Iatefl 2018 - Brighton Conference Selections

Conference Selections
sponsored by Pilgrims
International
Association of Teachers
of English as a Foreign
Language
IATEFL 2018
Brighton Conference Selections
Edited by Tania Pattison

i
IATEFL 2018
IATEFL 2018
52nd International Conference

Brighton
10–13 April 2018
Edited by Tania Pattison
Editorial Committee: Jennifer MacDonald, Amos Paran, Daniel Xerri

Published by IATEFL
2–3 The Foundry
Seager Road
Faversham
Kent ME13 7FD
UK
Copyright for whole volume © IATEFL 2019
Copyright for individual reports/papers remains

vested in the contributors, to whom applications for
rights to reproduce should be made.
The views expressed in this book are of the author(s) and

do not necessarily reect the views of IATEFL except
where explicitly stated as such.
First published 2019
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Education
Tania Pattison (Ed.)
IATEFL 2018 Brighton Conference Selections
ISBN PRINTED: 978-1-912588-18-3

DIGITAL: 978-1-912588-17-6
For a complete list of IATEFL publications including

Conference Selections from previous years, please write to
the above address, or visit the IATEFL website at www.iate.org.
Cover photographs © 2018, Syke A. K.

Copy-edited by Simon Murison-Bowie, Oxford.
Designed and typeset by Keith Rigley, Charlbury.
Printed in Britain by Hobbs the Printers Ltd., Totton, Hampshire.
Contents
Editor’s introduction 10
1 Optimising learning
1.1 Plenary: What is SLA research good for, anyway? Lourdes Ortega 12
1.2 Use your brain! Exploiting evidence-based teaching strategies
in ELT Patricia Harries and Carol Lethaby 21
1.3 Panicking, relaxing or learning? Exploring the Growth Zone model
Tilly Harrison 23
1.4 Am I motivating enough? Julie Waddington 25
1.5 Advanced-level EFL students’ engagement in autonomous learning
Fumiko Murase 28
1.6 Older English learners: when motivation alone is not enough
Heloisa Duarte 30
1.7 Creating a personalised course programme
William Rixon and Joanna Wakeling 32
1.8 Language learning disabilities in higher education:
a multidisciplinary approach Joao Carlos Koch Junior 33
2 e big picture: models, methods and materials

2.1 Language is for expression before it is for communication
Adrian Underhill, Piers Messum and Roslyn Young 36
2.2 Linguistic prejudice: understanding and applying concepts in the
language classroom
Isabelita Solano Mendes Peixoto and Aline Milagres Dyna 38
2.3 A usage-based model for speakers of Global Englishes
Nathan omas 40
2.4 Forum on English as a lingua franca (ELF)
Rudi Camerer, Gemma Williams, Analia Duarte and Judith Mader 42
2.5 Own-language use in the language classroom: why, when and how?
Graham Hall 46
2.6 Whatever happened to the third P? Paul Emmerson 48
2.7 Integrating life skills into English language programmes Ben Knight 50
2.8 Plenary: Sausage and the law : how textbooks get made
Dorothy Zemach 51
5
IATEFL 2018: Brighton Conference Selections
3 Lessons from the classroom

3.1 F is for fake: how students deal critically with post-truth
Julietta Schoenmann and Linda Ruas 59
3.2 Dictogloss redux: rethinking a learning masterpiece in a
technological age William Kerr 61
3.3 Multimodal EAP research projects: developing pragmatic
competence and research skills Caroline Webb 63
3.4 L2 student perceptions of their academic lecture comprehension
Jayn Kilbon 65
3.5 Tracking undergraduate Omani writers’ online writing revisions
Zulaikha Al-Saadi 66
3.6 Improving lexical diculty in academic writing using Text
Inspector Alexander M. Lewko 68
3.7 EMI and facilitating vocabulary growth of procient L2 users
Piet Murre 70
3.8 Discourse layering: practical activities to teach lexical chunks
Laura Laubacher 72
4 Working for global change

4.1 Plenary: Knowledge is power: access to education for marginalised
women Brita Fernandez Schmidt 76
4.2 Exploring ELT as emancipatory practice Steve Brown 83
4.3 e role of ELT in promoting social justice Arifa Rahman 84
4.4 Making English work for the world’s most marginalised people
Chris Sowton 86
4.5 Positive psychology in ELT for refugees Aleks Palanac 88
4.6 Sharing lives, sharing languages: peer education for language
acquisition Emily Bryson 90
4.7 Remote theatre for children in challenging circumstances
Rida abet and Nick Bilbrough 92
4.8 Peace education in the EFL classroom Eduardo Amos 93
4.9 Using stories and creative writing to teach global citizenship in
the English class Cornée Ferreira 95
5 Culture in the classroom

5.1 Teaching ‘British culture’ after the Brexit vote Ian Lebeau 98
5.2 Bridging cultural divides through synchronous and asynchronous
online teaching Sanaa Abdel Hady Makhlouf 100
5.3 Exploring cultural identities through technology
Helene Appel and Maria Bahrenscheer Jensen 102
5.4 Classroom diversity: a teacher’s platform for conict resolution
Tarun Kumari Kharbamon 103
6
Contents
5.5 Using literature featuring non-standard English in ELT: some

reasons why Helen Ford 105
5.6 A multiliteracies approach to teaching Shakespeare: an excursion
to London Conny Loder 107
5.7 Shakespeare in the multilingual classroom
Lisa Peter and Annette Deschner 109
5.8 Incorporating diversity in materials and/or the classroom
Ana Carolina Costa Lopes 110
6 Working with young learners

6.1 Using metaphor to elicit young children’s views on learning English
Gail Ellis and Nayr Ibrahim 113
6.2 Generating a gender-free Growth Mindset in young learner EFL
classrooms Sophie Handy 115
6.3 Inclusive activities for super-active young learners
Božica Šaric-Cvjetković 117
6.4 Motivational video lessons for SEN students Julia Koifman 119
6.5 Picture books: meaningful language teaching and learning
Susanne Jacobsen and Bente Melgaard 120
6.6 Picture books: a tool in primary teacher education in the
Netherlands Tatia Gruenbaum 122
6.7 English use and identity shift among immigrant students in Iceland
Samúel Lefever 124
6.8 Towards purposeful education: best practices in science CLIL
classrooms Jonathan Kilpelä and Raul Albuquerque Paraná 126
6.9 CLIL: the same doubts unresolved and more Anthony Bruton 128
6.10 Changing the mindset: sustainable reform in Venezuelan state
education Wendy Arnold and Mark Gregson 130
7 English for work

7.1 A survey of workplace English: some implications for classroom
teaching Hans Platzer and Désirée Verdonk 133
7.2 Exploring EFL postgraduate students’ learning needs on
English-medium business programmes Awad Alhassan 135
7.3 e Disney strategy in the business English context
Marjorie Rosenberg 137
7.4 Ease, equality and speaking in ‘Rounds’ positively shapes group
dynamics Michelle Hunter 139
7.5 Bridging the gap: creating a non-specic Life Sciences ESP course
Caroline Hyde-Simon 141
7.6 Motivating students of Visual Computing: designing a mobile app
Birte W. Horn 142
7.7 Adapting the CEFR to the needs of ESP Cosima Wittmann 144
7
IATEFL 2018: Brighton Conference Selections
8 Teaching with technology

8.1 We need pedagogy, not just cool tools Sophia Mavridi 147
8.2 English for the underserved: closing the digital divide
Michael Carrier 149
8.3 e Hornby Scholars panel presentation: Can new technology
sustainably improve quality in state language education?
Convenor: Martin Lamb with the A. S. Hornby Scholars at
IATEFL 2018 151
8.4 e Facebook eect: the use of social media in e-learning platforms
Christina Nicole Giannikas 154
8.5 Writing about the world in a digital world Benthe Fogh Jensen 156
8.6 Mobile apps and pronunciation training: a self-directed learning
approach Tran Le Nghi Tran 159
8.7 Going live: teaching online via videoconferencing Nicky Hockly 161
8.8 Enabling learners to take centre stage in an online classroom
Bindi Clements 162
9 Issues in assessment
9.1 Plenary: Living to tell the tale: a history of language testing
Barry O’Sullivan 165
9.2 Cognitive validity in contemporary language assessment:
implementing the sociocognitive framework Tom Garside 174
9.3 Developing illustrative speaking performances
Kathrin Eberharter and Carol Spöttl 176
9.4 Impact of teachers’ classroom language assessment literacy on
students’ performance Santosh Mahapatra 178
9.5 Forum on the CEFR Tim Goodier and Evangelia Xirofotou 180
10 From reection to research: CPD for teachers

10.1 Teacher development over time
Tessa Woodward, Kathleen Graves and Donald Freeman 184
10.2 Practicing core reection: bringing out the best in EFL teachers
Niki Christodoulou 186
10.3 Language advisors’ self-perception: exploring a new role through
narratives Maria Giovanna Tassinari 188
10.4 Teacher agency: empowering teachers through self-directed
observations Ana García-Stone 190
10.5 Creating a functional structured mentoring programme: a case study
Noha Khafagi 191
10.6 CPD through whiteboard sharing for novice teachers Daniel Baines 194
10.7 Developing teachers’ conceptions of research Daniel Xerri 195
10.8 Research in language teaching: asking the right questions
Nicola Perry 197
8
Contents
10.9 Measure and treasure: assessing teachers’ needs and evaluating

CPD initiatives Rubens Heredia 198
11 Issues in ELT management

11.1 A non-NEST by any other name Sebastian Lesniewski 201
11.2 ‘Native’ and ‘non-native’ English teachers: contrasting opinions
Ross orburn 203
11.3 Improving the mental health of English language teachers
Phil Longwell 205
11.4 e long and winding road of pedagogical management:
Project-Based Learning Louise Emma Potter 207
11.5 Sustainable professional development: a leadership perspective
Maria Muniz and Magdalena De Stefani 209
11.6 Leadership for sustainable teachers’ development and improved
pupils’ learning Dalia Elhawary 211
11.7 Professional development for English language teachers: a
competency-based approach
Christine Irvine-Niakaris and Jenny Zimianitou 213
11.8 Dilemmas and solutions in a standards-based teacher appraisal
system Isabela Villas Boas 215
12 Moving into teacher training

12.1 ‘No-one told me that!’ Top tips for new trainers
Beth Davies and Nicholas Northall 218
12.2 Accommodating the changing needs of multilingual initial teacher
training groups Karin Krummenacher 220
12.3 I can see clearly now: rethinking teacher training observation tasks
Alastair Douglas 222
12.4 Ensuring development during CELTA lesson feedback
Olga Connolly 224
12.5 Empowerment and challenges of CLIL as perceived by pre-service
teachers Anita Lämmerer 226
12.6 No drama? Two theatrical strategies for initial teacher training
David Jay 228
12.7 Professional development for teacher trainers: a neglected area?
Teti Dragas 230
12.8 Curriculum change in language teacher education: what does it take?
Loreto Aliaga-Salas 232
12.9 Recharging methodological batteries: a Peruvian project aimed at
teacher trainers Maria Esther Linares and Ralph Grayson 233
Index of authors 237

Index of topics 239
9
Editor’s introduction
With its seaside location, colourful local culture and stunning nearby scenery,
Brighton is always a popular conference destination. It comes as no surprise, then,
to learn that with over 3,000 delegates, the 52nd Annual International IATEFL
Conference and Exhibition was the largest yet. For our 2018 Conference, IATEFL
returned to the Brighton Centre, with additional sessions held in the Hilton Brighton
Metropole Hotel. Delegates were treated to four days (ve, if we include the pre-
conference events) of talks, workshops, plenary sessions, posters and SIG events. As
always, a busy exhibition allowed delegates to browse through new materials and to
explore new options for their classes.
For many of us, IATEFL conferences are a key event in our calendars; there is no
comparable way to connect with fellow teachers, researchers, administrators, materi-
als writers and other professionals from around the globe, and to learn so much about
our profession in just a few days. Whether delegates attended the numerous events
on offer in person, or whether they participated remotely through Brighton Online,
again generously sponsored by the British Council, the conference was an event not
to be missed.
A glance at the contents of this issue of Conference Selections gives some insight into
the variety of sessions on offer. To give just a few examples, Heloisa Duarte [1.6]
discussed the needs of older learners; Ian Lebeau [5.1] wondered how, in the post-
Brexit era, we can talk about ‘British culture’; Marjorie Rosenberg [7.3] explored
the use of the ‘Disney strategy’ in teaching business English; and Bindi Clements
[8.8] gave valuable tips for teaching online. These are just a few of the fascinating
papers included in this volume. Big questions were asked, too. Anthony Bruton
[6.9] questioned the value of CLIL, while Graham Hall [2.5] asked whether the L1
should be used in the classroom, presenting arguments on both sides.
Also included in this volume are reports of four very different, but equally
excellent, plenary sessions. Lourdes Ortega [1.1] asked, ‘What is SLA research
good for, anyway?’ and answered that question with insights from research into
motivation, error correction and learner age. Dorothy Zemach [2.8] opened the eyes
of many delegates with her frank explanation of how textbooks are produced. Brita
Fernandez Schmidt’s powerful talk [4.1] on the resilience of women in war-torn
countries was unforgettable. And Barry O’Sullivan [9.1] provided a comprehensive
and entertaining look at the history of language testing.
Perhaps most striking to me, however, as Editor of Conference Selections, was the
number of papers that looked at the role of the teacher as agent of social justice.
Steve Brown [4.2], for example, explored ELT as ‘emancipatory practice’, while
Arifa Rahman [4.3] looked at the role of ELT in promoting social justice and Chris
Sowton [4.4] discussed the teaching of English for the world’s most marginalised
people. Delegates who attended Rida Thabet and Nick Bilbrough’s talk [4.7] will
10
Editor’s introduction
remember their live-streaming of a drama production by schoolchildren in Gaza. The

dedication of these teachers and others is awe-inspiring, and their papers are valuable
contributions to this volume.
When not in sessions, delegates enjoyed catching up with old friends and making
new ones in the Networking Garden, sponsored by the British Council. They were
also able to view the work of Artist in Residence Emma Louise Pratt, browse the
Jobs Market or simply enjoy a walk along the sea front. Evening events included the
ever-popular Pecha Kucha and IATEFL International Quiz; other evening offerings
included a Brighton Trivia night, a ‘Meet the SIGs’ networking event, and events
featuring storytelling, music and comedy.
IATEFL is always keen to sponsor opportunities for teachers in various parts of
the world; some of the fundraising initiatives at the Brighton conference included a
lucky dip, a rafe, and the opportunity to purchase a stick of iconic Brighton rock.
All funds raised support IATEFL Projects in various parts of the world.
It is always a privilege to read all the papers that are submitted to Conference
Selections, and this year I received a record number of submissions. I would like
to thank everyone who took the time to send a report of their session. Conference
Selections is a refereed publication, and the editorial committee members pains-
takingly read every paper received ‘blind’ (i.e. with the author’s identifying details
removed). I could not do my job without the invaluable input of my editorial team:
Jennifer MacDonald, Amos Paran and Daniel Xerri. This year’s decision-making was
particularly difcult, and I would like to encourage those writers not published here
to pursue other opportunities to have their voices heard, perhaps in a SIG publica-
tion. As always, Conference Selections is copy-edited by Simon Murison-Bowie and
typeset by Keith Rigley; I thank them for their contributions to the publication. Next
year, Deborah Bullock will join our team as incoming Editor; Deborah will work
closely with me for the 2019 issue and will take over as Editor in 2020. Welcome to
the team, Deborah!
For 2019, the IATEFL conference returns to the north of England. We will be in
Liverpool from 2 to 5 April, with pre-conference events on 1 April. I look forward to
seeing many of you there!
Tania Pattison
Editor, IATEFL Conference Selections
cseditor@iate.org
11
1 Optimising learning
How do students learn? is opening chapter brings together eight papers that play
a role in answering that question. In her report of her plenary talk, Lourdes Ortega
explores the relationship between research and teaching, showing instances in which
research ndings inform teaching practice (notably research into motivation) and
where they ‘shake our world’ (research into age and learning). Research is also the
topic of Patricia Harries and Carol Lethaby’s paper: they show which classroom
techniques have been found to lead to successful learning and discuss ways to exploit
the use of these techniques. Tilly Harrison then looks at the Growth Zone model and
shows how students need to be in the right state of mind (neither too comfortable nor
too anxious) for learning to take place. In the next paper, Julie Waddington draws
upon Dörnyei’s process-oriented approach and her own research to discuss the devel-
opment and maintenance of motivation among learners. e next papers address the
needs of specic groups of learners. Fumiko Murase explores the concept of learner
autonomy among advanced-level EFL learners at a Japanese university, while Heloisa
Duarte looks at three sample older learners and invites discussion on what strategies
might be helpful for them. William Rixon and Joanna Wakeling then show how
entire courses can be personalised to meet the specic needs of individual learners.
Finally, Joao Carlos Koch Junior draws our attention to the needs of students with
learning disabilities in higher education and shows how one university is addressing
these needs.
1.1 Plenary: What is SLA research good for, anyway?

Lourdes Ortega Georgetown University, Washington, D.C., USA
Introduction
It is well known that the relationship between language teachers and second language
acquisition (SLA) researchers is a dicult one. Some scholars have noted that teachers
often have little to no use for SLA research, nd research reports dicult to access and
understand and seldom enjoy research, much less think of adapting it for or adopting
it in their teaching practice (e.g. Borg 2010; Clarke 1994; Medgyes 2017). While
this tension exists, other language teachers express a thirst for SLA research and wish
they knew of studies that can illuminate key conundrums in their own teaching (e.g.
Allwright 2005; Edwards and Burns 2015; Erlam 2008). Researchers also hold diverse
opinions about the research−teaching link. Some may appear to be annoyingly insist-
ent that they can provide assistance to teachers (as described by Medgyes 2017). But
12
Plenary: What is SLA research good for, anyway?
others adhere to the famous ‘Apply with Caution’ dictum that SLA founder Evelyn
Hatch put forth in 1978 (e.g. Ellis 2010; Han 2007).
Despite the ambivalent feelings on both sides, research continues to be important
in the eld of English language teaching. For example, the TESOL International
Association has distilled ve priorities for the continued thriving of the profession in
the future, and one of the ve is to ‘expand capacity for inclusive and comprehensive
research’ (TESOL 2018). Moreover, the eld is fortunate to have many well-respected
scholars who have devoted their research careers to studying language teaching and
teachers, and who have put forth a number of valuable proposals for addressing the
felt teaching−research tensions.
An important way to ameliorate the teaching−research tension, it has been pro-
posed, is to support teachers and academics so they can research together. Ways to do
so include exploratory practice, which has had impressive success in having not just
researchers and teachers but teachers and their students research together classroom
puzzles with life relevance (Hanks 2017a, 2017b; see also Allwright and Hanks 2009).
Another innovative proposal is to make teacher associations a hub for grassroots,
collective research based on members’ expressed teaching needs, as documented in
detail by Smith and Kuchah (2016) for CAMELTA, the Cameroon English Language
and Literature Teachers Association. Researchers who want to be more responsive to
teachers have also agreed that reporting their ndings in an accessible style would be
a great improvement. An exciting recent initiative that seeks to make this a reality is
OASIS (https://oasis-database.org/), an online repository which makes SLA research
ndings accessible to teachers and other interested users by posting well-crafted study
summaries online, electronically researchable by topic, and free of charge.
In this paper I want to address the felt tension between teaching and research in
a dierent way. My stance on the issue comes from my lived experiences as a down-
to-earth SLA researcher who works closely with language teachers and who is also a
former teacher of several languages (Ortega 2005, 2012a, 2012b). e lesson I want
to bring home in this paper is that no research can have constant value, and this is true
of SLA research about language teaching and learning as much as it is of any kind of
human and scientic knowledge. I will build my point by discussing select ndings in
three areas of SLA research: motivation, error correction and age.
SLA research at its best: the case of motivation
SLA research has its best value for language teachers when it sharpens what teachers
already know and do best. e case of research into motivation to learn a foreign
language oers an excellent illustration. e research is extensive and many of the key
voices on the topic come from the United Kingdom, for example Zoltán Dörnyei,
who has led the way for several decades now and has created the powerful explana-
tions of the ideal L2 self and dynamic motivation; Ema Ushioda, who has unveiled
the importance of thinking about motivation qualitatively and from the perspective
of person-in-context; Martin Lamb, who has been indefatigable in illuminating the
complex connections between globalisation and motivation to learn English; and
Maggie Kubanyiova, who has investigated teachers’ motivational vision and ideal
selves. Here I concentrate on the set of ndings that have to do with the role of
teachers in boosting student motivation.
13
Chapter 1: Optimising learning
In a nutshell, we have unequivocal empirical evidence that teachers know motiva-

tion is central to their students’ success, and that they are able to act upon this knowl-
edge skilfully and artfully in their daily practice. One of the earliest studies to show
this was by Guilloteaux and Dörnyei (2008), conducted in a tough environment for
English teaching: secondary schools in Korea, where English is compulsory and causes
great anxiety in students and their families, a collective feeling described by many as
English fever or yeongeo yeolpung. Guilloteaux and Dörnyei observed 27 teachers and
recorded the things they did in class in order to motivate their 1,300 EFL secondary
school students. ey then were able to show that students truly responded to certain
teacher behaviours. e biggest motivation boosters were when teachers made con-
nections with students’ interests through creativity and fantasy; personalised opportu-
nities to express experiences, feelings and opinions; gave feedback free from irritation
or personal criticism; and included class activities and projects with a tangible prod-
uct, such as a poster or a brochure. What is more, another study by Moskovsky et al.
(2013) conducted in 14 secondary school and college EFL classrooms in Saudi Arabia
shows that it is possible for teachers to train themselves to deliberately remember and
use motivational strategies, and that this will in turn boost their students’ motivation.
Finally, we have all experienced some inspiring teachers in our past, teachers whom
we remember fondly even many years later. Lamb and Wedell (2015) decided to ask
students in Guangzhou (China) and Jakarta (Indonesia) to nominate some inspiring
English teachers, and the researchers then visited some of the nominated teachers and
observed them teach a typical lesson. ey concluded that four attributes were shared
by these inspirational teachers: a charismatic personality, high professionalism, good
relations with their students and a love for teaching English that their students could
clearly see. ese inspiring teachers had a big impact on their students’ motivation to
study English. ey had changed their students’ thoughts and feelings about English,
which also resulted in students’ striving to learn English better by engaging in all kinds
of personal eorts.
Clearly, motivation to learn a language is an area of SLA research that has much to
oer to teachers and can guide their daily teaching. Nurturing student motivation is
hard work: it demands deliberation, eort, resilience and time from teachers. But it
is all worthwhile, and we can be sure of it because we have the research that shows it.
When SLA research must be critically put aside by teachers: the case of
error correction
But just as research into motivation has produced knowledge of direct relevance to
language teachers, in other cases SLA research exists that falls short of relevance for
teaching. Sometimes this is so, even though the questions asked are ones that teachers
would also like answers for. e case of research into error correction oers a good
illustration.
Correcting language errors is often viewed by teachers as central to their job and
as something their students expect. But many teachers I know also express concerns
that error correction may demotivate their students (particularly if it is done during
speaking), and most lament that it takes too much of their time (particularly when it
involves marking errors in students’ writing). Moreover, the contemporary ethos of
language teaching, which assumes the main goal of learning a language is to develop
14
communicative competence, is at odds with the idea that teachers should respond
to their students’ errors by merely correcting them. And what place does linguistic
accuracy have in CLIL, TBLT, EAP and ESP curricula, where the goal is to use the
new language in order to learn content well, do things with words successfully, do
well on academic assignments or carry out a job with condence in English? ese
are all legitimate questions surrounding the appropriate role of error correction in
language teaching. At a minimum, teachers ought to know from research that it is
all worthwhile, because what gets corrected gets learned better. Does error correction
work, according to the extant research?
Unfortunately, despite the enormous amount of research that has been and contin-
ues to be devoted to error correction, SLA researchers cannot claim to be in a position
to oer any rm answers to teachers yet. Until the 2010s there were many research
arguments for pessimism or at least scepticism. Truscott (1996, 1999, 2007) was one
of the loudest voices insisting that the empirical and theoretical evidence suggested
correcting errors had no real impact on students’ language, and others found that in
general students missed and/or misinterpreted an alarming number of corrections
(e.g. Mackey et al. 2000). In the last ten years or so, with more rigorous studies and
methodologies, the balance has been more on the side of tempered optimism (Nassaji
and Kartchava 2017). For example, researchers have been able to show that when
teachers concentrate on correcting certain errors in students’ writing, the students will
then be able to make fewer similar errors in future writing assignments, and that some
errors can be corrected more successfully than others. But the devil is in the detail, and
the details of how exactly to respond to students’ errors—when to do so and when to
let it pass, what precisely to focus on when correcting, and most importantly, what
reasons may there be, philosophical and practical, to correct or not correct depending
on curricular philosophies and learning purposes—remain elusive to research. Why
should this be so?
Having contributed to this research about 20 years ago (Long et al. 1998), and
speaking from a research-informed but research-realistic perspective, it seems to me
SLA researchers have not been able thus far to take into account the complexity of
teachers’ corrective practices. Qualitative research evidence has begun to hint at this
by calling attention to the interpersonal dynamics involved (e.g. Hyland and Hyland
2006). For example, consider Eva, a college student who was born in China, moved to
Australia at age 16 and then relocated to the United States at 19 (Cohen and Robbins
1976). She seemed convinced that her grammar was beyond repair when she told
the researchers: ‘I have never start anything from ABCD. Everything is always skip,
skip, skip since I’ve been going so many places … I wasn’t taught the way a person
is supposed to be taught. I wasn’t taught in the right way, so that is why some of the
grammars were never drill into me.’ No matter how well-intentioned or how well
done, correcting errors may be ineective for Eva or other students who, like her,
may feel linguistic insecurity and a low sense of agency regarding their ability to learn
grammar. Of course, a good teacher will be aware of Eva’s low self-concept when
it comes to accuracy, and this will inform decisions on the y about whether, how,
when, what and why to correct when Eva speaks or writes. As Mitchell (2000) has
noted, good teachers are always guided ‘by their knowledge of individual pupils, and
their moment to moment “reading” of pupils’ developing understanding and skill, as
15
well as their current level of interest and task involvement’ (297−298). Yet most of
the research on error correction does not factor any of this complexity in. Only errors
and discrete linguistic responses are tallied and sheer external cause−eect relations
are sought. is ignores context, and the fact that the eectiveness of error correction
practices surely arises in part from the learning goals that are valued and pursued by
teachers and students in their particular context, and by the personal relations that
they establish and cultivate. SLA researchers to date have missed this point.
is is not to say that some teachers may not nd value in reading some of the
research about error correction. For example, Rankin and Becker (2006) conducted a
case study of Florian, a German-as-a-foreign-language teaching assistant in a college
in the United States. ey found that Florian began using the research he had read as a
way to explore things he was already doing in the classroom, but in a more systematic
way. For example, he began trying out a progressively more explicit cline of strategies:
‘rst, a grimace, then a slightly more explicit gesture, and then a verbally explicit indi-
cation of the error’ (365). For Florian, then, reading SLA studies of error correction
‘prompted a deeper level of analysis regarding [his own] feedback behaviors’ (365).
But it is this rich journey of professional self-discovery, and not any set of implica-
tions from decontextualised research, that supported Florian and will support other
teachers in feeling more condent of their own professional expertise when correcting
their students’ errors. Just as Alexandrian Greek poet Konstantinos Kavas pointed
out in his famous poem ‘Ithaca’, written in 1911, Odysseus’s greatest gift wasn’t that
he nally reached his home island, but the long and adventurous journey looking for
his way back home, and all what was learned through that journey.
Having realistic expectations of research, not losing faith
I have just argued, for the specic case of error correction, that the research is incon-
clusive, probably because to date researchers have missed the point by approaching
the problem in a decontextualised fashion. Is this a reason to lose faith in research,
academic knowledge and the eld of SLA? Not quite. Our expectations for what
research can oer to teachers must be realistic.
For one, human knowledge, and with it research, proceeds in very small incre-
ments. ousands of studies conducted using very dierent methods may be needed
before knowledge about a question becomes clear and can be accepted. Take the case
of smoking as an example. Does smoking kill? We know that the answer is ‘yes’.
is knowledge is deemed so certain that the warning is printed on every packet of
cigarettes in most of the world. But a 40-year research battle was needed for this to
happen. Scores of studies since 1920 kept turning up conicting evidence in favour
of and against the hypothesis that smoking is associated with cancer, and it was not
until a breakthrough by Hammond and Horn (1958) that scientic consensus rose
to the level of universally accepted truth, culminating in the Report on Smoking and
Health by the Surgeon General of the United States in 1964 (Terry et al. 1964) and
the banning of cigarette advertising on television in the United Kingdom in 1965.
Moreover, the nature of knowledge about human phenomena is such that we know
there are general truths that may not be true for all individual cases. We live with the
certainty that smoking kills. But we also know that not all smokers will necessarily die
from smoking, and indeed, quite a few people continue to smoke, willing to gamble
16
on what they know is a sure health risk. is is because human knowledge is probabil-
istic. Predicting the weather is a good example. Meteorology is a highly sophisticated
and well-developed science. But it is a probabilistic science, which means weather
forecasts will not always get it right. Yet we use them to decide what to wear every
morning and whether to carry an umbrella to work. And if our favourite weather
channel ended up getting it entirely wrong today, we do not contemplate giving up
on trying to track weather patterns altogether. We accept the imperfect, probabilistic
nature of (highly sophisticated) human knowledge about the weather and use it to
shape daily life decisions.
Human knowledge is often paradoxical as well, and yet we come to integrate the
paradoxes seamlessly into our lives. Prescription drugs are an excellent example: How
do we know that a given prescription is worth taking, when the litany of side eects
listed by the voice-over in every TV commercial can range from the milder (such as
dizziness, headaches or diarrhoea) to the truly horrendous (such as suicidal tendencies
or hallucinations, vomiting or anorexia, tremor or palpitations)? We are fully aware of
the side eects because research demonstrates that they can and do occur; yet we are
also willing to accept, also because of our trust of research, that the desired therapeutic
eect of the drug outweighs the concern for side eects.
However, as imperfect as human knowledge is, there are also cases when research
is the only way to see dierently. ink of the shape of the earth: Is the earth at or
round? We know the correct answer is ‘round’. We know this because we are taught
so in school, based on undeniable research evidence. However, for hundreds of years
it was thought that the planet earth was at. And indeed, my visual perception of
the earth makes me experience the earth as at, for example, when peeking out from
an aeroplane window or when looking at the horizon. (I am reminded of this strong
perceptual illusion every time I look at the immensity of the horizontal line of any
ocean.) It is only my trust in human science that disabuses me of my gut phenome-
nological experience of atness.
In the eld of SLA, age illustrates well the rare case when research makes us see
dierently.
Sometimes research shakes our world: the case of age
Is earlier better when learning a language? e research has by now accumulated on
this question, and to the surprise of many teachers (and students and parents), the
answer is a resounding ‘no’. is answer applies equally across all contexts investigated
thus far, which can be broadly grouped into two. One type of context involves natu-
ralistic immersion, when one language is spoken by the society at large, and the other
language is spoken in the home, and the child is in an input-rich learning situation
for both languages. Here, if we look at starting ages that range from birth to age four,
ve or even seven, it has been found that actually later is better in terms of the speed
of learning (e.g. Blom and Bosma 2016), and that ultimately starting earlier or later
within this age range does not result in any dierence; instead, it is the quality of
language that children experience that makes the dierence (e.g. Unsworth 2016).
Another type of context for age research involves EFL settings. is type of context
is characterised by a drip-feed learning situation, since children experience English
and begin developing their bilingualism with very limited access to the new language,
17
often one to three hours per week and only within the classroom, often from a single
speaker of the new language, the teacher. Let me discuss here in particular the EFL
ndings, since much is at stake for the ELT profession all around the world for this
type of learning context.
e research is loud and clear: starting the study of EFL at a younger age does
not confer any language advantage. For EFL schoolchildren, later is faster initially
(as it is for children in naturalistic, input-rich learning conditions), and in addition,
the results are no better or worse after some years of study. Moreover, there are no
English prociency dierences when the earlier and later starters are compared at
the end of secondary school. is conclusion, which was reached for the rst time in
longitudinal research conducted in Spain by Muñoz (2006, 2014) for children who
began EFL at age eight versus eleven, has now been replicated consistently in other
contexts, such as Switzerland for ages eight versus thirteen (Pfenninger and Singleton
2016) and Germany for children who started at age six or seven versus eight or nine
(Jaekel et al. 2017).
Starting EFL as early as possible has become an increasingly common mantra in
EFL national curricula, and EFL for very young children is demanded by many par-
ents. Many private language schools nowadays also base their oerings on the idea that
children should begin English as early as possible in order to ensure the best outcomes
as adults. us, the nding that earlier is not better shakes our professional beliefs.
Indeed, it can feel like discovering for the rst time that the earth is not at but round.
Should we lose faith in professional knowledge? How can we make sense of the nding?
Discovering that earlier is not better in EFL education simply means that lowering
the starting age won’t produce better outcomes by the end of secondary school, because
other factors trump starting age. Based on the research that exists (Muñoz and Spada
2019), we know four other factors are better predictors of EFL success than age. ese
are: (1) the intensity of instruction and sheer numbers of hours devoted to English
daily and weekly; (2) teachers’ qualications, including particularly their prociency
in English; (3) the diculty of curricular coordination from preschool all the way to
the end of secondary school; and (4) the motivational ebbs and ows that may make
interest in learning English quite variable and fragile over childhood and adolescence.
In the context of learning English during the years of compulsory education, therefore,
the most likely eective reforms would be: (1) to increase the number of weekly hours
devoted to English; (2) to ensure that the teachers have a good working English pro-
ciency (ideally at B2/Advanced Mid or higher, according to Unsworth et al. 2015); (3)
to plan for curricular continuity so as to oer a stimulating and age-appropriate EFL
curriculum all the way to secondary school graduation; and (4) to make student moti-
vation and love for English sustainable throughout all years of compulsory schooling.
If these elements were in place and in addition children began English earlier, then we
may see increased benets. But if the only area of investment into EFL education is in
adding more years of drip-feed instruction for the youngest of our learners, then the
research has already given us the answer: We will reap no substantial benet.
Conclusion
Using the examples of motivation, error correction, and age as illustrations, I hope to
have shown that SLA research should not be elevated to the status of ultimate guide
18
for teachers, but that the value it can sometimes have for teachers should also not be
underestimated.
As Andon and Leung (2014) put it, ‘Teaching is complex, and teaching a language
is particularly complex, and there are no straightforward formulae or recipes that will
be eective in every context’ (70). Research is also complex. It is frustrating when
researchers constantly hedge that ‘it depends’ and ‘more research is needed’. But we
should not forget that human knowledge can be slow-paced, potentially generally
true while individually not always applicable, imperfect and probabilistic, and even
paradoxical.
Given the complexities of teaching and of research, it should then come as no
surprise that much SLA research has potential but not constant relevance for language
teaching. SLA research at its best should be able to oer knowledge that makes the
lives of language teachers better. But more often than not, SLA research will need
a large amount of contextualisation and critical professional judgement by teachers
before it can be of use in actual local classroom contexts. And sometimes our best
intuitions about teaching can lead us astray, and it is only research that can help us
question them and transform them. It is teachers who must make the judgement call,
however. When they deem some research irrelevant to what they know to be true or
needed of their praxis, they have the professional right, and the obligation to their
students, to put aside the research, or, if they so wish, to criticise it and counter it with
their own classroom inquiry. But all of us, researchers and teachers alike, must learn to
recognise that all human knowledge is partial and variably useful over place and time,
and that at times research is the only lens that can help us see dierently.
lourdes.ortega@georgetown.edu
References
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Andon, N. and C. Leung. 2014. ‘e role of approaches and methods in second language
teacher education’ in S. Ben Said and L. J. Zhang (eds.). Language Teachers and Teaching:
Global Perspectives, Local Initiatives. London: Routledge.
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of Child Language 43: 581−607.
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tionship between selected errors, learners’ characteristics, and learners’ explanation’. Language
Learning 26: 45−66.
Edwards, E. and A. Burns. 2015. ‘Language teacher action research: Achieving sustainability’.
ELT Journal 70: 6−15.
Ellis, R. 2010. ‘Second language acquisition, teacher education and language pedagogy’. Lan-
guage Teaching 43: 182−201.
19
Erlam, R. 2008. ‘What do you researchers know about language teaching? Bridging the gap
between SLA research and language pedagogy’. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching
2: 253−267.
Guilloteaux, M. J. and Z. Dörnyei. 2008. ‘Motivating language learners: A classroom-oriented
investigation of the eects of motivational strategies on student motivation’. TESOL Quar-
terly 42: 55−77.
Hammond, E. C. and D. Horn. 1958. ‘Smoking and death rates—report on forty-four months
of follow-up of 187,783 men: I. Total mortality’. Journal of the American Medical Association
166: 1159−1172.
Han, Z.-H. 2007. ‘Pedagogical implications: Genuine or pretentious’. TESOL Quarterly 41:
387−393.
Hanks, J. 2017a. Exploratory Practice in Language Teaching: Puzzling about Principles and Prac-
tices. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Hanks, J. 2017b. ‘Integrating research and pedagogy: An Exploratory Practice approach’. Sys-
tem 68: 38−49.
Hatch, E. 1978. ‘Apply with caution’. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 2: 123−143.
Hyland, K. and F. Hyland (eds.). 2006. ‘Interpersonal aspects of response: Constructing and
interpreting teacher written feedback’ in K. Hyland and F. Hyland (eds.). Feedback in Second
Language Writing: Contexts and Issues. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jaekel, N., M. Schurig, M. Florian and M. Ritter. 2017 . ‘From early starters to late nishers?
A longitudinal study of early foreign language learning in school’. Language Learning 67:
631−664.
Lamb, M. and M. Wedell. 2015. ‘Cultural contrasts and commonalities in inspiring language
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Long, M. H., S. Inagaki and L. Ortega. 1998. ‘e role of implicit negative feedback in SLA:
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Medgyes, P. 2017. ‘e (ir)relevance of academic research for the language teacher’. ELT Jour-
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Moskovsky, C., F. Alrabai, S. Paolini, and S. Ratcheva. 2013. ‘e eects of teachers’ moti-
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Muñoz, C. 2006. Age and the Rate of Foreign Language Learning. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual
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Use your brain! Exploiting evidence-based teaching strategies in ELT
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1.2 Use your brain! Exploiting evidence-based teaching strategies

in ELT
Patricia Harries Freelance, Vancouver, Canada and Carol Lethaby The New
School, New York, USA
Overview
How can research ndings into eective teaching and learning strategies be applied to
English language teaching? We began our workshop by listing commonly used learn-
ing techniques in mainstream education, asking participants to say (a) which ones
they used as teachers, and (b) how eective they considered them. We then revealed
which were rated as low utility in a comprehensive meta-analysis by Dunlosky et al.
(2013). is was followed by a description of the techniques with a strong evidence
base, considered to be of moderate or high utility in Dunlosky’s paper, among others
(see also Roediger and Pyc 2012). Participants were asked to discuss how these learning
techniques or strategies are, or could be, applied to the ELT context and they then
compared their ideas with those of the presenters. Examples from published ELT mate-
rials were shown to illustrate how some of the strategies are currently being employed.
21
Ineffective strategies?
According to Dunlosky et al. (2013), the following popular study techniques are of
low utility: highlighting and underlining content as you read; writing a summary
of a to-be-learned text; visualising what you are reading in order to learn it; using
mnemonic devices such as the keyword technique to learn vocabulary; and re-reading
a text to learn its contents.
So which strategies are effective?
Using prior knowledge
We chose to discuss the widely acknowledged importance of using prior or back-
ground knowledge rst. ough not mentioned in Dunlosky’s review, there is a
clear link between drawing upon and building a learners’ prior knowledge and the
eective learning strategies listed below. Brain imaging shows brain activation when
new knowledge is being connected with prior knowledge, and neuroscientists and
educators are beginning to consider how to tap into a student’s prior knowledge better
before presenting new information (van Kesteren et al. 2014).
Elaborative interrogation
is technique requires learners to explain things to themselves as they learn, for
example, saying why a particular fact is true. e technique is thought to enhance
learning by helping to integrate new and existing knowledge. Although this is seen as
promising and rated as moderately useful, Dunlosky’s team states that more research
is still required.
Self-explanation
is is another questioning strategy; however, in this case, students use questions to
monitor and explain features of their own learning to themselves. Self-explanation is
a metacognitive technique that needs further research and is therefore also rated as
moderately useful.
Practice testing
Practice testing or retrieval is labelled highly useful in Dunlosky’s paper and refers to
low- or no-stakes testing and self-testing. Practising retrieving information through
frequent testing is thought to lead to more durable learning.
Distributed practice
is describes the spreading out of practice over a period of time rather than cram-
ming or massing practice. ere is large volume of research, including into the learn-
ing of vocabulary, which shows distributed practice leading to long-term retention. It
is regarded as a highly useful strategy.
Interleaved practice
Interleaved practice involves the mixing up of dierence practice activities in a single
session and has been found to be eective in problem solving and categorisation. It
has been rated as moderately useful as more research is needed.
22
Panicking, relaxing or learning? Exploring the Growth Zone model
How can these strategies be applied to ELT?

