political modernization etc.

7. Study of Political Culture:Political Culture is composed of attitudes, beliefs, emotions and values of a society
that relate to the political system and to political issues. These beliefs and values greatly influence the functioning of
each political system.

8. Study of Political Socialization:Political Socialization is the process by which an individual acquires his Political
Culture. It is also included in the scope of comparative politics because the behavior of each political system
depends to a large extent on this process. It is the process by which Political Cultures are maintained and changed.

9. Study of Political Participation:Political participation is a universal fact. The only difference is that in some
states, it is limited while in others it is wider. Political participation provides legitimacy to the government and
administration, and brings stability in it because a system which is based on the consent and will of the people and
where the participation of the people is wider, always more efficient and stable.

11. Study of Power, Influence, Authority and Legitimacy :Modern political scientists lay special emphasis on
the study of ‘Power.’ ‘Influence’, ‘Authority’ and Legitimacy. They use these concepts for a classification of political
systems on the basis of the nature of authority relations and struggle for power. As such, the study of the concepts
of Power, Influence, Legitimacy and Authority occupies an important place in the scope of Comparative Politics.

12. Study of Political Processes:Political processes like Decision-making, Policymaking, Judicial Process,
Leadership recruitment process and others, are always at work in all political systems. The actual working of a
political system depends upon these processes. Therefore, a comparative study of allthe political processes is also
an integral part of the scope of Comparative Politics.
Executive Order No. 292 [BOOK II/Chapter 1-Basic Principles and Policies]
• Signed on July 25, 1987
• BOOK II
• Distribution of Powers of Government

• CHAPTER 1

• Basic Principles and Policies

• SECTION 1. Guiding Principles and Policies in Government.—Government power shall be exercised in accordance
with the following basic principles and policies:

• (1) The Philippines is a democratic and republican State. Sovereignty resides in the people and all government
authority emanates from them.
(2) The State values the dignity of every human person and guarantees full respect for human rights.
(3) Civilian authority is, at all times, supreme over the military.
(4) The State shall ensure the autonomy of local governments.
(5) The territorial and political subdivisions of the Republic of the Philippines are the provinces, cities, municipalities,
and barangays. There shall be autonomous regions, in accordance with the Constitution, in Muslim Mindanao and
the Cordilleras as may be provided by law.
(6) The separation of Church and State shall be inviolable.
(7) The right of the people and their organizations to effective and reasonable participation at all levels of social,
political, and economic decision-making shall not be abridged. The State shall, by law, facilitate the establishment of
adequate consultation mechanisms.
(8) The powers expressly vested in any branch of the Government shall not be exercised by, nor delegated to, any
other branch of the Government, except to the extent authorized by the Constitution.

• Executive Order No. 292

1. The Role of Assessment in the Teaching Social Sciences

• Formative assessment - a planned, ongoing process used byall students and teachers duringlearning and teaching
to elicit anduse evidence of student learning to improve studentunderstandingof intended disciplinary learning
outcomes and support students tobecome self-directed learners. Itguides future teaching by pinpointing areas
needing improvement.
• Informal assessments - are non-standardized measures thatare often personalized to the studentand shapes
ongoing instructions through real-time students understanding.

• Immediate feedback - quickly assesses undunderstanding, providing on the spot guidance.

• Ongoing feedback - In teaching social sciences is crucial forstudent development. It provides timelyinsights into
individual progress, allowing educators to address misconceptions, adaptteachingmethods, and foster a dynamic
learning environment.
• Summative assessments - Exams or projects, serve to evaluate students' overall understanding ofsocial science
concepts.They help measure the effectiveness of teaching methods andprovide asnapshot of students' knowledge
at the end of a learningperiod.
• Checklist assessments - Valuable tools for tracking specificskills or criteria in social sciences. Theyoffer a structured
way to assess students' performance against predefined benchmarks, aiding educators in identifying areas of
strength and areas that mayneed further attention.

2.Recent Trends in Classroom Assessment

In 1994, NCSS published Expectations of Excellence: Curriculum Standards for Social Studies, whichidentified ten
thematic strands with accompanying performance expectations for students beginning in the earlygrades. These
standards have served as one of the stimuli for the development of more specific standards in several states .The
net results are that social studies is receiving more visibility beginning in the early grades,and high-stakes testing is
being considered beginning at about the fourth grade. Although standardized testsare sometimes used in
preschool, kindergarten, and first grade to help determine whether children are admittedto programs, promoted,
place in transitional classrooms, or retained, most assessment in early elementarysocial studies continues to be less
formal and conducted to generate information about student learning thatmight lead to improvement of social
studies instruction.