Participants and the presenters oered the following ideas in the nal part of the
workshop.
e use of prior knowledge was immediately seen to be relevant in the setting of pre-
tasks in receptive skills development, in the use of a spiral curriculum, and in exploiting
L1 and L2 previous knowledge in the learning of vocabulary. Questions about gram-
matical rules and structures incorporate elaborative interrogation, and asking learners
how they found their answers in language and skills tasks encourages self-explanation.
Quizzes and mini-tests are common in much published material and in what we
do in the classroom, and they show how practice testing is used for continuous and
formative assessment and to enhance the long-term retention of language. By spacing
the practice of language items and structures using increasingly greater time intervals
and mixing up language practice and skills development, distributed and interleaved
practice can help integrate elements, build automaticity and aid memorisation.
Conclusions
Evidence-based strategies exist and language teachers need to be aware of them. Lan-
guage teachers and learners already use many of these and it is benecial to know
that research supports this. ere is, however, a danger in a whole-scale adoption
of ndings from research on content-based subject areas often done in inauthentic
teaching situations. It is imperative to consider what is applicable to our context and
how best to apply it.
clethaby@clethaby.com
patti.harries@gmail.com
References
Dunlosky, J., K. A. Rawson, E. J. Marsh, M. J. Nathan and D. T. Willingham. 2013. ‘Improv-
ing students learning with eective learning techniques promising directions from cognitive
and educational psychology’. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14/1: 4−58.
Roediger, H. L. and M. A. Pyc. 2012. ‘Inexpensive techniques to improve education: applying
cognitive psychology to enhance educational practice’. Journal of Applied Research in Memory
and Cognition, 1/4: 242−248.
van Kesteren, M. T. R., M. Rijpkema, D. J. Ruiter, R. G. M. Morris and G. Fernandez. 2014.
‘Building on prior knowledge: schema-dependent encoding processes relate to academic per-
formance’. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 26/10: 2250−2261.
1.3 Panicking, relaxing or learning? Exploring the Growth Zone

model
Tilly Harrison University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
Introduction
I was very encouraged on the day of my workshop because prior to my session I had
seen at least two presentations talking about Carol Dweck’s Growth Mindset (Dweck
23
2017) and this concept very much supports the points I wanted to make. e Growth
Zone model is a simple yet powerful visual aid about learning. I rst came across it in
the context of a workshop for alleviating maths anxiety at the University of Warwick,
and I immediately saw many applications of its principles. In particular, I felt that it
could help teachers who have students with language learning anxiety (Tsui 1996) to
understand how to support them, which is why I wanted to present this as a workshop
at IATEFL.
Coloured circles
I began the workshop by asking those arriving to take one of each of three colours of paper:
green, orange and red. Each paper had a circle on it and a label. e green paper had a
small circle labelled ‘Comfort Zone’, the orange a slightly larger one labelled ‘Growth
Zone’ and the red had the largest, labelled ‘Anxiety Zone’. ese were to be used later
in the workshop. I supported my points with a Prezi presentation which can be found
at http://prezi.com/qnu3u6mhvc2o/?utm_campaign=share&utm_medium=copy.
My opening story was about my own struggle with swimming, based on an inci-
dent in my childhood which causes me to panic when my head is under water. I asked
if anyone else had a similar experience of irrational panic, and the participants men-
tioned various triggers such as spiders or height. I explained that my fear of drowning
has been greatly helped by attending classes with a skilled and sympathetic teacher,
proof that fears can be mastered.
Guided narrative
e next part of the workshop was intended to bring out the participants’ own emo-
tional interpretations of the three stages of the Growth Zone model—see Figure 1.3.1.
I asked everyone to imagine a particular scene (being on a warm beach, enjoying a
cool drink) and then to write down how it would make them feel on the green piece of
paper. Adjectives such as ‘relaxed’, ‘happy’ and ‘lazy’ were mentioned. I extended the
story to imagining that a friend was trying to persuade them to go swimming in the
sea. On the orange paper people wrote words like ‘annoyed’, ‘excited’ and ‘nervous’. I
Figure 1.3.1: The Growth Zone model
24
Am I motivating enough?
nally asked them to imagine that their friend suddenly pushed them into deep water
from a pier. People volunteered words like ‘terried’, ‘angry’ and ‘betrayed’ and wrote
these on the red paper.
I explained how these adjectives and ‘zones’ relate to dierent stages of learning. In
the Comfort Zone we are not learning because we already know all there is to know.
We tend to stagnate and even become bored, but it is a place of enjoyment and safety.
e Growth Zone is where learning takes place—it is where we take a risk and try
something we have not done before. It is possibly an uncomfortable place, but it can
also be exciting. We should feel empowered and challenged to never give up. e
Anxiety Zone is also where learning is not taking place. When we are close to panic
our brains shut down and we cannot think. Here I referenced Daniel Siegel’s ‘Hand
Model of the Brain’ (2012). Learners in this state give up and lose all condence.
Application of the model
As teachers we should be aware of when our students might be experiencing panic (i.e.
when they are in the Anxiety Zone) and give them strategies to overcome. Equally
we should try to challenge those who are in their Comfort Zone and are not learn-
ing because the work is too familiar or easy. In the workshop we brainstormed ways
to keep our learners in the Growth Zone. We suggested reducing face-threatening
situations and allowing collaboration and peer support as much as possible. Giving
students autonomy and control over the content or pace of their learning is another
possible strategy to make the classroom atmosphere conducive to growth and learning.
I concluded the workshop by encouraging participants to aim for the Growth Zone
for their learners and also in their own lives as teachers. After the conference one par-
ticipant emailed that he had been pushing himself out of his Comfort Zone by going
digital. Although he had been having doubts, the workshop inspired him to keep
pushing. For me that was a very welcome conrmation of the usefulness of this model.
tilly.harrison@warwick.ac.uk
References
Dweck, C. 2017. Mindset Updated Edition: Changing the Way You ink to Full Your Potential.
London: Robinson.
Siegel, D. 2012. Dr Daniel Siegel Presenting a Hand Model of the Brain. https://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=gm9CIJ74Oxw.
Tsui, A. B. M. 1996. ‘Reticence and anxiety in second language learning’ in K. Bailey and D.
Nunan (eds.). Voices from the Language Classroom: Qualitative Research in Second Language
Education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1.4 Am I motivating enough?

Julie Waddington University of Girona, Catalonia, Spain
Introduction
e aim of this workshop was to reect together on what we mean when we talk
about motivation and how our understandings of this concept aect our classroom
25
practice. In order to structure the session, I drew on Zoltán Dörnyei’s process-oriented

approach to motivation (2001) as well as a recent study focusing on teacher under-
standing and implementation of motivational strategies published in ELT Journal
(Waddington 2017). However, although grounded in theory, my intention was to
stimulate reection and discussion on real classroom practice and to make the session
relevant for each of the teachers attending the session.
At the beginning of the workshop delegates were asked to organise themselves into
small working groups (four to ve) before embarking on a series of tasks. As expected
at an IATEFL conference, this produced a rich mix of heterogeneous groupings with
teachers from dierent countries, backgrounds, ages, genders and contexts.
Task 1: How do we promote motivation?
To start with, delegates were asked to introduce themselves to each other, explaining
the context in which they teach, before discussing the dierent ways in which they try
to promote motivation in their English classes. After spending a short time on this,
they were asked to summarise their ndings and to write down a list of the dierent
motivational strategies reported. At this point, I gave a brief explanation of Dörnyei’s
process-oriented approach to motivation, emphasising the fundamental idea that dif-
ferent motivational strategies are needed to respond to the complexities of the learning
process and the dierent stages involved. Dörnyei presents a checklist of dierent
strategies organised into four dierent component parts, as shown in Figure 1.4.1.
Figure 1.4.1: Dörnyei’s process-oriented approach to motivation (2001: 29)
Task 2: Which parts of the process are we working on?

After providing a brief introduction to the process-oriented approach, I gave the dele-
gates the next task, with a handout asking them to identify which parts of the process
they were already working on in their teaching practice. One side of the handout
included a summarised version of Dörnyei’s model, with some examples of specic
strategies for each stage of the process; the other side had four empty boxes labelled
with the dierent components parts. Working together, they had to decide which part
of the process the strategies they had listed belonged to and write them in the corre-
sponding boxes. I then presented the results of a study carried out with 26 experienced
primary school teachers in Catalonia (Waddington 2017).
As Figure 1.4.2 shows, the results of the study reveal a predominance of strategies
aimed at maintaining and protecting motivation. ere is also a reasonable presence
26
Am I motivating enough?
Figure 1.4.2: Results of study presented in Waddington (2017)
of strategies aimed at creating the basic motivational conditions, although the results
are biased by the responses of one particular teacher whose specic working context
had led her to prioritise issues of well-being. What was most striking was that no
strategies were reported corresponding to the nal stage of the process: encouraging
positive retrospective self-evaluation.
Task 3: Distribution of strategies
In the nal task, each group calculated the results of their own mini survey, calculating
the percentage distribution of the dierent strategies reported. After checking their
results and drawing a draft pie chart, they transferred this onto large ipchart papers
which were then held up for all to see. Looking at each group’s results in turn, the rst
observation made was that the results diered considerably from the study referred
to above. e second observation made was that the results also diered considera-
bly from one group to another. Both observations highlighted the need to carry out
further studies in this area to provide more insight into teachers’ understandings and
implementation of motivational strategies.
Conclusion: Am I motivating enough?
To conclude, I referred back to the title of the workshop and asked how they had
interpreted this before attending. While some had interpreted ‘motivating’ as an
adjective (a quality describing the teacher), others had thought more of the transitive
aspect of the verb. Whichever way we look at it, the problem with both interpretations
(and in fact with the question itself!) is that they tend to lay the burden of the doing/
motivating solely with the teacher. By the end of the session we agreed that developing
motivational approaches which attend to the dierent stages of the learning process—
including strategies aimed at encouraging students to motivate themselves and each
other—can benet both learners and teachers.
julie.waddington@udg.edu
References
Dörnyei, Z. 2001. Motivational Strategies in the Language Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Waddington, J. 2017. ‘Teacher understanding and implementation of motivational strategies
in ELT’. ELT Journal 72/2: 162−174.
27
1.5 Advanced-level EFL students’ engagement in autonomous

learning
Fumiko Murase Ryukoku University, Kyoto, Japan
Advanced-level EFL students can be seen as successful learners, who have achieved a
high level of English prociency as a result of studying the language for many years.
However, this may not necessarily mean that they are autonomous learners. is study
reports on an autonomous learning programme for advanced-level EFL students at a
university in Japan, investigating the students’ learning process and the development
of their autonomy.
The study
In order to investigate how autonomous the advanced-level students in this study
were, the study explored what would happen when they were encouraged to learn
English autonomously. What and how they learned was monitored, as were any
possible changes in their autonomy as a result of a short-term autonomous learning
experience.
The autonomous learning programme (ALP)
e programme was introduced in a 15-week compulsory English course, where 23
second-year students from the Faculty of Agriculture at a national university in Japan
were encouraged to engage in out-of-class English learning of their own choice. e
students who participated in the ALP were taking a course for advanced-level stu-
dents and had an average prociency level of CEFR B2. Students were rst asked
to reect on their English learning experiences and analyse their English learning
strengths/weaknesses and needs using the Self-Reection sheet; they were then asked
to ll out the Learning Contract form describing their own goals and study plans for
their out-of-class learning. Once they started their learning, they were asked to keep
records of their learning content and process on the weekly learning report and
bring it to the class every week to share it with other students. At the end of the
programme, all students gave a poster presentation on their autonomous learning
experiences.
To examine changes in the students’ autonomy, a questionnaire survey, Measur-
ing Instrument for Language Learner Autonomy (MILLA), was administered before
and after the ALP. e MILLA, consisting of 87 items on a ve-point Likert scale,
was designed to measure learner autonomy from its four dimensions: technical,
psychological, socio-cultural and political-philosophical (see Murase 2010, 2015).
According to the survey conducted before the ALP, only six students were learn-
ing English outside the class (except for assignments or preparation for English
courses they were taking at the university), while 15 students were not learning
English because they ‘didn’t have time’, ‘had other important things to do’, ‘didn’t
like English’ or ‘didn’t think English is important’. us, for the majority of the stu-
dents, the ALP oered a new opportunity to learn English outside the class.
28
Advanced-level EFL students’ engagement in autonomous learning
Findings
Changes in students’ autonomy
To investigate changes in the students’ autonomy, the data collected using the MIL-
LA survey conducted before the ALP (pre-test) and after the ALP (post-test) were
compared. As shown in Table 1.5.1, the results of statistical analysis indicated that,
overall, there was a signicant dierence between the pre-test and the post-test with
a higher score in the post-test, which means that the students showed a higher level
of autonomy after the ALP. When looking at the four dierent dimensions of auton-
omy (Murase 2015), there was a signicant dierence between the two tests on the
technical, political-philosophical, and socio-cultural dimensions (i.e. all except the
psychological dimension), all with higher scores in the post-test, showing a higher
level of autonomy.
Table 1.5.1: Results of the Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test to Compare the Scores of
Two Tests (N=16)
Students’ voices
According to students’ post-ALP reection in their posters, it seemed some students
had diculties with their out-of-class learning:
• ‘Even though I knew that my way of studying English was not very good, I couldn’t
exibly revise my original study plans’; and
• ‘Having been busy with the school festival preparation, club activities, and my part-
time job, I couldn’t preserve enough time to study English’.
29
However, there were also students who had relatively positive learning experiences:
• ‘I’ve made a habit of using English every week’;
• ‘It was good that I was able to work on my weaknesses at my own pace’; and
• ‘Now I know what I need to do to maintain my English ability’.
Implications
Although even some advanced-level students had diculties, it seemed to be partly
due to the relatively short length of the programme: they would have been able to deal
with their problems if they had more time to engage in the autonomous learning. As
the MILLA results showed that students achieved a higher level of autonomy after the
15-week ALP experiences, the programme seemed to have a positive impact on the
development of the students’ autonomy.
fumikomurase@gmail.com
References
Murase, F. 2010. Developing a New Instrument for Measuring Learner Autonomy. Unpublished
PhD esis, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia.
Murase, F. 2015. ‘Measuring learner autonomy: problems and possibilities’ in C. J. Everhard
and L. Murphy (eds.). Assessment and Autonomy in Language Learning. Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan.
1.6 Older English learners: when motivation alone is not enough

Heloisa Duarte Freelance, São Paulo, Brazil
Introduction
Older learners of English usually start learning the language as fullment of a personal
desire, at a period in their lives when they have the time and the means to do so.
However, economic crisis and social issues have recently led older citizens to look
for English courses with the aim of nding new jobs (or keeping their current ones),
moving away from their home countries or even being able to communicate with new
members of their families.
In the above-mentioned scenarios, motivation, intrinsic or extrinsic, plays an impor-
tant part in learning. Nevertheless, for some of these learners, motivation alone is no
guarantee of good performance; the assumption that they are too old to learn a new
language, or the memories of unsuccessful previous experiences when trying to learn
English, among other factors, may make learners feel disheartened and demotivated.
Helping older learners
According to Dörnyei and Ushioda (2001), demotivation does not mean that the
learner has no motivation; instead, it means there is a strong negative component that
is acting on the learner and that it should be investigated. In the case of older learners
of English, it is crucial that teachers analyse their learners’ goals and challenges in
order to be able to help them overcome obstacles and be able to learn the language.
In the workshop, participants were presented with three older learner personas,
30
Older English learners: when motivation alone is not enough
each with dierent learning aims and challenges. In groups, participants were invited
to analyse these learners’ needs and wants, and suggest ways through which to help
them achieve their goals.
Learner 1
e rst analysed learner was an elderly man trying to learn English by himself in
order to communicate with his British daughter-in-law and granddaughter. He used
memorisation techniques such as leaving notes around his house with words in Eng-
lish, and listening to and repeating sentences in English with the help of audio-lingual
material. Participants suggested that, although the learner was highly motivated, he
was only able to produce memorised chunks of language. eir main suggestions to
help this learner were as follows:
• Having real and meaningful interactions in English in order to be able to use the
language more naturally with the new members of his family.
• Being in a classroom with other learners who shared similar challenges or goals,
which could provide him with the opportunity to share his doubts with his col-
leagues, as well as practise with them.
Learner 2
e second learner analysed was a 69-year-old science teacher who needed to learn
English in order to nd a job. His challenges included a mild hearing loss, problems
memorising new vocabulary and fear of making mistakes and being corrected in front
of his peers. Participants suggested that some ways through which the learner could
be stimulated were as follows:
• One-to-one lessons in which he could gain condence and be able to learn from his
mistakes in a more private way, before interacting with other learners.
• e use of memorisation techniques which could improve his vocabulary and help
him gain condence in his ability to speak English.
Learner 3
e third learner was a retired lawyer who had always wanted to learn English but had
had a bad experience with a former English teacher and suered from severe anxiety
when producing the language. Many participants said that they had already met stu-
dents with similar challenges and put forward the suggestion that the best way to deal
with this learner’s anxiety would be to nd out as much as possible about her life and
use her experiences in the lessons so that she could realise her potential and use it in
her favour. It was also suggested that her teacher should use classroom materials that
are related to the learner’s experiences so as to make her feel comfortable about the
topics and more willing to use the language.
Conclusion
By the end of the workshop, through the analysis of the three personas, participants
were able to select ve factors they considered to be the most important when teach-
ing older learners of English:
• adjusting classroom and lessons to learners needs;
• encouraging learners and boosting their self-condence;
31
• choosing materials with motivating and interesting topics;

• suggesting and encouraging the use of memorisation techniques; and
• nding out as much as possible about learners and valuing their experiences.
heloisahcd@hotmail.com
Reference
Dörnyei, Z. and E. Ushioda 2011. Teaching and Researching Motivation (second edition).
Harlow: Pearson.
1.7 Creating a personalised course programme

William Rixon and Joanna Wakeling Regent Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
Our school has been trialling a method that personalises every lesson, every week and
every course for long- and short-term students. is article discusses the practical
application of a course programme for group classes which is entirely personalised to
suit the needs of every student. e process is comprised of two main stages: coaching
sessions and weekly planning sessions.
Coaching sessions
Every week, we hold a coaching session with every student for 15 minutes. ere are
three main areas of a coaching session: life goals, course goals and skills.
1 To establish why students need English for the future, we ask about their life goals.
is could be anything from ‘start a university course’ to ‘develop my career’ to
‘travel the world’. is helps us to identify their potential requirements for the
course and put their goals into context.
2 Next, we establish what their expectations are by eliciting their course goals. For
example, some students need a certain IELTS level, while others are required to
communicate in business on a daily basis. is is where their personalised pro-
gramme starts to take shape, and we use this information to dene the skills they
need to meet their objective.
3 en we focus on skills. ese are divided into three life skills and three language
skills. We work with the student, referring to the life and course goals, to identify
three specic skills they require to meet their objectives, for example, have short
phone calls, understand the gist of a text quickly or book a hotel room online.
Most importantly, these skills are always transferable to the real world. Finally, we
concentrate on language skills. By this point, the coach will have had at least 10−15
minutes to analyse the student’s production. During the course of the session, this
is lled in with three specic areas of linguistic development for that learner.
Weekly planning sessions
Although the coaching session alone is invaluable within a more structured set syl-
labus, we use this to totally dene the content of the course. At Regent, we have a
maximum of 12 students per class with 25 hours of lessons per week. Every Monday
morning for around 20 minutes, the students share their latest coaching form with
the class to plan the week. ey then decide jointly with the teacher the areas they will
32
Language learning disabilities in higher education: a multidisciplinary approach
cover during the week by combining and merging the skills. e teacher is then able
to create a lesson-by-lesson learning plan of the week, with clear, real-life outcomes.
Here are three skills from three dierent students’ coaching forms:
• I can use everyday collocations in speaking.
• I can use strategies when I don’t know a word.
• I can talk about current aairs.
ese were combined into a single lesson outcome to help those students. e
outcome is:
• We can follow a news bulletin by predicting language and developing collocation
knowledge.
is caters not only directly to those students but indirectly to others. e lesson
will be lled with a wealth of content and practice for the whole class.
Response
A common question is about how we assess progress. We use a variety of formative
and summative assessments. We have weekly and monthly progress tests, the monthly
test being adapted from the Cambridge exams. is provides transparency for long-
term students. At the end of a course, students have the opportunity to watch a rst-
day video and a last-day video of their spoken production to show them tangible
evidence of progress. In addition, ongoing coaching sessions place a large emphasis
on progression.
We have also been asked whether there is any evidence that our method of creat-
ing a personalised course programme is successful. Based on entry and exit tests, the
average weekly progress of a student in 2016 was 0.95 per cent. In 2017, the year we
implemented this method, it rose to 1.64 per cent. We have received an overwhelm-
ingly positive response from students and teachers alike.
Our presentation aimed to show others how it is possible to personalise a course
programme as well as the lesson content. None of this is xed. We hope that elements
of what we’re developing can be integrated into your current structure to provide your
learners with a course that suits them.
joannawakeling1@gmail.com
williamarixon@hotmail.com
1.8 Language learning disabilities in higher education: a

multidisciplinary approach
Joao Carlos Koch Junior Sapporo Gakuin University, Japan
Background
Before this study took place, we team-taught a group of special-needs students as
part of a barrier-free programme at Sapporo Gakuin University, a private university
in Hokkaido, Japan. It consisted of a 90-minute English communication class to a
group of six special-needs students, and the lesson design combined two perspectives:
33
English teaching and occupational therapy (Koch and Takashima 2016). e present
study is primarily based on the authors’ initial experience with this interdisciplinary
approach.
Rationale
According to Schneider and Crombie (2003), virtually all foreign language classes
today have a variety of language learners with dierent levels of linguistic abilities.
Teachers should aim for the ‘least restrictive environment’ (Schneider and Crombie
2003: 1), also referred to as ‘inclusive learning’. is also encompasses learners with
special needs, including those with language-related learning disabilities (LDs, also
known as learning diculties/dierences).
Although LDs have been increasingly researched and better understood in recent
years, there are few studies that research LDs in adult learners of English, and in par-
ticular the impact of foreign-language requirements upon students with LDs in higher
education. is study describes our rst step towards identifying and understanding
the needs of adult learners of English with an LD, aiming to use this knowledge to
make our classes more inclusive.
Why occupational therapy?
One of the core principles of occupational therapy is to enable people with mental,
physical or social disabilities to carry out meaningful activities condently and inde-
pendently. is perspective guided us towards the adoption of the social model of
disabilities, which denes impairment as a result of limitations in our environment
and/or society.
Method
In order to gain a better understanding of LDs, we conducted a review of the literature
on LDs in foreign language learning situations, with emphasis on adult learners with
LDs. We divided our ndings into two main categories: theoretical background (such
as facts, denitions and status of LD across dierent contexts) and known practical
knowledge about teaching adults with LDs in foreign language learning environments
(such as strategies, techniques and learning accommodations).
What is known
Phonology and orthography have been identied as the most immediate impacted
areas in LD learners. Other areas that are problematic are syntax, semantics and short-
term memory. Studies have found that between 2 per cent and 15 per cent of rst-year
university students have an LD in their L1. Nevertheless, guidelines for diagnosing
LDs in foreign language learners are not available.
Many studies have demonstrated that early intervention can prevent failure. How-
ever, there is a consensus that environments and instruction are generally limited.
Teachers and schools often do not know what to do, which is partly due to the lack of
communication between educators and health professionals. With little knowledge,
LD students can easily be labelled as lazy, demotivated, or inept; some studies have
found that LD students can develop aective problems because of the lack of oppor-
tunities and support as a result of their learning dierences not being considered. In
34
Language learning disabilities in higher education: a multidisciplinary approach
addition, because of LDs’ apparent lack of (visible) severity, students may not get the
support they need.
What to do, and how
It is recommended that teachers regularly cover the English sound system in their
classes. In addition, cognitive (such as reading aloud) and metacognitive (such as
summarising, reecting) strategies help students to improve linguistic abilities. A
number of studies have also found that employing multi-sensory techniques—hear
it, see it, say it, write it, act it out—have a benecial eect on LD learners (Schneider
and Crombie 2003).
Teachers should watch their in-class behaviour, such as idioms and face/gestures
(some students have trouble processing these signals). Visual aids, clear instructions
and explanations, and frequent reviewing and concept checking are all helpful tech-
niques, and one study suggested asking students to identify their own linguistic
strengths and weaknesses (Ortiz and Artiles 2002).
Testing accommodations (such as giving students extra time, or making readers/
note takers available) are often recommended. Other forms of support, perhaps
with expert consultation, may also be considered. Additionally, studies highlight the
importance of actively building a positive relationship between students, their peers,
teachers, and schools.
Final thoughts
It is dicult to identify accurately LD students in EFL/ESL classes. Nevertheless,
these steps can benet all learners (not only those with an LD). In sum, we believe this
theoretical and practical knowledge is an important rst step to include all learners in
our classes and potentially enable LD learners to succeed.
*Risa Takashima (Hokkaido University), an occupational therapist, co-authored
this study.
juniorkoch@gmail.com
References
Koch, J. C. J. and R. Takashima. 2016. ‘e power of an educator: occupational therapist
team’. e Language Teacher 40/3. http://www.jalt-publications.org/node/4990/articles/
5168-power-educator-occupational-therapist-team.
Ortiz, A. A. and A. J. Artiles. 2002. English Language Learners with Special Education Needs:
Identication, Assessment, and Instruction. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics.
Schneider, E. and M. Crombie. 2003. Dyslexia and Foreign Language Learning. Milton Park:
David Fulton Publishers.
35
2 The big picture: models,
methods and materials
is chapter brings together eight papers in which the authors take a stance on
approaches and materials used in the classroom. e papers in this chapter address
some big questions. Adrian Underhill, Piers Messum and Roslyn Young explore
the notion that language exists primarily for expression and put forward their vision
of what an expression-based methodology would look like. Isabelita Solano Mendes
Peixoto and Aline Milagres Dyna then address the prejudices that are often held
about certain varieties of English and appeal for more tolerance of variation. Nathan
omas then suggests a usage-based model to replace Kachru’s concentric circle
model of language use. e speakers in the Forum on English as a lingua franca (ELF),
namely Rudi Camerer, Gemma Williams, Analia Duarte and Judith Mader, then
review a number of issues related to ELF, particularly its use in the Business English
classroom. Graham Hall’s paper looks at the question of whether students should be
permitted—and indeed encouraged—to use their L1 in class, while Paul Emmerson
draws our attention to the PPP approach, asking what happened to the third P. e
last two papers address materials designed for classroom use. Ben Knight looks at
the integration of 21st-century life skills into ELT programming and materials; and
nally, in her report of her plenary talk, Dorothy Zemach presents insights into how
materials are made from the perspective of an ELT author.
2.1 Language is for expression before it is for communication

Adrian Underhill Freelance, Hastings, UK, Piers Messum Freelance, Brighton,
UK and Roslyn Young Freelance, Besançon, France
is claim was made by Caleb Gattegno (e.g. Gattegno 1981), inventor of the Silent
Way. We explored how teaching methodology might develop if expression, rather
than communication, were adopted to underwrite the purpose of language learning.
We considered this question with respect to three problematic areas: control of
content, syllabus and mistakes.
Our starting points were that:
• (self-)expression and communication often co-occur but can be found separately;
• when they co-occur, expression is the precursor;
• we have become used to seeing communication and leaving expression unrecog-
nised; and
• distinguishing the two has implications for language teaching.
To separate the concepts, we asked participants to work in pairs to carry out the
following tasks: (1) engage in a parallel soliloquy, where two people talk past one
36
Language is for expression before it is for communication
another—each expressing themselves but not actually communicating with the

other; (2) be the train times announcer at Brighton station—communicating without
self-expression; and (3) make conversation, as at a dinner party when we have noth-
ing to say to our neighbours but we have to generate talk—being obliged to speak
without feeling motivated to do so.
Before we say anything, a notion must have come into being within us. is inner
movement can then be expressed in inner speech, private speech or public speech.
During or after an act of public speech, communication may (or may not) take place.
We constantly monitor our words to check that they adequately express the meaning
we intend. We do not monitor our utterances for their communicative success with
anything like the same assiduousness.
What would a methodology based on self-expression be like?
ere are already expression-based methods: Community Language Learning, drama-
based approaches, Silent Way, some uses of poetry and literature, and even a good
conversation class. But in language teaching in general, communication takes centre
stage. We turned to the three problematic areas to see what some implications of an
alternative perspective would be.
Control of the content
Since expression must start with an inner movement, it can only be such inner
movements, experienced by the students, which determine what is said in class. is
does not necessarily happen with the display communication that can characterise
a so-called communicative class. In an expression-based approach, the teacher deals
with whatever appears, taking a ‘quality control’ role in which she corrects and helps
to enhance that self expression. One implementaton of student-led content can be
a ‘class conversation’, a disciplined and productive activity which should be distin-
guished from a ‘conversation class’. If expression is the basis of the class:
• participants respond to each other as people rather than as students;
• they are engaged, because the class is working on the adequacy of their own expres-
sion; and
• they feel respected (and this is particularly important for adolescents who are sensi-
tive to any restrictions on their freedom).
The syllabus
Will the syllabus be covered if a detailed programme is not set in advance? Yes,
although the order in which it is covered will emerge as students speak. Students
recognise their own boundaries. In a class conversation they make use of the things
they know, and they explore and experiment with what they almost know. ey do
not venture into what for them is the ‘deep unknown’. eir choices will dovetail with
any well-constructed syllabus.
Mistakes
As students talk, errors and inadequacies appear in what they are saying. Speaking of
expression-based classes, Gattegno said that, ‘mistakes are a gift’ rather than a nui-
sance. ey open up teachable moments, when teaching is at its most eective because
37
Chapter 2: The big picture: models, methods and materials
the student is occupied by his visceral need to express himself. Correcting mistakes
does not mean simply getting the right words in the right order. Correction must
involve students working on their inner criteria, on whatever gave rise to the mistake.
Conclusion
We suggest that there is an answer to the riddle described by Stevick (1990): how is it
that two methods based on contradictory assumptions can both give good results? We
nd the answer below the level of the method (where Stevick also thought it would
be found): teaching works best when it works on students’ powers of self-expression,
which by denition has personal meaning for them. We believe that this insight could
oer a more secure foundation for our methodology. We will explore these ideas in
future seminars; please contact us for details.
adrian@aunderhill.co.uk
p.messum@gmail.com
roslynyoung@gmail.com
Reference
Gattegno, C. 1981. ‘e computer and the mind’. Educational Solutions Newsletter 11/1: 10−11.
Stevick, E. W. 1974. ‘e riddle of the “right method”’. English Teaching Forum XII/4: 1−5.
Reprinted 2017 in IATEFL Voices 254: 19.
2.2 Linguistic prejudice: understanding and applying concepts in

the language classroom
Isabelita Solano Mendes Peixoto Instituto Federal de Brasília, Brazil and
Aline Milagres Dyna Casa Thomas Jefferson, Brasília, Brazil
Introduction
As a language teacher, you might have found yourself in a discussion on whether cer-
tain accents or sentence constructions have positive or negative values, based only on
social beliefs and personal preferences. Linguistic variation is part of cultural identity,
a representation of the way various social groups interact, and the language we speak
is a result of location, social class, family, gender and education. Linguistic prejudice
comes from the judgement of the listeners, who base their perceptions on stereotypes
and take as reference the dialect used by the prestigious social group or the one that
is socially approved (Macaulay 2006).
us, for a teacher, linguistic prejudice can become a constant thorn if students
make assumptions about one’s background, working competence and socioeconomic
status, solely on the basis of the language used.
Myths
Language-based discrimination can be grounded in myths that are purely social and
not linguistic. Bagno (2013) has listed eight myths that relate to Brazilian Portuguese,
four of which we have adapted as follows:
38
Understanding and applying concepts in the language classroom
1 In order to speak well, one should know grammar. Grammar, as an articial guide-
book created to document patterns of language, is slow in recording changes, and
yet has somehow been transformed into a tool for control and social exclusion.
Also, languages that do not have a written system still have competent speakers
who can communicate without clearly established rules.
2 Knowing the standard language is the way to move up the social ladder. People seek to
improve their professional opportunities and increase upward mobility by avoiding
social judgements on the language variety that they use. is does imply that those
who know the language well, such as language teachers, would be at the top of the
social pyramid, as this is not the case. Perhaps, rather than stressing the standard
variety, language classrooms should work on providing understanding and accept-
ance of the many variations of a language while making learners aware of language
usages.
3 We should speak like this because this is how the language is written. First came the oral
language, and much later a written system to record the patterns of this language.
So, knowing a written system demands continuous training and memorisation of
xed rules within a formal education setting. Also, the written system is articial,
static, might involve irregular letter−sound correspondence and does not account
for subtleties of prosody and regional diversity.
4 British English is the proper variety. Certain varieties of a language are better than
others, but who decides? at British English is more pleasant is simply a matter of
opinion and relates little to the logic or communicative expressivity of the language.
Language learners might embrace some variety due to standards in textbooks or the
media, without actually considering the many dialects (prestigious or not).
Consequences
One of the consequences of linguistic prejudice in the language classroom is dealing
with students’ acceptance of teachers whose varieties are either non-standard or not
native-like. Such teachers are seen as unable to provide a quality class despite their
educational background or pedagogical skills. Another relates to the myth that one
should master grammar in order to properly function in the language. It should
be argued that rote memorisation of grammatical structures can help learners with
accuracy when producing the language, but it has little eect on their actual uency
and conversational skills, especially if they lack opportunities to work on pronun-
ciation patterns, vocabulary or even culture. Finally, some schools might stress the
teaching of certain sounds or sentence constructions to make students and parents
aware that certain varieties of a language or word choices can be detrimental to future
employability or academic prospects. is is done instead of emphasising that using
the many dialects, including the standard variety, within a language does not imply
language deciency.
Conclusion
e rst step, we believe, is to acknowledge there is linguistic prejudice in the lan-
guage classroom and, as teachers, we can identify and point it out when it becomes
part of the conversation. e second is to decide to monitor our own work in order
to avoid prejudice in our classes, by accepting dierent varieties, making students
39
aware that such dierences are part of each country’s history and culture, and nally
to think that ‘there is no reason to believe that any single form will be suitable
for all situations, which is why so many dierent forms can exist within a speech
community. Such diversity is to be welcomed and enjoyed rather than condemned or
eradicated’ (Macaulay 2006: 396).
isa.peixoto@hotmail.com
linedyna@gmail.com
References
Bagno, M. 2013. Preconceito Linguístico: o que é, como se faz. São Paulo: Edições Loyola.
Macaulay, R. K. S. 2006. ‘Regional dialects and social class’ in V. Clark, P. Eschholz, A. Rosa
and B. Simon (eds.). Language: Introductory Reading. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s.
2.3 A usage-based model for speakers of Global Englishes

Nathan Thomas University of Oxford, UK
Introduction
Building o of Silvana Richardson’s 2016 plenary and Péter Medgyes and Alessia
Cogo’s 2017 debate at the two previous IATEFL annual conferences, this presen-
tation took a critical look at the current state of English as a global language for
teachers, researchers and general users. Following a review of previous models for
classifying users of English, an alternative framework that describes speakers based on
usage rather than geographical location was introduced. e suggested model breaks
free from traditional ideologies that prior classications provided and aligns with a
poststructuralist/constructivist view of identity and ownership. is view recognises
the diverse, complex and dynamic nature of transcultural identity construction as
inuenced by language usage. An explanation of the proposed model and recom-
mendations for further study were discussed in the presentation and are summarised
below.
Previous models
It has been notoriously dicult for researchers to create a model that accurately
describes the spread of English and the ways in which it is being used worldwide (see
Galloway and Rose 2015 for a review). Despite substantial criticism, Kachru’s (1992)
concentric circle model, which represents users as belonging to an inner, outer or
expanding circle dependent on whether their variety of English is learned in native,
second or foreign language contexts, is still the most commonly referenced. One
issue with this and other models is that the terms relegate many language users to
connotatively undesirable positions that are unchangeable since one cannot change
where one was born. Moreover, this sort of categorisation does not represent the
rapidly growing population of transnational individuals who have complex language
identities and usage patterns that do not align with such structuralist/essentialist
groupings. As speakers identify with and use English and other languages at various
40
A usage-based model for speakers of Global Englishes
levels of investment, traditional models no longer provide an adequate description of

the complex associations between speakers, usage, identity and ownership.
A usage-based model
With trans/multilingual users in mind, a colleague and I decided that a more appro-
priate form of classication would focus on the concept of being a user of a language
(see Cook 1992). is removes the geographically oriented models of the past with
their overtones of hierarchy, colonialism and linguistic imperialism. In our current
model, individuals self-identify as being either primary, additional or periphery users
of a language based on their actual usage rather than birthplace, ethnicity, order of
acquisition or level of prociency. Some users may identify only as additional users
of languages and may feel as though they have no primary language. Users may also
uctuate in their identication over time. A description of each is shown below.
• Primary users use the language daily or almost daily as part of their normal means
of communication for everyday formal and informal interactions, education, and/or
business. A primary language is also a language a user identies with strongly.
• Additional users may use the language daily in education, work, or in business trans-
actions, for example; however, this may not be the language of choice for everyday
interactions such as with family, friends or in their local community. Conversely,
additional users may use the language for everyday interactions but not for educa-
tion or business; in either regard, the language is not the primary language used by
the individual but is still part of that user’s identity.
• Periphery users use the language for specic purposes only such as education, inter-
national business or travel; periphery users neither need nor use the language for
everyday interactions, nor do they identify as members of this speech community.
Discussion
One participant in this session questioned whether this model was simply a renam-
ing of previous terms. Others had trouble placing themselves within our proposed
descriptors. ese are relevant concerns, although feedback in general was that such a
model is necessary in this day and age. is is not the nal conceptualisation of our
model but rather a view of its current, embryotic state. By presenting at IATEFL,
we have been given ideas for improvement and look forward to more innovation in
this area with a focus on trans/mutilingual users. Norms are changing. In order to
reect this change, perspectives, opinions, and pedagogy must leave the domain of
the inner circle and recognise all users equally. As people move around the world and
identify with various communities of practice, usage must become the main focus of
classication, whether it be with this model or another.
*Although he was unable to present, I would like to acknowledge Christopher
Osment’s initial contributions to this project.
nathan.thomas@education.ox.ac.uk
References
Cook, V. J. 2002. Portraits of the L2 User. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Galloway, N. and H. Rose. 2015. Introducing Global Englishes. Abingdon: Routledge.
Kachru, B. B. (ed.). 1992. e Other Tongue: English Across Cultures (second edition). Urbana,
Ill.: University of Illinois Press.
41
2.4 Forum on English as a lingua franca (ELF)