Goal-Oriented Practices
To maintain the momentum for teaching and learning in early elementary social studies, teachers need todevelop
appropriate goals, align these goals with the standards established by NCSS and other professionalorganizations,
and integrate assessment as an ongoing curricular initiative. Alternative assessment practices that require little or
no reliance on pencil-and-paper testing are the most reasonable for early elementary students who are limited in
their reading and writing competencies. They also are the most congruent withstudents’ instructional exper- iences
in the early grades. Students in these grades have opport- unities to learn ingroups, manipulate materials, share
ideas, ask questions, and participate in multisensory experiences in aneffort to construct their own meaning. A
variety of instruments and approaches are needed to measure therange of knowledge, skills, and attitudes, and to
capture the classroom experiences of the students examined

Activities for Instruction and Assessment

Different forms and times for assessment should be determined by the purpose of the learning situation, thekind of
information required, and how it will be used to accomplish social studies goals. Learning activities,especially in the
early grades, play an important role: they are both curriculum components that need to beassessed as such and
mechanisms for eliciting indicators of student learning. We use the term activities to referto the full range of
classroom tasks, activities, and assignments that students are expected to do in order tolearn, practice, apply,
evaluate, or in any other way respond to curriculum content. Activities may call for speech(recitation,
discussion,role playing), writing (short answers, longer compositions as students acquire thenecessary
competencies), or other kinds of goal-oriented action. They may be done in whole class,small- group, or individual
settings, and teachers need to be mindful of the settings when interpreting students’responses. For example, in
small groups, are students merely imitating peers, or has the group stimulated theirthinking and enabled them to
produce something more sophisticated than they would have if working alone?Conversely,might an independent
assessment activity have been unexpectedly difficult for some studentsbecause the learning opportunities that led
up to it were done in group settings? These questions are particularly pertinent for the primary grades because so
much of teac- hing and learning is done in whole class orsmall groups. Guiding Principles for Creating Assessment
Tools
Guiding principles that we have adopted in creating alternative assessment tools for our curricular units are
asfollows:
• Assessment is considered an integral part of the curriculum and instruction process.
• Assessment is viewed as a thread that is woven into the curriculum, beginning before instruction andoccurring at
junctures throughout in an effort to monitor, assess, revise, and expand what is beingtaught and learned.
• A comprehensive assessment plan should represent what is valued instructionally.
• Assessment practices should be goal oriented, appropriate in level of difficulty, feasible, and costeffective.
• Assessment should benefit the learner (promote self-reflection and self-regulation) and inform teachingpractices.

• Assessment results should be documented to “track” resources and develop learning profiles.

Alternative Assessment Techniques

Assessment techniques can be used in the primary grades, even though students’ reading and writing skillsare
limited. For example, the class as a whole can formulate reflective journal entries summarizing
majorunderstandings acquired from a lesson, and the teacher can capture these on a white board or flip chart.
Theseentries also can be used as natural integration in language arts by compiling them into books authored by
theclass.

3. Assessment Standard for Teachers

Standard define as a principle generally accepted by the professional associations responsible for thisdocument.
Assessment is defined as the process of obtaining information that is used to make educational decisions about
students, to give feedback to the student about his or her progress, strengths, andweaknesses, to judge
instructional effectiveness and curricular adequacy, and to inform policy.
The standards represent a conceptual framework or scaffolding from which specific skills can be derived.

• Teachers should be skills in choosing assessment methods appropriate for instructional decision.
• Teachers should be skills in developing assessment methods appropriate for instructional decision.
• The Teacher should be skilled in administering, scoring and interpreting the results of bothexternally-produced
andteacher-produced assessment methods.
• Teachers should be skilled in developing valid pupil grading procedures which use pupil assessments.
• Teachers should be skilled in communicating assessment results to students, parents, other layaudiences, and
other educators.
• Teachers should be skilled in using assessment results when making decisions about individualstudents and
planning teaching.
• Teachers should be skilled in recognizing unethical, illegal, and otherwise inappropriate assessmentmethods and
uses of assessment information.
4. Properties of Assessment Methods
Validity
• Traditionally been defined as the instrument’s ability to measure what it purpose to measure.
• In recent years, validity, has been defined as referring to the appropriateness, correctness,meaningfulness and
usefulness of the specific conclusions that a teacher reaches regarding theteaching-learning situation.

Types of Validity
• Content Validity - Refers to the content and format of the instrument. Answers the questions “Howappropriate is
the content?”
“Howcomprehensive?”
• Face Validity - It refers to the outward appearance of thetest. How test takers perceive theattractiveness and
appropriateness of a test.
• Construct Validity - An item possesses construct validity if it loads highly on a given constructor factor.

• Criterion-Related Validity - This is used to predict future or current performance.