Rudi Camerer elc-European language Competence, Frankfurt and Saarbrücken,
Germany, Gemma Williams University of Brighton, UK, Analia Duarte
Universidad de Belgrano, Buenos Aires, Argentina and Judith Mader Frankfurt
School of Finance & Management, Germany
is forum addressed three areas of English a lingua franca (ELF): a paradigm for
the use of ELF in intercultural contexts; the importance of ELF for the teaching of
business English with possible tensions for teachers, concluding with a case study
from business English training; and the exploration of non-verbal features and their
importance for ELF and intercultural communicative competence.
Language−culture−identity: a paradigm for teaching English as a lingua
franca
Rudi Camerer and Judith Mader: ere are three reasons why reviewing our teach-
ing practices is urgent. One is that the language taught does not seem to correspond
to the language used in real life. Several studies have borne this out. Another reason
is that although EFL teachers acknowledge the existence of ELF, they do not transfer
this to their teaching. Finally language is often taught as a means of ‘getting things
done’. However, it is widely accepted in communication theory that language is more
than this and that communication rstly negotiates the identities, roles and relation-
ships of those involved. e exchange of information, for instance to get things done,
is secondary. If we accept the above, then it seems fair to maintain that trust-building
should be the rst and foremost aim of FLT.
is view, possibly regarded as idiosyncratic, is supported by an important docu-
ment: the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages 2001 (CEFR). e
CEFR has been translated into 40 languages and has been adopted by governments
in their FL-education policies. Despite this remarkable success, however, many do
not realise that
• the CEFR is in essence an intercultural document; and
• there are 54 descriptor scales but only four refer to accuracy. e others are of commu-
nication skills aecting identity-building, role-denition and relationship-building.
Since 2001, there has been criticism of the CEFR, some justied: inconsistent
scales, no levels below A1, descriptors missing at high levels (C1 and C2) and ref-
erence in some descriptors to ‘native-speakers’ as the norm. Nevertheless, for many,
the advantages of the CEFR make up for the shortcomings. In the 2014 revision
project, the criticism has been taken seriously by the Council of Europe. A large
number of experts have been involved in drawing up the CEFR-Companion Volume
with New Descriptors (CEFR-CV 2017). is represents an important step forward
in describing ‘Texts as Social Action’. e traditional skills of speaking, listening,
reading and writing, focusing on individual language users, have been replaced by
reception, production, interaction and mediation. ese imply two or more language
users, thus taking context into account. Context is essential for meaning-making to
take place and one highly inuential context is culture. e CEFR-CV will be highly
signicant for the design of methods and curricula for the teaching of EFL and ELF.
42
Forum on English as a lingua franca (ELF)
Among other innovations, pronunciation skills are no longer described in relation

to a ‘native speaker’ norm and plurilingual and pluricultural skills are dened. e
most interesting innovation, however, concerns mediation, i.e. communicating about
communication, a crucial skill in intercultural encounters. Skilful mediation allows
users to deal with culture-based dierences without harming relationships with
others. Intercultural experts maintain that skilful mediation can ensure more eective
intercultural communication in intercultural situations. e descriptor scales for
mediation in the CEFR-CV provide examples taken from practice and show how
these skills can be taught (and tested). e innovations in the CEFR-CV will serve
as a paradigm not only for FLT but crucially for the teaching of English as a lingua
franca.
Integrating ELF awareness into business English teaching and beyond
Gemma Williams: With English now functioning as the primary language of inter-
national business, ELF is arguably the most appropriate paradigm to inform business
English (BE) pedagogy. is presentation explored aspects of ELF that are most
relevant to classroom practice, and detailed a small-scale case study investigating BE
teacher awareness and application of these concepts.
Key ELF features
• Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC): as covered in the rst part of this
forum.
• Intelligibility: of far greater importance to the ow of ELF communication than
accurate adherence to native speaker (NS) norms. A teaching approach that reects
this, then, seems the most appropriate.
• Accommodation: the underlying, driving process of business ELF talk. e highly
consensual and co-operative nature of business ELF talk generally exhibits an atti-
tude of receptivity that is expressed in the willingness to make extra eorts to both
understand and to be understood. Speakers frequently converge towards a central
form across all areas including phonology, lexis and syntax.
In terms of teaching, what we can draw from this is the fact that what may, at rst
glance, appear to be errors or mispronunciations, could perhaps be interpreted as
highly sophisticated, interculturally competent ELF usage. Sensitive teacher discern-
ment, then, is crucial.
Case study research
A literature review indicted that teachers often possess limited awareness of the ELF
or ICC and demonstrate a conict between their beliefs surrounding the relevance of
these concepts to teaching and their willingness or ability to apply them. However,
all such previous research had been undertaken with General English teachers. Given
the importance of ELF and ICC in BE, I was curious to discover whether BE teachers
possessed greater awareness.
A mixed-methods case-study, employing questionnaires adapted from Martin
Dewey’s (2012) investigation into teacher awareness of ELF and ICC, interviews and
classroom observations was undertaken in the BE department of a language school in
the UK. Twelve teachers participated in the rst stage (ten NSs) and two were selected
for interviews and observations.
43
Part 1 of the questionnaire tested awareness of the key concepts. For ELF, all teach-
ers gave clear and insightful descriptions. For accommodation strategies, answers were
less condent and consistent among participants. Of those teachers making accurate
guesses, all saw it as the speaker’s responsibility to adapt their language. While this
is a valid aspect of accommodation, the crucial receptive role and bilateral ow was
unacknowledged. ICC was uniformly described favourably and as an integral part of
their responsibilities.
Participants were then asked to rate eight sentences, drawn from an ELF corpus,
according to their correctness, acceptability, intelligibility and importance to correct
in class. Most notable was the breadth of participant reactions: teachers responded
idiosyncratically (see Figure 2.4.1), with intelligibility (rated positively) the only
consistent term across sentences and participants.
Figure 2.4.1: Reactions to sentences from an ELF corpus
Despite this, and the median rating of all utterances as ‘somewhat’ acceptable
or ‘neutral’, the overall evaluation for ‘correctness’ was negative with six sentences
rated highly for requiring classroom correction. is tension was also apparent in the
classroom observations.
Gesturing and voice expression to enhance the speaking skill
Analia Duarte: Being asked to make a learner improve his English in no time because
his career path was at stake made me, as a business English (BE) trainer, focus on all
the expressive possibilities available in this learner’s voice and body. In doing so, not
only did he become his own personal living laboratory but he also deployed in the L2
all the potential he already had in the L1. ree years later, he is a nance controller
in Argentina, the UK and India!
Initially, we decided that uency was at the top of the list. In this case, this
multi-faceted concept meant sounding less choppy and having better ow and an
eortless combination of words into utterances. Most importantly, we agreed to go
44
Forum on English as a lingua franca (ELF)
beyond language and work on the body because we all live in three primary domains
which are in permanent interaction: language, emotions and body. Since the learner
was expected to lead a multicultural team in the future in ELF, exploring what it
means to lead with cultural intelligence became central because functioning eec-
tively in intercultural contexts is not merely knowing a list of cultural do’s and don’ts
but rather adapting to dierent cultural contexts and being able to navigate them.
Interestingly, there are also three components of cultural intelligence: the cognitive,
the emotional/motivational and the physical, traditionally neglected in ELT although
the whole body must be trained when communicating in a foreign language as it
needs to adopt new patterns of behaviour, which ties in with bonding and interper-
sonal communication. In business, results equal relationships. at is why BE trainers
should also work on the relational dimension of spoken business communication
in ELF. To that end, spontaneous gestures, i.e. those which are ‘phonologically,
semantically and pragmatically synchronic with speech and an external manifestation
of a speaker’s on-line thinking-for-speaking’ (Stam and McCaerty 2008: 6) become
our allies. ey contribute to the production of continued speech and the creation of
potential contexts of acquisition because they
1 are co-expressive with speech, an integrated system;
2 help organise information for speaking;
3 lighten the cognitive load and free up cognitive resources to be used elsewhere;
4 serve developmental purposes;
5 are a bridge from individual cognition to the social other; and
6 expand possibilities (two dimensions, time and space vs. speaking, unidimensional).
In brief, gesturing is a free, readily available resource we can bring into our L2
classes. Once teachers start systematically raising learners’ awareness, the gains are
multiple. In this process of making the invisible visible through exercises that focus
on facial expression, eye contact, proximity, melody, voice projection, posture—
and even breathing—learners build on their interlanguage development, become
more uent and also capitalise on their identity, their self-concept, their self-ecacy
and their self-esteem; both the cognitive and aective dimensions are brought into
the picture. Gesturing is a very powerful tool to place learners in the ELF driver’s
seat.
r.camerer@elc-consult.com
djezmalouiz@gmail.com
analiaduarteleaps@gmail.com
j.mader@fs.de
References
Council of Europe 2017. Common European Framework of Reference – Companion Volume.
https://rm.coe.int/cefr-companion-volume-with-new-descriptors-2018/1680787989.
Dewey, M. 2012 ‘Towards a post-normative approach: Learning the pedagogy of ELF’. Journal
of English as a Lingua Franca 1/1: 141–170.
Stam, G. and S. McCaerty. 2008 ‘Gesture studies and second language acquisition: a review’
in S. McCaerty and G. Stam (eds.). Gesture, Second Language Acquisition and Classroom
Research. New York: Routledge.
45
2.5 Own-language use in the language classroom: why, when and

how?
Graham Hall Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
Introduction
e use of the learners’ own language(s) in the classroom was, for much of the 20th
century, overlooked or deliberately devalued in the theoretical debates surrounding
ELT (though not in practice, as use of the learners’ own language continued unac-
knowledged and unexamined in many classrooms around the world). Recently,
however, ‘English-only’ approaches to teaching and learning have been challenged in
a number of ways.
Dening our terms
Before moving on, however, we need to clarify terms. While ‘rst language’, ‘L1’,
‘native language’ and ‘mother tongue’ are common synonyms for ‘own language’, each
is problematic, blurring criteria surrounding birth, identity and expertise (Rampton
1990), while ignoring the fact that it is increasingly dicult to refer to learners’
languages as simply their L1 and L2 in an evidently multilingual world. us, while
further possibilities exist (for example, ‘home’ or ‘shared’ language), the term ‘own
language’ is increasingly common, and refers to ‘the language which the students
already know, and through which (if allowed) they can approach the new language’
(G. Cook 2010: xxi-xxii).
The case against own-language use
Arguments for English-only teaching and against own-language use range from
beliefs about second language learning (for example, ELT classrooms should replicate
‘mother-tongue’ learning, and oer ‘naturalistic’, ‘immersive’ environments) to the
ideological and commercial underpinnings of ELT (for example, print runs of mono-
lingual textbooks can be marketed globally; English-only teaching is ‘convenient’ for
many native-speaker teachers). Yet the need for English language input, interaction,
output (i.e. practice) in the classroom is evident. us, the case for own-language use
is not that we should return to grammar-translation or classes where own-language
use dominates and the use of English is minimised; rather it is to explore the ways in
which the principled use of the learners’ own languages use might support English
learning.
Arguments for own-language use
Arguments in support of own-language use include the notion of multicompe-
tence—‘the knowledge of more than one language in the same mind’ (V. Cook 2008:
231). Here, own-language knowledge operates as a reference system which learners
naturally draw on as they learn the new language. In practical terms, learners might
attend to the similarities and dierences between their own language and English.
us, concepts from SLA theory, such as ‘noticing’ and ‘focus on form’, are all poten-
tially supportive of own-language use. Translation activities in which learners cannot
46
Own-language use in the language classroom: why, when and how?
avoid dicult lexical or grammatical items can result in ‘pushed output’; research into
‘learning strategies’ also notes a role for translation. Meanwhile, code-switching and
the use of bilingual dictionaries is regularly focused upon in vocabulary acquisition
research.
Meanwhile, humanistic and democratic perspectives on education remind us that
recognising prior knowledge, which includes the learners’ own languages, helps teach-
ers recognise ‘the whole person’, while constructivist accounts of learning suggest that
new knowledge is based on existing understandings and beliefs. Meanwhile, socio-
cultural theory suggests that language—in this case, the learners’ own language—is a
cognitive tool through which learning can be scaolded. It can be used by learners,
for example, to explain and prepare tasks prior to using English, to maintain collab-
oration and peer and group relationships within the classroom, and to attend to and
explain new grammar and vocabulary.
Pedagogic functions of own-language use
Reports of the ways in which teachers might deploy learners’ own languages in the
classroom focus on three main areas. ‘Medium-oriented’ functions aim to teach the
new language itself (such as explaining grammar or vocabulary, or explaining when
meanings are not clear); ‘framework’ functions involve classroom management and
organisation (such as giving instructions, setting homework and maintaining disci-
pline); and ‘social’ functions focus on, for example, rapport building and establishing
equitable classroom relations. Meanwhile, learners’ use of their own languages seems
to focus on medium-oriented activities such as using bilingual dictionaries, compar-
ing English grammar to that of their own language, watching TV/video with subti-
tles, engaging in spoken and written translation activities, and preparing for tasks and
activities in their own languages before switching to English. Many learners also seem
to use their own language for aective reasons in order to build peer relationships,
reduce anxiety and so forth.
Concluding thoughts
How much own language occurs in a class will vary according to context; learners’
age and level, class size and whether the teaching institution is private/state sector
are likely to be important. Consequently, there is a clear need for more research and
further sharing of best practice in order that ELT practitioners can make informed
choices about when and how to use the learners’ own language in the classroom.
g.hall@northumbria.ac.uk
References
Cook, G. 2010. Translation in English Language Teaching: An Argument for Reassessment.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cook, V. 2008. Second Language Learning and Language Teaching (fourth edition). London:
Hodder Education.
Rampton, B. 1990. ‘Displacing the ‘native speaker’: expertise, aliation and inheritance’. ELT
Journal 44/2: 97−101.
47
2.6 Whatever happened to the third P?

Paul Emmerson The English Language Centre, Brighton, UK
Background
I did my initial teacher training at IH Lisbon in 1991 and we were taught two ‘safe’
lesson shapes for beginner teachers:
1 Presentation – controlled practice – less-controlled practice (‘PPP’)
2 Warmer – uency activity (task/discussion/role play) – language feedback
Since then, I have often heard people confusing less-controlled practice (the third
P) with tasks. ey are quite dierent. e third P requires the target language in a
loose, personalised context—there are no answers in the book like the second P, but
the student is still focusing on form. In a task there is no predened target language
and the student is focusing on meaning.
Is the third P being forgotten?
In my talk I showed slides from many contemporary business English coursebooks to
see how the PPP + Task model was being implemented. We saw that sometimes it was
implemented well, but often not. In many cases the third P was simply missing from
a coursebook sequence: the book passed from presentation and controlled practice
straight to a task or uency exercise.
I’m sure that this is mirrored in classroom practice. Take yourself as an example.
How often do you do short, focused, lively, heads-up personalised practice of the
target language with no answers in the back of the book? I think the third P is often
ignored.
Modern approaches
ese days we don’t believe language acquisition happens over a 45-minute PPP
lesson. We have a more sophisticated and subtle view. Structured input is still
important, but:
• it takes much longer than 45 minutes to acquire language, and one time round a
rigid PPP sequence will not be enough (it takes time to build channels from working
memory to long term memory);
• you need lots of intervening passive ‘noticing’ of the language (ditto re. building
memory channels); and
• there has to be a communicative need for the language (to pull it back out of long-
term memory into working memory).
In thinking about all this I have found Michael Swan’s model for ‘a balanced
programme’ very useful. Table 2.6.1 is taken from his article ‘Two out of three
ain’t enough’ (nd it by scrolling down at https://mikeswan.net/articles). e terms
‘extensive’, ‘intensive’ and ‘analysed’ are his own.
To my way of thinking, this looks a lot like Table 2.6.2.
I totally agree with Swan’s article, where he argues that all these elements are
necessary for a successful course. He gives examples of unbalanced programmes that
give too much or too little weight to various elements.
48
Whatever happened to the third P?
Extensive Intensive Analysed

Input Books, magazines, texts, Spoken or written Learning rules
etc. texts studied in detail Looking at examples and
Speech (of other people) Material learnt by heart lists
Output Free speaking Controlled speaking or Doing exercises
Free writing writing, reusing learnt
material
Table 2.6.1: A balanced programme (from Swan 2007)
Extensive Intensive Analysed

Input Noticing (incidental) Noticing (directed) Presentation
2nd P
Output Tasks 3rd P 2nd P
Table 2.6.2: An interpretation of Swan’s model, based on the conventional PPP + Skills
Practice model
Why is the third P being marginalised?
I identify three reasons why the third P has too little weight in modern ELT:
1 Teachers are good at presentation and controlled practice. It’s ‘teaching’. And task-
based approaches have increased the visibility of meaningful speaking activities.
But the third P has no champion.
2 e third P combines both form (the target language) and meaning (personalised
examples and context). is is more complex cognitively. It feels messy in class as
students struggle to get out the language and make up their own examples at the
same time. It doesn’t go as well as the second P (answers in the back) or a task (fun
and lively).
3 In a coursebook it’s dicult to implement, both creatively and in terms of space.
So what?
I think all this matters because one element in language acquisition is going missing.
Students will have a tougher job producing language in free speech if their practice
has only been heads-down written exercises.
And it has implications for blended learning. e web-based side of the blend
is appropriate for presentation and controlled practice, and the classroom side of
the blend is appropriate for tasks and discussions. But the classroom would also be
an excellent place for third P activities. ey would add real value to the students’
learning experience with a live teacher.
A full version of this article with lots of concrete examples and suggested third P
activities can be found at http://www.paulemmerson.com/slideshows/.
paulemmerson@btinternet.com
Reference
Swan, M. 2007. ‘Two out of three ain’t enough—the essential ingredients of a language course’
in B. Beaven (ed.). IATEFL 2006 Harrogate Conference Selections. Canterbury: IATEFL.
49
2.7 Integrating life skills into English language programmes

Ben Knight Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK
Introduction
As English teachers, we know our classes are about more than just the language—the
grammar, vocabulary, language skills. We’re also developing our students’ ability to
express themselves eectively, to think critically, and to collaborate successfully. But as
this becomes a major part of 21st-century educational requirements, can we be sure
that we’re doing this as well as we could be?
Models and approaches to life skills
At Cambridge, we have been researching dierent approaches to life skills, to work
out how we could integrate these skills into English language courses better. We
looked at a wide range of models, from the Partnership for 21st-Century Skills, to the
OECD, WHO and UNICEF, and the ACT College and Career Readiness Standards.
All of these provide excellent insights into life skills, but we decided that we needed a
framework that covered the full range of skills and competencies that are relevant to
education, that showed how these develop across the learning journey, from pre-pri-
mary to adulthood, and that provided a level of detail that helps teachers and students
to understand what exactly they should be focusing on at each stage of education.
The Cambridge Framework for Life competencies
We set out to create a model or framework which had those features. We examined
research into skills required by employers, changes in skills needed at work and
college and academic research into dierent areas of competency. e framework is
organised around eight main areas of competency: creativity and innovation, critical
thinking, digital literacy, learning to learn, communication, collaboration, emotional
development and social responsibilities.
Each of these eight areas contains a number of ‘competencies’. So, for example,
collaboration includes competencies such as ‘taking turns in shared activities’ and
‘managing the sharing of tasks in a project’. We then analyse each competency into its
Component Skills. For example, ‘managing the sharing of tasks in a project’ consists
of Component Skills such as identifying tasks and sub-tasks that can be shared,
ensuring the allocation of tasks is fair and oering to help when others need it.
Life skills and the learning journey
e framework looks at the learning journey in ve broad stages: pre-primary,
primary, secondary, higher education and learning at work. For each of those stages,
we have developed Can Do Statements which describe what a student completing
that level might be expected to be able to do in relation to that competency, in terms
of observable behaviours. For example, in the area of critical thinking, there is a
competency ‘evaluating texts, ideas and arguments’, and for primary school students,
some of the Can Do Statements for this are:
• Says whether something is true or not, and gives a reason
• Explains why they believe or not what a character says in a story
50
Plenary: Sausage and the law: how textbooks get made
• Identies inconsistencies in stories

• Identies missing key events from short narrative summaries
More information on the Cambridge Framework for Life competencies can be
found at http://languageresearch.cambridge.org/cc.
Integration with English language programmes
Any course based on communicative language learning will already include elements
of developing life skills. e focus on communication, on working in pairs or groups,
on thinking critically or working imaginatively with texts and tasks all go beyond
pure language learning. However, the approach is usually unsystematic in how it
plans the development of life skills. We have found that the Framework has helped
us integrate life skills in a more systematic way: we look at the Component Skills for
a particular competency and create a planned progression through those component
skills. We also use the Can Do Statements to think more carefully about the design
of tasks, making sure that we have helping students to focus on a specic skill in an
explicit way. For example, one aspect of collaboration is being able to give construc-
tive feedback to others in the group. We have designed lessons where we begin by
highlighting the language used to express feedback in a constructive, positive way,
then provide scaolded activities for the students to make use of that language.
We have also been developing ‘assessment checklists’, based on the Can Do State-
ments, that teachers can use to evaluate how well their students are progressing on
abstract-sounding skills such as ‘creativity’.
e Framework is freely available for teachers and schools to use when trying to
think more systematically about integrating life skills into their English language
programmes.
bknight@cambridge.org
References
National Research Council. 2012. Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable
Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century. Washington, D.C.: e National Academies Press.
Suto, I. 2013. ‘21st century skills: ancient, ubiquitous, enigmatic?’. Research Matters: A
Cambridge Assessment Publication 15: 2–8.
Trilling, B. and C. Fadel. 2009. 21st Century Skills: Learning for Life in our Times. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
2.8 Plenary: Sausage and the law: how textbooks get made
Dorothy Zemach Independent writer and editor, Eugene, Ore., USA
ose who like sausage and the law, the saying goes, should never watch either being
made. e same could be said of textbooks. But if published materials inuence your
life at all, it’s time to pull the curtain aside.
One series, two stories
I’d like to open with an illustrative story of the creation of a textbook series, one of
mine, and of its subsequent revision.
My publisher wanted a business series, as well as a lower level of my writing series.
51
To that end, they paid for me and my editor to spend a week in Japan, observing
classes and talking to teachers. e issue the publisher wanted to address with this
business series was university students’ lack of interest and motivation. In addition to
being inherently motivating, it was hoped, the new series could teach business skills
for new employees along with English language.
I knew what I wanted to do: include a student-created portfolio project. Each stu-
dent in the course would create, from their imagination, a company and an employee
who worked there. In each unit, they’d add more detail—the company business plan,
the physical layout, the mission statement, even the logo. e worker would get a
physical description and a personality, a work schedule and hopes and dreams. I felt
condent this approach would work because I’d used this project in my classes at
Sumitomo Electric Industries, and had shared my materials with other instructors
who had also reported success.
My editor was dubious. A project? Student-created materials? No other book had
such a feature. Maybe we could put it in the teacher’s guide, he suggested, or perhaps
online … No, no, I said, it must be in the book. Essentially, it is the book.
For one week, we watched teachers using traditional business English textbooks
and discussed why they weren’t setting students on re. Because, I said, with no work
experience, students have no connection to what they’re reading. Who cares why
Coca-Cola updated their logo, or about the description of a ctional company in a
textbook? Let students create their own world, and they’ll come alive.
We met in Osaka with Andrew Vaughan, who ran English programmes at
Sumikin-Intercom. He got what I was saying right away—and became my co-author.
Book 1, targeting pre-work students, got the portfolio project. For Book 2, we
wanted something dierent, and also a format that would be relevant to recent
hires. So we structured the book around the story of a new hire at a multinational
company. ere were 12 units, so we named each unit after a month, and took the
new hire from January to December on her rst year on the job. In Unit 1, she
went through introductions; in Unit 2, she learned more about the company and its
products; in Unit 6, she took a business trip; in Unit 7, she wrote follow-up emails
about the business trip; and so on until Unit 12, December, when she went through
a performance review.
I think those were some of the best books I’ve written, and one reason for that is
the way they were created—with author and editor working as a team to develop and
create excellent materials. A team, but not a team with identical roles. e authors
got to author, and the editors edited. For this division of labour, the authors got a 10
per cent royalty on the ‘net to publisher’ the book earned, and the publisher got 90
per cent of the prots, as was normal at the time.
It seemed a sensible system, and—as I challenged an ‘old hand’ editor who
attended the Q&A after my IATEFL plenary—it was a system that worked. Authors
made enough money to keep on writing, and publishers produced high quality
materials that worked for teachers and learners. Some truly excellent books came out
of the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s.
But then came the shift.
e publisher contacted us a few years later about those business books, to see
if we’d be interested in creating an international edition; this meant, it was initially
52
explained, changing the language from American to British English, changing some
of the contexts from SE Asia to Europe, and changing the supplemental exam
practice at the back from TOEIC to BEC. It seemed like an easy way to reach new
markets, so we said sure.
‘Oh, and we’ll be reducing your royalty rate to 8 per cent.’
‘Wait. What? Why would you do that?’
Because they needed to create a student website, and they needed our money to
pay for it. We asked why the website couldn’t be paid out of their 90 per cent (of the
prots!) instead of our 10 per cent, but were told that times were tough for publish-
ers, money was tight, there was just no other way. We oered to write all of the web
content for free, and keep our original royalty rate. No.
So we turned the oer down. We’d rather not have an international edition than
be badly treated over one. A matter of money, sure, but also principle. To which the
editor replied that if we refused, they would hire freelancers to rewrite the sections,
pay the freelancers out of our royalties, and still give us 8 per cent. We were horried,
but trapped (I had a lawyer look over my contract), and so we gave in. At least we’d
still have our beloved material, right?
Wrong. Gone was the respect for author input. We were informed that in addition
to the few minor changes initially proposed, they’d also be removing the portfolio
project from Book 1, and stripping the story line out of Book 2. We pressed for
reasons but got nonsense. ‘Europeans don’t like stories’ was all we got about the Book
2 decision. We argued that the book would make signicantly less sense now—in
Unit 6, someone would go on a business trip, and in Unit 7, someone completely
new would send follow-up emails about a dierent business trip with no background,
and so on. But we lost every argument.
I wouldn’t call the international edition downright bad, but I’m not sure I’d call it
good either. It’s certainly no longer unique or special. e website, by the way, was
never completed. In fact, it was never started.
is is one illustration, but almost every author I know has a pack of stories like
this up their sleeve.
The shift, the thrift and the shaft
Why the shift, though? What happened? Because there was a shift—from authors
having control over their own content and getting a minimum 10 per cent royalty
(which was expected to rise with experience to 12 per cent or even 15 per cent)
to the current landscape, where teams of editors control the books from concept
to production, and just supply authors—uh, ‘content creators’—with briefs that
tell them what to do. And pay 6 per cent royalties, or 2.5 per cent, or 0 per cent
(giving instead a at fee that works out to a fraction of what royalties would have
paid). A research trip for the author and editor to the target markets wouldn’t happen
today.
Publishers blamed ‘digital’. ey saw ebooks and digital media and learning
management systems and platforms on the horizon, and they panicked. ey
assumed—wrongly, in my opinion—that these new technologies would somehow
wreck publishing or their place in it, and they would have to proactively reorganise.
And certainly prots were already down. Proof that digital was disruptive!
53
Pearson went rst. In 2013, Pearson authors were sent a letter that explained
that ‘[o]ur aim is to move beyond publishing and build a new integrated, agile and
outcome-driven function, which as of today we are calling “Product Development”’
(Neale, correspondence, July 2013). What that meant, it turned out, was that they
were proposing to cease development of new print products in favour of digital-only
(a move they have since wisely walked back) and drop author royalties entirely in
favour of fees—and lower fees than what royalties would have come to.
Other publishers followed suit less dramatically, but began chipping away—let-
ting go mid-career editors and sales and marketing sta with a background in ELT
or teaching and replacing them with new hires with ‘business’ experience (often
nance). One excellent marketing professional who worked with one of my courses
was let go and saw her position advertised a month later, with no mention of desired
qualications in language or books or education; instead they wanted someone with
‘FMCG experience’. Fast-Moving Consumer Goods. Like soap.
When I rst started writing textbooks in 2001, and in my previous decade of
teaching, it seemed that almost everyone in the publishing landscape had a teaching
background. Certainly editors did, but even sales and marketing people usually had
a year or two of teaching experience or had studied English themselves. is is no
longer the case.
But books are not soap. Authors, at least good authors, are not interchangeable.
ey used to be hired because they could produce something unique. Editors trusted
authors to produce excellent materials, and so a variety of authors produced a variety
of books. Ironically, although there now seem to be more ELT books than ever
before, they also look more alike. Everything is a series; every unit must have the same
number of pages. One good idea becomes, at least for a while, the only good idea.
(Must every unit in every book be based on a TED talk? Must every reading include
ten words from the Academic Word List?) We’ve lost the quirky standalones that used
to be perfect for some classrooms, and are instead trying to force all students to learn
o the same page.
But I don’t think ‘impending digital’ was actually responsible for this situation,
at least not initially. In my opinion, what really happened is that publishers started
eating their young.
An explosion of ancillaries
In the 1980s and 1990s, what sold was student books. If there even were teacher’s
guides, those were more like eshed out answer keys, and sales reps could give them
out as a freebie if a school could guarantee enough sales of student books.
To compete with one another, though, publishers began producing better and bet-
ter teacher’s guides—now with extensive notes, photocopiable worksheets, midterm
tests, nal exams. en came student workbooks. Student support websites. Teacher
support websites. CD-ROMs. Testing packages with unit tests and placement tests.
And many or all of these were given out free, as long as an institution adopted the
student book.
ey certainly weren’t free to create, however. Since the only piece that was actually
being sold was the student book, publishers raised student book prices, and looked
for ways to cut costs—like cutting author royalties.
54
But student book prices can only go up so high before students stop buying them,
and teachers stop asking them to. Instead, students use old editions or share books
or pirate copies online or use materials created by the teacher. en publisher prots
fall, and they panic anew, and raise student book prices and reduce author payments
even further.
Publisher-led, market-driven … author-free?
e dual driving forces of panic over digital disruption and pressure to give away
more and more expensive ancillaries and raise student book prices have brought us
to the current climate of the ‘publisher-led project’—one in which author teams are
assembled by publishers, given instructions on what to write, paid a fee (and often
not one they could live on), and sent on their way.
One result of this is that some experienced authors are walking away. ey leave
big publishers for smaller ones, they quit ELT authoring altogether for other careers,
or they turn to self-publishing, where royalties are higher and authors retain 100 per
cent control over their content.
at leaves publishers with less experienced authors, who must therefore be more
tightly controlled with stricter briefs and templates. And at some point, ‘authoring’ a
textbook becomes more like data entry than writing.
Because a book that sells in the Middle East, Europe, Asia, Latin America and
North America is cheaper to produce than one book for the Middle East, another one
for Asia, still another one for Latin America, and so on, publishers are also developing
fewer regional books and regional versions, and instead directing writers on their
publisher-led projects to write books that are ‘safe’ for the whole world. us we are
handed briefs that forbid subjects such as dating and love, parties, space and science
ction, art and movies, alcohol and tobacco, LGBTQ issues, and animals like dogs
and pigs. Even individual words get banned. ‘Birthday’, ‘Christchurch’, ‘Christmas’,
‘cross’ (as a verb), ‘evolution’ (in the metaphorical sense), ‘ash mob’, ‘government’,
‘hamburger’, ‘Israel’, ‘smartphone’ and ‘Taiwan’ are just some examples either I or
author friends have had to ght to include—and we didn’t usually win the ght.
No teacher wants to work out of a book their students nd oensive or upsetting.
But why can’t students in Europe learn how to order a drink? Or students in Latin
America talk about Christmas? It might not be all right in Saudi Arabia to discuss
homosexuality, but it is in Canada.
I don’t think most of the materials being published today are bad, to be clear. But
I do think they’re not as good as they could be. Teachers are missing the innovative,
excellent content that experienced authors aren’t there to write anymore or inexperi-
enced editorial or marketing departments strip out because it doesn’t t the detailed
instructions of the 48-page brief. Design as a eld is booming; textbooks look great.
But I don’t think they’re as good inside as they used to be. And that’s a shame.
It’s not all bad news. While royalties were plunging or disappearing in our little
non-ction niche, over in ction authors were growing tired of receiving only 25 per
cent royalties (more than double ours!), and career authors have been increasingly
moving to self-publishing, where royalty rates go up to 70 per cent—of cover price.
If I sell an ebook on Amazon, Apple, or a similar platform, I make around US$2 for
a book that retails for US$3. On a traditionally published book, I make around $2
55
for a book that retails for $50. And that’s if the net to publisher amount is gured
generously; on some books, I make more like 0.25. e argument used to be that
while traditional publishers paid less per copy, they sold more copies overall, but that
is becoming less true all the time, as customers become more used to buying directly
online and become more price-sensitive.
Some smaller ELT publishers still oer 10 per cent royalties on new projects as
a matter of course, including Express Publishing, Perceptia Press, Pro Lingua and
University of Michigan Press. Micropresses such as Wayzgoose Press (disclaimer:
that’s my own) and Alphabet Publishing oer royalties around 40−50 per cent.
e changes in ELT publishing are fairly recent, which gives me hope that they
might be reversible, or at least redirected. It would be nice to change direction before
the industry really hit rock bottom. (To publishers who patiently explain to me how
the new landscape works now, I like to ask: ‘And is it working? Are your prots up or
down? Are you hiring or laying o? Bringing more books to conferences or fewer?’)
So what can we do about it?
Here are some steps that publishers could take, in my eyes, to get back on track:
1 Pay authors fairly. It’s hard for me to see how this could mean anything other than
royalties; one point of spreading author reimbursement out over several years was
because the publisher couldn’t aord to invest it all at the outset. at makes it a
bit hard to believe that a at fee is now an easier option for the publisher but still
equally attractive to the author. However, if a fee could be calculated that accurately
reected, say, ve years of royalties, I wouldn’t be opposed. Even so, a royalty keeps
an author invested in the book. If I have a stake in its success, I will write newsletter
articles and catalogue copy, give webinars, talk at conferences, train sales sta, and so
on. A book I’ve written for a fee? It’s out of my head when the nal invoice is paid.
Royalties should begin at a minimum at 10 per cent; but really, as technology
lightens the workload, they should rise. Remember—you’ve still got 90 per cent
of the prots to invest and sustain yourself. If your publishing house will collapse
without your taking over another 2 per cent from me, then you have serious prob-
lems, and lowering the quality of your output is not going to solve those. Just ask
the ELT division of McGraw-Hill.
Don’t even think of lowering royalties on subsequent editions, once the bulk of
the work has been done and your expenses have been recouped. What a slap in the
face to authors. And are all the recent legal battles over these moves not costing
you? University of Michigan Press doubled my royalty on a second edition, a move
that makes a lot more sense.
2 Trust your authors. An editor is a vital part of the story, but authors are supposed
to bring not only the creativity but the pedagogical and linguistic expertise. If you
can’t trust your authors to do that, then don’t hire them in the rst place, and look
for someone you can trust. at doesn’t mean an author’s judgment should never
be questioned, but when in doubt, it should be questioned, not overridden by a
brief half directed by the marketing department.
3 Lower student book prices. Look—if technology is not saving you money, you’re
doing it wrong. If the market cannot support the true cost of your fabulous Learn-
ing Management System, then don’t build that Learning Management System.
56
Build something else, nd another way, or wait a few years for the cost to come
down. Fabulous new tech is exciting, but it’s supposed to be a tool to help people.
It’s certainly not necessary to learn English; look how many people learned English
70 years ago who didn’t even have a cassette recorder or a language lab. I’ve lost
count of how many times I’ve been told that my royalties must be decreased to
pay for the website/LMS/digital whatever, and then a few years later, that tech was
abandoned because—surprise—the consumer didn’t really want it after all. What
they wanted was content that would work on platforms they already had.
4 Charge for the ancillaries. e day of the complimentary teacher’s book has passed
(unless you want to reduce it to an answer key again). If you are paying sta and
authors to produce quality materials, then those should be sold. I know it’s hard
when your competitor is giving away a free woozit with every adoption. But a race
to the bottom is one we all lose.
5 End the stranglehold of distributors on retail prices (at least in some markets).
Right now we have a system in some countries where a book that retails on a site
like Amazon sells at $32; the publisher sells it to the distributor at $26; and then
the distributor sells it to the consumer at $100. I probably cannot tell you the title
of the book in question, for legal reasons, but I can assure you this example is not
made up. en we all complain that sales are down. Now why would that be?
Not everyone reading this is a publisher (perhaps, sadly, no one is), but I have
advice for teachers and programme administrators as well. e health of the textbook
industry aects you directly. Do you want excellent materials? Publishers really do
want to provide you with excellent materials. Of course they do. It would be daft not
to. But they are experiencing a temporary confusion over what excellent materials
really are and how they are created, and you can help.
1 Be critical consumers. A textbook is something you could wind up using in every
class; it has to do more than just look good. Go through examination copies slowly,
and imagine yourself teaching the units, down to individual pages and exercises. Is
the practice extensive enough? Does the content suit your students? Are any topics
missing? Can you understand the underlying pedagogy, and do you agree with it?
2 If you’re not pleased with current oerings, then speak up. A publisher’s favourite
phrase is ‘market-driven’, and you and your students are the market. Publishers
want to sell people books they want. Salespeople, whether they’re local reps or the
head oce sta that you see at conferences, will listen to you. Really—they will.
If enough requests come in for the same thing, that news will be passed on to the
editorial department. Talk about prices, too! Let them know at what point your
students will buy a book (versus downloading a pirated .pdf or sharing a book with
a friend or using an old edition).
Email publishers; mention them on Twitter; post on their Facebook pages. One
request won’t change an industry, but enough voices will. Let them know too what
you like, and why.
A word of caution, though—your requests need to be principled ones. Before
you say that you want each reading to have ten Academic Word List words (because
when I pushed back on that with a publisher, their defence was always, ‘at’s what
the market wants’), ask yourself why. Sometimes it’s going to mean doing a little
research. But if the result were even better books, wouldn’t it be worth it?
57
3 Pay for your stu. You can’t expect free websites and testing packages and teacher
resource packets without the student book price soaring. If everything is priced
reasonably, then students and programmes can invest in those materials they tru-
ly want. And no sharing of those pirated pdfs. You’re paid for the work you do;
authors need to be paid for the work they do. A host of organisations and sites,
from the British Council to http://americanenglish.state.gov to Project Gutenberg
and MOOC courses, oer free materials for both learners and teachers. But if you
wouldn’t steal a car or a dress or a phone, then don’t steal a book. (If you would steal
those things, then you need more help than I can oer you.)
4 Programme coordinators and administrators in particular: Do not be dazzled by
fancy tech or glowing language in catalogues. How do your teachers like to teach?
How do your learners like to learn? What materials would best support your teach-
ers? Talk to them, and listen to them. I nd it hard to believe any programme could
truly thrive if teachers did not feel happy with the materials they had to use.
However, in the end, I don’t see a group of publishers over here, a group of
teachers over there, some administrators beyond, and some authors clustered down
here. ere’s no ‘us and them’. ere’s only us. We all share the same goals. We all
want excellent materials that support teachers in their teaching and learners in their
learning. And the best way to foster that is create a system that is fair to all the players.
http://www.dorothyzemach.com/contact/
58
3 Lessons from the classroom
e papers in this chapter present examples of lessons, activities or classroom-based

research. In all cases, there are lessons to be learned. Julietta Schoenmann and Linda
Ruas start the chapter by addressing the issue of fake news; they present classroom
activities designed to help students to consume news critically. William Kerr then
demonstrates how an old favourite technique, dictogloss, still has a place in the
modern classroom. e next three papers take us into the EAP classroom. Caro-
line Webb outlines an activity designed to encourage EAP students to develop both
pragmatic competence and research skills; Jayn Kilbon discusses ways to enhance
the comprehension of academic lectures; and Zulaikha Al-Saadi reports on research
into the ways in which Omani students revise their written work. e chapter ends
with three papers that address topics related to vocabulary development. Alexander
M. Lewko shows the connection between the use of the tool Text Inspector and
vocabulary development; Piet Murre presents research into vocabulary acquisition
among high-level EMI students; and Laura Laubacher argues in favour of a discourse
layering approach to vocabulary learning.
3.1 F is for fake: how students deal critically with post-truth

Julietta Schoenmann and Linda Ruas Global Issues SIG Joint Coordinators,
UK
Students get their news in dierent ways: online, from paper-based sources or by word
of mouth. Some may not be interested in consuming news at all, while others may rely
on friends or family to keep up to date with local, national and international events.
For those who engage regularly with what is going on around them, we believe there is
an increasing need to apply critical thinking skills to what they read and hear, simply
because social media, sophisticated software and a huge number of websites make it
harder to distinguish fact from opinion.
What makes the use of social media in particular a dierent way for our students
to obtain news? Here are four areas that are of signicance:
• anti-journalism journalism;
• sharing news as performance;
• making a good impression; and
• communication as ritual.
ese four areas demonstrate that the act or process of engagement in sending and
receiving news content via Facebook, Twitter or other forms of social media is as
important as the content being shared. Given that technical solutions (for example,
59
Chapter 3: Lessons from the classroom
agging disputed content or blocking certain sites) have met with limited success, it
seems more helpful to equip students with strategies and tools that enable them to
more consciously process news stories and detect bias whenever they encounter it. In
so doing this will help develop their critical literacy, news literacy, digital literacy and
numerical literacy.
So how can we enable our students to do this? We need to encourage our students
to read widely and subject themselves to dierent opinions that can act as counter
measures to one particular view. We can advise them to check the source of the story
and whether the website is reliable. Tell them to read the whole article rather than
just the headline since fake news often relies on shocking headlines to get readers’
attention. If they can, ask them to do some brief research on whether other reputable
media outlets are running the story in order to corroborate what they read or hear.
Suggest that they also check the date on an article as old news stories are sometimes
circulated, which gives the impression they are current; this can be misleading.
In terms of practical classroom activities, there are several enjoyable but critically
rewarding things you can do.
• Firstly, familiarise students with what fake news is. Do a few jigsaw reading tasks,
such as cutting up a few simple introductions to programmes. Here is an example
using an extract from the BBC programme Newsround (https://bbc.in/2m1Ox-
iO) where you can get students to re-tell and discuss the content and to agree on
denitions.
• Bring in examples of fake news and real news to class to see if students can tell the
dierence. Explore why people choose to believe what they do and investigate what
students can do to check what is fake. For example, present a headline of the day,
then ask students to discuss what the story is about and whether they think it is fake
news or not.
• Try a quiz. Gather statements about national or international events, some of which
are true and some are fake. Ask students to guess which ones are fake.
• Listen to reports about fake news to nd reasons why people share fake news and
ways of spotting it (https://bbc.in/2H1aAFt).
Figure 3.1.1: Poster to help students recognise fake news
60
Dictogloss redux: rethinking a learning masterpiece in a technological age
• Encourage students to negotiate meaning by translating posters in their own lan-

guage (about how to spot fake news) in order to create a poster together in English to
display in their institution to other students. is IFLA website link has pdf versions
of translations of the poster in Figure 3.1.1 in around 40 languages.
• Raise awareness of how photos and infographics can be manipulated using published
materials (https://eewiki.newint.org/index.php?title=QUIZZES).
Analysing fake news stories can help to move some students from LOTS to HOTS
(lower- to higher-order thinking skills). It can also shock them into realising how
important it is to talk to friends and family about the news they read and hear. In
addition, it may help teenage groups by safeguarding some of the more vulnerable
students from being manipulated.
is type of teaching—responding to and discussing authentic news which is far
too recent and relevant to appear in any published coursebook—really helps learners
deal with the language they see around them while enhancing their critical thinking
skills.
gisig@iate.org
3.2 Dictogloss redux: rethinking a learning masterpiece in a

technological age
William Kerr Koç University, Istanbul, Turkey
Introduction
Ruth Wajnryb’s Grammar Dictation (1990) introduced into the ELT classroom a lan-
guage-teaching technique that has truly endured the test of time. Lauded by applied
linguistics researchers and practitioners alike, dictogloss (as the procedure has become
more popularly known) stands out as one of the most eective communicative and
collaborative techniques in any teacher’s repertoire. In fact, one might argue there
are few, if any, comparable techniques that oer so invaluable an opportunity for
classroom collaboration, communicative activity and use of all four language skills
simultaneously. And all this with a focus on grammar!
Preparation and aims
Texts used in the dictogloss procedure should be authentic/near-authentic, often
adopted from media sources. Productive grammar knowledge is being used in the re/
creation of text with the aim of developing grammatical competence. Good prepara-
tion and skilful manipulation of groups and texts will benet motivation, reducing
any aective lter, and will ensure a smoother contribution to the learner’s moving
from interlanguage to more advanced mastery of target language structures.
The stages of the dictogloss
• Preparation: the learner is told about the topic; new vocabulary is introduced; work-
ing groups are formed.
61
• Dictation: the text is heard at normal spoken speed. e aim of the rst listening
is to get a general feeling of the text, while that of the second is for jotting notes;
readings should be as identical as possible.
• Reconstruction: learners pool notes in groups and work on a group version; minor
errors can be pointed out, but the teacher’s role is to monitor, not provide input.
• Analysis/Correction: various methods of analysis are possible; students should have
the opportunity to examine all versions and discuss various language patterns. e
original text should be seen only after the analysis stage is complete.
The value of dictogloss
Wajnryb notes that dictogloss is a ‘working compromise’, and claries that:
It is a compromise between what the learners think they want (grammar) and what
the teachers want to give them (communicative practice in a task-based, learner-
centred context). It gives learners what they think they want, and what in fact they
may need, but it does so in a manner that most teachers nd palatable, that does not
violate more traditional preferred learning styles, that is consistent with contemporary
thinking in applied linguistics, and that accommodates recent trends in language
teaching (1990: 14).
Certainly the values of this technique are numerous and this very multiplicity of
positive factors makes dictogloss a unique learning tool. e language learning is ac-
tive and collaborative; memory and creativity play a role in solving what is, in eect,
an information gap; grammar is used in a context; and this utilisation of text is a main
feature of Wajnryb’s technique.
Back to the future
ree decades have elapsed since the appearance of Grammar Dictation. How then
does Wajnryb’s work relate to this technologically-driven world? Despite the plethora
of advanced ‘smart technology’ in today’s classrooms, learners are generally quite con-
tent with dictogloss in its original format. In fact, studies seem to indicate clearly that
in-class smart phone use as a tool in language teaching and learning is not as favour-
ably ‘demanded’ by learners as some might believe. e procedure can be enhanced
by use of applications such as Padlet or Google Classroom/Docs, facilitating, for ex-
ample, the dissemination of the spoken text to individual participants, or the nished
group work instantaneously electronically displayed for whole-group correction and
consideration. e variations, it would appear, are as limitless as the technological
skills of the teacher (or students) might allow.
Invaluable recent work by numerous teacher-researchers (e.g. Prince 2013; Stewart
et al. 2014) demonstrates persuasively that the overall value of the dictogloss technique
has far-reaching positive eects on the language learning process without any input
from modern technology. e technique’s multifarious variations are made clearer by
experimental classroom work in developing a listening comprehension course (Prince
2013). In adopting various dictogloss adaptations in their classroom research, Stewart
et al. (2014: 12) note the exibility the dictogloss oers ‘to account for the needs,
interests, and learning preferences of each learner. But more than that, the dictogloss
activities allow English learners to be active and reective during the learning process.’
62
Multimodal EAP research projects
In his foreword to Wajnryb’s work, Alan Maley notes that ‘Grammar Dictation
oers teachers and learners a powerful and eective tool for learning’ (Wajnryb 1990:
3). Indeed, some thirty years on, it still does.
wdk.ist@gmail.com
References
Prince, P. 2013. ‘Listening, remembering, writing: exploring the dictogloss task’. Language
Teaching Research 17/4: 486−500.
Stewart, B., L. Rodriguez Silva and J. Torres Gonzalez. 2014. ‘Integrating language skills
through a dictogloss procedure’. English Teaching Forum 2014/2: 12−19 & 35.
Wajnryb, R. 1990. Grammar Dictation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
3.3 Multimodal EAP research projects: developing pragmatic

competence and research skills
Caroline Webb Broward College, Ft. Lauderdale, Fla., USA
In my presentation, I introduced a research project that I have used in an English for
Academic Purposes (EAP) speaking course. In this project, students design a hypo-
thetical situation in which they formulate a request to their professor, for example,
asking for an extension or a make-up exam. ey present this situation to students
on their university campus and carry out a survey on what they would say to the pro-
fessor in this situation. e students then analyse the natural speech they have gathered
and present their ndings to the class in a formal presentation. e entire project is
scaolded and all of the skills needed to complete the project are taught in class.
e purpose of the project is to promote language learning and to introduce stu-
dents to the research process. Furthermore, the research project focuses on pragmatic
competence, a critical component of communicative competence, which is often an
afterthought in EAP curricula. Hence, in this assignment, students must analyse prag-
matic elements, such as speech acts, levels of directness and indirectness and hedging,
as well as elements of natural speech, for example, discourse markers and false starts.
Finally, students will familiarise themselves with visual aid software, such as Prezi and
PowerPoint. e research project suits high B1 and B2−C1 prociency levels and
works well as a nal course project. Below, I have written the assignment instructions
as I give them to students. Feel free to adapt or change the instructions to best suit
your students and your teaching context.
Assignment overview
Your group will formulate an academic situation in which you request something
from a professor (like an extension or a make-up exam). Your group will conduct
a survey of 15 native or native-like English speakers (choose students or professors)
and ask them what they would say to the professor in this situation. You should write
down their responses and/or get permission to record audio/video. You will analyse
the language in the interviews and report on the research process and research ndings
in a presentation.
63
Part 1
You and your group must create a situation and submit it on Google Docs. I will
provide you with feedback, and you should update the situation. For example, you
might write a situation like the following one:
You went to Mexico for spring break and had an amazing time. You were having so
much fun that you totally forgot about your chemistry midterm project. You go to
your professor’s ofce and ask for an extension. You’re really worried about asking.
What would you say to your professor?
Part 2
You and your group should collect the data. You can interview people individually, in
pairs, or as a group. You should write down their responses and/or get permission to
record audio/video.
Part 3
You should listen and transcribe the data onto the Google Doc. Get together with
your group and try to nd similarities and patterns in the data.
Part 4
In class, you will informally present on the similarities and patterns you have found
in the data. I will also provide you with feedback you can use in your nal analysis.
Part 5
You and your group will present your research and research ndings. You should use
a visual aid, such as Keynote, PowerPoint or Prezi. You might include the following
points:
• Research question: e situation you researched and why you chose it
• Data collection: How you found participants/where you surveyed people/any chal-
lenges in getting people to talk to you
• e demographics of the participants (e.g. average age, gender, major, nationality);
you may want to use a graph or chart here
• Results and analysis: What were some of the responses you received? (Give a few
examples—these could be typed and/or include the audio/video); any responses
should be verbatim and placed inside quotation marks
• Were there any patterns or commonalities among the requests? What elements of
natural speech did you nd?
• What rhetorical strategies (e.g. rational or emotional appeals) did the speakers use?
• Did any of the requests surprise you? If so, why?
• Did you learn any new words or expressions?
• Conclusion: Did anything interesting happen in the research process? What did you
learn during this project?
• Other relevant points?
cwebb1@broward.edu
64
L2 student perceptions of their academic lecture comprehension
3.4 L2 student perceptions of their academic lecture

comprehension
Jayn Kilbon University of Leicester, UK
is presentation discussed some of the main ndings from a longitudinal doctoral
study, which is investigating the factors which L2 students think aect their under-
standing of academic lectures.
Context
e data was collected at a British university and the presentation reported on the
opinions of seven student participants. ese students entered the university with an
IELTS score of 5.5, attended a ten-week pre-sessional EAP course which raised their
language level to the equivalent of IELTS 6.5, and then completed a master’s-level
course in the university’s School of Management.
Student opinions about lectures
Each student was interviewed six times between July 2015 and April 2016, and all of
the students had clearly identiable opinions about the factors which aected their
lecture comprehension. However, within the presentation it was only possible to dis-
cuss three areas: listening, listening and reading, and listening and writing.
Listening
One of the main issues which the students raised was the impact of their background
knowledge on their lecture comprehension. All of the students thought that if they
had studied the topic before, they understood more of the information in a lecture.
Several students also thought that theoretical input was more dicult to understand
than practical information which they could relate to the ‘real’ world. Students de-
scribed comprehension problems which occurred either because they could not pro-
cess new information quickly enough, or because they could understand all of the
individual words but could not move beyond a simple, literal meaning of the concepts
being discussed.
One way for students to obtain some background knowledge before a lecture was
to do the allocated reading which most lecturers set. Students generally thought that
this helped with lecture comprehension; however, a recurring theme throughout the
interviews was that students found reading academic articles challenging and very
time-consuming.
Closely linked to the problems which students had understanding the subject con-
tent in lectures were issues connected with vocabulary. If students heard new vocabu-
lary in a lecture, it was usually dicult for them to check meaning unless they saw the
words written on a PowerPoint slide. However while looking up new vocabulary, the
students usually stopped listening to the lecturer, and some students reported that they
spent time in lectures reading about new concepts on an electronic device, in their L1,
rather than listening to the lecturer discuss the concept. A second vocabulary problem
which students frequently discussed was that there were some words that they had
learnt but could not recognise when heard. is was either because they did not know
how the word was pronounced or because they had learnt an incorrect pronunciation.
65
Listening and reading

All of the students thought that trying to read information on PowerPoint slides at the
same time as listening was confusing and often impossible. e students usually spent
more time reading than listening, particularly if the slides contained a lot of text, as all
students felt that their reading skills were better than their listening skills.
Listening and writing
e students regularly said that they could not take notes and listen to a lecture at the
same time, and said that while writing notes they missed sections of lectures. As their
academic course progressed, students generally took fewer notes and focused only on
making notes about points that particularly interested them. is enabled them to
spend more time listening to the lecturer.
Reections on the pre-sessional course
e students were also asked how the pre-sessional EAP course could have been
improved to help develop their lecture comprehension skills. e students generally
suggested that the pre-sessional course should have listening texts with more content,
more realistic pre-lecture reading tasks and more subject-specic material.
In the presentation, I also suggested some ways that EAP courses might help
students prepare for their academic lecture experiences. Firstly, pre-sessional courses
should help students develop their lower-level listening processes and should also de-
velop students’ higher-level meaning and discourse construction processes. Example
activities for developing both higher and lower-level listening processes can be found
in Field (2008). Students may also benet from the development of institution-spe-
cic pre-lecture preparation skills. For example, if students routinely receive copies of
PowerPoint slides before a lecture, they could be encouraged to use these to review
vocabulary or concepts pre-lecture. Pre-sessional classes could also help students de-
velop skills to process both spoken input from the lecturer and written information on
PowerPoint slides simultaneously. Finally, L2 students are likely to better understand
their academic lectures if they start to develop their subject-specic vocabulary while
attending a pre-sessional course.
jaynkilbon@yahoo.co.uk
Reference
Field, J. 2008. Listening in the Language Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3.5 Tracking undergraduate Omani writers’ online writing

revisions
Zulaikha Al-Saadi University of Southampton, UK
Introduction
Revision has been recognised as an essential process in most writing process models
(e.g. Chenoweth and Hayes 2001). Revision can be carried out at dierent levels dur-
ing writing; for example, content revisions are made in order to alter the information,
66
Tracking undergraduate Omani writers’ online writing revisions
while language revisions are carried out on aspects such as spelling, grammar, linguistic
expression and punctuation (Stevenson et al. 2006). In foreign language (FL) writing,
one might expect that FL writers’ limited prociency would lead them to concentrate
on lower-level linguistic processing, thereby reducing the amount of attention given
to higher-level processing. However, previous research has tended mostly to com-
pare the amount and type of revision across languages L1 and FL. Research that has
considered the inuence of factors such as gender and FL prociency on the revision
process is scarce. Furthermore, it has been assumed that carrying out more content
revision results in better text quality (Bereiter and Scardamalia 1987); however, this
hypothesis has rarely been tested. In order to ll these gaps in the research, this study
explored whether the language of writing (L1 vs. FL), FL linguistic knowledge and
gender inuence the amount, location (immediate, distance or end) and type (content
or language) of revisions carried out by undergraduate Omani students and if these
explain variations in text quality.
Participants
Participants in the study were 77 undergraduate Omani students (43 male and 34
female) studying at Rustaq College of Education in Oman and majoring in ELT;
their ages ranged from 20 to 23 years. All had Arabic as their rst language (L1), and
English (FL) is the medium of instruction at the college.
Design and procedure
e correlational design used in this study was a mixed one, with one within-
subject variable and the remainder between-subject variables. e within-subject
factor was language of writing (L1 vs. FL). e between-subject factors were FL pro-
ciency and gender. is design allowed comparisons to be made between the results
across language of writing, gender and FL prociency levels. It also helped to measure
the eects of independent variables on the dependent variables.
e participants were asked to produce two argumentative texts, one in their L1
and one in their FL. e language of writing and writing topics were counterbal-
anced. e participants’ FL prociency was assessed using the Oxford Placement Test
(OPT). A keystroke logging program was used to record, observe and analyse the
participants’ revision processes. e quality of their written texts was assessed by two
independent assessors.
Main ndings
e results showed that the vast majority of revisions in both languages were imme-
diate and focused on language rather than content. In general, the study demon-
strated that writers conducted more revisions when writing in their FL as opposed
to their L1. Females appeared in general to be more motivated than males to revise
in both languages, and this had a direct eect on the amount of revision carried out
by males and females. Given their greater tendency to revise, females’ revisions were
more dependent on their English language prociency. e less procient they were
in English, the more they needed to revise. By contrast, males’ revisions did not de-
pend on their English language prociency. On the other hand, the results show that
greater English language prociency was associated with more content revision and
67
less language revision. e study provided clear evidence that participants beneted
more from the revision carried out after producing the rst draft of the text.
Conclusions
Overall, the study revealed that ELT Omani undergraduate writers were mainly driv-
en by their FL prociency when writing in their FL. eir concerns with FL linguistic
issues were evident from their reluctance to revise their text more globally (making
revisions at the content level) and their preference for a linear approach to the writing
process. However, this might also indicate that these writers generally had poor writ-
ing strategies, taking into account that this tendency was evident in both languages.
Furthermore, the study informed us that the number of revisions carried out depends
not only on language prociency but also on the individuals’ motivation and eorts
to carry out revisions.
Implications
Developing writers’ FL prociency is important to enable them to cope with their
revision process demands successfully. Moreover, the study provided some evidence
that postponing revising the text after an initial draft has been produced is signicant
in producing good-quality texts. erefore, encouraging FL writers to take some time
to read and revise their writing before submitting it will be a useful way to improve
their text.
zulaikha_alsaadi.rus@cas.edu.om
References
Bereiter, C. and M. Scardamalia. 1987. e Psychology of Written Composition. Hillsdale, N.J.:
Erlbaum.
Chenoweth, N and J. Hayes. 2001. ‘Fluency in writing: generating text in L1 and L2’. Written
Communication 18/1: 80–98.
Stevenson, M., R. Schoonen and K. de Glopper. 2006. ‘Revising in two languages: a multi-
dimensional comparison of online writing revisions in L1 and FL’. Journal of Second Lan-
guage Writing 15/3: 201–233.
3.6 Improving lexical difculty in academic writing using Text

Inspector
Alexander M. Lewko The American University in Cairo, Egypt
Introduction
Improving lexical awareness is among the skills that instructors of academic English
writing help students with. e tool Text Inspector (https://www.textinspector.com),
which measures the diculty levels of texts, might prove useful for students to further
develop this awareness. However, because this website is not explicitly designed for
classroom use, the instructor must be creative in using it eectively.
Regarding terminology, I started with the idea of ‘lexical diculty’, which can
have dierent meanings in literature, including a combination of lexical density,
68
Improving lexical difculty in academic writing using Text Inspector
morphological complexity and function word density (Campeld 2017). However,

colleagues later suggested terminology such as ‘lexical diversity’, which measures dif-
ferent words being used in a text (Gebril and Plakans 2016). In the end, my aim
in using this tool was not only to assist students in using vocabulary appropriate to
the topic as well as the genre of academic writing itself, but also to allow students to
improve their range of vocabulary as appropriate for their coursework.
e students involved in these activities were postgraduate students in an upper-
level writing class referred to as a Writing Module. Students enrolled in this module
are required to pass this course to continue in their MA programmes, but they may
take a number of content courses at the same time. e class met two times a week
for two hours each session.
First-time struggles
As with the use of any new tool in a class, the rst attempt may not work well. In this
case, students were asked to upload a recent paragraph assignment and record data
rendered on the website, including basic statistics such as type/token ratios, average
sentence length, and readability scores. ey sent the data to the instructor, who then
averaged the numbers in order to allow students to compare their own data to that
of the class and then to discuss implications. However, it was clear that that students
were not engaged in this discussion. e lesson here was obvious: if the students are
to be engaged in the use of this website, the activities must be more hands-on and less
focused on data.
An example of success through the Academic Word List
Fortunately, there were later successes in the use of Text Inspector. For example, stu-
dents used the English Vocabulary Prole (EVP) functionality which marks words
according to how their use corresponds to the CEFR. is activity demonstrated how
students with more successful uses of vocabulary generally had a more diverse spread
of words which included words at all CEFR levels. Students were also able to connect
vocabulary at the B level and upwards to that of vocabulary from sources used, thereby
reinforcing the importance of reading for learning new vocabulary.
One particularly successful activity utilised the Academic Word List (AWL) func-
tionality built into the website. In this activity, students were rst told about the
AWL. e instructor then divided the students into pairs and gave each pair a unique
paragraph from a recent writing assignment. e students uploaded the paragraphs
into Text Inspector and clicked the AWL link. e data rendered included a bar graph
of the percentage each AWL list represented in the text—see Figure 3.6.1. Underneath
this graph, lists of the words used from each AWL list were available to view.
e class then wrote the AWL words identied in Text Inspector on a Padlet page
(https://www.padlet.com) that was shared with all students to allow all pair work to
be seen. Students then wrote sentences using AWL words written on the Padlet page,
followed by a paragraph writing activity using words found from all pairs. In the
end, this activity allowed students to see words on the AWL as well as to use them in
new writing. ey also noted how AWL words used came from sources used for the
writing assignment, thus again enforcing the idea that reading helps with vocabulary
acquisition.
69
Figure 3.6.1: AWL-tagged words by frequency list in one student’s paragraph
Conclusion
A tool such as Text Inspector can help students in class if the instructor uses it appro-
priately. e data rendered on the site is helpful, but only if the data informs more
hands-on activities that allow the students to gain awareness of vocabulary. Perhaps
the most useful aspect of the tool was that in identifying particular words, students
could see that they came from sources. erefore, this relatively new tool enforces a
very old idea: more reading can lead to better writing.
lewkoa@aucegypt.edu
References
Campeld, D. E. 2017. ‘Lexical diculty: using elicited imitation to study child L2’. Testing
Language 34/2: 197−221.
Gebril, A. and L. Plakans. 2016. ‘Source-based tasks in academic writing assessment: lexical
diversity, textual borrowing and prociency’. Journal of English for Academic Purposes 24:
78−88.
3.7 EMI and facilitating vocabulary growth of procient L2 users

Piet Murre Driestar University, Gouda, Netherlands
Introduction
Using English (as a) medium of instruction (EMI) has gained currency in the Neth-
erlands over the last two decades. While in EFL conditions the initial L2 level of
70
EMI and facilitating vocabulary growth of procient L2 users
pupils in primary and secondary education generally is low, EMI in higher education
reaches students at more advanced levels. At these levels Nation (2001) suggests that
further development of a student’s vocabulary can hardly be promoted eciently by
the explicit teaching of words. Sight vocabularies may vary widely and by denition it
concerns infrequent words. Pellicer-Sánchez and Schmitt, however, draw attention to
words in the so-called mid-frequency range, which ‘is necessary for learners to know,
but which often receives little attention’ (2010: 31).
Dutch student teachers of English in the nal year of their bachelor’s-level teacher
qualications are generally C2-level speakers. In the case of using EMI for general
teacher education modules (i.e. focusing on non-linguistic subject matter) specic
vocabulary may be intrinsic to the courses. It is therefore conceivable that even these
advanced students benet from explicit noticing or teaching lexis. As ‘there is little
research into the impact of EMI on how much English students learn, and how much
content they absorb’ (Galloway 2017), an exploratory study may shed some light.
Procedure
Students were taught four modules with two lessons each in ve consecutive months.
e 17 students (10 female, 7 male, aged 20−50) received 24 hours of spoken input
and interaction in English while focusing mainly on the course content proper. e
module books themselves were in Dutch (their L1) as these were used for other groups
as well. Students were asked to put unknown words they came across while listening
and interacting into their personal dictionaries. Sometimes I (as their teacher) wrote
down words on the whiteboard or used other ways of making them notice words.
ey handed in their list at the end of each lesson. After the third lesson I gave them
the cumulative list at the start of the new lesson, in order to make their learning more
eective and ecient. After the nal (eighth) lesson students received a cumulative list
and ticked a box to indicate whether they knew each word receptively, productively or
not at all. All words were analysed according to their frequency band (1K−10K, www.
lextutor.ca) and whether they were content-specic.
Results
e 17 students collectively wrote down 129 words: 24 content words and 105 gen-
eral words. is does not seem to be much vocabulary for 24 hours of spoken input.
It probably reects my impression that students often did not write down words that
seemed to be unknown to them and that I had to draw attention to specic items.
e majority of the 129 words (81) were mentioned by only one or two students; 19
words were mentioned by three to seven students, and 24 words were written down
by eight to thirteen students.
e self-reported knowledge after the nal lesson is 74 words known receptively
and 51 productively, on average. Judging from the 24 words written down by at least
ten students, learning was limited as most students still do not know most items either
productively or receptively after the lesson series.
Remarkably, 83 words out of the 129 words (65 per cent) come from the 3K−9K
(i.e. mid-)frequency range, and 46 words could not be found in the Lextutor frequen-
cy table (for example, ‘insipid’, ‘leeway’ and some content words).
71
Conclusions and implications

e frequency range of words unknown to at least some of the students is wide and
contains many words in the mid-frequencies (Pellicer-Sánchez and Schmitt 2010).
Apparently, even for C2-level speakers these frequency bands might be worth paying
attention to. Deliberate and incidental noticing of words from spoken input seems
to be dicult, which makes sense as we normally listen for understanding and not
for every single word. In this exploratory study noticing depended to a considerable
extent on external clues provided by the teacher or fellow students. ere is therefore
an urgent need for an eective and ecient means to help students notice unknown
words in spoken discourse. Furthermore, in order to be eective in terms of learning
and acquisition more should be done besides mere noticing, which supports vocabu-
lary learning principles as repetition and the intensity and quality of the encounters.
Finally, the small number of content words found in this study makes it possible to
teach these explicitly to subsequent cohorts which will follow the same courses.
p.m.murre@driestar-educatief.nl
References
Galloway, N. 2017. ‘How effective is English as a medium of instruction (EMI)?’. https://
www.britishcouncil.org/voices-magazine/how-effective-english-medium-instruction-emi.
Nation, I. S. P. 2001. Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Pellicer-Sánchez A. and N. Schmitt. 2010. ‘Incidental vocabulary acquisition from an
authentic novel: do ‘Things Fall Apart’?’. Reading in a Foreign Language 22/1: 31–55.
3.8 Discourse layering: practical activities to teach lexical chunks

Laura Laubacher Embassy English, London UK
I have noticed that my learners often understand new lexical phrases encountered in
class, but when it comes to freer speaking tasks, they don’t use these but tend to fall
back on expressions they already know. So how can we get students to acquire new
vocabulary and actually use these chunks spontaneously in speaking?
Focusing on chunks rather than single words helps to promote acquisition and
uency (see Dellar and Walkley 2016; Lewis 1993), but despite taking a more lexical
approach in my own teaching, my students still weren’t using these chunks spontane-
ously. at is, until my colleague Phil Hynd introduced me to his idea of discourse
layering.
What is discourse layering?
Discourse layering is a way to break down the discourse of a conversation to allow stu-
dents to acquire the lexical chunks necessary to participate meaningfully in a desired
context. It involves introducing functional exponents, or semi-xed lexical phrases, in
a specic context and layering in seemingly-unrelated lexical input with these phrases.
en new functional chunks and lexical input are introduced while at the same time
repeating the previous chunks. Layers of discourse are slowly built up before repeat-
ing and transferring the target language to new contexts. Put more simply, discourse
72
Discourse layering: practical activities to teach lexical chunks
layering is a way of framing lessons to give students the opportunity to learn and
practice lexical chunks directly through speaking.
An example of a discourse layering lesson
Figure 3.8.1 contains an outline of one of the lessons I shared, one I’ve done with my
intermediate learners. It can last 90 minutes or a whole week of 90-minute lessons. It
incorporates the ‘talking stick’ game where in order to get the stick and start speaking
about one of their topics, students must use lexical chunks. e ‘winner’ is the person
holding the stick at the end, but really it is the one who uses the most phrases.
Stage Language Interaction Possible timing
1 Students secretly write Individual 2−3 minutes
down 4 topics they
want to talk about
2 Introduce and drill ‘start speaking’ phrases Whole class 5−10 minutes
functional chunks (see Figure 3.8.2)
3 Play talking stick ‘start speaking’ phrases Groups of Set a time limit
game, repeat if about 4 appropriate for
needed, reveal topics your learners
and decide a winner (e.g. 5 minutes)
4 Introduce a layer of e.g. students give Pairs Determined by
language input opinions about their 4 Whole class your students’
separate from the topics using needs, may be
game comparative quite long or
expressions even a separate
lesson
5 Repeat the game ‘start speaking’ phrases Groups of 4 5−10 minutes
incorporating + language input from
functional chunks stage 4
and language input
6 Introduce and drill ‘ask to explain opinion’ Whole class 5−10 minutes
new functional chunks and/or ‘agree/disagree’
phrases
7 Repeat the game after ‘start speaking’ phrases Groups of 4 Determined by
each new set of + language input from your students’
functional chunks are stage 4 + stage 6 needs. You may
introduced, recycling functional chunks + choose to add
all lexical chunks and any added stages lexis many layers of
adding new language functional
input as desired chunks and
language input.
8 Repeat the discourse all new lexis Groups of 4 Determined by
in new groups with your students’
new topics needs, new
topics may be
quite long or
even a separate
lesson
Figure 3.8.1: Discourse layering lesson plan
73
Functional chunks
Ask to explain your
Start speaking opinion Agree and disagree
Well, come to mention it ... Why do you say that? My thoughts exactly
Ahh, that reminds me ... What makes you say that? I totally agree/disagree
Speaking of which ... How come? Fair enough
Oh, before I forget ... In what way? I know what you mean (but ...)
Language input
by far the best
the best ... I’ve ever ...
much better than
nowhere near as (good) as
signicantly more
Figure 3.8.2: Useful phrases
Techniques to integrate into lessons

Discourse layering can be adapted to a variety of language points and to t any teach-
er’s own style and specic learners’ needs, but there are four things I found useful to
integrate.
1 Drilling
My students remembered phrases better when they were drilled. I introduced phrases
orally and helped with pronunciation (connected speech, rhythm, intonation, dicult
phonemes), but most helpful was mumble drilling where students say the expressions
quietly to themselves to remember them. Hynd says this is important because if you
verbalise something you are committing yourself to it, a technique he picked up from
sales.
2 Diverse language input
Varying the input in stages works because it incorporates learning theories like spaced
repetition and interleaving (Carey 2014). In much the same way as sportspeople who
vary their practice are better able to remember and discern when to appropriately use
dierent techniques, my learners were able to remember the lexical chunks and use
them in new contexts.
3 Memory testing
If students can’t remember new expressions in class, how will they access them spon-
taneously later? For this reason, I ask students to recall previous functional chunks
before the speaking activity game and mumble drill ones they forgot but want to use.
4 Noticing the gap between understanding and production
Students need to perceive a need for new language and one way is to highlight the
dierence between what they think they know and what they actually use. is can
be done through having students rst record themselves on their phones and listen
back to notice what they used or, more likely, didn’t use. Or in groups, one student is
a listener ticking the expressions they hear their classmates use. Students then need a
74
Discourse layering: practical activities to teach lexical chunks
chance to consciously use the expressions, as in the talking stick game. Another similar
game involves writing functional chunks on cards and discarding the cards when they
use the chunks in conversation.
Final thoughts
At rst I had to really think about staging and target lexis when planning discourse
layering into my lessons, but after teaching this way and keeping a reection journal
this past year, I found that it has shifted my way of thinking to see both the bigger
picture of how seemingly unrelated language points can be integrated and also how
individual expressions can be extended and recycled. My students said they enjoyed
these lessons because they got a lot of speaking practice and learned really useful
expressions. ey could remember and use these expressions even months later.
eltlaura@yahoo.com
References
Carey, B. 2014. How We Learn: e Surprising Truth about When, Where and Why It Happens.
London: Macmillan.
Dellar, H. and A. Walkley. 2016. Teaching Lexically: Principles and Practice. Peaslake: Delta
Publishing.
Lewis, M. 1993. e Lexical Approach. Hove: Language Teaching Publications.
75
4 Working for global change
e writers of the papers in this chapter have something important in common: they
are devoted to improving the lives of their students, whether these are refugees and
asylum seekers in the UK or learners in areas of conict and poverty. e rst paper
in this chapter is Brita Fernandez Schmidt’s report of the inspirational talk she gave
on the topic of education for women in war-torn countries around the world. In this
paper, the author outlines the important work being done by Women for Women
International. Next, Steve Brown and Arifa Rahman explore the role and potential
of ELT as emancipatory practice and in promoting social justice respectively. Chris
Sowton discusses approaches to teaching and materials development for marginalised
communities, while Aleks Palanac provides practical tips for working with refugees
and asylum seekers. Turning to specic projects, Emily Bryson then reports on the
use of peer education in a programme designed primarily to meet the needs of adult
refugees from Syria; Rida abet and Nick Bilbrough show the value of using dra-
ma in schools for refugee children in Gaza; and Eduardo Amos describes a materi-
als development project designed to promote peace and harmony among Brazilian
schoolchildren. Finally, Cornée Ferreira turns our attention to teacher training and
outlines ways in which experienced and inexperienced teachers can encourage their
students to become ‘global citizens’.
4.1 Plenary: Knowledge is power: access to education for

marginalised women
Brita Fernandez Schmidt Executive Director, Women for Women International,
UK
When you get—give
When you learn—teach
Maya Angelou
I believe that we are all teachers, that we all have a responsibility to share what we
know.
Both my parents are teachers, and my mother taught English as a foreign language.
I have always been inspired by her impact and how students, even years later, would
remember her and meet up with her—even now when she is 75 years old.
It shows me so directly the power teachers have for making a real impact on peo-
ple’s lives, an impact that is lasting. I read a fantastic poem:
76
Plenary: Knowledge is power: access to education for marginalised women
Teacher
What do you do?
I’m a teacher.
What do you teach?
People.
What do you teach them?
English.
You mean grammar, verbs, nouns, pronunciation, conjugation, articles and
particles, negatives and interrogatives …?
That too.
What do you mean, ‘that too’?
Well, I also try to teach them how to think, and feel—show them inspiration,
aspiration, cooperation, participation, consolation, innovation,
… help them think about globalization, exploitation, confrontation, incarceration,
discrimination, degradation, subjugation,
… how inequality brings poverty, how intolerance brings violence, how need is
denied by greed, how -isms become prisons, how thinking and feeling can bring
about healing.
Well I don’t know about that.
Maybe you should stick to language,
forget about anguish.
You can’t change the world.
But if I did that, I’d be a cheater, not a teacher.
Alan Maley (2017)
So as English teachers, you have the opportunity to teach about many subjects. I
want to share with you the experience of Women for Women International and our
work with women in countries aected by conict, what we do, how it relates to the
global Sustainable Development Goals (SGDs) agenda and why it matters to help the
most marginalised women.
Women for Women International: why is our work important?
Ninety per cent of all casualties in war are now civilians, and 75 per cent of those
are women and children; a century ago 90 per cent of casualties were suered by
the military. In addition, 80 per cent of victims of hand-held weapons in war are
women. It is no wonder that Former UN Peacekeeping Commander Major General
Patrick Cammaert has said, ‘It is now more dangerous to be a woman than a soldier
in modern conict.’
ere is an increase of up to 40 per cent of female-headed households during and
after conict. Worldwide, 80 per cent of refugees are women and children. During the
Rwanda genocide half a million women were raped in 100 days, in Bosnia 20−50,000
women were raped, and in Congo 1,000 women are raped every day.
Since 2000, women have made up only 4 per cent of signatories in the peace process-
es. Even when civil society organisations are given space at negotiations, women and
women’s rights organisations are consistently excluded, such as in the recent Syria talks.
Women are increasingly in the line of re, whether it is Syrian women in Lebanon,
77
Chapter 4: Working for global change
Iraq or Jordan who have had to ee. ere are now over 5 million refugees. Over 13.5
million people are aected by the ongoing conict in Syria. In northern Iraq alone,
there are 250,000 refugees, and the number is increasing every day; of those, 80 per
cent are women and children. Of course, we all know that war and conict dispropor-
tionately aect women and children.
In South Sudan, thousands of people have had to ee their homes, with the result
that there are over 1 million refugees in neighbouring Uganda alone; again, the vast
majority are women. Here, over 60 per cent of the population are women, and 85
per cent are illiterate. Peace is not secured and the international community is needed
more than ever to help the youngest country to recover from over 40 years of violent
conict. In Nigeria, the situation in the north of the country has been described
as ‘dramatic’ by a senior UN ocial as the country struggles to contain increasing
levels of violence. e UN estimates that 2.3 million people, the majority women and
children, have ed their homes. Meanwhile, hundreds of children and girls have been
killed, injured or abducted from their homes and schools. Afghanistan, too, continues
to face challenges.
Poverty and violence/conict intersect and women are the most vulnerable and
most aected, which is why 70 per cent of the poorest are women and the majority are
in fragile and conict-aected countries. is is also the reason why the international
community has identied a strong focus on those countries and the Global Goals link
to the ‘leave no one behind’ agenda and include two goals that specically focus on
gender equality and peace, justice and strong institutions (Goal 5 and Goal 16).
A holistic approach
At Women for Women International (WfWI), our agenda is set by the most margin-
alised and ultra-poor women in countries aected by conict. We believe that any
global agenda needs to have their needs right at the centre to ensure that we do not
leave anyone behind. We know that those women are in danger of being forgotten,
their voices are not heard and their needs are not met. And yet, their resilience and
direct contribution to creating more peaceful societies is inspiring.
WfWI has developed a highly eective programme which moves women out of
poverty and isolation to self-suciency and empowerment with support, resources and
knowledge. We believe that stronger women build stronger nations and that women
united can change everything. We are now working in eight countries: Afghanistan,
South Sudan, Rwanda, Nigeria, Congo, Iraq, Bosnia and Kosovo, and we have served
over 472,000 women.
Our vision is for a world in which all women—including the most marginalised
women aected by conict—lead lives of dignity and reach their full potential. Our
holistic, rights-based programme equips women with skills and resources to achieve
four key outcomes: to earn and save money; to regain their condence; to be healthy
and well; and to actively participate in their communities.
WfWI’s yearlong investment in individual women includes the following:
• building knowledge in areas such as the value of women’s work, basic health educa-
tion and rights information;
• skill development in numeracy, business skills and a chosen vocational skill;
78
• resource provision through a monthly cash transfer and referrals to health and legal
services; and
• connections to other women by training them in a safe space, in groups of 25, where
they can form a tight support group that helps to break the isolation caused by war
and insecurity.
WfWI collects extensive data. is shows, for example, that:
• the daily earnings for women we serve goes from $0.34 to over a dollar in the rst
year;
• the practice of family planning goes from 30 per cent to 87 per cent; and
• sharing knowledge of rights goes from 10 per cent of women to 89 per cent of those
we serve by the end of a year.
e training is delivered by local sta in the respective countries. Some trainers are
graduates from the WfWI programme itself. is is inspiring to the women enrolled
in the programme as trainers serve as role models for the participants. Trainers use
methods for teaching that are adequate for largely illiterate participants. e course-
books are pictorial and the trainers use a lot of repetition since participants are not
able to take notes.
Fostering resilience
e women we work with overwhelmingly bear the brunt of both conict and pover-
ty. We have witnessed how conict drives women further into poverty and isolation,
exposes them to various forms of gender-based violence and worsens discriminatory
social attitudes. Both directly and indirectly, conict erodes women’s health and well-
being, denies access to educational opportunities for themselves and their children
and fosters extreme poverty.
Yet the women we work with are not passive victims. ey are resilient and, with
support, become agents of change in their homes and communities. Globally, we need
to acknowledge this resilience and understand it to eectively support it. When we
speak about resilience, we mean women striving for change, for better lives, for more
peaceful societies in the face of challenges posed by poverty, conict, and patriarchal
structures and behaviours. e women we work with are resilient to both economic
shocks and constant discrimination.
We know that with the right support even the most marginalised women will
run for leadership positions, will educate other women on their rights, will organise
community actions and will stop the violence being committed against them. e
2016 global averages (baseline/enrolment vs. endline/graduation at 12 months after
enrolment, n/a excluded) show that occupation of leadership positions rises from 8.7
per cent to 12.2 per cent; educating other women on their rights goes from 6.7 per
cent to 20 per cent; organising community actions increases from 40.8 per cent to
61.4 per cent; and stopping violence being committed against them rises from 18.4
to 54.5 per cent.
Hosai Bayani lives in Afghanistan, a country where 87 per cent of women have
reported facing verbal, physical or sexual violence. One day about a decade ago,
Hosai’s husband announced he was leaving with no explanation and no divorce;
he simply abandoned her. For the sake of her two children, she moved in with her
79
in-laws and was forced to depend on them until she joined our programme, where
she cultivated her innate passion and skill for helping survivors of violence. After
graduation, she got a job as a trainer with Women for Women International. She
gained the respect of her in-laws and the community. With this respect, she ran for
local government ofce and won.
Key lessons for the future
In the 25 years since our founding, our theory of change and assumptions that were
groundbreaking when we developed them have been backed by our evidence and are
now widely accepted. ese include the following:
Women bring returns
Investing in women is investing in families and communities: strong women build
strong nations. Our data consistently shows us this and this has been backed by the
World Bank, UN Women and countless NGOs.
Cash is efcient and effective
Giving women cash for them to make their own choices about relative investments
is a very eective development and humanitarian intervention, as are savings and
lending groups. Women graduating from the WfWI programme triple their income.
We must engage men to support women’s rights
WfWI rst piloted a men’s engagement programme in Nigeria in 2002. Since then,
we have worked with more than 15,000 men across six countries to support wom-
en’s rights. We place a particular focus on training leaders in communities (including
religious, traditional, military and civil society leaders) so that they can use their inu-
ence to help protect and promote women’s rights and gender equality. e results have
been transformative.
Localisation is key
Top-down development solutions fail. WfWI, while headquartered in the US with
a global approach, has always employed local sta wherever we work and has always
adapted our programme to what is required locally. We believe global actions on issues
such as food security and inequality need to go hand in hand with local interven-
tions—one woman at a time. e solution to global problems such as increase in
conict, and the linked increase in terrorism and the migration crisis, requires a local
as well as a global response.
A holistic approach is most effective
Economic interventions and social interventions are most eective when they are
combined. Building women’s economic resilience is dependent on their health and
ability to inuence decisions, particularly nancial decisions. Women’s social empow-
erment is supported through economic empowerment and independence. A woman
given economic skills and resources, with no self-condence or ecacy and without
networks of support, is unlikely to have the ability to leverage those resources or the
resilience to withstand shocks. A woman supported to understand her rights, without
the ability to maintain her livelihoods or invest in her or her family’s education or
health, cannot be resilient or successful.
80
Rifkatu lives in northern Nigeria, a conict-ridden region, but the peace she most
urgently needed when WfWI met her was in her own home. Rifkatu’s unemployed
husband beat her and threatened to sell her so he could get more goats for his farm.
As is the case with many women in poverty, it was she who was expected to provide
for the family when her husband couldn’t. When she was unable to feed her six
children, her husband continually abused her. This was when a neighbour stepped
in and told Rifkatu to join the WfWI programme. She learned about poultry, bought
two chickens, and sold their eggs. From her prots, she could invest in the farm and
bring much-needed income to the family. With her newfound condence and status,
Rifkatu convinced her husband to join our Men’s Engagement programme where he
learned about respecting his wife. Rifkatu reported: ‘He now sees me as a person
just like himself and not some goat or property he purchased with money.’ With the
ability to earn and save money—the economic side—plus the condence to stand up
for herself, the power dynamic in her relationship changed. Rifkatu was able to create
peace in her home, ending the abuse and poverty in her family and contributing to a
more stable and prosperous Nigeria.
Priorities: call to action

As a global community, we have the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as our
framework. Our recommendations are therefore framed in the context of the existing
commitments we have already made.
Deliver the SDGs
Whatever their limitations, the SDGs are a powerful step forward for the world’s most
disadvantaged women, with their stand-alone goal on gender equality. WfWI will in
2020—alongside many other organisations—use our data and our connections with
the most marginalised women to track and report on progress ve years in. Let us as
citizens continue to show we care about the world’s poorest and most disadvantaged
people—women survivors of conict. We must hold governments to account for
these goals we collectively worked for several years to set and agree upon.
Identify and listen to the most marginalised
We are committed to listening to and learning from the women we work with. We
do this through a combination of monitoring, evaluation and learning, as well as
by building women’s capacity through our programmes. e success of the Goals is
dependent on listening to those left furthest behind and supporting them to drive
forward the changes that they want to see. e voices of those most marginalised must
therefore be front and centre to both the implementation and review of the Global
Goals, for example through meaningful consultation.
Identify and invest in the most vulnerable
It is women who bear the brunt of increased conict, natural disasters and economic
shocks because it is women who mostly have to nd ways to support their children
and families when there is nothing. Investing in those left furthest behind should be
an immediate priority as they require greater and longer-term support to catch up
with the average (i.e. someone living on USD $0.70 a day will require more support
to reach USD $1.25 a day than someone living on USD $1.20 a day). ere are many
81
ways to invest, whether it individuals doing something like sponsoring a woman

through WfWI’s proven programme, or businesses investing additional resources in
reaching and training the most marginalised women for employment. When govern-
ments step back, we must step forward.
Provide comprehensive and long-term support
e Goals present a comprehensive framework which recognises the complex needs
faced by the most marginalised people. e women we work with are faced with
the legacy of conict that poses multiple and intersecting challenges. Comprehensive
support that works across sectors (economic, social, etc.) is essential to addressing
these needs, and long-term investment is essential for supporting behavioural changes
and women’s empowerment.
Increase funding for women’s empowerment
We welcome the recognition in the Goals that improving women’s representation
and participation is crucial for the progress of all Goals, from the household to inter-
national decision-making platforms. Increasing women’s participation requires a
monumental increase of funding for women’s empowerment, particularly to support
change to break down the barriers that women face in accessing economic and politi-
cal opportunities, services (such as health and education).
Include data that reect the challenges of the most vulnerable
e revisions we make to our monitoring and evaluation instruments are with an
eort to more accurately measure progress in what matters for the women we work
with and we are adapting our processes to include more indicators and other, more
qualitative, feedback mechanisms. e emphasis on vulnerable, marginalised groups
and inequality within the Goals provides an opportunity to rethink the data that
is collected and to look for information that is more relevant to those left furthest
behind. More qualitative indicators on women’s empowerment, and indicators that
capture women’s exclusion, such as lack of access to social networks, are examples of
data that should be collected in the future.
Conclusion
To get involved and support the work of Women for Women International, please
visit the website www.womenforwomen.org and consider sponsoring one woman to
enrol in our programme for one year.
bschmidt@womenforwomen.org
Reference
Maley, A. 2017. ‘Teacher’ in A. Maley and N. Peachey (eds.). Integrating Global Issues in
the Creative English Language Classroom: With Reference to the United Nations Sustainable
Development Goals. London: British Council.
82
Exploring ELT as emancipatory practice
4.2 Exploring ELT as emancipatory practice