Reliability
• The reliability of an assessment refers to its consistency. It is also a term that is synonymous withdependability or
stability.
• Instruments such as classroom tests and national standardized exams should be reliable- it should notmake any
difference whether a student takes the assessment in the morning or afternoon;one day orthe next.
Types of Reliability
• Test-Retest Reliability - A measure of reliability obtained by administering the same test twice over aperiod of
time to a group of individuals. The scores derived from the first time and second time the testis administered can be
correlated in order to evaluate the test for stability overtime.
• Parallel Forms Reliability - A measure of reliability obtained by administering different versions ofanassessment
tool.
• Inter-rater Reliability - A measure of reliability used to assess the degree to which different judges orraters agree
in their assessment decisions. Inter-rater reliability is useful because human observers willnot necessarily interpret
answers the same way raters may disagree as to howwell certain responsesor material demonstrate knowledge of
the constructorskill being assessed.
• Internal Consistency Reliability - A measure of reliability used to evaluate the degree to whichdifferent test items
of the same construct produce similar results.
• Average Inter-Item Correlation – A subtype of internal consistency reliability. It is obtained by takingall of the
items on a test that probe the same construct, determining the correlation coefficient for eachpair of times, and
finally taking the average of all these correlation coefficient
• Split-Half Reliability - begun in splitting in half all items of a test that are intended to probe the samearea of
knowledge in order to form two sets ofitems.
Fairness
• Students need to know exactly what the learning targets are andwhat methods of assessment will beused.
• Assessment has to be viewed as an opportunity to learn rather than an opportunity to weed out poorand
slowlearners.

• Fairness also implies freedom from teacher-stereo-typing.

Practicality & Efficiency

• An assessment procedure should be practical in the sense that the teacher should be familiar with it,does not
require too much time and in fact, implementable.
• A complex assessment procedure tends to be difficult to score and interpret resulting in a lot ofmisdiagnosis or
too long a feedback period which may render the test inefficient.

5. Ethics in Assessment
Ethics in Assessment ensures that assessments are conducted in a manner that respects participants
rights,promotes trust and produces meaningful and reliable results.

Here are some key points to consider:

• Fairness - meaning that every individual is given an equal opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge,skills, and
abilities.
• Transparency - meaning that participants understand the purpose of the assessment, the criteriabeing used to
evaluate them, and how their performance will be assessed.
• Confidentiality - this includes safeguarding personal information and ensuring that assessmentresults are only
shared with relevant parties in a secure and appropriate manner.
• Avoiding Bias - assessments should be free from bias, meaning that they do not unfairlyadvantage ordisadvantage
certain individuals or groups based on factors such as race, gender, ethnicity,socioeconomic status, or cultural
background. 5 involves using unbiased assessment tools andprocedures and being aware of and addressing any
potential biases that may arise.
• Validity and Reliability - assessment instruments should be valid, meaning that they measure whatthey are
intended to measure, and reliable, meaning that they produce consistent and accurate results.This ensures that
assessment results are meaningful and can be trusted to inform decisions aboutindividuals' performance or
abilities.
• Informed Consent - participants should give informed consent before participating in assessments,meaning that
they understand the purpose of the assessment, how their data will be used, and anypotential risks or benefits
associated with participating. Informed consent helps to ensure thatindividuals' rights and autonomy are respected
throughout the assessment process.

Good morning sir, classmates, so the scenario that has been assigned or given to our group is the 4th scenario.
Wherein sinasabi doon na Soriano and Ms. Mislang arw performing secondary school teachers and also they were
awarded as natatangi at ulirang guro in 1980. But as time goes by it has been mentioned na habang tumatagal sila
sa trabaho nila, mas nagkakaroon ng heavy duties and responsibilities na hindi na alligned sa job description nila
and it leads to them to have their early retirement. So ithe theory that is connected to the scenaruo is the Herzberg
two factor theory. Dito sa herzberg theory sinasabe dito na it is a key job satisfaction theory at mayroong dalawnag
factor na nakakainfluence sa attituded ng mga employee. So the 1st one is the motivator which is the intrinsic
factor, it is their passion, recognition, growth opportunity and so on and based on the scenario we can see that their
passion in teaching and the recodnition or achievements kaya sila inawardan ng Natatangi at Ulirang Guro in 1980.
While in the other hand, the hygiene factor or elements which is the extrunsic factors in a workplace like working
conditions,for example sa scenario is the working conditions,salary, workplace policy and so on. So based on ghe
scenario there is a working conditions na sinasabe which is having heavy duties or work na hindi na nakaalligned sa
job description nila at dahil don nagkaroon ng dissatisfaction sa work nila and from that they end up having early
retirement kasi nafefeel nila na they are pressured, ineffecient and effective and sila ang gunagawa ng ibang
trabaho which is hindi dapat.