Steve Brown West College Scotland, Clydebank, Scotland, UK
Introduction
is talk presented English Language Teaching (ELT) as a profession that promotes
and protects a neoliberal model of globalisation, before exploring alternative
approaches that seek to address power imbalances and nd ways of emancipating
learners of English by involving them in the active transformation of society.
ELT in its global context
Recent research has identied ELT as playing a role in facilitating ‘corporate-driven
globalisation’ (Copley 2018: 44), and the profession is ‘not merely reecting a neolib-
eral zeitgeist, but is strategically positioned within it’ (ibid: 59). Neoliberal ideology
promotes commodication, to the extent that individuals are not only consumers, but
also themselves become commodities within the labour market. As such, responsibility
is placed on individuals to constantly develop and improve their ‘worth’ to employers.
Many ELT materials promote neoliberal values while avoiding the problematisation
of injustice or inequality, and relentlessly present language learning as ‘fun’, despite
the fact that, for many people, learning English is a requirement for social and eco-
nomic prosperity—hardly a laughing matter.
Furthermore, the neoliberal constructs that shape corporate globalisation have
introduced a process of ‘McDonaldisation’ in ELT (Littlejohn 2012). is involves
taking a ‘one size ts all’ approach, as is evident in the prevalence of global course-
books, internationally recognised English language and TESOL qualications, highly
prescriptive teaching methodologies, and a general assumption that the same teaching
approaches and techniques are equally eective in any context.
It is unsurprising that ELT has become so inuenced by the dominant, neoliberal
model of globalisation, when we consider that much of the power in ELT lies with
global publishing companies, international examining/accreditation bodies, privately-
owned schools and English-medium educational institutions.
The purpose of ELT
e next stage in this talk was to explore the purpose of ELT. Any approach to edu-
cation that deliberately avoids useful content for learners is one that promotes their
disempowerment. Alternatively, ELT could be used as a form of indoctrination, provid-
ing learners only with the knowledge and skills that hegemonic forces wish them to
acquire and promoting the values of the dominant ideology. Another approach is to
use ELT as a form of empowerment, where learners develop language and skills that
allow them to function more successfully within the existing structures of society. A
fourth possibility is that ELT is used as a vehicle for emancipation, developing learners’
capacities to participate actively in the positive transformation of society.
ese four possible educational goals were placed on a continuum, along with
features of content, approach and methodology that are congruent with each goal. By
using this continuum it is possible to identify examples of how hegemonic forces have
a tendency to push ELT towards a disempowering or indoctrinatory model. Most
83
ELT professionals, meanwhile, value and seek to adopt an empowering approach to

ELT, ostensibly to facilitate the success of their learners. However, a crucial problem
with an empowering approach is that it does not seek to transform existing struc-
tures; current power imbalances and injustices are allowed to continue. Empowering
learners does not address the fact that people are placed in vulnerable positions in the
rst place. English language teachers may believe that by empowering their learners
they are engaging in radical or progressive action, but in fact they are simply allowing
learners to comply more eectively with the demands placed on them by current
structures.
Emancipation: an alternative goal
e talk then focused on emancipation as an educational goal, and oered some sug-
gestions for recalibrating ELT so that it plays a more emancipatory role. In evaluating
teaching practice, the focus should not be on the teacher’s ability to achieve self-pre-
scribed aims, but should instead evaluate the impact that the lesson has on the wider
world, and whether it addresses issues of social justice. Current organisational and
methodological models could be replaced by re-prioritising educational value over
prot and eciency. e false assumption that education can be apolitical and devoid
of ideology needs to be exposed as such, and institutions should instead acknowledge
the fact that ELT is, in many ways, a political act. Rather than uncritically accepting
current, corporate-friendly norms, institutions could focus more on the use of locally
contextualised materials, course outcomes and CPD. Teachers themselves should con-
sider more critically the impact of their teaching on learners: whether they are simply
allowing the status quo to prevail, or whether their praxis can seek to address power
imbalances and give learners the skills to actually make the world a better place.
stevebrown70@yahoo.co.uk
References
Copley, K. 2018. ‘Neoliberalism and ELT coursebook content’. Critical Inquiry in Language
Studies 15/1: 43−62.
Littlejohn, A. 2012. ‘Language teaching materials and the (very) big picture’. Electronic Journal
of Foreign Language Teaching 9/1: 283−297.
4.3 The role of ELT in promoting social justice

Arifa Rahman Freelance, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Introduction
is presentation argued for ELT educators to play a signicant role in promot-
ing social justice in language learning. e proposal was based on the rising inter-
est in including intercultural understanding, empathy and reconciliation in ELT.
Today’s world is fraught with conict caused by political divisiveness, unjust econom-
ic agendas and social injustices. Besides, structural factors like poverty, powerlessness,
illiteracy and ill health perpetuate human misery, resulting in global/regional/local
84
The role of ELT in promoting social justice
inequities like deprivation, marginalisation and even outright exclusion. It is clear that
this state of aairs cannot continue.
What role can ELT play?
e English language teaching/learning literature in international contexts shows
some potential for English to handle disputes, improve human security systems and
open opportunities for peaceful co-existence. English has been used for reconciliation
in regions like Sri Lanka, the Democratic Republic of Congo and among refugees in
Europe.
I referred to Capstick and Delaney’s (2016) report on English as a language of
resilience for the 65 million people forcibly displaced due to internal and/or external
conict. e report states that an additional language is necessary for supporting exi-
bility among refugees and host communities alike. is multi-country study indicates
that for thousands of displaced Syrian refugees, an additional language like English
gains importance since both home language and additional languages are essential for
survival. Supportive interventions, particularly in additional languages, provide a safe
inclusive space to address the eects of loss, displacement and trauma, and to re-ener-
gise learning. An additional/specialised language appears to be a source of protection,
while the lack of one could be viewed as a mark of vulnerability. Indeed bilingual or
multilingual ability could create the foundation of a shared identity.
Opportunities in ELT to encourage understanding and social change
Here, I took my cue from Edge’s (2006) initiative for (Re)Locating TESOL, which is
the title of his book in which he emphasised two major issues: context and a respect for
dierence. I chose these two features as the theoretical principles for my paper, extend-
ing the borders of respect to an environment where due recognition and acceptance is
given to specicities of context, dierences and to the other. ELT practitioners needed
to understand their responsibility in fostering tolerance and inclusiveness within the
community of learners.
Strategies for encouraging social responsibility in the English class
I suggest that this can be done in two ways:
1 First, local ELT contexts and appropriately designed local materials could be used
to encourage awareness of justice among learners and teachers. I illustrated the rst
with a locally designed secondary school English coursebook. It had topic-based
lessons related to, among other things, social awareness, social development, gen-
der, disability and human rights. Importantly, local contexts were used in short
simple texts with pictures and speech bubbles to highlight social injustices and
human rights violations. No comments were included in the texts but the language
activities (group work in class) provided plenty of opportunities to reect on the
content so as to enable learners to rationalise and talk on the injustices apparently
being inicted on the weaker members of the community.
2 e second point, teacher development, is more ambitious and requires getting
teachers to apply the universal principles of social justice to their own classroom
practices. ere is a critical need for teachers to realise their potential to nurture
positive emotions and attitudes in learners. Friedrich (2007) identied three areas
85
for linguistic education and social justice in EFL/ESL classrooms: linguistic and
cross-cultural awareness, humanising vocabulary and peace linguistic education
of teachers. She added another competency, that of peace and social well-being
promotion, to the four traditional communicative competences (grammatical, dis-
course, strategic, and sociolinguistic) to describe a new linguistic peace model of
communicative competence needed in today’s world.
Audience participation
Attendees were interested in the cross-cultural dierences in gender discrimination and
human rights breaches illustrated in my lessons. Some even forgot the context of the
English classroom and suggested students should use their rst language to make the
lessons more eective. I reminded them that this was an English language class and my
aim was to make the lesson meaningful by using realistic content and involving learners
in activities that raised awareness and encouraged them to talk, thus promoting lan-
guage practice. Someone also asked for advice on how to deal with cultural dierences
and conict situations among her multilingual students. My answer was to promote
tolerance and respect for dierence through varied activities in and out of class.
Conclusion
Challenges include teachers’ resistance to attitudinal changes and their disinterest in
moulding learners through speech and behaviour, thus not nurturing positivity in
learners. Current ELT classrooms require teachers, materials, tasks and methodology
to act in synergy in order to promote harmony by fostering respect for dierence and
inclusiveness within the community.
arifa73@yahoo.com
References
Capstick, T. and M. Delaney. 2016. Report: Language for Resilience: e Role of Language in
Enhancing the Resilience of Syrian Refugees and Host Communities. London: British Council.
Edge, J. (ed.). 2006. (Re)Locating TESOL in an Age of Empire. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Friedrich, P. 2007. Language, Negotiation and Peace: e Use of English in Conict Resolution.
New York: Continuum.
4.4 Making English work for the world’s most marginalised people
Chris Sowton Freelance, Bath, UK
How can the increasing global divide between the linguistic ‘haves’ and ‘have-nots’ be
arrested? As this gap has grown, cultural, political and economic cleavages in society
have deepened, especially in marginalised, low-resource communities. Languages—
and English in particular—can help to shrink these gaps, for example, by providing
both economic opportunities and safe spaces to cope with loss and trauma. However,
to achieve this, we cannot continue with ‘business as normal’.
As clearly demonstrated by the Language for Resilience agenda (Capstick and
Delaney 2016), language and language teaching are of prime importance in mar-
ginalised—especially post-conict—communities. Languages can play an important
role in achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4 (‘to ensure inclusive and quality
86
Making English work for the world’s most marginalised people
education for all and promote lifelong learning’) even though languages are men-
tioned nowhere in the SDG goals or indicators. e fact that language has been side-
lined in the global debate about human development is not a reason to ignore it, but
for the ELT community to respond strongly and positively.
One mechanism for doing this, which has emerged out of time spent working
voluntarily with Syrian refugees in Lebanon’s Beqaa Valley, is to consider what kind of
English marginalised communities want and need, what the best mechanisms are for
delivering English in such circumstances and what additional learning outcomes might
be achievable. e framework which has emerged from this work is the SPINACH
approach, which posits that English language learning and materials development
should be supportive, process-focused, integrated, notional-functional, all-inclusive,
co-constructed and heuristic. Specically, it argues that the ELT community, teachers,
students and other educational stakeholders should work together to enable young
people to develop communicative competency in the English which is most appropri-
ate to their context; that English should be used as a platform to develop other skills
and knowledges, and as a mechanism to address, in a light-touch way, challenges of
emotional, social and psychological illiteracy; and that teachers should be upskilled
to deliver a coherent, cohesive curriculum which can achieve this, in such a way that
they can also protect themselves.
e dividends of such an approach would be not only that the English language
would be taught more eectively, but also that ‘value added’ would be provided in
three particular areas: (a) content knowledge, wherein a ‘CLIL lite’ approach enables
students to learn about issues of relevance and interest to their lives; (b) life skills,
which are developed both implicitly (e.g. teamwork, leadership) and explicitly (e.g.
modelling how to borrow pencils); and (c) emotional literacy, where the safe space of
the classroom and a neutral language can help students express their feelings.
What you do What you say Notes

37. Preparing the In pairs, you will now •Divide class into pairs – one
37. activity speak/write about ‘My •student is Student 1, the other
Family’. Use the model •Student 2. Quickly check they
on the board. •know who is who. S1 completes
•2 gaps, S2 completes 2 gaps.
38. Distributing Each pair has a picture • Distribute one picture per pair.
37. information of one of my family • Emphasise they should keep it
37. members. • hidden.
Keep it secret! You must • Encourage the students to be
say/write some • inventive and creative.
information about
them. • If they can, they should write. If
• not, they can speak.
39. Giving a You have 4 minutes. • Monitor and help groups

•
37. time limit nding it dicult.
Table 4.4.1: Teachers’ script
87
Furthermore, this approach posits that learning materials can and should be a tool
for CPD. Teachers in such communities are often very inexperienced and have few
opportunities for upskilling themselves. e materials themselves can provide some
support to teachers on the job through the use of a lesson script, which not only
explains what teachers should be doing, but how and more importantly why they
should be doing it. While experienced teachers may have the condence to go ‘o
script’, inexperienced teachers can benet from this scaolded support. An example
of one such script is shown in Table 4.4.1.
In conclusion, as individuals and as a community we need to engage more with
principals, parents and policymakers about what we are doing and why; we need to
be more accepting of L1 in the classroom and see translanguaging as an asset, not a
problem; we need to allow students and teachers alike to have agency in the learning
process; and we need to be teaching a form of English which can be of most use and
value to those in marginalised situations.
c.sowton@bath.ac.uk
References
Capstick, T. and M. Delaney. 2016. Report: Language for Resilience: The Role of Language in
Enhancing the Resilience of Syrian Refugees and Host Communities. London: British Council.
4.5 Positive psychology in ELT for refugees

Aleks Palanac University of Leicester (ELTU), UK
Introduction
Learning an L2 can be an immensely rewarding experience; indeed, many language
learners refer to it in terms of broadening their horizons and opening their minds
to new possibilities. However, such growth is not always pain free; in fact, language
learning is, for many, a ‘profoundly unsettling psychological proposition’ (Guiora
1983, in Oxford 2016: 15), prompting shifts in one’s self-concept (Yeung and Wong
2004, in Oxford 2016). For many refugees and asylum seekers (RASs), who might
already be facing a radical reframing of their identity through disruptions to their
physical, psychological, social and economic situations, the barriers to L2 learning,
and the challenges posed to their identity, are often greater still. However, there are a
number of key ways in which tutors can adapt classroom practice for RAS students by
combining insights from trauma psychology, positive psychology and ELT pedagogy.
Clear ground rules
Making expectations clear from the beginning about matters such as course structure,
attendance and homework is very useful, as regular routines and procedures can help
trauma survivors feel safe and grounded. However, it is also important to be exible
and keep channels of communication open with RAS students, so that if they cannot
meet some of the course requirements tutors can respond to this on a case-by-case
basis, making reasonable adjustments if required. For example, tutors may tell a stu-
dent suering from severe anxiety or PTSD that they have permission to leave the
88
Positive psychology in ELT for refugees
room to take ‘time out’ whenever they need to. is gives students an escape valve and
helps them regain a measure of control over their classroom experience.
The present moment
Techniques which ground students ‘in the now’ can help trauma survivors focus on
their learning. For example, framing a lesson with activities which involve physical
movement at the beginning and end of class can create a safe space which is distinctly
dierent from the world outside the classroom. Another way in which students can
be grounded in the present is through creating ‘ow’, which is a state of consciousness
experienced when an individual is highly engaged in an enjoyable task which is chal-
lenging but not unachievable, which has clear goals and which enables them to focus
all of their attention on it (Csikszentmihalyi 1990). is relates to the pedagogical
concepts of scaolding and mastery learning.
Dignity, control and self-efcacy
One way to do this is not to ‘out’ them as refugees to non-refugee students; allow
them to decide if and to whom they disclose this information. It is also wise not to put
RAS students on the spot to personalise information on a given topic if they do not
wish to. is ies in the face of the current trend in ELT, which advocates the benets
of personalisation to eective language learning. While it is, in theory, possible for
any topic might to be a trauma trigger to a RAS student, topics such as family, their
home country, their past life and travel to the UK should be broached carefully, with
students being presented with options as to how to talk about these (e.g. talking about
a ctional family instead of their own in the rst instance until trust is built in the
learning environment).
Meaningful learning
While not forcing RAS students to personalise topics, a course should still give stu-
dents plentiful opportunities to be ‘authentic’, in that they feel safe to express them-
selves and feel that the course is enabling them to get closer to achieving their life
goals.
Positive moments
One way to achieve positive moments is through incorporating opportunities for cre-
ativity and play into a learning programme. is relates to Ellen Langer’s (1997) the-
ory of Mindful Learning, through which she observes that games and play encourage
individuals to vary the targets of their attention, actively draw distinctions and notice
interesting and relevant features, which has been found to lead to better retention and
understanding. is can be linked to the concept of noticing commonly drawn upon
in the ELT literature.
Conclusion
As has been shown, insights from trauma psychology, positive psychology and ELT
pedagogy can be combined to create learning programmes which strive to better meet
the needs of RAS students. In some cases, these areas complement each other; in other
cases, one overrides another (as in the case of forced personalisation of topics). e
89
main themes which emerge are safety, learner choice and control, positivity, and tutor
exibility and empathy. ese can improve the learning environment not only for
RAS students but for all students.
ap417@le.ac.uk
References
Csikszentmihalyi, M. 1990. Flow: e Psychology of Optimal Experience. New York:
Harper-Collins.
Langer, E. 1997. e Power of Mindful Learning. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.
Oxford, R.L. 2016. ‘Toward a psychology of well-being for language learners: the “EMPATH-
ICS” vision’ in P. D. Macintyre, T. Gregersen and S. Mercer (eds.). Positive Psychology in SLA.
Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
4.6 Sharing lives, sharing languages: peer education for language

acquisition
Emily Bryson Scottish Refugee Council and City of Glasgow College, Glasgow,
Scotland, UK
e Sharing Lives, Sharing Languages Peer Education project is an innovative
approach which creates opportunities for ESOL learners to practise their English out-
side the ESOL classroom. Many practitioners remark that isolated students tend to
plateau, while those who are working, volunteering or simply getting involved in the
local community learn English quickly.
Sharing Lives, Sharing Languages was designed as a complement to ESOL provision
for refugees resettling in Scotland under the Syrian Vulnerable Persons’ Resettlement
Scheme. e pilot project was funded by the Scottish government and the advisory
board included COSLA, Education Scotland, the University of Glasgow and Queen
Margaret University. I was seconded from City of Glasgow College to the Scottish
Refugee Council to manage the project.
Peer education is an activity-based method of learning in which two equals share
information and knowledge with each other. Unlike situations in which a teacher
imparts knowledge to a student, peer educators facilitate activities which support
peers to share their ideas in a group setting. It is based on the idea that peers respond
better to advice from their equals than from their superiors. In this case, peer educa-
tors were native or non-native English speakers who know the local area well and want
to help newcomers to settle.
Our peer educators came from a range of backgrounds and included, for example,
an RE teacher, an Arabic-speaking nursery worker and a Kurdish asylum seeker. Our
peers were non-native English speakers (mostly Syrian VPR refugees) who wanted
to meet local people and increase their social connections. Peers and peer educators
shared their lives and their languages with each other.
Firstly, four organisations were identied to participate in the pilot. ese were
Aberdeenshire WEA, Dundee International Women’s Centre, Midlothian Council
and Renfrew YMCA. ese were chosen because they provided a range of rural and
90
Sharing lives, sharing languages: peer education for language acquisition
urban communities and a range of ESOL and community development backgrounds.

e Scottish Refugee Council delivered training to a peer education coordinator from
each organisation, who then recruited peer educators. e coordinators then trained
their peer educators in the aims of the project, peer education, supporting refugees,
communicating with non-native English speakers and facilitation skills.
e peer education sessions focused on what peers knew about the local area and
how they wanted to participate in the local community. Group activities facilitated
discussions on peers’ hobbies and interests as well as sharing their local knowledge,
sharing their cultures and sharing their languages.
At the end of the programme, peer educators and peers carried out a collective
action. ese involved groups doing something to engage with the local communi-
ty. ese had to involve everyone, be peer-led and establish social connections and
opportunities for language acquisition. e WEA in Aberdeenshire had two ESOL
tutors as their coordinators. e women in that area were quite isolated, so the group
was female only. ey linked up with a local women’s group and started a women’s
cooking class, which has since grown into a monthly or fortnightly social event and is
now run by volunteers as the funding has ended. ey visit cafes, community centres
and places of interest in the local area together. Dundee International Women’s Cen-
tre had two groups, one mixed and one women-only. e coordinator was an ESOL
tutor. eir collective actions involved joining up with local walking groups and vis-
iting a community garden. One year on, some peers attend courses run at the centre.
e Midlothian Council project was coordinated by one ESOL tutor and focused
on mothers and children. Sessions took place at a local school with peer education
sessions in one room while the children played in another. eir collective action was
a trip to the beach. Renfrew YMCA was the only organisation involved where the
coordinators were not ESOL trained. eir focus was on youth, and they started a
community garden. e peers and peer educators still go to the garden, which is now
run by the local council.
As this was a pilot project, evaluation was integrated throughout. Lavinia Hirsu of
Glasgow University was the external evaluator, and she developed a range of imagina-
tive data collection and evaluation tools that could be used as peer education activities.
e outcomes for the project were positive, with all involved increasing their social
connections, local knowledge, cultural knowledge and language condence.
If you would like to run a similar project, the Scottish Refugee Council are
currently working on a free Peer Education Toolkit, which they hope to publish
soon. You can receive updates on this by following my blog (www.emilybrysonELT.
wordpress.com) or the Scottish Refugee Council.
emilybryson@outlook.com
Reference
Hirsu, L. and E. Bryson. 2017. Sharing Lives, Sharing Languages: A Pilot Peer Education
Project for New Scots’ Social and Language Integration. Scottish Refugee Council. http://
www.scottishrefugeecouncil.org.uk/assets/0001/4110/Sharing_Lives_Sharing__Languages_
REPORT.pdf.
91
4.7 Remote theatre for children in challenging circumstances

Rida Thabet UNRWA Gaza and Nick Bilbrough The Hands Up Project, UK
The context
With more than two million people living in a narrow coastal plain of only 365 km²,
the Gaza Strip is ranked as one of the most densely populated areas on Earth. It’s also
a vulnerable and highly unstable area which is subject to repeated conict. About
1200 English language teachers teach about 300,000 students studying in about 300
United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) schools. UNRWA schools in
Gaza have large classes that accommodate more than 40 students per class. Some
students live in very crowded housing, and their basic needs are not fully addressed
due to problems such as poverty and unemployment. Students at UNRWA schools
are Palestinian refugees and many of them have experienced trauma. eir parents
may also be emotionally aected in a way that makes it hard for them to provide the
support their children need. In such circumstances, some students are left behind
because they have special educational, psychosocial or physical needs that the current
system fails to respond to.
Drama as a powerful educational tool
Drama is an art, an outlet for self-expression, and a very powerful way of learning.
It provides an excellent platform for exploring dierent aspects of language, putting
it into context and making it come to life. It engages and challenges students and
keeps them actively involved. Drama activities develop listening and speaking skills,
linking language with facial expression and employing voice dynamics to ensure more
meaningful articulation. Improvisation gives students opportunities to develop their
communicative skills in original and authentic situations. Drama provides psycho-
social support for the many students who need it. By playing dierent characters,
students can express their true feelings and personality without fear of being judged.
is contributes to their overall wellbeing.
Many of these activities come together in the creation and performance of a play,
something that is happening increasingly in UNRWA schools in recent years. Script-
writing is an excellent way to develop writing skills as it involves dierent stages of
planning, brainstorming and editing to achieve the best possible end result for stage
performance. When working with their scripts, students use rehearsal techniques that
encourage them to think in the language they are going to perform in. All this helps
associate the meaning of language to the spoken forms. Memorising the script and
practising their delivery with a mirror develops pronunciation and the speaking accu-
racy of the students.
In the latter part of 2017, the Hands Up Project launched a playmaking compe-
tition for Palestinian children attending UNRWA or Ministry of Education schools.
e task was to create an original ve-minute play with a maximum of ve actors.
Students were asked to submit the script and a video of them performing the play to
a panel of 25 judges. We received 88 entries from all over Palestine, and the overall
winners from New Khan Younis, Prep UNRWA school, Gaza were invited to spend a
week performing their play at various locations in the UK.
92
Peace education in the EFL classroom
However there were many other excellent plays produced by Palestinian children,
particularly in Gaza. Due to restrictions on movement it is extremely dicult for
these children to nd audiences outside Gaza to perform their work to. For this reason
we have introduced the idea of remote theatre.
What is remote theatre?
In remote theatre children perform their plays not to an audience which occupies the
same physical space as them, but rather remotely to another location in the world
through simple video-conferencing tools. So far, through the Hands Up Project’s con-
nections worldwide, plays have been performed in this way from Gaza to classes at
schools in Brazil, Finland, Russia, Spain and the UK, and to Hands Up project volun-
teers worldwide. ey have also been performed live at conferences in Chile and the
UK. Our talk at IATEFL Brighton culminated in an excellent remote performance of
Unity Play, created by students at Nuseirat Prep. A Girls UNRWA School, Gaza. e
video is available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=REkXK-d5Esw.
Remote theatre is its own genre of theatre, requiring special features in order to
be eective in contexts where the Internet is often very weak. ese may include the
actors
• being very close to the webcam;
• speaking clearly and slowly to aid comprehension by the audience;
• making eye contact wherever possible by looking straight into the camera, which can
enable a stronger connection to the audience;
• physicalising language wherever possible; and
• having very clear entrances and exits, so that remote theatre resembles puppetry.
If you would like to arrange a remote theatre performance from Gaza to your
school, please get in touch.
info@handsupproject.org
r.thabet2@unrwa.org
4.8 Peace education in the EFL classroom

Eduardo Amos Richmond Publishing, Bragança Paulista, Brazil
Introduction
is presentation shared the process that gave rise to the development of a peace
education (PE) programme for Brazilian middle school students embedded in a four-
year ELT programme.
As a textbook writer for over 35 years, I have had the opportunity to travel around
Brazil visiting schools, talking to teachers and meeting with students. All this has
given me a clear picture of the environment within schools. It was very disturbing to
nd out that the Brazilian middle school environment was deeply marked by all sorts
of violence such as bullying, intolerance, indiscipline and incivility, which hampered
the students’ learning and aected their academic performance.
93
At the same time, I realised that there was a wide gap between what was going on
in the classroom and the schoolyard and what was being presented in EFL textbooks.
In other words, students were ghting in the back of the room, while textbooks were
still asking where the book was. It seemed that something was missing.
Theoretical background
Concepts such as ‘negative peace’ and ‘positive peace’ were key in the development of
our ELT/Peace Education programme. ose terms were coined by Johann Galtung
(1975), who is considered to be the father of modern peace studies. Negative peace
refers to the absence of war or violence. It is negative because something undesirable
has come to a halt; for example, a war has ended, violence has stopped or oppression
has ceased. Positive peace, on the other hand, has to do with positive attitudes and
actions towards the restoration of relationships, the creation of social systems that
serve the needs of the whole population and the constructive resolution of conicts.
erefore, conicts are welcome in the context of positive peace.
e idea of conict transformation as proposed by Lederach (1995) greatly helped
the development of activities that aim at bringing together individual dierences and
diversity of points of view in the classroom. And we must always bear in mind that in
the Brazilian context, peace education has to do with learning to live together.
The place of peace education
For the purpose of this programme, peace education is considered a content area, a
strategy and a cross-cutting theme. It is a content area when aspects of PE such as
identity awareness, conict resolution, tolerance, empathy and co-operation are at the
centre of language-teaching activities. e very rst unit of the programme, entitled
‘Identity’, focuses on raising awareness about one’s identity. At the same time, it aims
at developing tolerance and empathy when dierences in the students’ backgrounds
are shared with the group. is unit teaches the verb ‘to be’ in the present tense, but
the ultimate goal is developing understanding and learning to live together. e gram-
mar is taught because it is needed to help students deal with the other goals of the unit.
Table 4.8.1: Themes covered in the programme
94
Using stories and creative writing to teach global citizenship in the English class
Peace education is also a strategy when we make use of tools and approaches that
are based on the building principles of peace. Cawagas (2007) states, ‘Realizing that
all knowledge is never free of values, educating for a culture of peace needs to be
explicit about its preferred values such as compassion, justice, equity, gender- fairness,
caring for life, sharing, reconciliation, in all integrity, hope and non-violence’ (302).
erefore, PE involves teaching for these values in every educational intervention.
According to Cawagas, ‘a dialogical approach cultivates a more horizontal teach-
er-learner relationship in which both dialogically educate and learn from each other’
(303). Dialogue is a key component of peace education pedagogy.
Finally, PE is a cross-cutting theme because every single unit of the programme
focuses on a specic aspect of peace building. Besides the main cross-cutting theme,
the programme has theme axles connecting some units along the way and expanding
specic concepts. Table 4.8.1 shows two theme axles covered in the programme.
Conclusions
Since we understand that PE cannot be dealt with as a separate school subject, bring-
ing PE pedagogy into the EFL classroom has been benecial to the students both
academically and in developing their emotional competences. Programmes like this
can contribute to UNESCO’s Sustainable Goal 16 and help transform the school
environment into a more inclusive, respectful place.
ej.amos@hotmail.com
References
Cawagas, V. 2007. ‘Pedagogical principles in educating for a culture of peace’ in S. H. Toh and
V. Cawagas (eds.). Cultivating Wisdom, Harvesting Peace. Brisbane: Grith University.
Galtung, J. 1975. ‘Peace: research, education, action’ in Volume 1, Essays in Peace Research.
Copenhagen: Christian Ejlers.
Lederach, J. P. 1995. Preparing for Peace: Conict Transformation across Cultures. Syracuse, N.Y.:
Syracuse University Press.
4.9 Using stories and creative writing to teach global citizenship

in the English class
Cornée Ferreira Driestar University for Teacher Education, Gouda, Netherlands
Teaching in the global village

e world is becoming increasingly interconnected, but it is also threatened by pov-
erty, inequality and the violation of human rights. English teachers are looking for
ways to guide learners in becoming ‘global citizens’, helping them to assume active
roles in facing and resolving global challenges, guiding them to become proactive con-
tributors to a more peaceful, tolerant and secure world (UNESCO 2014). A recent
study investigated the willingness and ability to implement global citizen education
(GCED) among three groups of English teachers in the Netherlands. e rst dataset
comprised reective journals by 20 trainees, 18 inexperienced teachers and 19 expe-
rienced EFL teachers of learners aged 12 to 15. e second dataset comprised two
lesson plans from each teacher.
95
Reective journals
e journal data shows that teachers from all three groups are willing to include
GCED in their language lessons. As one teacher wrote:
Learners who do not know other cultures and other behaviours tend to judge quickly
when they encounter something or someone ‘strange’. So we have to teach them
that other cultures are as valuable as ours.
Teachers also reported diculties like time constraints and a mismatch between
learners’ concerns and their language levels:
Interesting materials are too difcult for my learners. Materials of a suitable language
level are boring.
Lesson plans
e teachers included lesson aims and teaching materials about global citizenship in
the lesson plans, corroborating the ndings from the reective journals that they are
willing to work towards GCED aims.
Analysis of the learning aims shows that all the lesson aims on GCED in this study
were in the cognitive domain of Bloom’s taxonomy (see Figure 4.9.1) and mainly the
lowest levels: remembering and understanding facts and concepts. No learning aims
in the aective domain were included in any of the lesson plans, and the teachers did
not include any activities to monitor learners’ progress in terms of global citizenship.
Affective learning objectives
ree interventions were then suggested to improve GCED. e rst was to include
aective learning objectives in the lesson plans. If learners are to become proactive
contributors to a more peaceful, tolerant and secure world, they need knowledge (cog-
nitive domain), but their attitudes (aective domain) towards these ‘others’ are even
more important. Aective aims can function as guidelines for teachers and learners
as they work towards specic measurable objectives, making it possible to measure
learners’ progress in this regard.
Figure 4.9.1: Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives (cf. Kratwohl et al. 1964)
96
Using stories and creative writing to teach global citizenship in the English class
Picture books
e second intervention included the use of English language picture books. Iden-
tifying with characters and reading children’s literature have helped many children
confront and deal with dicult personal issues such as divorce, abuse and death.
Picture books like e Island by Armin Greder (about a refugee), e Silence Seeker
by Ben Morley and Azzi in Between by Sarah Garland (both about asylum seekers),
and Me and You by Anthony Browne (portraying social inequality) can help learners
to confront and deal with global issues such as poverty, inequality and social injustice.
Creative writing
e third intervention was to include creative writing. Not only does (creative) writ-
ing aid language development at all levels, it is ‘a personal activity involving feeling’
(Maley 2013: 162) and therefore allows for monitoring learning progress in the aec-
tive domain. Creative writing does not need to be dicult. Maley’s (2013) ‘Hello,
goodbye’ poems, for example, can be written by learners of dierent levels. ese
poems have only two lines of two words each, e.g.:
Hello paper,
Goodbye trees.
Teachers were encouraged to let their learners write short poems about global issues
such as modern slavery and the plastic soup.
Conclusion
In general, the teachers in this study wanted to guide the learners in their classes to
become ‘global citizens’. e trainees, inexperienced teachers and those with more
experience wanted to address global issues, but teachers from all groups of partici-
pants experienced diculties in addressing these issues in the English class, possibly
because pre-service teacher education focuses on language acquisition and does not
provide guidance about GCED. All three groups reported to have beneted from
the three interventions. Bloom’s taxonomy for aective aims with verbs helped them
to formulate smarter learning aims in terms of global citizenship. Ideas for picture
books provided rich and imaginative content for language teaching with a focus on
GCED. e creative writing promoted language learning and provided opportunities
to express feelings, making it possible to monitor learners’ development of global
citizenship, such as their awareness of global issues, engagement, and values.
corneeferreiraELT@gmail.com
References
Krathwohl, D. R., B. S. Bloom and B. B. Masia. 1964. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives:
Handbook II: Aective Domain. New York: David McKay Co.
Maley, A. 2013. ‘Creative writing for second language students’ in J. Bland and C. Lütge (eds.).
Children’s Literature in Second Language Education. London: Bloomsbury.
UNESCO 2014. Teaching and Learning, Achieving Quality Education for All. EFA Global Monitoring
Report. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/leading-the-international-agenda/
efareport/.
97
5 Culture in the classroom
e concept of culture is notoriously dicult to dene, but the writers of these papers
do an excellent job of addressing the topic of culture in the classroom. Ian Lebeau
opens the chapter with a highly topical paper on what it means to teach ‘British cul-
ture’ in light of the disunity revealed by the Brexit vote. is is followed by two papers
designed to enhance students’ awareness of cultural identity. Sanaa Abdel Hady
Makhlouf describes a collaborative initiative carried out between postsecondary insti-
tutions in Egypt and the USA, with the goal of allowing students to learn about the
other group’s culture; and Helene Appel and Maria Bahrenscheer Jensen show how
narrative in the form of digital storytelling enables students to address issues related
to culture. Tarun Kumari Kharbamon then discusses her approach to classroom
conict in culturally diverse India. e next few papers address the use of literature
in the classroom. First, Helen Ford reports on her use of literature in non-standard
varieties of English in the ESL class. en, two papers, the rst by Conny Loder and
the second by Lisa Peter and Annette Deschner, present approaches to the teaching
of Shakespeare in EFL and multilingual contexts. Finally, for teachers interested in
incorporating cultural diversity into their classrooms, Ana Carolina Costa Lopes
oers some excellent suggestions!
5.1 Teaching ‘British culture’ after the Brexit vote

Ian Lebeau Anglia Ruskin University, Chelmsford and Cambridge, UK and QA
Higher Education, London, UK
Introduction
Most published materials dealing with ‘British culture’ have traditionally tended to
focus on topics such as the monarchy, government, the law, education, work and
leisure, family life and food, and have been dealt with in a largely neutral, descriptive
manner. In this talk, it was argued that the Brexit vote demanded that we look at new
ways of teaching ‘British culture’, acknowledging the divisions in UK society, and
critically evaluating British characteristics, beliefs and behaviours.
The absence of a unied ‘British culture’
e EU referendum of June 2016 revealed a Disunited Kingdom: England and
Wales elected to leave, while Scotland and Northern Ireland chose to remain. e
young voted very dierently from their elders. Other divisions in the UK have since
been extensively discussed. Economic inequality has been recognised as a key driver
98
Teaching ‘British culture’ after the Brexit vote
of Brexit, with the UK the second most unequal society in the EU. Additionally,
Goodhart (2017) describes two dierent ‘tribes’ in Britain: the socially conservative
‘Somewheres’ and the internationalist ‘Anywheres’. ese ‘binary times’ raise the ques-
tion of whether one can speak of ‘British culture’, or ‘Britain’, at all. ere seem to be
so many Britains, so many cultures.
A way forward
In spite of this, the referendum has presented an opportunity to think afresh about
‘British culture’ and to seek out new content and new approaches. One suggestion,
made in this talk, is to take a less descriptive approach and engage more in the high-
er-order skill of evaluation, exploring both positive and negative aspects of ‘British
culture’. is runs the risk of greater subjectivity, but in a more complex and danger-
ous world, it is likely that we need to interpret facts for our students and help them
do the same.
Some elements of a ‘British culture’ syllabus
Negatives
• British exceptionalism was identied as a key negative. According to politician Jacob
Rees-Mogg, to be born British is ‘to win rst prize in the lottery of life’ (Fletcher
2018). Recently, however, we have started to appreciate that this attitude is, very
specically, English.
• Xenophobia is no longer restricted to a tiny minority of British people. We rightly
celebrate our history as a safe haven for those eeing persecution, but we now strug-
gle to admit even small numbers of child refugees. ere was also a serious amount
of ‘othering’ of foreigners during the referendum period.
• e idea of the British as a nation of rational, pragmatic, reserved people is, it was
claimed, well out of date. Our sti upper lip is now only skin-deep, and unchecked
emotion can break out at any moment; this was seen in 1997 following the death of
Diana, Princess of Wales, and again during the referendum campaign.
• Although 2018 is the centenary of women’s surage in the UK, and women have
obviously made substantial progress in that time, it was argued that they are still
second-class citizens. Only 32 per cent of British Members of Parliament are female
and pay dierences between men and women doing the same job can be very large.
Positives
• e British passion for volunteering was discussed. It is estimated that 14 million
people volunteer at least once a month, picking up litter in local parks, for example,
or running for charity. Monbiot (2018: 3) states: ‘Volunteering gives people what
work once promised: meaning, purpose, place, community. is is where hope lies.’
• e National Health Service (NHS), it was suggested, is central to the lives of vir-
tually all British people, inspiring pride and loyalty and representing an ideal of
fairness. Some of our students may need to use the NHS while in the UK, but all
students of ‘British culture’ should understand it.
• Britain is an outstandingly creative country in elds such as literature and lm,
theatre, music, fashion, art and architecture, design and technology. Cultural exports
are worth more than the automotive, gas, aerospace and life science industries
99
Chapter 5: Culture in the classroom
combined, oering, it was noted in passing, an excellent focus for students of busi-
ness English.
• Finally, it was proposed that we should make more of the great physical beauty of the
UK. A Rough Guide readers’ poll in autumn 2017 voted Scotland the world’s most
beautiful country. It was felt particularly appropriate, in Brighton, to mention the
UK’s astounding coasts.
Conclusion
e EU referendum has opened up an opportunity to think deeply about Britain at a
critical moment in its history and, in terms of teaching ‘British culture’, to embrace a
more evaluative approach and explore new topics.
ianlebeau@aol.com
References
Fletcher, M. 2018. ‘e polite extremist: Jacob Rees-Mogg’s seemingly unstoppable rise’.
New Statesman, 20 February. https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/uk/2018/02/polite-
extremist-jacob-rees-mogg-s-seemingly-unstoppable-rise.
Goodhart, D. 2017. e Road to Somewhere: e Populist Revolt and the Future of Politics.
London: Hurst.
Monbiot, G. 2018. ‘Wake up! As robots take our jobs, we can’t live just to work’. e Guardian:
Opinion, 7 February.
5.2 Bridging cultural divides through synchronous and

asynchronous online teaching
Sanaa Abdel Hady Makhlouf The American University in Cairo, Egypt
Introduction
is talk reported on a collaborative online international learning (COIL) mod-
ule embedded in a freshman writing course at the American University in Cairo
(AUC) and a freshman psychology course at Tompkins Cortland Community College
(TCCC) in New York. Both instructors collaborated online then met face to face in
order to develop their new module, its learning outcomes, assessment framework,
tools and tasks for a seven-week interactive and collaborative cross-cultural learning
experience. e module aimed to enhance intercultural competence by fostering a
meaningful sense of community across both cultures. Pre-, mid- and post-COIL
reection questions were administered. e presenter shared the tasks and tools used
throughout this module and reected on the successes and challenges faced by teach-
ers and students as learners engaged in both synchronous (taking place at the same
time) and asynchronous (taking place at dierent times) collaboration, taking into
account the six-hour time dierence between the two countries.
Collaboration
With instruction by administrators from the State University of New York (SUNY)
who launched the COIL programme in 2006, teachers who registered for the course
100
Bridging cultural divides through synchronous and asynchronous online teaching
engaged in two months of intensive training. is led to the forming of partnerships
between pairs of teachers and the designing of their international online module
embedded within their local course. In order to make the collaboration more mean-
ingful, a workshop took place at the University of Technology in Lebanon where all
partners met for one week to collaborate and design their module. Following the
workshop the module was implemented.
Designing the module
e module had two learning outcomes. e rst was for students to exchange their
positive and negative experiences about their educational path, and the second was to
share and reect on the stereotypes Arabs and Americans might have of each other.
e weeks were divided as follows:
• Week 1: Introduction to the tools and tasks and administering a pre-COIL survey
online. Teachers prepared an introductory Zoom video to share with the other class.
• Week 2: Sharing positive and negative educational experiences and posting them on
a Blackboard discussion forum for feedback and comments.
• Week 3: Participating in the rst synchronous task via a scheduled Zoom video
meeting.
• Week 4: Reecting asynchronously on the past three weeks by completing a mid-
COIL survey.
• Week 5: Discussing Arab/American stereotypes embedded in the media.
• Week 6: Responding to the prompt about how Arabs and Americans view each other
with respect to stereotypes. Posting responses on the Blackboard forum for feedback.
• Week 7: On Blackboard group discussion forum, sharing ideas about how prejudice
could be reduced between Arabs and Americans.
e module ended by having students reect on their COIL experience through a
Zoom meeting, then completing an online post-COIL survey.
Tools used for online collaboration were Google Docs, WhatsApp, Viber, Skype,
Zoom and Blackboard Learning System. e COIL module counted for 10 per cent
of students’ nal grade in their local course.
Challenges and rewards
Although students felt that the module increased their workload, they eventually
bonded together and enjoyed the learning experience gained from this collaboration.
Most of the Egyptian students were more familiar with American culture because
of their socioeconomic backgrounds that allowed them to travel to the USA and
Europe. In contrast, the American students, who were from a dierent socioeconomic
background, were less exposed to Arab culture and had never communicated with
Egyptians. e collaboration helped change their perception of each other, and they
developed a sense of tolerance and acceptance of others as well as an awareness of the
impact of the media on how we perceive others. In the community college, students’
ages ranged from 18 to 54, unlike the freshman students at AUC who were all 18.
is age dierence caused some miscommunication that was resolved through the
input of both teachers.
101
Conclusion
Students indicated that they not only enjoyed and beneted from the collaboration
but had developed a better understanding of the others as well as gained more aware-
ness of their similarities that seemed more than their dierences. Students hoped to
participate in another COIL module with more Zoom meetings since they benetted
from them more than from any of the other selected tools. erefore, both instructors
decided to resume the collaboration for another semester, but with a new group of
students, new challenges and hopefully more rewards from the online collaboration.
sanaaam@aucegypt.edu
5.3 Exploring cultural identities through technology

Helene Appel and Maria Bahrenscheer Jensen University College
Copenhagen, Denmark
Working with Danish teacher training students at University College Copenhagen, we
constructed a project to demonstrate how EFL teachers can explore identity construc-
tion and cultural diversity in the classroom. e overall aim for the course was to show
how EFL teachers can work with intersected topics such as subjectivity and cultural
identities. Additionally, we examined how digital storytelling (DS) embraced dierent
learning styles, and boosted students’ 21st-century skills in working collaboratively to
enhance global and cultural awareness. Examples of the DS tasks we made are ‘My
cultural identity’ and ‘My favourite place’, where the students had to include pictures,
sound, voiceover and multiple clips, and tell the story from a rst-person narrator’s
perspective. is workshop aimed to show how digital storytelling can promote inter-
cultural competences and to let the audience reect on the task ‘My favourite place’
by trying out two specic steps in constructing a digital story.
In line with one framework based on a cultural studies approach, we suggest that
teachers can work with topics that intersect, such as religion, beliefs, values, discourse,
gender and lifestyles. Furthermore, this allows for working with dierent kinds of
cultural identities in class, as we understand culture to be a uid and dynamic phe-
nomenon, which changes depending on the context (Risager 2018). We looked at
identity and culture in a non-essentialist way in the construction of ‘selves’, where
diversity and encounters took centre stage. We applied DS to open up for working
with this framework in the EFL classroom by designing tasks that forced the learners
to reect on the intersections of cultural identity, subjectivity and critical awareness.
In line with Lambert’s (2010) denition, we dened DS as short, personal nar-
ratives in a digital form that consist of multimedia components such as text, images
and sound. In order to create a digital story, Lambert suggests seven important steps;
the audience tried out Step 1: owning your insights, and Step 3: nding the moment.
Each audience member reected individually on the topic ‘My favourite place’ by
brainstorming in depth on Step 1, which helps us realise what makes this story our
personal story in particular. We reect on the subject matter by asking questions,
such as ‘Why this story?’, ‘Why now?’ and ‘Who is it for and to?’ en, Step 3 helps
102
Classroom diversity: a teacher’s platform for conict resolution
us clarify the most important insights and emotions of the story. Some moments are
loaded with more meaning and are more memorable than others. We reected on
the subject matter by asking questions, such as ‘Can you describe the place in detail?’
and ‘What was the feeling/sense that made you aware of the place?’ We consider these
steps essential if you want to construct compelling and inspiring digital stories for
others, and they serve as a stepping stone in structuring the learners’ working process.
We believe that DS has the potential to give learners the unique possibility of
personal interpretation (Rossiter and Garcia 2010). ese stories also embrace dif-
ferent learning styles, such as playing with visuals, sounds, symbols, and the written
and spoken mode. Moreover, DS enhances motivation, interest and hidden talents,
and stimulates feelings and communication skills. Finally, DS can be instrumental in
developing 21st-century skills, such as creativity and imagination, collaboration and
teamwork, critical thinking, global and cultural awareness, and communication skills
in general.
In conclusion, we examined the complexities in humanity by asking the question
‘Who am I?’ We believe that the narrative itself is the key to developing intercultural
understanding. e acceptance of fully knowing that we all contain more than ‘a
single story’ is eective when working with cultural identities in the EFL classroom.
helb@phmetropol.dk
References
Lambert, J. 2010. Digital Storytelling Cookbook. Berkeley, Calif.: Center for Digital Storytelling.
Risager, K. 2018. Representations of the World in Language Textbooks, Languages for Intercultural
Communication and Education. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Rossiter, M. and P. Garcia. 2010. ‘Digital storytelling: a new player on the narrative eld’. New
Directions for Adult and Continuing Education 126: 37−48.
5.4 Classroom diversity: a teacher’s platform for conict

resolution
Tarun Kumari Kharbamon The English and Foreign Languages University,
Shillong Campus, India
Introduction
I teach in a context which is highly diverse. ough as a nation we exist as a homo-
geneous entity, we dier from each other in features, language, culture, religions,
beliefs and traditions. is diversity is reected in the classroom as well. Classrooms
in Shillong are culturally, ethnically and linguistically diverse. e students have their
own distinct cultures, beliefs, values, food habits and religions and are from dierent
tribes and castes. e classroom can, if we are not wary and alert, be the genesis of
ethnic, religious and identity conicts.
While this diversity has rich potential for cultural exchange, it can present an edu-
cational and professional challenge for the teacher, who has to be very immediate in
his/her response in order to maintain a conducive learning environment. College and
103
university classrooms are contexts of unpleasant conicts which, though subtle, have
made the classroom context both embarrassing and threatening.
A few years ago the problem was manageable. Students were disciplined and teach-
ers were held in high esteem. At present, however, the situation has changed. Values
are forgotten and intolerance has subtly crept into our classrooms. e students’
world, which was earlier positive and harmonious, is gradually becoming dicult and
challenging. e ‘emo culture’ of the students, as I prefer to call it, has made the stu-
dents aware of their rights and their deprivations, making them vent their frustrations
and anxieties, leading to unpleasant controversies and dialogues.
The teacher and classroom diversity
As educational administrators, teachers and pedagogues, we cannot remain detached.
We have to acknowledge and shoulder the responsibility since we are the ‘transforma-
tive intellectuals’ who connect and translate pedagogical theory and practice to wider
social issues and embody in our teaching a vision of a better and more humane life.
But before we can do that, we need to reect critically on the values that we ourselves
uphold. We might go to extensive lengths to rationalise, justify and emphasise the
necessity of imparting value education to our students, but the question is, what
values do we ourselves conform to? Are we candles in the dark? Are we the ‘salt’
that disinfects and preserves? Or are we just cogs in the machine of materialism and
commercialisation, and do we seek to impose our own values?
I strongly feel that, as teachers, we should comprehend our own values systems if
we are to serve as springboards towards the development of values in our own class-
room contexts and disseminate values to others. A knowledge of the many dierences
that exist in the classroom and a self-knowledge of how one usually responds to these
dierences can make one aware of hidden prejudices and stereotypes which are bar-
riers to tolerance and understanding. Seen from this perspective, classroom diversity
can be a resource. We can exploit the diverse context to develop in both the students
and among our own colleagues the so much needed intercultural and inter-social
competence.
As an experienced teacher and teacher trainer, what I have tried is to do in my own
humble eorts is to help restore the values of respect and tolerance through group
dynamics, problem-solving activities and group tasks. I also use self-authored sup-
plementary textbooks, where I have tried to incorporate lessons drawn from dierent
parts of the country with the goal of exposing the readers to something beyond their
own context.
At the start of every classroom I spend a few minutes arranging how the students or
the teacher trainees sit. I make it a point that each group has members from dierent
linguistic, cultural and religious backgrounds. ese are indeed very small steps, but
I do believe that these classroom sessions have made a dierence. e participants
have learnt through the sessions not only to tolerate but also to appreciate the Other’s
culture, and they have expressed their readiness to know more about the Other’s tra-
ditional customs and beliefs.
To conclude, classroom diversity, if well exploited in the hands of an innovative
teacher, can be a resource to resolve conicts and encourage mutual understanding
and respect for the ‘Other’ while also promoting strong learning and teaching com-
munities. e teacher will be not only a professional, but a responsible individual with
104
Using literature featuring non-standard English in ELT: some reasons why
specic visions of community and moral accountability preparing the students both
for their economic and cross cultural citizenship.
tkkharbamon@gmail.com
5.5 Using literature featuring non-standard English in ELT: some

reasons why
Helen Ford South Thames College, London, UK
Introduction
Is it possible to use literature featuring non-standard English varieties with L2 learn-
ers? In this talk I outlined the method, materials and ndings from my research with
L2 learners in London.
Rationale
A common approach to reading involves learners answering a series of comprehen-
sion questions which have a measurable correct answer. In this research I adopted a
dierent approach to reading skills development. Regarding method, I wanted to
move beyond ‘answerable’ questions to ones which encouraged the co-construction
of meaning. Regarding material, I wanted to use literary texts, in particular stories
and poems from outside the traditional literary canon, which celebrate the diversity
of English today.
So why use non-standard Englishes? When L2 learners are already struggling with
comprehension, the addition of dialect varieties seems counterintuitive. However,
using them may encourage co-construction of meaning—when the meaning of a word
or phrase is not immediately obvious, learners, who might otherwise look up the word
in their dictionaries, have to use context clues and discussion to reach a possible mean-
ing. Secondly, as the English language is increasingly diverse, the opportunity to study
English varieties addresses this reality and opens students’ eyes to the world of culture
represented in literature. Finally, on a personal level I wanted to share my family’s
language heritage (Caribbean English), so my selection of texts used mainly Caribbean
varieties. I included West African and Scottish varieties for comparison and contrast,
but the choice is personal. Authors included Sam Selvon, John Agard, Valerie Bloom
and Chinua Achebe.
Research evidence
While the use of literature in ELT is very well documented, using literatures with vari-
eties of English is under-represented in the research. Studies that exist (see Talib 1992,
among others) focus on reading familiar local varieties of English; for example, learners
in Singapore or Malaysia read texts in their dialect of English. is lack of use is outlined
by Vandrick (1996), who acknowledges potential reasons why L2 learners would not
want to read texts in non-standard language, citing confusion, and more critically, their
feeling that it is a waste of time as this variety will not be tested. is is compounded
in grammar books, as Wales describes: ‘Foreign learners of English may be forgiven for
105
thinking that dialect speech and non-English standards do not exist, or are ‘abnormal’
since there is so little mention of them in contemporary grammars’ (1996: 19).
Methodology
With each text I established the context—my texts were linked thematically to language
and power. While reading, rather than using pre-set comprehension questions, learners
used a form of reader response. ey annotated their text indicating what they enjoyed,
found confusing, funny or interesting, and so on. Annotations were compared, and it
was during this comparison and debate stage that the richness of discussion around
meaning took place. Finally, as a group we explored themes and potential meanings of
unfamiliar language. In some cases I used question prompts to direct the discussion.
Evaluation
Learners completed a questionnaire, and a small number were interviewed. Some
learners fundamentally prefer poems to stories, or vice versa, so genre had an inuence
on enjoyment and engagement. Learners recognised that these texts created opportu-
nities for critical thinking:
The whole process of processing information and searching for an answer is more
important to me than actually nding ‘the answer’
I could understand difcult phrases thanks to the context. That’s denitely a good
thing to learn
Students reported some language knowledge gain:

It was quite useful because I have a wide range of different vocabulary and accents
now
Learners also developed an increased awareness of English varieties and their asso-
ciated cultures:
English is not only spoken in countries like Ireland, Canada, etc. but also in unknown
countries
English is more than just the standard Oxford/Cambridge English we learn
However, as Vandrick suggests, the feedback was not all positive, and this must be
acknowledged:
I’m interested in learning Standard English—doing the CAE with this knowledge
I didn’t like the language because it wasn’t proper
Overall, and more positively:

It was something different from the normal language class
In the Q&A at the conference, we discussed text selection; the choice of language
variety is up to the teacher and students according to relevance and interest. Finding
related audio can bring the language alive if learners are in a non-English speaking
environment.
106
A multiliteracies approach to teaching Shakespeare: an excursion to London
Conclusion
e inclusion of literature in varieties of English has multiple benets for L2 students
for developing reading skills and more, including critical thinking, linguistic aware-
ness and cultural knowledge gain.
helen.ford@south-thames.ac.uk
References
Talib, I. S. 1992. ‘Why not teach non-native English literature?’. ELT Journal 46/1: 51−55.
Vandrick, S. 1996. ‘Issues in using multicultural literature in college ESL writing classes’. Jour-
nal of Second Language Writing 5/3: 253−269.
Wales, K. 1996. Personal Pronouns in Present-day English. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
5.6 A multiliteracies approach to teaching Shakespeare: an

excursion to London
Conny Loder Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
In my paper I suggest a holistic teaching approach to Shakespeare in the EFL class-
room that not only engages various modes of meaning making, but also takes students
of Shakespeare out of the classroom, into the pit of the groundlings and onto the sites
of playhouses from Shakespeare’s time.
My approach to Shakespeare builds on the New London Group and their mul-
ti-modal method to teaching language and literature, the multiliteracies approach
(New London Group 1996). Contrary to the concept that Shakespeare, his time and
his plays should be taught with didactisised texts and in a classroom environment,
I suggest we engage learners of EFL with Shakespeare through additional literacies:
literary, performative, digital and spatial literacy.
Literary and performance literacy
After learners have thoroughly engaged with the text in class, their performative and
visual literacy is trained. e classroom serves as a rst encounter to Shakespeare’s per-
formances, which enables learners to understand the aesthetics of transformations of
text to stage and lm. is also enables learners to critically evaluate their experience
of the theatre performances they will be seeing in London.
Approaching the plays from the perspective of an actor or director, learners engage
in workshops tailored specically to an active approach to the plays. Several theatre
companies oer workshops accompanying their productions such as the Globe e-
atre, Iris eatre and fringe theatre companies (such as Brockley Jack and the Rose
Playhouse). By engaging in workshops with the same companies with which learners
will experience productions, learners enhance not only their textual analysis of the
play, but also their understanding of how the text ‘directs’ the production.
A critical reection of the production takes place through talkbacks with cast and
directors of the same companies that oer the workshops. ese talkbacks show that
students have learned to critically assess productions and that they can engage in an
informed discussion about the plays and their metamorphosis on stage.
107
Digital literacy
e World Wide Web oers various resources to explore Shakespeare’s plays online
and interactively; one of the best is the Globe. It oers not only plentiful resources
for teachers (analysis of the plays, of previous Globe productions, close-reading sug-
gestions), but also a wide range of interactive tasks for learners. One such example
allows learners to direct their own scene from a selection of plays. e Globe website
oers a collection of clips based on previous productions that learners can merge to
create a whole scene. is is more than just stringing lines together: learners need
to decide how the actors should deliver the lines (i.e. mood, pace, intonation). e
merged scenes can be downloaded to be compared with those of other learners. is
digital ‘excursion’ allows learners to design a scene and explore various presentation
styles of text and various movements and blocking according to theatre pedagogue
Rudolf Laban.
Spatial literacy
Although learners can explore Shakespeare’s time and his playhouses to some extent
in the classroom—especially with the Globe site in mind—a full exploration truly
requires a treasure hunt through today’s London. ere, learners locate the sites of
playhouses in a similar fashion as today’s treasure hunters do with geocaches.
e cache—the playhouse—is located with information that the learners draw
from documents which emerge directly from Shakespeare’s lifetime. Other locations
include the Rose Playhouse, the Curtain, the Playhouse Called the eatre and the
Blackfriars Playhouse. We deliberately avoid the Globe Playhouse, since its status as a
tourist attraction will only deter learners’ from engaging with spatial literacy.
e playhouses of interest need rst be located with original documents, retrieved
from the National Archives, Kew or the Archives at Dulwich College, such as the
King’s Bench Document. Learners decipher and collect important pieces of information
to situate their playhouse in a specic area. With this information from the docu-
ments, often court cases or leases pertaining to playhouse buildings themselves or
buildings nearby, learners locate their cache on Early Modern Maps (with the help
of street names and dimensions). Although no London map from Shakespeare’s own
time, showing the playhouses, is extant, maps of London shortly prior to or after
Shakespeare serve the purpose: maps by Peter Chassereau, Braun and Hogenberg and
the Agas Map are crucial, all of which can be found online (British History Online).
e next step is to transfer the pinpointed area to a modern map, and learners even-
tually locate their cache in today’s London.
Ultimately, this holistic approach to teaching Shakespeare in EFL ensures sustain-
able learning: learners truly own Shakespeare.
cornelia.e.loder@gmail.com
References
British History Online. http:// www.british-history.ac.uk.
Records of the Court of King’s Bench and Other Courts. 1600−1699. National Archives. KB
27/1362/1.
e New London Group. 1996. ‘A pedagogy of multiliteracies: designing social futures’. Har-
vard Educational Review 66/1: 1−31.
108
Shakespeare in the multilingual classroom
5.7 Shakespeare in the multilingual classroom

Lisa Peter The Shakespeare Birthplace Trust, UK and Annette Deschner
Karlsruhe University of Education, Germany
Multilingual classrooms are a reality for many teachers around the globe, but all too
often, multilingualism is perceived as a hindrance rather than an asset for the students.
However, including the students’ home languages in the classroom can signicantly
raise self-esteem and support inclusion (Gogolin 2001). e CultureShake project,
undertaken by Karlsruhe University of Education together with the Shakespeare
Birthplace Trust, Primorska University and secondary schools in Germany and
Sweden, aims to bridge the gap between theory and practice. We used Shakespeare’s
reputation as shared cultural heritage as a medium to develop teaching methods and
activities that incorporate plurilingualism and multilingualism in their makeup.
Language portraits
To make students aware that they are plurilingual speakers we asked them at the
beginning of the project to create a language portrait. is is an exercise to make
students more aware of their inner plurilingualism: we may not be fully aware of all
the languages we speak because our home language may not be an ‘ocial’ one, i.e.
the state or institutional language. is language portrait by Krumm and Jenkins was
further explored by Brigitta Busch (2012). To begin with, the students reect on their
inner plurilingualism: they draw the shape of their body and then add their languages
to any part of the body, choosing a colour for every language. ey then write texts
about these languages, for example, about when they use them, i.e. in a specic sit-
uation or context, or with certain people. Finally, the students share their language
portrait with other students in the group. To our surprise one refugee student from
Afghanistan put down Hazaragi as one of her languages, which hadn’t been captured
by any previous cognitive language grids—this only came to light through her journey
to her inner plurilingualism.
Geocaches
CultureShake tries to open up a new approach for school exchanges. Instead of
focusing on national culture and language, Shakespeare served as the content for the
exchange. Guided city tours with national landmarks are often part of an exchange
programme but as CultureShake does not want to foster national stereotypes, our
students explored the towns they visited with the help of geocaches, where favourite
places of the students supply the coordinates of the geocaches. For the workshop week
in Stratford, where the students met to work at the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust, we
created the geocache as a tour through Shakespeare’s life. To nd their coordinates the
students had to answer questions referring to our focus texts A Midsummer Night’s
Dream and e Tempest. Multilingual tasks were built in so that all the home languag-
es were appreciated. e teacher handbooks and all the worksheets for the Singen,
Stratford and Gothenburg geocaches are available online at www.cultureshake.eu.
Theatre workshops
Since Shakespeare is the topic the students had been working on together, we natu-
rally also employed some drama techniques. e Tempest being one of our focus texts,
109
we used the theme of displacement to interrogate the characters in the play. After an
initial introduction to the story lines, the students were given cards that summarised
the characters’ backstory in terms of how they ended up on Prospero’s island and how
they feel at the beginning of the play. e students then hot-seated those characters
and interrogated them about their understanding of home and what it means to them.
Another exercise that more directly made use of the students’ home languages
focused on voice and dramatic dialogue. We worked with the opening sequence of
Hamlet and after the students had understood the situation and the vocabulary, we
concentrated on the delivery of the lines. In a nal step the students were asked to
quickly translate their lines into their home languages and to deliver them, even if
nobody else in their group shared their home language. e students very quickly
moved on from focusing on what they said to how they were saying it: they were able
to use their multilingualism to support the understanding of the meaning of the text
and thereby to work on the range of emotions possible for the Shakespeare character
they were playing at that moment.
We have hopefully been able to showcase how multilingualism can be included in
working on a certain topic like Shakespeare as well as in cultural exchanges that want
to go deeper than a tourist visit. ese are just a few of the methods and activities the
CultureShake project is developing; the project website (www.cultureshake.eu) holds
more inspiration.
lisa.peter@shakespeare.org.uk
annette.deschner@ph-karlsruhe.de
References
Busch, B. 2012. ‘e linguistic repertoire revisited’. Applied Linguistics 33/5: 503–523.
Gogolin, I., U. Neumann and L. Reuter. 2005. Schulbildung für Kinder von Minderheiten in
Deutschland 1989−1999. Schulrecht, Schulorganisation, Curriculare Fragen, Sprachliche Bil-
dung. Münster/New York: Waxmann-Verlag.
5.8 Incorporating diversity in materials and/or the classroom

Ana Carolina Costa Lopes StandFor, São Paulo/SP, Brazil
What is diversity?
Merriam-Webster denes ‘diversity’ as the condition of having or being composed of
diering elements. One can also think of diversity as the
range of human differences that includes the primary or internal dimension such as
age, gender, race, ethnicity, physical and mental ability and sexual orientation; and
the secondary or external dimension such as thought styles, religion, nationality,
socio-economic status, belief systems, military experience and education (Boston
College Ofce for Institutional Diversity, 2018).
Denitions of diversity—no matter how concise or complex—will always involve

the word ‘dierent’ or ‘dierence’. In educational contexts, however, such a word is
often regarded as problematic. Schools have long sought to erase dierences as if they
110
Incorporating diversity in materials and/or the classroom
were a synonym for inequality. Examples include the adoption of standard curricula,
assessments, assignments, classroom layout, even uniforms. However, it is important
to highlight that the opposite of equality is not dierence. In fact, acknowledging the
right to dierence is the rst step towards building more egalitarian societies. e
way to achieve that is through critical intercultural education, which understands
dierence as an inherent part of democratic societies. As Candau (2016) denes it, it
systematically promotes dialogue between dierent subjects and aims to build more
egalitarian relationships between dierent groups.
Why is it important in the classroom?
Primarily, the Declaration of Human Rights (1948) upholds intercultural education
as it stipulates that education ‘shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship
among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the
United Nations for the maintenance of peace’. Moreover, research conducted in Bra-
zilian schools (Mazzon 2009, cited in Candau 2012) has shown that discrimination
and prejudice negatively aect results. In sum, this is not only key for building more
democratic societies, but it is also a learner-centered pedagogy that can empower
learners.
Best practices for teachers and writers
1 Use images to promote more inclusion and diversity. Adopt more inclusive stock
websites such as representationmatters.me, nappy.com, Iwaria, tonl.co, diversity-
photos.com and blendimages.com. For editors and writers, it is also a good idea to
be mindful of illustration briengs. Ask for the inclusion of more diverse characters
instead of leaving it to the illustrator’s repertoire.
2 Hire a sensitivity reader. More common in ction, a sensitivity reader will not read
your coursebook or lesson plan for methodology consistency or language accuracy,
but they will read it for inclusiveness, hidden biases and stereotypes. More impor-
tantly than having a background in ELT, this person will be engaged in social rights
movements and groups.
3 Use authentic materials, but widen your sources. Look for texts from other coun-
tries, other communities, other social groups. Use Advanced Search features to
search for texts in English from dierent countries so you can avoid the traditional
sources. Expanding your repertoire is one of the best ways to incorporate more
diversity into your practice.
4 Bring students’ voices into the class. Allow for students’ choice of reading materials,
assignments and topics, and create moments where students can speak from their
experience. By doing so, you are not only increasing diversity (as there are multiple
voices present in the class) but also getting to know where and how you can push
students’ boundaries, introducing them to dierent realities and perspectives.
5 Actively promote contact with dierent students through collaborative work. e
key here is to spend some time grouping students varyingly, not just by grades or
anity (often allowing students to pick the same pairs, i.e. their friends or people
similar to them that they enjoy working with). Whenever possible, expand that
collaboration to beyond the classroom, engaging in school−community projects or
school−school interaction. rough programmes such as Schools Online, ePals and
111
CyberFair, students can collaborate with peers from all over the world, thus getting
to know dierent cultures and perspectives.
6 Don’t ban the L1 from the classroom. It should not be a free-for-all, but instead
allow moments for it, when it is important that students can express themselves
without being limited to their current linguistic level. ese moments can happen,
for instance, in pre-reading activities (when the focus can be exploring students’
previous knowledge on the topic), post-reading reection (when they can related
to their own experiences and realities) or other moments deemed appropriate.
e list above is not intended to be exhaustive and there are many other ways to
promote diversity in the classroom and in/through materials. is article’s objectives,
however, were to enumerate some initial ideas and to inspire further dialogue about
incorporating diversity in the English language classroom.
acc.lopes@hotmail.com
References
Candau, V. M. F. 2012. ‘Diferenças culturais, interculturalidade e educação em direitos
humanos’. Educação & Sociedade 33/118: 235−250.
Candau, V. M. F. 2016. ‘Cotidiano escolar e práticas interculturais’. Cadernos de Pesquisa,
46/161: 802−820.
Oce for Institutional Diversity, Boston College. 2018. Diversity and Inclusion Statement.
http://www.bc.edu/oces/diversity/statement-on-diversity-and-inclusion3.html.
112
6 Working with young learners
e ten papers in this chapter demonstrate the creativity and dedication that teachers
of children and teens around the world bring to their work. Gail Ellis and Nayr Ibra-
him start us o with a report on their work with metaphor among French-speaking
children. Sophie Handy then discusses Carol Dweck’s Growth Mindset philosophy
in relation to gender in the YL classroom. e next two papers address the needs
of students with special educational needs (SEN): Božica Šaric-Cvjetković demon-
strates ways to allow all students to contribute in class, while Julia Koifman explores
the use of video in SEN classrooms. Picture books are the subject of two papers:
Susanne Jacobsen and Bente Melgaard, and Tatia Gruenbaum present insights
from Denmark and the Netherlands respectively. e next paper takes us to Iceland,
where Samúel Lefever explores the use of English vs. Icelandic among immigrant
students. Next, we have two papers that address the topic of CLIL: Jonathan Kilpelä
and Raul Albuquerque Paraná present best practices for building knowledge of both
English and science; Anthony Bruton then contributes to the ongoing debate about
the usefulness of CLIL. Finally, in a paper on language reform, Wendy Arnold and
Mark Gregson bring us up to date on what is happening within English language
education in Venezuela.
6.1 Using metaphor to elicit young children’s views on learning

English
Gail Ellis and Nayr Ibrahim British Council, Paris, France
is talk presented research
based on a zigzag book-making
activity, My Learning English
Senses Book, as shown in Figure
6.1.1 (Ellis and Ibrahim 2015:
92/114). e objective was to:
• enable children to express
their views on learning Eng-
lish through use of metaphor;
and
• give teachers the opportunity
to elicit children’s views on
their English language learn-
ing experiences. Figure 6.1.1: My Learning English Senses Book
113
Chapter 6: Working with young learners
Context and participants

e study took place in December 2017 and included 47 four and ve year olds who
attended out-of-school English classes in Paris; they included:
• children who spoke both English and French uently: the Bilingual Section (BLS +
age).
• children who were beginners in English: the English as a Foreign Language Section
(EFLS + age).
Theoretical background
e study is embedded in a children’s rights perspective which values children’s voices.
e Mosaic Approach (Clark 2017) informed our methodology, which is a way of
listening that acknowledges children and adults as co-constructors of meaning. Met-
aphors can be described as conceptual representations of deeper thoughts. However,
according to Winner (1982), ‘e metaphors that younger children use are based
on physical links, rather than conceptual and psychological ones’ and emerge dur-
ing pretend or symbolic play, when children describe objects as other objects and
then use them as such. Most early childhood metaphors, therefore, are noun−noun
substitutions.
Data collection
We used the following structure to collect data (Jin et al. 2014: 289):
• We identied a target domain, which is an abstract topic and which we linked to the
senses: ‘Learning English tastes/feels like … etc.’.
• e children drew a source domain, which is a commonly understood concrete
image: ‘Learning English tastes like a lollipop.’
• e children give an entailment to explain the reason for and underlying meaning of
their metaphor: ‘Learning English tastes like a lollipop because it is sweet and I like
it’ (BLS5). e children explained their entailments orally.
Data analysis
When analysing the data we identied occurring themes for each sense based on the
domains. Some themes such as living things, people, food and objects were common
across most senses. Other domains were specic to a sense, such as the sense of touch
to which we added sensations as it included feelings, and physical and imaginative
sensations: ‘Learning English feels like the heart because feelings are in your heart’
(BLS5). Food was the most common theme across all senses and was mainly linked to
objects the children could see in their classroom. We also analysed the data by themes,
by age and by section to identify the number of source domains produced.
When analysing the data at a second level, we noticed how children’s source domains
were linked to the ‘here and now’ of their own personal, concrete experiences of using
and learning English. eir experiences included associations linked to people, places
or routines in their lives. ese fell into two main categories:
• Outside the school: ‘Learning English feels like bubbles because it’s soft and I have
mousse in my bath at home with my nanny and we speak English’ (BLS5). e child
is using both languages to express her experience (mousse de bain = bubble bath).
114
Generating a gender-free Growth Mindset in young learner EFL classrooms
• Inside the school: ‘Learning English sounds like a snake because a snake slithers.’ e
child is referring to the /s/ sound from the Jolly Phonics programme used with BLS5.
Discussion
e ve year olds and the children in the BLS produced more domains than the
four year olds and more than the children in the EFLS. is may be because the
children in the BLS functioned in both languages on a daily basis and therefore had
more vocabulary and references in both languages. As a result, they exhibited more
creativity, greater exibility and more spontaneity when expressing their views about
learning English. For example, one BLS5 child drew the sweet Fishermen’s Friends:
‘Learning English tastes like Fishermen’s Friends because it’s an English sweet but they
sell them in Auchan’ (a French supermarket). Most children were able to produce
concrete noun−noun metaphors and explain their choices. Some were also able to go
beyond to make noun−verb/action metaphors by linking their drawings to their direct
learning experiences: ‘Learning English looks like children playing because we can see
them in the playground’ (EFLS5).
is research reveals that when eliciting pre-primary children’s experiences of Eng-
lish learning, activities need to be related to the ‘here and now’. e children connect-
ed the activity to their concrete experiences of learning and living with English and
responded according to their cognitive capacity. It enabled them to make explicit the
many associations that the English language has for them in their young lives with
people, places and routines.
gail.ellis@britishcouncil.fr
nayr.ibrahim@britishcouncil.fr
References
Clark, A. 2017. Listening to Young Children: A Guide to Understanding and Using the Mosaic
Approach (expanded third edition). London: National Children’s Bureau
Ellis, G. and N. Ibrahim. 2015. Teaching Children How to Learn. Peaslake: Delta Publishing
Jin, L., X. Liang, C. Jiang, J. Zhang, Y. Yuan and Q. Xie. 2014. ‘Studying the motivations of
Chinese young EFL learners through metaphor analysis’. ELT Journal 68/3: 286−298.
Winner, E. 1982. ‘e child is father to the metaphor’ in H. Gardner (ed.). Art, Mind, and
Brain: A Cognitive Approach to Creativity. New York: Basic Books.
6.2 Generating a gender-free Growth Mindset in young learner

EFL classrooms
Sophie Handy British Council, Paris, France
Introduction
As a natural extension of the Assessment for Learning (AfL) approach we exercise
at the British Council Paris, we have incorporated Carol Dweck’s Growth Mindset
philosophy. is holds that students’ academic achievement is aected by the opinion
they have of their ability or intelligence. My current interest lies in whether students’
mindsets are aected by gender: whether boys and girls view feedback dierently,
115
whether girls are more likely to suer initial setbacks than boys and how teachers can
support all our students in developing a more motivational mindset.
The presentation
Dylan Wiliam, author of Inside the Black Box: Raising Standards through Classroom
Assessment, notes that when he asked a student what the teacher’s feedback ‘you need
to be more systematic in your work’ meant to him, he replied, ‘I don’t know. If I knew
how to be more systematic, I would have been more systematic the rst time’ (1990:
23). is kind of feedback is accurate—it is describing what needs to happen—but it
is not helpful because the learner does not know how to use the feedback to improve.
It is rather like telling an unsuccessful comedian to be funnier—accurate, but not
particularly helpful advice!
Speaking of comedians, Eddie Izzard says he realised belief is a key ingredient in
trying to do things that are dicult: ‘I had to believe that I could be a good street
performer before I could become one. And then I had to believe that I could be a good
stand-up and a good actor and that I could run marathons’ (2017: 8).
Furthermore, Eduardo Briceño, co-founder and CEO of Mindset Works, believes
that ‘most parents, teachers and schools encourage students to perform as well as
they can’ (2017), but it turns out that when students see school as a place to show
o what they already know rather than focus on what they don’t, it gets in the way of
their learning. Briceño (2017) takes the Cirque du Soleil as an example: ‘On stage,
they exhibit beautiful acrobatic feats, often performed awlessly. However, what we
see is but a brief slice of their day in which they focus on the skills they have already
mastered and try to minimise mistakes—their performance zone.’ What we don’t see
is the sheer hard work, eort and practice that go into the show. Parents also perceive
school as a performance zone when all homework and in-class work is evaluated for
correctness with a grade.
In any domain, it is time spent in the learning zone that leads to signicant
improvement, which is why we need to look at the process and praise eort. As Carol
Dweck says, ‘Emphasizing eort gives a child a variable that they can control. ey
see themselves as in control of their success. Emphasizing natural intelligence takes it
out of the child’s control, and it provides no good recipe for responding to a failure’
(2012: 18).
I gave the students a questionnaire to complete on their rst day of a two-week
summer intensive class (60 hours over 10 days) in July last year. It was delivered to
four classes at varying levels of ability and age in their rst language, French. Each
answer provided was based on a sliding scale of ‘mindsetness’. Coupled with this was a
series of observations, interviews and focus groups. I was thus able to identify whether
the feedback practices were encouraging boys and girls to seek challenges and exert
their full eort when they encountered diculty. I therefore learnt that yes, there is
a dierence between boys and girls in their approach to their studies. e girls said:
Sometimes the teacher is more lenient with the boys when they misbehave. I feel I
can’t muck around as much. Boys get away with murder! They don’t seem to care
what the teacher says. They continue being silly. It’s annoying for us because we want
to get on/learn.
e boys said:
116
Inclusive activities for super-active young learners
Girls always complain. Girls are always listened to and respected. They put their hands
up all the time! I feel I can’t respond. Teachers always pick girls to answer questions
they know they’ll have the right answer. Yeah, they never waste time with me! We
don’t get away with half as much as you do. Girls get better grades. They have neater
handwriting! They write more! Lots more!
Conclusion
So how can we as teachers support all our students in developing a more motivational
mindset? Ensure our classrooms are a learning zone, not a performance zone. Provide
success criteria for tasks, or better still, elicit the students’ criteria. Allow students to
make several drafts. Provide individual oral feedback rather than grades. Create a
collaborative classroom atmosphere where students peer assess in a respectful environ-
ment. Provide girls with more wait time. Make questioning more random. Provide
examples of female scientists, authors, artists, and so on. Ignore shout-outs. And nal-
ly, ask girls higher-order questions too.
sophie.handy@britishcouncil.fr
References
Briceño, E. 2017. ‘Learning and performance: how to help students get in the zone’. e
Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/teacher-network/2017/jun/23/learning-peformance-
zone-teachers-schools-students.
Dweck, C. 2012. Mindset: How You Can Full Your Potential. New York: Random House.
Izzard, E. 2017. Believe Me: A Memoir of Love, Death, and Jazz Chickens. New York: Random
House.
Wiliam, D. 1990. Inside the Black Box: Raising Standards rough Classroom Assessment.
London: GL Assessment Limited.
6.3 Inclusive activities for super-active young learners

Božica Šaric-Cvjetković Primary school Triva Vitasović Lebarnik, Laćarak, Serbia
Background
Inclusion was ocially introduced in Serbian state schools in 2011 but nothing much
has been done since. Only students with visible physical disabilities are ocially
diagnosed and included in the Special Education Programme. Only in rare cases do
teachers have the support of a personal assistant, and this assistant is assigned only to
physically help the student and is not involved in the teaching process.
Context
It is often the case in state schools that the students’ abilities range from those
whose level of English is way above the expected to those who struggle with read-
ing and writing in their own mother tongue. It is usually suggested that students
with learning diculties be given dierent, easier tasks to do, which often makes
them feel excluded. Group work and project work has been the best solution so far,
but my experience has shown that fast learners often take over and slower learners
just sit back and let others do the work. In some cases students divide tasks among
117
themselves and the activities are done individually even though they sit in groups.
Also, letting young learners choose the team or group members themselves creates
a dicult situation where the slowest and the weakest students are usually left out.
So, how do we make sure that all the students are actively participating and, most
importantly, learning? I’ve been doing small-scale projects with my students a lot,
trying to nd a balance between the types of activities, group formation and assigning
roles within the groups in order to include all students in the learning process.
Project through stages and involvement of students with SEN
is mini-project was done with a class of 26 second-grade students. Most of the
students had average or above-average abilities. Two students had characteristics of
ADHD and three were very slow learners who were struggling to keep up with the
rest of the class in all the subjects, not only English. None of them were ocially
diagnosed with learning diculties and they had no ocial support. e topic of the
module was ‘Places in town’, while and the grammar unit was regular plural forms of
nouns and the use of ‘there is/there are’.
In some stages of the project, students were divided into two teams; some activities
were done individually and in some stages they were divided into four groups. In that
case, the high achievers and the students with learning diculties were distributed
evenly and each student had his or her role in the group.
In the rst two stages of the project (vocabulary introduction and practice) students
played ‘Match the words to the pictures’ and ‘e y swatter’ games. Slower learners
were not excluded from the exercise, but they were called upon to do the activities
towards the end of the game when the words had already been called out several times;
they were also assigned easier words like ‘park’, ‘supermarket’ or ‘pet shop’, which are
pronounced the same in Serbian so there is less chance of mistakes being made.
During the third stage students were assigned to make a town poster. While the
more skilful were assigned cutting and labelling, the weaker students did the colouring
and gluing. In the following stage the students were introduced with a grammar unit
which was practiced in pairs through a matching activity: ‘ere is a + singular noun’ or
‘ere are + plural noun’. To help weaker students, the cards were in dierent colours:
‘ere is’ and singular nouns were pink and ‘ere are’, numbers and plural nouns were
printed on blue pieces of paper. is helped students to form sentences more easily.
e nal stage of the project was a running dictation, used for vocabulary and
grammar practice. While the stronger students were ‘writers’ or ‘checkers’, the stu-
dents with learning diculties were the ‘runners’. ey were in charge of going to the
poster, counting the objects and going back to report to the group. is is a task they
were able to do, and in that way they contributed to the group work.
Conclusion
is project showed that a variety of activities and careful assigning of roles are crucial
for involving all students in the learning process. e students with learning dicul-
ties, whether it was hyperactivity or a cognitive decit, had their roles at each stage
of the project, which made them feel they were equally involved in all the activities.
Even though their roles did not include using grammar, reading or writing, they con-
tributed to the nal product.
bozicasaric@gmail.com
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Motivational video lessons for SEN students
6.4 Motivational video lessons for SEN students

Julia Koifman Beit Ekshtein High School, Rupin, Israel
LTSIG Diana Eastment Scholarship winner
Introduction
Learning with the help of videos engages two senses: sight and hearing, which en-
hances general understanding of the material and enlarges students’ passive and active
vocabulary. It is very important for children with special educational needs (SEN).
Sometimes it is the only way to keep them in class and to prevent them from leaving
‘boring’ lessons and getting into trouble, especially those who have attention decit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autistic spectrum disorder (ASD). It also has
a great educational eect on dyslexic students who struggle while using traditional
textbooks and misunderstand the tasks.
Creativity in SEN classes
As Einstein once said, ‘Creativity is intelligence having fun’ (Brann 2017). So it should
be an important aspect of teaching and learning. Video activities make lessons very
dierent from traditional ones with textbooks and notebooks. Using creativity in the
SEN classroom is important because it increases motivation, empowers learners and
helps them to develop a sense of excitement and self-esteem. e latter is ‘one of the
most valuable qualities that we can help our students to develop, so that they make
better choices in education and are more condent in learning’ (Smith 2018: 128).
Making their own videos with digital cameras and smartphones is not only a great way
for students to create innovative products using technology but also a powerful tool to
increase their motivation, creativity and autonomy. Many SEN students are good with
technology and may be interested in preparing their own materials and sharing them
with their classmates. In this way, they will get an opportunity to express themselves.
Teenagers with SEN need a highly structured and phonics-based programme,
which entails a simultaneous use of the senses of hearing and listening. It is highly
recommended because it signicantly improves their general comprehension and fos-
ters creative thinking (Kaldonek-Crnjakovic 2017).
Teaching with modern devices
With the help of videos ‘learning becomes student-centred, oering the possibility
of a new relationship between teachers and learners’ (Fazinic 2016: 142). Mobile
learning refers to the use of personal iPods and mobile phones in education, both
inside and outside the classroom.
e Israeli Association for Children with SEN highly recommends using apps and
YouTube as tools for video materials. Research shows that good computer software
and personal mobile devices enhance learning, even in the least motivated students.
us, for dyslexic students, video lessons are very helpful because they improve their
general understanding, and ADHD students become more focused. If you work with
ASD children, who easily take oence, lose their temper or get upset, make sure that
your instructions are absolutely clear and only give one instruction at a time. If they
have special interests, let them prepare presentations about them.
119
While televisions and computers are usually for frontal work, personal devices are
for individual work. us, after watching the class material, students can do some
exercises on their mobile phones. When teachers design tasks for mobile devices, they
need to keep in mind some considerations. For instance, they can encourage their
students to write creatively and express themselves visually. An eective way to do
such tasks is digital storytelling, which requires the use of free photo-editing tools.
Such mobile device−based tasks must be staged from simple to more complex. As a
rule, teachers follow a syllabus, so the video tasks need to relate to the topic or con-
tent area and/or language focus. An important consideration is to remember that the
focus of each task needs to be on language practice and language production, and the
technology needs to be secondary. Mobile devices need to support language aims, not
replace them. Finally, it is worth remembering that mobile devices can bridge work in
and out of class by encouraging situated learning (Fazinic 2016).
Conclusion
With the help of computers, televisions and personal mobile devices it has become
possible not only to conduct successful video lessons in SEN classes but also to get
your students involved in making their own video materials as well. Making videos
with digital cameras and editing software is both a great way to create innovative prod-
ucts using technology and a powerful tool to enhance language learning. Teenaged
students with any LD are engaged in collaborative projects where learning becomes
the result of their creative power, involvement and participation in a positive and
motivating environment.
f3djd@yahoo.ca
References
Brann, A. 2017. ‘Creativity. Is your intelligence having fun?’. http://www.synapticpotential.
com/neuroscience-in-action/creativity/.
Fazinic, V. 2016. ‘Filmmaking in the classroom’ in T. Pattison (ed.). IATEFL 2015 Manchester
Conference Selections. Faversham: IATEFL.
Kaldonek-Crnjakovic, A. 2017. ‘Multisensory, structured, metacognitive method in teaching
English as a foreign language to dyslexic learners’. IATEFL IP&SEN SIG Newsletter 1: 17.
Smith, A. M. 2018. ‘Creating an inclusive classroom: raising awareness of dyslexia and neurodi-
versity’ in T. Pattison (ed.). IATEFL 2017 Glasgow Conference Selections. Faversham: IATEFL.
6.5 Picture books: meaningful language teaching and learning

Susanne Jacobsen and Bente Melgaard Copenhagen University College,
Denmark
e workshop intended to show how the use of literature forms a meaningful basis for
young beginners in the teaching of English as a Foreign Language. rough scaold-
ing activities, we demonstrated ways to use authentic picture books. e workshop
was inspired by a Danish resource book for teachers, Let’s Get Started (Jacobsen, Olsen
and Søgaard 2017). e book combines a functional approach to language teaching
with narratives in authentic picture books.
120
Picture books: meaningful language teaching and learning
When teaching beginners the language teacher faces a number of challenges: the
students cannot read yet, and they are still novices when it comes to writing in their
mother tongue. Additionally, creating innovative, supportive and meaningful lessons is
dicult as most materials for beginners focus on single words such as numbers, colours
and animals. In our workshop we proposed the use of picture books as an alternative.
Why picture books?
Picture books oer learners authentic language in an entertaining and motivating way.
Learners are exposed to rich, varied and connected language rather than single words.
Furthermore, the ‘format’ of reading a story is familiar to most learners, which means
that the teacher does not have to provide long explanations. As most picture books
contain predictable patterns, the learners’ memory is supported while building up
vocabulary. Finally, lots of picture books lend themselves to the teaching of culture,
a crucial element in language teaching, including when it comes to young learners.
Picture–text interaction
For young beginners, picture books provide a whole, completed story, which can
be read in a relatively short time, mainly because the pictures compensate for the
long textual descriptions. Pictures and text can be interrelated in various ways, all of
which can support the language learning. ey can be symmetrical, i.e. pictures and
text telling the same, or they can be enhancing, which means that picture and text are
together more than the sum of the two. Moreover, they can be counter-pointing, i.e.
picture and text tell diverging stories and nally, they can be complementary, meaning
that pictures and text ll each other’s gaps (Birketveit and Williams 2013). Interesting
interplay between text and pictures potentially makes high-quality stories.
Scaffolding
When taking on authentic stories containing dicult language in the EFL classroom,
it is essential for the teacher to scaold the lesson. is can happen in a number of
dierent ways, but rst and foremost, the learners must know what to expect when
encountering the story. If learners are expected to write something, the teacher should
spend time preparing the learners for the task, rather than repairing their work after-
wards. As learners should be positioned as successful language users in the classroom,
it is imperative that the teacher never asks a question that previous teaching has not
provided the answer to. Another fundamental scaolding principle is that classroom
activities are carried out to discover patterns in the text because patterns are predicta-
ble—and therefore teachable. Repetition of the story is a good idea, and at the same
time, it is a good idea to vary the reading or vary the corresponding tasks.
One approach to scaolding is the Reading to Learn method (Rose and Martin
2012). Here, young learners are carefully taken through the text with accompanying
tasks. At the workshop, the audience were exposed to one such task: as the Australian
story Big Rain Coming was read aloud, they were expected to underline the recurring
and signicant word ‘rain’ in order to recognise the spelling of the word, thus consol-
idating their ability to combine the graphic and phonetic representations of the word
(sight word). is task was followed by another activity, ‘sentence making’, where the
audience was asked to cut out sentence constituents while the story was being read
aloud. e nal activity demonstrated a ‘sentence generator’, where elements from
121
the narrative of the picture book can be physically manipulated to recreate the actual
story or to generate new stories. All these activities support learners’ development to
become literate and emergent writers.
In conclusion, we believe that using high-quality literature in the EFL classroom
calls for development of new pedagogies, which can carefully scaold learners’ way
through the reading. Although this could seem like an onerous task for the teacher,
there is so much to gain, as working with authentic picture books is motivating,
enriching and educational.
suja@phmetropol.dk
beme@phmetropol.dk
References
Birketveit, A. and G. Williams. 2013. Literature for the English Classroom. Bergen, Norway:
Fakbokforlaget.
Jacobsen, S, M. Olsen and K. Søgaard. 2018. Let’s Get Started – Engelsk med Billedbøger i
Indskolingen, Lærerens Ressourcebog. Frederiksberg, Denmark: Samfundslitteratur.
Rose, D. and J. Martin. 2012. Learning to Write, Reading to Learn. Sheeld: Equinox Picture
books.
6.6 Picture books: a tool in primary teacher education in the

Netherlands
Tatia Gruenbaum Avans University of Applied Sciences, Netherlands and
University College London Institute of Education, UK
Introduction
During my talk I presented a newly designed picture book−based syllabus which
was taught to second-year primary student teachers at Avans University of Applied
Sciences in the Netherlands. e syllabus challenges the existing approach, which
separates teaching English prociency from English Language Teaching (ELT) skills
for primary student teachers. e course and its syllabus aim to facilitate the develop-
ment of language and language teaching in a creative, practical and innovative way.
Furthermore, it confronts the idea that picture books might be considered a teaching
tool destined only for the young rather than a learning-to-teach tool for a group of 22
primary student teachers.
Context
In the Netherlands, primary teacher education is provided by universities of applied
sciences in the form of a four-year course which frequently includes teaching place-
ments in Year 1. Student teachers can access primary teacher education with the Dutch
equivalents of GCSEs, A-Levels or Vocational Teaching Assistant qualications. With
regard to English prociency, student teachers are expected to enrol with a minimum
of CEFR B1 and progress to B2 upon graduation.
Like other European countries, the Netherlands is experiencing the global rise in
teaching English in primary education. e growing number of schools now oering
English at an ever earlier age highlights the need for primary teacher education to
122
Picture books: a tool in primary teacher education in the Netherlands
keep pace with the changing provision of EFL in Dutch primary schools. Although
teaching English in the nal two years of primary education has been compulsory
since 1986, current weaknesses such as the EFL prociency and ELT skills of many
primary teachers provide compelling arguments for teacher education institutions to
assess current provisions within their programmes in order to ensure that English is
delivered eectively to young learners.
Syllabus
e picture book−based syllabus consisted of 11 90-minute lessons which were taught
over a span of seven months. e project stretched over this long period as student
teachers alternate between university and placement schools. Six key principles guided
the development and the teaching of the syllabus:
1 e lesson themes should derive from key teaching and prociency skills estab-
lished for teaching EFL by means of picture books.
2 e syllabus should focus on teaching future language teachers rather than lan-
guage learners.
3 e syllabus should achieve a balance of theory and practice thus facilitating the
link between learning and actual practice in a creative and innovative way.
4 e lessons should be designed and taught in a way that models an interactive,
student-centred EFL classroom.
5 All lesson materials and teaching should be in English.
6 e syllabus should create condence and enthusiasm for teaching EFL with pic-
ture books.
Figure 6.6.1 oers a content overview of the 11-week picture book−based syllabus,
including teaching placements, which provided a unique opportunity to observe stu-
dent teachers teaching a picture book−based EFL lesson.
Figure 6.6.1: An 11-week picture book−based syllabus
123
Insights
roughout this course, I observed 11 student teachers complete picture book−based
EFL lessons at their placement schools. In most cases, student teachers were teach-
ing their rst ever English lesson and they expressed the anxiety they had felt while
planning and teaching their lesson(s). However, student teachers agreed that they
had enjoyed the experience of teaching EFL with a picture book and were proud of
their own and their class’ accomplishments. According to student teachers, participat-
ing in the course and developing and teaching a picture book−based EFL lesson had
given them a ‘bigger picture’ of what teaching English to young learners involved.
ey felt that they now had an opinion on how they wanted to teach English with and
without picture books. Student teachers also commented that their view on picture
books had changed. Whereas in the past most student teachers considered a picture
book in Dutch or English something to ‘read and move on from’, they now saw it
as a teaching tool where images and activities supported language learning of all four
skills. ey also saw it as a teaching tool which could link to other subjects, skills and
values.
At the start of the course, participating student teachers completed an online pro-
ciency test to assess their English language skills (listening, reading, writing, speaking).
Contrary to primary teacher education enrolment requirements, numerous student
teachers showed CEFR A-Level results. Although student teachers re-took the online
prociency test at the end of this course and some positive developments can be seen,
it is too early to draw conclusions as the data is yet to be analysed.
ta.gruenbaum@avans.nl
6.7 English use and identity shift among immigrant students in

Iceland
Samúel Lefever University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland
Introduction
My presentation looked at how language knowledge, in particular English, impacts
the lives of immigrant students in Iceland. e presence and role of English in Iceland
has changed dramatically in recent years. ere has been a process of Englishisation, a
term used by Phillipson and Skutnabb-Kangas (1999) which emphasises the spread of
English throughout various spheres: mass media, entertainment, education, tourism
and the business world. Increasingly, many people feel that English is becoming a
threat to the local language.
To investigate this phenomena, a study was carried out among upper-secondary
immigrant students. In-depth interviews were taken with 44 students to explore their
English use in and outside school and to investigate the place of language in the
self-identity of young immigrants. At the time of the interviews the students had lived
in Iceland for periods of time ranging from one to fourteen years.
124
English use and identity shift among immigrant students in Iceland
Findings
Although a third language for many of them, English was the language they fre-
quently used at school, work and in social contexts. In some cases, students actually
leapfrogged the ocial language, Icelandic, using it only infrequently in comparison
with English. Many of the participants had begun to learn English at school before
moving to Iceland but it wasn’t until after moving that they began to use it in their
daily lives, as can be seen in this example:
When we moved to Iceland … I knew that my bridge from Bisaya [a dialect] to
Icelandic was English … I knew that I had to know it very well and be uent.
Some of the students said that their English was better than their Icelandic even
though they had lived in Iceland for a long time. Frequently they were encouraged by
teachers to use English at school. Initially, this helped them in their school learning,
but on the other hand, it often inhibited their learning of Icelandic. e following
excerpt is from a student who chose not to learn Icelandic and relied on English for
most of his communication needs:
I learnt English successfully, because of determination, will, being eager, some good
English teachers and some helpful teachers from other classes. I failed at learning
Icelandic, because of these teachers being too helpful instead of pushing me from
the start so maybe my results would be better. In other words, I failed in Icelandic
due to success in English.
e immigrant students often talked about the inter-relationship between language

and identity. Here is an example of how knowing another language helped this stu-
dent hide his origin, which he sometimes found useful. When we asked him ‘How do
you respond to the question “Where are you from”’, this is what he said:
People from Poland are not [held in] good opinion here. Sometimes at work I don’t
say that I’m from Poland and if I know that somebody is from Poland I [don’t talk]
to them in Polish. So sometimes people don’t know and … they think that I’m from
another country. ... Sometimes it is useful.
A nal example from a young immigrant from Spain shows how ‘trying on new
attitudes and behaviors’ has led him to ‘new experiences, new perspectives and new
identications’ (Slimbach 2005: 224):
In Spain, I was completely a different person. I came here to Iceland, started working
and learned to speak English, I learned a little Icelandic, I changed my way to think
about life and I changed my way to relation with people. So I said to myself if I could
learn some English and learn some Icelandic, why not go and learn more at school?
If I have the chance to do it why not? In the future I know it will help me.
Conclusions
e ndings of this qualitative study indicate that multilingualism is an integral part
of these immigrant students’ lives and their self-identities. Knowing a number of lan-
guages increases their self-esteem and benets them in a variety of ways, from building
self-condence to giving them a new outlook on life. Students talked about how their
125
identity shifts between languages, and in some cases they use their languages to ‘mask’
their identity. ey reject the notion of ‘national identity’ and prefer to be seen as
individuals rather than being judged according to origin or heritage language. In this
way they are becoming ‘transcultural’ and, in the words of Slimbach, ‘allowing for a
chameleon sense of self without losing one’s cultural center’ (2005: 211).
samuel@hi.is
References
Phillipson, R. and T. Skutnabb-Kangas. 1999. ‘Englishisation: one dimension of globalisation’.
AILA Review 13: 17−36.
Slimbach, R. 2005. ‘e transcultural journey’. Frontiers: e Interdisciplinary Journal of Study
Abroad 11: 205−230.
6.8 Towards purposeful education: best practices in science CLIL

classrooms
Jonathan Kilpelä and Raul Albuquerque Paraná University of Jyväskylä,
Finland
Introduction
At rst glance, the paths of science education and language education may seem
unrelated. Nonetheless, current educational approaches in both elds have much in
common and oer insights into the other, as well as into Content and Language
Integrated Learning (CLIL) education. In a CLIL environment, where there is a dual
focus on content and language learning, structuring scientic content while promot-
ing linguistic development may be a challenge, especially when learners’ linguistic
level is lower than their cognitive ability. In light of that, our workshop focused on
research-based practical approaches for sequencing learning events and structuring
discourse in a science CLIL context as a means to successfully support language and
science learning. In this workshop, participants used the CLIL matrix (Coyle 2007)
Figure 6.8.1: CLIL matrix. Adapted from Coyle (2007) by Kilpelä and
Albuquerque Paraná (2018).
126
Towards purposeful education: best practices in science CLIL classrooms
and the communicative approaches framework (Mortimer and Scott 2003) as a basis
for planning a sample CLIL science lesson. ese two frameworks can serve comple-
mentary roles when planning instruction, providing guidance for the sequencing of
tasks and the use of dierent language practices in various phases of instruction.
CLIL matrix
e CLIL matrix (Figure 6.8.1) shows how to balance and scaold linguistic and
cognitive demands over the course of a lesson, week or unit. ree main points can be
understood from the matrix. First, cognitive demand is increased prior to linguistic
demand. Additionally, linguistic competence is scaolded by starting with less linguis-
tically demanding tasks. Finally, activities that have high linguistic demand but only
require lower-order cognitive skills are avoided. Considering the above, components
of CLIL instruction can be intentionally sequenced to support both the cognitive and
linguistic development of learners.
Communicative approaches
From their research in secondary science classrooms, Mortimer and Scott (2003)
developed a framework of communicative approaches for science learning (Figure
6.8.2), which characterises classroom discourse based on two dimensions. e rst
dimension assesses whether talk is interactive or non-interactive (multiple speakers
vs. one speaker), and the second dimension assesses whether discourse is dialogic or
authoritative (multiple viewpoints are considered vs. one point of view is the author-
ity). Each communicative approach fulls a specic purpose in the meaning-making
process. e use of a dialogic approach grounds new learning on students’ own expe-
riences and prior knowledge and creates an opportunity for them to engage in genuine
scientic practices, such as theorising and defending arguments. Alternatively, author-
itative approaches can be used to focus on the scientic point of view.
As shown in Figure 6.8.2, the language practices used by dierent stakeholders
also vary widely dependent upon what type of communicative approach is present.
Figure 6.8.2: Communicative approaches framework. Adapted from Mortimer and Scott (2003)
and Lehesvuori et al. (2013) by J. Kilpelä and R. Albuquerque Paraná (2018)
127
When an authoritative approach is used, learners’ language production is very limit-

ed—although this may be a great opportunity for developing receptive skills. On the
contrary, dialogic and interactive discourse gives students the opportunity to develop
both productive and receptive language skills by using a variety of linguistic functions
and strategies such as turn taking, giving opinions or reacting to other viewpoints.
Utilising both theories in planning
Interestingly, when coupled, the CLIL matrix and the communicative approaches
framework give us great insight into how instruction can be structured. Teachers
can start a learning sequence by helping learners make sense of new content-related
concepts. At that stage, learners can be encouraged to draw from their repertoire of
scientic knowledge and use language they already have. In order to facilitate this
process, teachers can begin by using an A+I communicative approach to prime dis-
cussion about a topic. ey then move towards open dialogic discussion, followed
by an authoritative shift towards the scientic view of the target concept (sample
progression: A+I → D+I → D+NI → A+NI) (Lehesvuori et al. 2013). By doing so,
teachers challenge learners cognitively while empowering them and promoting rich
language environments, thus creating prime conditions for content-specic language
learning and overall linguistic development to happen.
Conclusion
An understanding of the CLIL matrix and the communicative approaches framework
as complementary theories sheds light into how to facilitate learning successfully in a
CLIL classroom. While being able to sequence learning events is of utmost important
in scaolding language and content learning, our practice shows that the intentional
use of a variety of communicative approaches in a CLIL context is also essential if we
are to support content learning and promote rich language development.
raul.albuquerque.p@gmail.com
jonathan.m.kilpela@student.jyu.
References
Coyle, D. 2007. ‘Content and language integrated learning: towards a connected research
agenda for CLIL pedagogies’. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism
10/5: 543−562.
Mortimer, E. and P. Scott. 2003. Meaning Making in Secondary Science Classrooms. Berkshire:
Open University Press.
Lehesvuori, S., J. Viiri, H. Rasku-Puttonen, J. Moate and J. Helaakoski. 2013. ‘Visualizing
communication structures in science classrooms: tracing cumulativity in teacher-led whole
class discussions’. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 50/8: 912−939.
6.9 CLIL: the same doubts unresolved and more

Anthony Bruton University of Seville, Spain, retired
e curricular decision to implement CLIL in state primary and secondary schools
is a central issue because it aects all the students. is is obviously true if CLIL is
128
CLIL: the same doubts unresolved and more
compulsory for all, but also if there is selection formally or voluntarily, the latter case
typically defended as egalitarian although it actually implicitly excludes (Broca 2016).
For the less able, CLIL programmes may be lose-lose scenarios, either by exclusion,
almost inevitable for the less privileged, or, if compulsory, by the FL medium being
an additional burden (Bruton 2013; 2015). Even so, CLIL is becoming increasingly
widespread, which may surprise some since it remains ill-dened on the one hand and
its apparent benets are unproven on the other.
e lack of a clear denition is not purely academic, since one denition might
dierentiate one set of rationales and practices from those of another. For example,
initially CLIL classes were considered to be sucient in themselves for FL devel-
opment, 2-for-1, with the input, interaction and output hypotheses being cited as
additional justications for the improved quality of the FL received for potential
language development to replace ‘traditional’ FL classes. More recently (see Bruton
2015), the latest assumption is that FL classes are absolutely necessary, for support and
extra exposure, in what are termed CLIL programmes. However, it is unclear how the
(traditional?) FL classes and the CLIL classes relate to each other: do the CLIL classes
add to the FL classes, or do the FL classes support the CLIL classes? Obviously, if the
FL classes remain, there is no time-saving, and some research concludes that to cope
with the content, even more FL classes are needed!
Apart from these issues, unfortunately, there is no assurance that the FL used in
the CLIL programmes is of an improved quality for acquisition. In fact, the higher
the level of the content, the higher the level of the FL, with increasing demands made
on both students and, not insignicantly, teachers, whether it is the FL teachers or
the content teachers instructing the CLIL classes. And if the CLIL classes are more
demanding, where some use the term ‘challenging’, there may be serious tensions for
the students, some of whose capacities may be impaired by their FL ability and others
boosted by it. Furthermore, there is no reason for the CLIL classes to be more com-
municative, nor the content to be more relevant or motivating—in fact, the opposite
is perfectly feasible and is often the case (see Bruton 2013; 2015). Typically the con-
tent classes chosen for CLIL are arbitrary, usually depending on each school’s teacher
resources at a particular point in time. e subjects are not generally chosen for their
suitability for FL development or for their possible future application, since not all
the students would pursue the same academic, or even non-academic, paths anyway.
Which makes it all the more surprising there is a strand of CLIL theory and research
into the development of CLIL genres.
And when it comes to investigating CLIL, the research that attempts to demonstrate
the benets of CLIL generally fails because it is plagued by awed designs accompa-
nied by questionable interpretations with recurrently favourable bias (Bruton 2013;
2015). On the basis of over 40 CLIL research articles consulted and not cited pre-
viously by this author, the outcomes on content, FL, and motivational development
remain very discouraging. Given the advantages that CLIL groups always enjoy, there
were no cases where they showed a higher rate of FL development and many cases
where the CLIL outcomes were below the expected. On content, there were no cases
of CLIL performing better than the non-CLIL, and typically worse, even when there
had been selection. As for motivation, generally it decreases as students progress, and
again CLIL students do not show any signicant advantages.
129
So, not only does CLIL remain conveniently ill-dened, but there is no clear indi-
cation of if and how it can actually work successfully, either in state classroom or at
programme levels. Secondly, so-called CLIL does not seem to produce any clearly tan-
gible benets and for the less able it is probably lose-lose. One of the main reasons for
free education being available to all children, and for making it compulsory for parents
to send them to school, was to give them the equality of opportunity. Unfortunately
education in many countries, instead of being a leveller is precisely the opposite, and
in many cases CLIL is contributing to this.
ab@us.es
References
Broca, A. 2016. ‘CLIL and non-CLIL: Dierences from the outset’. ELT Journal 70: 320−331.
Bruton, A. 2013. ‘CLIL: some of the reasons why … and why not’. System 41: 587−597.
Bruton, A. 2015. ‘CLIL: Detail matters in the whole picture. More than a reply to J. Hüttner
and U. Smit’. System 53: 119−128.
6.10 Changing the mindset: sustainable reform in Venezuelan

state education
Wendy Arnold Freelance, South Nuteld, UK and Mark Gregson British
Council, Caracas, Venezuela
Introduction
Education reform is a lengthy process and means ‘changing the entire context within
which people work …’ (Fullan 2005: 16). A major education reform is occurring in
Venezuelan state run schools. A mismatch between policy and reality necessitated
capacity building for teaching all subjects, including English. In-country research at
primary, secondary and teacher training levels identied the gaps, and the visionary
national Micromision Simon Rodriguez (MMSR) programme provided the means.
Research
Ocially English is supposed to be taught from primary Grade 4 in Venezuela
(Ministerio del Poder Popular para la Educacion MPPE 2007), but the reality is that
the English curriculum starts at secondary school (Alvarez et al. 2015). Substantial
research was carried out at primary, secondary and teacher training provider level. e
baseline study in 2015 found that the principal challenge was the lack of consistency
across the country in the implementation of the MPPE’s 2007 new national curricu-
lum. e key issue is that there is a lack of
• trained language teachers;
• knowledge of methodology for language teaching;
• appropriate materials;
• understanding of which curriculum to use;
• understanding of how to assess language; and
• condence in university degrees and preparation for teaching.
130
Changing the mindset: sustainable reform in Venezuelan state education
ese key issues arose from inconsistencies in teacher training programmes at uni-
versities and the number of hours of English being taught nationally.
Innovation
e innovative Micromision Simon Rodrigues (MMSR) programme drew on a wider
circle of professionals to build capacity in teachers of English through a new National
Training Programme (PNF) by inviting teachers in remote places in the country, as
well as inviting professionals in both education and other disciplines to re-train as
English teachers. ere was ‘no shortage of interest in professionals wanting to be
trained to teach English’ (Salas 2017: 289).
Teacher training
e MMSR programme has teacher-training programmes, which prepare teachers of
English with appropriate methodology, as well as developing their English linguis-
tic skills and creativity by making teaching resources from recyclable materials. e
MMSR programme for teachers of English was developed from the British Council’s
CEFR A0/A1 English for Teachers framework, integrating both language and meth-
odology, as well as the cultural needs of Venezuela, in all modules. Reective skills
and micro-teaching are core to the training, which can be delivered extensively or
intensively.
Classroom materials
Locally contextualised textbooks have been written by national Venezuelan writers
both for secondary learners in the Coleccion Bicentenario series, and primary learn-
ers. ese are free to all learners, as is training to all teachers on how to deliver the
materials. e primary materials include a teacher’s guide with detailed lesson plans
in Spanish with scripted English to ensure high-quality delivery. Other features of the
primary materials include the use of colour and the presence of a controlled text in
lexical sets using a spiral curriculum.
Transferable innovations
Specic innovations in the teaching of English and lessons that can be learnt for other
contexts include the concept of sustainability and ownership of the materials. Due to
a lack of suitably qualied teachers of English at primary level, capacity was built by
training generalist primary teachers, as well as professionals in other disciplines.
National English language teaching professionals were trained:
• to design a primary English language and methodology teacher training programme,
which included making teaching resources from recycled materials;
• to design classroom materials with teacher lesson plans with steps in the national
language but scripted in English for delivery of the target language; and
• to deliver teacher training extensively over two years at weekends so that teachers
were not removed from the classroom.
Future short- and medium-term plans
Monitoring and evaluation of the innovations are critical for the future success of this
programme. Modication of both the teacher training and classroom materials will be
131
needed. It is also important to record the progress of innovations by publishing and

presenting at conferences to show transparency and accountability in both the process
and the results. Finally, in order for these ‘new’ English teachers to embed the meth-
odology needed for teaching language they will need support as they will be changing
their values and beliefs about how to teach. To this end a mentoring programme will
start in 2018, followed by plans to assess trainers, teachers and their learners. And
critically, training also needs to be developed for the senior management teams in
primary schools so they understand and support this transition phase of methodology.
A change indeed is blowing through the education system in Venezuela!
wendy@elt-consultants.com
mark.gregson@britishcouncil.org.ve
References
Alvarez, L. C., W. Arnold, C. Bradshaw and M. Gregson. 2015. ‘Capacity building and
empowerment: a primary teacher-training project in Venezuela’ in C. N. Giannikas, L.
McLaughlin, G. Fanning and N. Deutsch (eds.). Children Learning English: From Research to
Practice. Reading: Garnet Education and IATEFL.
Fullan, M. 2005. Leadership and Sustainability: System inkers in Action. ousand Oaks,
Calif.: Corwin Press.
Salas, J. G. 2017. ‘Impacto del aumento del numero de horas para la ensenansa de lenguas
extranjeras (ingles) en la educacion media’ in M. Gregson and R. Lopez de Amico (eds.). Se
Respira Cambio: Transformando la Ensenanza del Ingles en el Sistema Educativo Venezolano.
London: British Council. http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/se-respira-cambio.
132
7 English for work
is chapter presents papers on aspects of English language teaching for professional
purposes. First, Hans Platzer and Désirée Verdonk report on their research into how
English is used in the workplace, with implications for materials development and
classroom instruction. Business English is the topic of the next three papers. Awad
Alhassan discusses the language needs of students on an EMI business programme;
Marjorie Rosenberg explains how Walt Disney’s creative strategy can be used in
business English classes; and Michelle Hunter outlines her research on the impact
of group dynamics with students of International Business. Next, Caroline Hyde-
Simon’s paper describes the development of a course in English for Life Sciences,
while Birte W. Horn shows how project-based learning was successful in motivating
students of Visual Computing and Design. Finally, Cosima Wittmann shows how
the CEFR can be adapted to suit the needs of ESP students.
7.1 A survey of workplace English: some implications for

classroom teaching
Hans Platzer and Désirée Verdonk University of Applied Sciences Wiener
Neustadt, Austria
Introduction
e fact that needs analysis is central to English for Specic Purposes has ensured that
individual functions in the workplace (such as meetings, negotiations, etc.) have been
fairly well described. However, most studies focus either on individual functions or
describe their relationship on the basis of mainly qualitative data (e.g. Evans 2012;
Warren 2014). By contrast, this study aims to provide quantitative evidence for the
clustering of specic functions in the workplace and to discuss how this evidence
might inuence didactic practice.
Method
For this purpose a questionnaire survey was conducted among 716 in-service stu-
dents at the University of Applied Sciences Wiener Neustadt, Austria. ese students
were in regular employment while also taking classes. Over two thirds (68.9 per cent)
reported using English in the workplace. ese respondents further identied the
individual language functions they used. e resulting responses were subjected to a
hierarchical cluster analysis.
Results and discussion
e cluster analysis revealed the following four groups:
133
Chapter 7: English for work
• Cluster A: Reading/writing emails (87.1/84.5 per cent) and telephoning (78.0 per
cent).
• Cluster B: Reading/writing technical descriptions (38.6/20.0 per cent).
• Cluster C: Reading/writing minutes (30.3/20.6 per cent) and reports (43.0/27.8
per cent).
• Cluster D: Negotiating (21.0 per cent); meetings (38.5 per cent); reading/writing
memos (22.0/14.0 per cent); giving/following presentations (17.9/20.8 per cent);
and socialising (35.5 per cent).
Due to their salience, clusters A and D are discussed below.
Cluster A: emailing and telephoning
ree issues stand out in regard to emailing and telephoning. First, our data—as well
as previous studies (Evans 2012)—suggest that both functions are closely connected
and that authentic teaching materials should therefore require learners to transfer
information from the spoken to the written medium and vice versa. However, few
business coursebooks provide such integrated tasks. Secondly, it has been found that
emailing involves extended chains of messages (Evans 2012). is means that writers
need to be comfortable with such extended correspondence as the number of messag-
es correlates positively with the economic gain associated with the respective business
transaction (Geiger and Parlamis 2014). e ease with which writers conduct extend-
ed correspondence is, therefore, not a trivial matter, but contributes to the corporate
bottom line. Consequently, authentic teaching materials should include such extend-
ed email chains: few published materials feature this sort of input, though. Finally,
our data indicate that the majority of respondents (67.2 per cent) correspond with
clients. Such external contacts require the use of politeness strategies, mitigating lan-
guage and appropriate register (Evans 2012). In fact, many companies have adopted
netiquette guidelines taking account of this fact. We suggest that such netiquette
guidelines might represent ideal teaching materials, not least because of their authen-
tic nature.
Cluster D: meetings
e nal cluster comprises functions related to meetings in a wider sense. Again our
analysis conrms that a number of diverse tasks are closely connected in workplace
practice. is reects ndings by Warren (2014), whose respondents not only stress
the relevance of performing in meetings themselves (such as negotiating and present-
ing) but also highlight the importance of pre-meeting preparation (presentation slides,
memos) and post-meeting documentation (memos). Combining these spoken and
written functions through integrated task design would clearly mirror workplace prac-
tice and generate highly authentic materials. Secondly, the two single most frequent
functions in this cluster are meetings proper (38.5 per cent) and socialising (35.5 per
cent). e prevalence of socialising is relevant as Warren’s (2014) respondents report
feeling particularly insecure in meetings when it comes to socialising (i.e. interactional
language), while they are fairly condent as long as the focus remains on message
content (i.e. transactional language). From a didactic point of view, this indicates that
general conversational skills are desired if learners are to perform eectively in terms of
interactional functions, such as creating rapport with their opposite number. Finally,
134
EFL postgraduate students’ learning needs on English-medium business programmes
the gures indicate that only a small number of respondents give presentations (17.9
per cent). is is at odds with the ubiquity of presentation tasks in coursebooks and
the time spent teaching them in the classroom. Given these results, it may be useful to
prioritise other language skills over giving presentations.
Conclusion
Based on the analysis above, we conclude the following:
• A variety of language tasks are closely connected in workplace practice, and this
should be reected in task design in order to create authentic teaching materials.
• In terms of emailing, tasks should enhance learners’ ability to deal with extended
email chains while at the same time following corporate netiquette guidelines.
• With regard to meeting scenarios, a greater focus on interactional language will allow
learners to boost relationship building with business associates.
hans.platzer@fhwn.ac.at
desiree.verdonk@fhwn.ac.at
References
Evans, S. 2012. ‘Designing email tasks for the Business English classroom: implications from a
study of Hong Kong’s key industries’. English for Specic Purposes 31: 202−212.
Geiger, I. and J. Parlamis. 2014. ‘Is there more to email negotiation than email? e role of
email anity’. Computers in Human Behaviour 32: 67−78.
Warren, M. 2014. ‘Preparation is everything: meetings in professional contexts in Hong Kong’.
English for Specic Purposes 36: 12−26.
7.2 Exploring EFL postgraduate students’ learning needs on

English-medium business programmes
Awad Alhassan Dhofar University, Salalah, Sultanate of Oman
Introduction
English-medium instruction (EMI) has exponentially been used in higher education
worldwide. Recently, EMI has been increasingly used in higher education insti-
tutions in the region of the Middle East and North Africa (see e.g. Macaro et al.
2018; Dearden 2015). As a result, a growing number of EMI programmes of study
have been oered in various disciplines of knowledge including business. However, stu-
dents require preparation to cope eectively with these English-medium programmes.
Previous EAP studies (e.g. Cooper and Bikowski 2007) have predominantly focused
on business classroom written genres and ignored students’ overall learning needs
on EMI business programmes. e study reported in my presentation attempted to
ll this gap by moving beyond written genres and investigating business students’
learning needs on an English-medium MBA programme in Sudan from the perspec-
tives of both teachers and students. e main objective of the study was to inform the
design, development, delivery and evaluation of both EMI business education and
EAP.
135
Context
e MBA is a two-year, four-semester programme at a management studies school in
a large and established public university in Sudan. It is a multi-course programme,
covering four main areas of business studies: nance, management, accounting and
economics. Students are EFL Arabic L1 speakers and English is used as the main
language of instruction on the programme.
Data collection and analysis
Two main research questions were addressed: (1) What learning needs and language
skills do MBA teachers, MBA students and ESP teachers think are important and
necessary for eective study on the MBA? and (2) How similar or dierent are the
participants’ views with regard to these needs and skills? To address these research
questions, the study adopted a qualitative ethnographically oriented methodology
with semi-structured interviewing being the main method of data collection. Data was
collected onsite over two successive years. A total of 31 participants (MBA teachers,
students and one ESP teacher) took part in the investigation. e interview data was
transcribed, thoroughly coded and analysed inductively to generate themes and cat-
egories to capture participants’ insider perspectives on the issues under investigation.
Findings
MBA subject teachers emphasised the importance of learning discipline-specic ter-
minology as a requirement for business students to cope with the English-medium
MBA. In the same vein, students agreed with teachers in that it was essential to learn
and understand business terminology to help them cope with the MBA, believing that
learning discipline-specic terminology would save them the time spent on translation
(English to Arabic). Moreover, students also emphasised the need for communication
skills (speaking and listening) to help them interact with teachers to reinforce their
understanding of the lectures and subject content. is need for communication skills
was rightly summed up by one of the student participants as follows: ‘If you can’t
speak in English you wouldn’t be able to ask questions in classes and thus you would
miss out on the subject.’
While both teachers and students agreed on the importance of learning disci-
pline-specic terminology, teachers seemed to stress this more than students did.
Students took the opposite view, believing that developing listening, speaking and the
ability to deliver oral presentations was more vital in both academic and workplace
settings. In contrast, the ESP teacher emphasised students’ immediate needs, placing
writing and reading skills before speaking skills. In line with the ESP teacher’s and in
contrast with the subject teachers’ views, students highlighted the need for writing
skills, particularly, the need for learning and developing coherence, paraphrasing and
summary skills which are evidently needed when writing from sources.
Conclusions and recommendations
Based on these ndings, a number of recommendations can be made to better inform
the design, delivery and evaluation of both EMI business education and EAP in the
context of the study and beyond. MBA teachers, through cooperation with the EAP
teachers, could play a role in supporting students by, for instance, modifying the
136
The Disney strategy in the business English context
structure and delivery of their subject content classes to make them more accessible to
students. Moreover, EAP teachers should try and work closely with the MBA teachers
to ensure EAP courses are oriented towards the MBA content subjects. EAP teachers
alone cannot work miracles. ey need support from the subject teachers and the
MBA administration. Given the reported needs for communication skills for both the
immediate academic and future business workplace settings, a business communica-
tion course could be introduced and it could be assessed and made part of the MBA
content curriculum.
awad_alhassan@hotmail.com
References
Cooper, A. and D. Bikowski. 2007. ‘Writing at the graduate level: What tasks do professors
actually require?’ Journal of English for Academic Purposes 6/3: 206−221.
Dearden, J. 2015. English as a Medium of Instruction: A Growing Global Phenomenon. Lon-
don: e British Council. https://www.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/les/e484_emi_-_
cover_option_3_nal_web.pdf.
Macaro, E., C. Samnatha., P. Jack. and A. Jiangshang. 2018. ‘A systematic review of English
medium instruction in higher education’. Language Teaching 51/1: 36−76.
7.3 The Disney strategy in the business English context

Marjorie Rosenberg University of Graz, Austria
Introduction
It has been suggested that Walt Disney’s success can be partially attributed to his skil-
fulness at considering potential projects from dierent perspectives. is concept has
since become the basis of a creativity strategy which can be used in business English
classes when teaching the subject of meetings. During the workshop participants were
able to try out the strategy and experience for themselves how it would work in the
classroom as well as in realistic situations.
Background
Walt Disney had the rare ability to combine creativity with nancial success, demon-
strated by the brand’s continued popularity around the globe. e creative strategy he
used combined a vision with realistic and critical elements ensuring a better chance of
success during the stages of implementation.
is strategy was analysed by Robert Dilts, who said ‘One of the major elements
of Disney’s unique genius was his ability to explore something from a number of per-
ceptual positions. … Each one of these personae represents a whole thinking strategy
all on its own—strategies that more often tend to conict with each other rather than
support each other’ (Dilts 1990: 1−2).
e three personae Dilts refers to are the dreamer, the realist and the critic. e
dreamer often comes up with an idea using ‘blue sky thinking’ and is not constrained
by practical considerations. Problems are not taken into account and dreamers believe
everything is possible. ey tend to use language such as ‘My vision is …’ and ‘I
137
imagine …’. e realist, on the other hand, is action-oriented and hands-on. Realists
work step-by-step and question the available resources needed to make the dream
happen. ey ask ‘Wh-’ questions such as ‘When, where, who and how?’ e third
persona, the critic, takes a step back and considers what could go wrong. Critics think
logically and look for possible problems. Typical questions are ‘What would happen
if …’ and ‘What could go wrong?’
Disney’s sta often said that they never knew which of the three personae would
be present at meetings. Would it be the dreamer for whom everything was possible,
the realist who looked at resources available, or the critic who imagined what could
go wrong? What brought these elements together for Disney was his skill at taking on
dierent positions and modifying his ideas until all three parts were united.
Putting the concept into practice
Dilts originally used the Disney strategy to help individuals work through ideas by
looking at them from three perspectives facilitated by an observer. is has been fur-
ther developed as a tool to teach learners about business meetings through a role
play enabling them to take on one of the personae and express their views using the
information they are given.
e workshop began with a general explanation of the strategy and a discussion
of how dierently the three types view the world. After this brief introduction, the
attendees were put into groups and given role cards for the dreamer, the realist and
the critic and asked to read them. Two or three people had the same role within the
groups and a small group was asked to be the observers who were given a general
explanation of the strategy. e groups were then given a situation card and tasked
with coming up with a solution to the problem presented. Time was allotted for the
meetings to take place and the groups nished o by asking for feedback from the
observers.
Conclusion
e nal step was a debrieng which included questions such as:
• How did it go?
• Did you play a role that was dierent from your usual one?
• Who in the group changed their point of view?
• Was everyone satised in the end?
• What did the observers notice?
is led to a discussion on using the activity in class. Some said their groups need-
ed a facilitator as people did not change their original points of view. We discussed
building this into the activity and making it clear to learners that they need to make
concessions when those concessions make sense to them.
Reection
e workshop concluded with a general discussion of the three roles and how people
felt they normally reacted in meetings and discussions. e consensus was that the
activity was helpful in raising awareness for students in order to better understand
people reactions and the points of view they express on dierent topics. Most felt that
138
Ease, equality and speaking in ‘Rounds’ positively shapes group dynamics
the activity could be used to give learners experience in the dynamics of meetings and
perhaps make it easier for them to begin to deal with other people’s perceptions while
discussing important or sensitive issues.
marjorie.rosenberg@tele2.at
References
Dilts, R. B. 1990. Walt Disney: e Dreamer, the Realist and the Critic. Ben Lomond, Calif.:
Dynamic Learning Publications.
Elmansy, R. n.d. Disney’s Creative Strategy: e Dreamer, e Realist and e Critic. Designo-
rate. http://www.designorate.com/disneys-creative-strategy/.
Rosenberg, M. 2018. Communicative Business English Activities. Newbury: Express Publishing.
7.4 Ease, equality and speaking in ‘Rounds’ positively shapes

group dynamics
Michelle Hunter Freelance, Stuttgart, Germany
e purpose of my talk was to share ndings from practitioner research I conducted
last year with a small group of undergraduate International Business students in Ger-
many. e focus was on how group dynamics can impact the distribution of speaking
time in class. Based on evidence from the research ndings, applying certain coach-
ing-related behaviours and practices had a positive eect on my group of students
(Hunter 2017). e use of ‘Rounds’ ensured an easeful and equally shared speaking
practice.
Who makes up the group?
Participating in learning groups should be common to most people living in devel-
oped countries. Based on this assumption, I invited the audience to remember the last
time they had been a participant in a group of learners. By remembering as a learner,
I wanted my fellow teachers to think from another perspective, of the dierent roles
individuals take on when in a group. Remembering what it is like to be ‘on the other
side’ helps raise empathy and understanding of what might be going on in a group.
We listed some of the classic roles: eager beaver, strong silent type, the class joker, the
chatterbox. When individuals meld, a common mood develops and a certain ‘team
spirit’—a Gruppengeist—evolves. On asking the audience to consider such a Grup-
pengeist, I sensed a degree of resistance. Was I about to experience the turning of the
Gruppengeist against me?
Getting the Gruppengeist onside and achieving a learning goal
With higher-level students of business English, creating opportunities to practise
speaking uency is key. However, there is a danger that groups fall into entrenched
habits of who contributes in class and who sits back passively. According to the nd-
ings from my research, three teacher behaviours play a vital part in managing individ-
uals, as well as group dynamics: keeping calm, leading by example, and listening and
waiting. is I kept in mind during the talk while endeavouring to maintain rapport
139
with the group. A question came from the audience which aorded me an opportuni-
ty to demonstrate calm listening, while picking up on an important point: group size.
Although this was not a focus of the talk, small groups came up as a signicant factor in
my research. My 18 study participants were divided into two groups. us, it was an
ideal situation to instigate ‘Rounds’, one of the practical, coaching techniques which
was the second focus of the talk.
Speaking in Rounds
‘Rounds’—sitting in a circle, away from desks and distractions—begin with a positive
question, and are formed to give everyone a voice. Each person speaks freely, knowing
they will not be interrupted, while simultaneously being aware that time is precious
and everyone needs to get their time to talk. In my study, as each group constituted
eight to nine students at any one time, we were able to avoid lengthy ‘Rounds’ and any
boredom from waiting for a turn to speak. In work situations, ‘Rounds’ are used at the
start and end of meetings to good eect, as stated by an interviewee in another study
into the eectiveness of being given time to think: ‘e concept of having rounds and
giving people time to talk, allows people to listen more and I think then people think
better, particularly with multiple perspectives’ (Havers 2008).
What the students said about the group dynamic and learning
According to students who participated in my research study, there was a genuine
appreciation of how calm the lessons were. From their responses, it was clear that
they had taken on board some of the coaching principles I was aiming to instil in the
group: attention, equality, ease and appreciation. A number of individuals mentioned
how well the speaking opportunities had been shared among the group. One student
specically commented on ‘Rounds’: it ‘made people talk more’ and that ‘they said
dierent things than they would have said when we had reacted’.
In conclusion
Ideally, I would have created a circle and held a ‘Round’ for the gathered participants
to think about the question ‘How do you leverage positive group dynamics in pursuit
of increased speaking uency goals?’ Instead, I shared my own specic experiences
in answer to the question: by modelling calm behaviour, listening and waiting. In
wrapping up the talk, quotes from individual students attested to a positive impact of
the coaching-based teaching approach in terms of creating an environment conducive
to free speaking for all.
keeptraining.michelle@gmail.com
References
Havers, E. 2008. A Study of Whether, and How, Meetings Held in a inking Environment®
Impact Organisational Life. Précis of a Masters Research esis. http://www.timetothink.com/
thinking-environment/research-and-case-studies/.
Hunter, M. 2017. Creating a inking Environment for English Language Learners. A Model for
Sta Development Training. Unpublished Master’s esis, Centre for Work Related Studies,
University of Chester, UK.
140
Bridging the gap: creating a non-specic Life Sciences ESP course
7.5 Bridging the gap: creating a non-specic Life Sciences ESP

course
Caroline Hyde-Simon Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Switzerland
Introduction
e phrase ‘non-specic … ESP course’ may seem to be a contradiction in terms.
However, at the School of Life Sciences and Facility Management (LSFM) at the
Zurich University of Applied Sciences (ZHAW), where undergraduates in four
discipline areas (Facility Management, Biotechnology/Chemistry, Environmental
Engineering, Food Technology) have English as an obligatory part of their bachelor’s
degree courses, and where there is a forthcoming curriculum reform, a move towards
a more interdisciplinary mode of study is becoming increasingly the norm. For this
reason, the goal of the English department is now to integrate English much more
closely with the discipline-specic modules, that is, to build a bridge between the
two.
Much English for Specic Academic Purposes (ESAP) research tends to focus on
pre-master’s level students in the UK HE context. e course designed here, however,
is dierent in that it concerns BSc students in Swiss HE. One the one hand, this
exemplies the progressively interdisciplinary nature of Swiss HE, where EAP is an
inherent part of academic study at a more general level, supporting and furthering
other academic modules in a needs-based, skills-centred way. On the other hand, this
new course emphasises the importance of ESP in a non-English-speaking context,
with a demand to develop communicative competence within specic disciplines in a
needs-based, learner-centred way in BSc courses which are (at present) taught mainly
in German. erefore, as an integral part of a bachelor’s programme, EAP is a plat-
form upon which ESP can grow and develop.
Course design
Against this background, the main goal during course design was to produce one ESAP
course which would be relevant for the four LSFM discipline areas. ere were four
main methodological considerations. e rst of these was the focus, which needed
to be both skills- and learner-centred so that we could demonstrate ‘a commitment
to the goal of providing language instruction that address[ed] students’ own specic
purposes’ (Belcher 2009: 2). Secondly, the roles of both the teacher and the student
had to be assessed, the former being ‘both … primary knower and … exemplary user
of the target language and its specialist subset’ (Gorska-Poręcka 2013: 28−29), and the
latter the expert: ‘the most valuable resource is the learners themselves … possess[ing]
expert knowledge in the … elds’ (Medrea and Rus 2012: 1168). irdly, the empha-
sis needed to be more on practical outcomes (using PPP and task-based learning).
Finally, the goals and objectives of course design were to develop and improve lan-
guage competence deployable in academic and professional environments (B2 level).
e syllabus strands were developed with these considerations in mind. Academic
skills are central to any ESAP course as an academic platform for other elements.
us, an Academic Core Skills (ACS) component formed the basis of the course. is
was identical across each discipline and the input was delivered at the beginning of the
141
course. e next strand comprised an ESP General (ESP GEN) component, which
was again identical for all disciplines, providing the opportunity to further practice
the ACS input. e nal strand, ‘ESP’, comprised a dierent set of topics according
to discipline area (i.e. learner-centred). e ESP part also gave the opportunity to
practice the ACS input from a more discipline-specic perspective.
ere are three main benets to such a course design. Firstly, it is possible to change
the ACS input from year to year, or even according to the needs of individual classes.
Furthermore, the ESP GEN input allows a non-discipline specic teacher to become
an expert at a deeper level (and gain some level of understanding) in topics which are
related to students’ elds of study. Finally, the ESP input motivates learners, allowing
them to see the benet of the initial ACS input upon which the ESP input builds
(motivation is sometimes lacking with purely EAP input).
Conclusion
e goal of this non-specic ESP course was to achieve a tighter integration of English
within the Life Sciences. is has been achieved in three ways:
1 e ESP GEN and ESP components are dependent upon the ACS, resembling an
inverted hierarchy of needs.
2 e skill levels are mutually benecial.
3 e overall goal of developing and improving language competence deployable
in academic and professional situations is achievable since both ESP and EAP are
needed as course components.
As a result, EAP, ESP GEN and ESP are working together to create a ‘specic,
non-specic’ Life Sciences English course covering a hierarchy of ESP needs. In short,
the gap has been bridged.
hyde@zhaw.ch
References
Belcher, D. 2009. ‘What ESP is and can be: an introduction’ in D. Belcher (ed.). English for
Specic Purposes in eory and Practice. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Gorska-Poręcka, B. 2013. ‘e role of teacher knowledge in ESP course design’. Studies in
Logic, Grammar and Rhetoric 34/1: 27−42.
Medrea, N. and R. Rus. 2012. ‘Challenges in teaching ESP: teaching resources and students’
needs’. Procedia Economics and Finance 3: 1165–1169.
7.6 Motivating students of Visual Computing: designing a mobile

app
Birte W. Horn Hamm-Lippstadt University of Applied Sciences, Germany
Having taught English as a Foreign Language for over ten years at dierent univer-
sities of applied sciences in Germany, one of the most challenging problems that my
colleagues and I encounter on a regular basis is the perceived lack of motivation in
students. is is particularly pronounced in seminars dealing with ‘Technical Eng-
lish’ for students in engineering elds or computer sciences. When using textbooks
142
Motivating students of Visual Computing: designing a mobile app
for technical English, I have often received feedback from students that the topics
discussed do not feel relevant to them. As a result, the students are bored and I am
frustrated. Accordingly, the problem is threefold:
1 Students are not motivated because they are interested in science, not languages.
2 I only have cursory knowledge of the topics relevant to my students’ degree courses.
3 Prociency in one class often ranges between A2 and C1, i.e. students are either
afraid of English or they are overcondent.
To meet these challenges, one promising approach seemed to use textbooks only as
a secondary source and introduce project-based learning to the classroom.
Learner prole
e project presented here was carried out in the mandatory seminar ‘Technical Eng-
lish’ for students of Visual Computing and Design (B.Sc.) at the Hamm-Lippstadt
University of Applied Sciences, Germany. e degree programme comprises approx-
imately 70 per cent programming and 30 per cent design subjects. Students were in
their rst or second year of studies.
The task
To motivate my students, I gave them a task which would cater to their technical
interests but would challenge them to work and communicate in English: design a
mobile app! Students organised themselves into groups of three to ve and collabo-
rated in these groups throughout the semester. e project consisted of two steps to
make the task less intimidating, and also to provide a structure with regular submis-
sions and feedback:
• Step 1: Develop a storyboard with seven frames, describing a problematic situation.
Add information concerning camera angles, movements, music, etc. e storyboards
were presented at mid-term and were peer reviewed.
• Step 2: Develop four wireframes of a mobile app, solving the problem described in
the storyboard. e wireframes were presented at the end of term and were also peer
reviewed.
Topical and language input
roughout the course of the seminar, we worked on topics that were both relevant
for the degree programme and the students’ project. Every topic had its own special
language focus. For example, when talking about storyboards, we discussed how to
tell a captivating story. Here, the language focus was on sentence structure, word
variety and phrases, as well as grammar. Subsequently, when the class examined the
eects of camera angles and movements, the language focus shifted to describing
cause and eect. Other language spotlights included written reports and summaries
(for design documentation), stating opinions (for considering ‘What is good design?’),
or sequence and comparisons (for typical design processes). Of course, there were also
many technical terms that the students learned. us, students acquired vocabulary
for their specic eld of study and at the same time improved their general English
prociency.
143
Student response
Most of the students were exceptionally engaged when working on their storyboards
and the wireframes for the app, and their motivation was distinctly higher than in pre-
vious semesters without the project. Students appreciated the opportunity to be creative
and present their ideas. In a subsequent feedback survey, a large number of students
commented that they felt the project involved topics which they recognised as rele-
vant. Additionally, most of the students improved their teamwork skills signicantly;
this became especially apparent in groups consisting of members with varying English
language prociency. In such cases, the stronger students actively supported and helped
weaker members to successfully manage presentations and written reports. Once stu-
dents were working on their projects, using English seemed to become secondary to the
task. Students who were initially very reluctant to speak English quickly lost inhibitions
and became more comfortable communicating professionally in the language.
Conclusion
is particular project-based approach in teaching ‘Technical English’ has proven to
be very successful. Both the students and the teacher enjoyed the creative process and
the variety of results. Most importantly, however, the students were able to retain
language used during the project better than in previous classes. is became evident
in their nal exams and in subsequent conversations with the students.
As one result of this positive experience, I have started to include a variety of
project-based tasks in many of my classes. Students tend to be more motivated and
engaged, and teaching becomes more interesting and enjoyable.
birte.horn@hshl.de
7.7 Adapting the CEFR to the needs of ESP

Cosima Wittmann telc gGmbH, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
Introduction
e focus of my paper is on the usefulness of the CEFR for ESP classes. Can CEFR
scales and descriptors be adapted to the needs and benet of both learners and teach-
ers? Examples for the tourist industry illustrate how ESP teachers can adapt them to
their own eld.
Understanding the CEFR
Although the CEFR has become ubiquitous in curricular planning and assessment,
teachers often still waver at the thought of adapting descriptors to suit their purposes.
e CEFR is a descriptive tool providing a basis for reection and communication
about language acquisition; as an open, dynamic and non-dogmatic system it is also
highly exible (Council of Europe 2001). In fact, teachers are explicitly ‘invited to
select the CEFR levels and illustrative descriptors that they consider to be appropriate
for their learners’ needs, to adapt the formulation of the latter, in order to better suit
the specic context concerned’ (Council of Europe 2017: 42).
144
Adapting the CEFR to the needs of ESP
Using the CEFR in class

Language learning is directed at enabling learners to function successfully in real-life
situations. e CEFR is a toolkit; its scales and descriptors can be translated into spe-
cic skills and tasks because they describe new and important competences for learners
at each level. ey motivate and monitor, keep teachers and learners focussed on what
they already have achieved or still want to achieve. Learners should be encouraged
to become procient in the scales that are most useful to them thus helping them to
develop individual, needs-oriented dierentiated proles in line with their real-life
work situation.
Adapting the CEFR to the needs of ESP
Although the descriptors in the Companion Volume include more references to the
occupational domain than the original CEFR, they are generally not explicit enough
for ESP. Important points to consider before setting out to adapt descriptors are:
• Choose relevant scales and descriptors.
• Find key words that don’t t your eld.
• Consider communicative language strategy—completing tasks successfully often
requires more than one.
• Modify descriptors in dierent ways.
Example 1
Key words from descriptors for various Listening scales are as follows:
• clear standard speech;
• speak slowly and clearly;
• speakers don’t modify their speech in any way; and
• a minimum of background noise.
Imagine someone with language skills at level B1 working at reception in a hotel.
Just how much clear standard speech are they going to hear? Of course they can ask
guests to speak slowly and clearly, but many will be ESL speakers and might not be
able to modify their accents appropriately. Receptionists are also expected to cope
with bad lines including break up and background noise. In this case, it is probably
sucient to point out to learners that at level B1 they are not expected to be able to
understand non-standard speech and to give them additional practice.
Example 2
What kind of correspondence will someone working in tourism have to deal with?
Obviously mostly formal, some personal and even postings if they have to handle
booking sites. Correspondence requires two skills (reading and writing) and two
communicative strategies (receptive and interactive). Looking at the B1 descriptors
for Reading Correspondence, it quickly becomes apparent that one concerning corre-
spondence with a pen friend can be deleted as irrelevant, one can be left untouched as
it already deals with the occupational domain in a sucient manner, and one can be
amended with an example (in italics):
• Can understand straightforward personal letters, emails or postings giving a relative-
ly detailed account of events and experiences (such as positive or negative comments on
hotel booking websites).
145
e descriptor for A2 can be modied as follows:

• Can understand a simple personal letter, email or post in which the person writing
is talking or asking about familiar subjects (such as hotel or restaurant facilities).
B1 descriptors for Correspondence focus on initiating correspondence, but some-
one working in the hospitality sector will be more likely to answer correspondence
that comes in. is is particularly pertinent for the ‘complaint’ descriptor, which
could be modied in the following way: replace ‘make’ and ‘request’ with ‘deal with’
and ‘suggest’.
• Can write basic formal emails/letters, for example to make deal with a complaint and
request suggest an action.
Conclusion
I have tried to raise awareness that the CEFR is not set in stone; its scales and descrip-
tors are useful tools that can and should be adapted to the needs of the learners in the
ESP classroom. e trickiest bit is not how to adapt it, but choosing the correct scale
to adapt!
c.wittmann@telc.net
References
Council of Europe, 2001. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning,
teaching, assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2001.
Council of Europe, 2018. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learn-
ing, teaching, assessment. Companion Volume with New Descriptors. https://rm.coe.int/
cefr-companion-volume-with-new-descriptors-2018/1680787989.
146
8 Teaching with technology
is chapter contains a number of papers on the use of technology in ELT that have
wide-reaching implications. First, Sophia Mavridi opens the chapter with a reminder
that ‘cool tools’ are not enough—teachers need the pedagogy to accompany them.
en, Michael Carrier draws attention to the fact that half of the world’s population
does not have access to educational technology; he shows what is being done to reme-
dy this situation. In a similar vein, the A. S. Hornby Scholars’ presentation, facilitated
by Martin Lamb, outlines initiatives around the world to enable access to technology
for language teaching—with both positive and negative results. Turning to specic
applications of online technology, Christina Nicole Giannikas explores the use of
Facebook in higher education; Benthe Fogh Jensen outlines a pedagogy for writing
using digital media; and Tran Le Nghi Tran presents research into the use of mobile
apps for pronunciation practice among teachers. e nal two papers in this chapter
deal specically with online learning. Nicky Hockly gives an overview of points to
be considered when teaching online, while Bindi Clements provides suggestions for
allowing learners to be front and centre in the online classroom.
8.1 We need pedagogy, not just cool tools

Sophia Mavridi De Montfort University, Leicester, UK
While technology is now widely regarded as an all-important resource in education,
choosing pedagogically sound tools from among the plethora of latest technologies
can present most educators with overwhelming challenges. is paper provides a dig-
ital language learning framework along with practical suggestions to encourage and
help language teachers evaluate learning technologies and make informed decisions
about whether—or not—to integrate them into their classroom.
Pedagogical criteria for digital language learning
What should digital language learning aim for, why is this important and what tools
can facilitate this? e criteria that should inform our pedagogical decisions are skills
development, knowledge construction, collaboration and interaction, creation and
personalisation, and digital responsibility and ethics.
Skills development
How will the tool help your students to develop their language skills? is sounds like
an obvious question because language teachers’ primary aim is language development.
However, in many cases it gets overlooked and instead, cool characteristics that have
nothing to do with skills development may draw teachers’ attention.
147
Chapter 8: Teaching with technology
Knowledge construction
Will the tool help your students to construct knowledge and apply it to more complex
contexts beyond the initial experience? is is the basic principle of cognitive con-
structivism, according to which knowledge is not transmitted but constructed while
learners are engaged in meaningful activity (Jonassen 1991). Constructing knowledge
involves meaningful activities as well as meaningful questions, but in the era of open
access we need to change the questions we ask. For example, asking questions that
can be answered on Google has now become a rather narrow form of enquiry that
involves little critical thinking. erefore, instead of asking questions that can be
answered at the click of a button (and that students may probably just copy and
paste) teachers should present the problem, invite students to come up with their own
original questions and then research, evaluate and synthesise information in order to
answer them.
Collaboration and interaction
Learning is a social process, so our students should be encouraged to learn both inde-
pendently and through interaction with their peers. is is the fundamental principle
of socio-cultural theories that talk about the social origin of mental functioning (War-
schauer 2005). By using social media, blogs, curation tools and shared drives we can
encourage participatory cultures and knowledge communities where people are not
passive consumers of information but also create, curate and share it. is is a very
active process and a great way to use technology for learning.
Creation and personalisation
Does the tool allow your students to create something and personalise the learning
experience while practising the target language? Be it a video, a presentation, a voice
recording or a digital story, good technologies can aord some degree of exibility and
creativity. For example, when it comes to presentations, not everyone enjoys having
an audience and giving a speech. So why not let students decide how they wish to
present? ey may create a video, or add a voice over to their slides, share them on the
class VLE (Virtual Learning Environment) and invite their classmates to comment.
e idea here is that presenting asynchronously may be more benecial and stress free
for some students so why not give them the option to have a say over their learning?
Digital responsibility and ethics
As well as increasing learning opportunities, technology can also present very real
and serious risks, such as privacy infringement, digital plagiarism, cyber-bullying and
distractions, to mention only a few. A new challenge for educators is, therefore, how
to increase students’ learning opportunities without promoting potential risks asso-
ciated with technology use. Just because students are competent users of technology,
this doesn’t mean that they can use it responsibly and ethically. ey need the skills
to make informed decisions about the way they navigate digital spaces and teachers
should be an active part of this. eir training should involve:
• respecting copyright laws and avoiding plagiarism;
• interacting eectively, respecting people’s opinions and being able to handle cyber-
bullying or trolling;
148
English for the underserved: closing the digital divide
• managing their digital footprint and understanding that whatever they do online,
positive or negative, is part of a permanent record that they can never delete or take
back; and
• managing digital distractions—not by banning the devices, but by systematically
teaching procedures (Mavridi 2017).
It is hoped that this framework will challenge the existing paradigms in technology
education that merely invest in technology equipment but take its pedagogical use
for granted. We should embrace technology because it can open the door to many
language learning opportunities, but we do need pedagogy, not just cool tools.
sophia.mavridi@dmu.ac.uk
References
Jonassen, D. H. 1991. ‘Objectivism vs. constructivism: do we need a new philosophical para-
digm?’. Educational Technology: Research and Development 39/3: 5−14.
Mavridi, S. 2017. ‘Digital welfare and esafety’. e Digital Teacher. Cambridge English Lan-
guage Assessment. https://thedigitalteacher.com/blog/digital-welfare-and-esafety-for-learners.
Warschauer, M. 2005. ‘Sociocultural perspectives on CALL’ in J. L. Egbert and G. M. Petrie
(eds.). CALL Research Perspectives. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum.
8.2 English for the underserved: closing the digital divide

Michael Carrier Highdale Consulting Ltd., London, UK
Who are the underserved?

ere is a digital divide in language education in developing economies. e poorest
learners in the world do not have access to the technologies that are available to stu-
dents in richer economies, and thus lack the same access to knowledge and learning
opportunities. is is something that educators need to address, to reduce inequality
and improve equity of learning access, for ELT and education in general.
UNESCO claims ‘the global spread of ICT has increased inequality, and the
poorest and most marginalised have therefore failed suciently to benet’ (2017).
Access is increasing—an estimated 4.7 billion people have a mobile phone, and about
half the world’s population, 3.8 billion, have some access to the Internet and thereby
access to ELT and education resources. But this leaves around 3−4 billion people with
no Internet connection and a similar number without reliable access to electricity.
is half of the global population represents the ‘underserved’ who have less access to
learning in general and English language education in particular.
Issues and solutions
ELT students and teachers need access to the following: reliable electric power, Inter-
net connectivity, devices that can deliver content, and a wide range of appropriate
learning materials and content.
Power
e South African charity Lifeline Energy builds a solar-powered radio and MP3 play-
er, the LifePlayer, to allow teachers to bring language learning audio content into rural,
149
isolated villages without reliable electricity. It records radio broadcasts for later sharing
and can be updated with new content via a cheap memory card in the front panel.
e British Council installed its ELT listening material, podcasts and teacher training
material in audio format onto memory cards for this LifePlayer and sent units to
low-resource contexts in Kenya, Mozambique and Ethiopia. is project has allowed
over 60,000 students and teachers to gain access to language education materials that
would otherwise be too dicult to deliver via traditional publishing or broadcasting.
Connectivity
To solve the problem of lack of connectivity in remote and rural areas, we need to look
at advances in long-distance wireless connectivity. For example, Intel has a new type of
WiFi called WiMax, which can send WiFi signals up to ve miles along line of sight
from antenna to antenna, like a TV broadcast. is is not expensive to install, and it
is cheaper than laying cables, but it brings transformational access in connectivity and
learning opportunity.
Portable servers
To deliver content to learners, we need a browser to display reading texts, play audio
and video les and deliver exercises. A ‘live’ Internet connection is not needed for
this—we can use a portable server (Internet-in-a-Box 2017). A ‘portable oine server’
is a small box about the size of an A5 notebook, which produces its own WiFi hot-
spot (without being connected to the Internet) and allows students with inexpensive
phones or tablets to access learning material stored on the hard drive inside the small
box. All they need is a browser to ‘read’ the content.
It runs o its own rechargeable battery power, long enough for a school day, and
it creates its own WiFi hotspot. While the device is in a school with a live Internet
connection, material can be downloaded from the Web onto the server. Teachers can
also upload and organise any type of content stored locally in their school, or created
locally, for access by the whole class. As the server is portable and self-contained, it
can be moved from room to room in a school or used outdoors in a more remote
location where there is no electricity and no Internet connectivity. One example of
this is the Rachel project (WorldPossible 2017), run by the charity WorldPossible,
which is bringing connectivity to the 60 per cent of the world’s poorest population
that remains oine, using these servers.
Ofine content
e server is not much use without good learning content, which needs to be free—
local budgets do not provide for ELT textbooks. ere are numerous ELT-specic
websites with free materials that can be downloaded on to a portable server, such as the
British Council’s LearnEnglish site. And the Rachel project oers o-line versions of
Wikipedia, TED talks, 400 books from the Gutenberg and African story book projects.
Conclusion
It seems only fair that those of us in richer countries should look for alternative tech-
nologies like these, to help those in less privileged communities bridge the digital
divide and gain access to educational opportunities.
michael@mcarrier.co.uk
150
The Hornby Scholars panel presentation
References
Internet-in-a-Box. 2017. https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/internet-in-a-box.
UNESCO. 2017. UNESCO Chair in ICT4D. https://ict4d.org.uk/tag/marginalisation/
WorldPossible. 2017. ‘Meet the little device that is changing the world, one school at a time’.
https://worldpossible.org/rachel/.
8.3 The Hornby Scholars panel presentation: Can new technology

sustainably improve quality in state language education?
Convenor: Martin Lamb University of Leeds, UK with the A. S. Hornby
Scholars at IATEFL 2018: Milena Altamirano Argentina;
Nilufar Begibaeva Uzbekistan; Cynthia Chindipha Zimbabwe;
Nusrat Gulzar Bangladesh; Clifford Mashiri Zimbabwe; Cecilia Nobre
Brazil; Joy Onyenaechi Nigeria
Introduction
For English language educators in developing countries, the digital revolution pre-
sents many of the same challenges and opportunities as for their counterparts in
high-income contexts. e Internet provides huge aordances for learners, yet it has
also dramatically changed the way that they will use the language in the future, intro-
ducing new kinds of texts and new modes of interaction (Hafner et al. 2015). It oers
teachers new tools for their trade, but in turn demands new skills. It promises to make
language education more democratic, yet also threatens to widen the divide between
the digital ‘haves’ and ‘have-nots’. It can make education processes more ecient and
manageable, yet for practitioners often makes them more complicated and frustrating
(ibid.). As Selwyn puts it, ‘technological change is a complex process … Any digital
“solution” in education is almost always accompanied by a number of unintended
consequences, secondary eects and longer-term shifts’ (2016: 23).
Our presentation looks at technological innovations in six developing country
contexts. Some of the innovations are very large scale, some small. Some are well
underway, others still in the proposal stage. All, however, are intended to address
specic educational problems; these will be recognisable to many others working in
similar global contexts. In oering partial solutions, they also touch on some of the
paradoxes and ‘unintended consequences’ which Selwyn alludes to above, and which
should be recognisable to innovators everywhere.
‘Connecting equality’ in Argentina
As the Internet expanded massively in the rst decade of the 21st century, the Argen-
tinian government became concerned about unequal access; it threatened to exacerbate
social and economic divides in society. In 2010 the government created a programme
called ‘Connecting Equality’ by which one laptop was given to every child and teacher
in all state secondary schools, and to every student and lecturer at state-run teacher
training institutions. Over 5 million machines were distributed. e laptops came with
basic software and various educational resources available through either a students’ or
151
teachers’ portal. At the same time, the necessary infrastructure was provided: an Inter-
net connection at every school, and guidance on establishing a local committee to run
the programme. e programme was intended to help learners develop the creative
and critical thinking skills seen as fundamental for responsible citizens and productive
workers in the 21st-century economy, while also inspiring new teaching practices (for
example, individual projects, pair/group work and more learner autonomy).
But the challenges for teachers were recognised too late. By the time a teacher-train-
ing website was established, teachers were struggling to utilise the new technology.
Research found that the equipment was not well exploited in class, and that it was
mainly used for social rather than for educational purposes. In addition, many schools
had problems with their Internet connection, machines were damaged or stolen, and
too little technical support was available. In 2016, responsibility for the programme
was transferred to the provinces, most of which did not have enough funds to contin-
ue investing in it.
‘Language on wheels’ in rural Zimbabwe
e ‘digital divide’ is even greater in most African countries than it is in South Ameri-
ca. In rural Zimbabwe, many schools lack even an electrical supply, let alone an Inter-
net connection. One enterprising former teacher has responded to this problem in an
innovative fashion. Philanthropist Itai Shumba has built a mobile computer unit on
a trailer which can be trucked around schools. It holds ten second-hand computers,
powered by solar panels, mounted back-to-back on a roofed structure made from scrap
metal and wood, with aps at the side that can be opened to allow ve pupils to sit on
a long bench facing a terminal; one printer is also provided. e computers have elec-
tronic versions of textbooks, combining text, graphics, animation, video and sound,
and are also connected to the Internet through a ‘portable cloud’. For many of the
children, this is their rst experience of using computers, and so represents a valuable
opportunity to develop some basic IT skills. e unit has been trialled in South Africa,
and the plan is to bring it over the border into Zimbabwe in the near future. Five rural
schools will benet in the rst instance, each one having a total of three weeks’ access
per semester. If it works, the simple cheap design and renewable energy source means
that it could potentially be reproduced on a much larger scale throughout rural areas.
e mobile computer lab is one promising solution to the lack of IT resources in
rural Zimbabwe. Meanwhile, teachers in rural areas are taking things into their own
hands, literally. As everywhere, there has been an exponential growth in the use of
smartphones and tablets; second-hand devices have become aordable for teachers
in smaller towns and villages, just as national network providers are extending 3G
Internet connectivity into those regions and oering cheap data bundles. Enterprising
teachers have, therefore, found themselves an enormously expanded pool of learning
resources for their pupils and for themselves. As a member of the main teachers’ union,
Hornby scholar Cli Mashiri has witnessed this spontaneous, organic exploitation of
mobile technologies among colleagues and argues that it deserves the urgent attention
of researchers.
Interactive e-content in Bangladeshi primary schools
In Bangladesh, the government has embraced digital technology as a response to fre-
quent negative evaluations of language teaching methodology in primary schools,
152
The Hornby Scholars panel presentation
which were producing pupils with minimal oral skills and low motivation for contin-
uing study. With the help of Save the Children, an initial trial has provided laptops,
tablets and projectors to 1500 state primary schools in diverse regions, pre-loaded
with software that provides colourful, interactive, multimedia learning content to
supplement the national textbook, along with detailed guidance for teachers in how to
exploit the material. A typical task sequence sees pupils watch an animated story, read
and repeat dialogue from the story, and then role-play their own improvised dialogues
based on the models they’ve heard. ough still awaiting formal evaluation, observers
have described classrooms transformed into happy, lively places, with children eager
to try out their oral English with the teacher; as one Save the Children materials
writer told scholar Nusrat Gulzar, ‘We are glad to have received positive feedback
from primary level teachers on how their classroom environment changed due to the
use of English e-content.’
A Teletandem project in a Brazilian university
A perennial problem in many global contexts has been a lack of opportunities to use
English outside the classroom. A Brazilian university (Universidade Estadual Paulista,
or UNESP) has addressed this problem through the use of Teletandem, whereby their
own students are paired up with learners of Portuguese overseas and conduct one-
hour virtual conversations on a weekly basis, using computers and headphones in the
‘language laboratory’. e students are given advice on how to optimise the sessions.
For example, the partners agree to split the hour into 30 minutes for each language;
they prepare topics in advance to talk about; they—at least initially—avoid controver-
sial topics; partners correct each other’s language, though sensitively; and they set each
other written homework tasks and then read and give feedback on them. e project
is now in its 12th year and involves institutions in ve dierent countries. ough
not all pairings work, Teletandem is surely one of the simplest and most sustainable of
digital technologies for language learning.
Video resources for oral prociency teaching in Nigeria
Speaking is widely recognised in state school systems as the L2 skill which is hardest
to teach, for a variety of reasons: pupils may get little practice outside class, it may not
be formally assessed, and teachers may lack condence in their own speaking ability
or knowledge of communicative methods. A loop-input technique using videos in
language teacher education (ViLTE) has been proposed as one way of addressing this
problem. Trainers would use their smartphones to video record themselves acting out
short semi-scripted dialogues in English, based around a situation or language func-
tion. ey would then design activities for the teachers to analyse the dialogues, copy
them, and then eventually perform improvised versions of them which they could also
record. Apart from being a lot of fun, the sessions model a process that they could use,
with level-appropriate prociency goals, with their learners.
MOOCs for university teacher CPD in Uzbekistan
It may not always be necessary for resource-stretched institutions in low/middle
income countries to produce their own educational materials. e Uzbekistan Scien-
tic-Practical Innovation Centre (UzSPIC) trains in-service English teachers from 71
153
higher educational institutions (http://edu.uz/uz/otm/index). According to Ministry

guidelines, continuing professional development (CPD) is compulsory with every
three-year contract renewal. CPD courses run for two months and are meant to have
at least 244 hours of instruction, which puts considerable strain on UzSPIC trainers.
Meanwhile, there are already a great number of training resources available online, in
the form of MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses) produced by much more gen-
erously resourced institutions in the west. Why not use them? One regular demand
from Uzbek CPD participants is for access to a range of global Englishes—MOOCs
can provide this. e best MOOCs are designed so that users can interpret content in
a way that makes it relevant for their home context. What is more, research suggests
that the dropout rate on MOOCs is ‘only’ about 50 per cent in developing countries,
compared to 90 per cent in developed countries.
Conclusion
ese technological innovations are not models of success. Arguably, only one has sus-
tainably improved the quality of language education (Teletandem), while it appears
that another (primary e-content) might do so. One has already failed, while the other
three are barely beyond the design stage. What they do all attest to, however, is the cre-
ativity and determination of language educators in these contexts. Digital technology
is not a solution in itself, but it puts many new tools into the hands of practitioners at
various levels of the education system, from learners up to Ministry ocials. Whether
these tools are used eectively depends on how far their handlers observe the timeless
principles of educational good practice. As Golonka et al. say, ‘Using technology in
delivering a lesson or instructional unit will not make bad pedagogy good. Nor does
a lack of technological tools or applications prevent eective teaching’ (2014: 93).
m.v.lamb@education.leeds.ac.uk
References
Golonka, E. M., A. R. Bowles, V. M. Frank, D. L. Richardson and S. Freynik, S. 2014. ‘Tech-
nologies for foreign language learning: a review of technology types and their eectiveness’.
Computer Assisted Language Learning 27: 70−105.
Hafner, C. A., A. Chik and R. Jones. 2015. ‘Digital literacies and language learning’. Language
Learning and Technology 19/3: 1−7.
Selwyn, N. 2016. Is Technology Good for Education? Cambridge: Polity Press.
8.4 The Facebook effect: the use of social media in e-learning

platforms
Christina Nicole Giannikas Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus
Introduction
A signicant development in higher education has been the implementation of
e-learning programmes. A number of universities are currently providing courses of
quality and exibility to meet the academic needs of university students (O’Neill,
Singh and O’Donoghue 2004). is paper concentrates on the socio-constructive
perspective and how social media can complement e-learning platforms.
154
The Facebook effect: the use of social media in e-learning platforms
The connection of e-learning and social media

Among the many social network systems (SNS) that can be found online, Facebook
is the social site many e-learning educators have opted to use in order to prompt a
socio-constructive learning environment in an otherwise isolating context, as distance
learning can often be. ere is currently a growing body of evidence (see Cheung and
Lee 2010) suggesting that Web 2.0 and SNS have the perspective of increasing inter-
action and engagement given that young people spend a signicant amount of time
on Facebook. Additionally, e-learning platforms can be enriched, and learning may
become more eective if Facebook is integrated in distance learning, not only to act
as the ‘social glue’, but also to enhance academic features of the university experience.
Research methodology
e present small-scale study focuses on 15 students of an online MA in Computer
Assisted Language Learning. Of the respondents, ten were female and three were male,
with eight being 31–40, ve being 20–30 and two being 51–60. e participants were
all foreign language teachers and were doing the MA for CPD purposes.
Data collection was achieved through an online survey, where students were asked
questions related to their general use of Facebook, their use of it during their course,
the use of their Learning Management System (in this case, Moodle) and relevance of
the online tools (whether LMS or SNS). e coding involved the manual allocation
of categories to each response, as well as the use of the analysis conducted on Google
forms.
The pedagogical effect
Facebook groups were used for two modules: ‘Second Language Acquisition’ and
‘Research Methods and Design’. Figure 8.4.1 provides a description of how Facebook
was applied:
Data indicated that all participants used Facebook to communicate with others,
and nine used it to post news or articles related to their work/studies. Students tended
to rely on their knowledge and familiarity of Facebook, using it as a safety net after
Figure 8.4.1: The use of Facebook in the MA modules
155
facing technical diculties with Moodle. Students also found that they could not
be as interactive on the discussion forum compared to the Facebook groups. None-
theless, ve of the respondents viewed it as informal and showed a preference for
Moodle.
e students were also asked about Messenger and how they use it in an aca-
demic context. All respondents agreed that communication via Messenger between
students and instructors is easier and immediate. Coincidently, students viewed the
use of email as formal, whereas Messenger is informal and instructors seemed more
approachable. Nonetheless, the particular use of Messenger encourages students to
become accustomed to a spoon-fed approach, where for every question they would be
tempted to contact the instructor. is may aect student autonomy, which is highly
encouraged in e-learning programs.
e data indicates the main pedagogical features that make Facebook appealing in
an e-learning context are: (1) it is convenient; (2) it enhances a sense of community;
and (3) it complements Moodle. Due to the topic-based and peer-initiated nature of
the conversations on Facebook groups, a systematic articulation of issues occurred
that allowed even the less condent students to contribute.
Concluding notes
While Facebook may not assist in students’ learning per se, it supports the provision
of productive and motivational pedagogy. One of the main components is the inter-
active and friendly nature, compared to other platforms. Students relate Facebook to
an online meeting point with friends, making their groups less intimidating and more
approachable. ere is evidence suggesting technology can support these interactions,
and Facebook is an outlet by which this can be conveyed. Continued integration of
Facebook into courses may see further benets through enhanced student-to-student
and student-to-instructor communication, which may translate to greater learning
outcomes.
christinagian@hotmail.com
References
Cheung, C. M. K. and M. K. O. Lee. 2010. ‘A theoretical model of intentional social action in
online social networks’. Decision Support System 49: 24−30.
O’Neill, K., G. Singh, G. and J. O’Donoghue. 2004. ‘Implementing elearning programmes
for higher education: a review of the literature’. Journal of Informational Technology Education
3: 313−323.
8.5 Writing about the world in a digital world

Benthe Fogh Jensen University College South Denmark, Haderslev, Denmark
Writing pedagogy in a digital age

Producing or designing a text in any digital media, is shaped by technological changes
and new media for communication. Understanding and using digital media appropri-
ately and eciently is referred to as ‘digital literacy’ (Hansen 2018) and is something
156
Writing about the world in a digital world
we must also include in the language learning classroom. In 2016, I carried out a
project in two EFL classes in a Danish lower secondary school, the purpose being to
explore the challenges and opportunities of working with a digital writing project and
to propose elements of a digital writing pedagogy. We decided on the topic, ‘Being
Young’, and the writing medium, blogs.
Rhetorical competences in a digital age
Understanding communication and the rhetorical competences required in a digital
world, we might look at the classical discipline of rhetoric, the art of public speaking
from ancient Greece. e Roman rhetorician, Cicero (106−43 BC) developed a pen-
tagon for the well-planned speech (Figure 8.5.1). Cicero realised the importance for a
speaker (or sender) of adapting the language of the speech or text to the circumstances
or context for the communication, being able to capture the audience and to express
the message or topic in a convincing way. When all ve elements of the pentagon play
together in an optimal way, we have the opportune moment or text, called Kairos.
is is also the name of Zeus’s son, born with wings on his feet and back, one of his
characteristics being his long fringe. is, combined with his swiftness, meant you
had to catch him by his fringe, or the right moment would be lost. Digital communi-
cation is fast and covers vast distances; making the audience receive a message within
seconds is a challenge for students. Cicero’s pentagon and catching Kairos is a good
illustration of important elements when suggesting a digital writing pedagogy.
Figure 8.5.1: Cicero’s pentagon
Proposals for a digital writing pedagogy

Based on experiences from the project described above, Cicero’s pentagon will be
used as the framework for suggesting elements of a writing pedagogy, developing
students’ rhetorical competences when communicating via the digital media. Analysis
and deconstruction of model texts from authentic blogs were used in our work with
the ve elements of the pentagon.
157
We begin with circumstances or context. In our project, the chosen medium being
blogs, a Web 2.0 medium, aordances represented the opportunities for formulat-
ing thoughts on a given subject and creating a dialogic forum, commenting on each
other’s blog posts. In any online medium, safety issues are important; consequently,
we need to teach the proper use of personal settings in addition to the challenges of
faceless communication (Bundsgaard 2016), highlighting the consequences of having
no body or face to alleviate a message, thereby making us less empathetic towards the
receiver.
Secondly, we must consider choice of topic for a digital writing project, empha-
sising the overall purpose of a writing project (academic reection or ‘free writing
space’); the dierent social purposes (such as informing or entertaining); and the
choice of relevant genres (such as information report or narrative). When working
with model texts in dierent genres, students will develop genre awareness (Hum-
phrey et al. 2015).
As the speaker is the next element in the pentagon, teaching awareness of students’
multiple digital identities (related to presence on dierent social media) and deliberate
choice of identity or role of sender in a given communicative situation is important.
Writing about bullying and adding a snapchat-like photo do not correlate well.
Next, we have the question of audience, featuring elements like the importance
of the communication relation the students have/or want to have with an audience
(formal/informal, expert/novice) and learning to empathise with an audience and the
way a message might be received.
With the nal element being language, we will make use of Halliday’s theories
about language, consisting of the three meta-functions: eld (expressing and connect-
ing ideas); mode (creating coherent and cohesive texts); and tenor (language for inter-
acting). Focusing on communication made it relevant to look at specically elements
from tenor in our work with model texts:
• speech functions and how using statements, questions, commands or oers inuences
the way we interact with others;
• modality as a way of locating an opinion between ‘yes/no’, opening up or closing
down for other perspectives; and
• turning volume of language up/down when expressing attitudes, by using intensiers
(really hard), graded synonyms (irritated, angry, furious) and repetition (‘We cried
and cried’) (Humphrey et al. 2015).
And now, go catch Kairos.
bfje@ucsyd.dk
References
Bundsgaard, J. 2016. Sprog og Kommunikation. Frederiksberg: Samfundslitteratur.
Hansen, J. J. (ed.). 2018. Digital Skrivedidaktik. Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag.
Humphrey, S., L. Droga and S. Feez. 2015. Grammar and Meaning. Marrickville, Australia:
PETAA.
158
Mobile apps and pronunciation training: a self-directed learning approach
8.6 Mobile apps and pronunciation training: a self-directed

learning approach
Tran Le Nghi Tran University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
Introduction
In 2015, only 32 per cent of Vietnamese TESOL teachers met stringent English pro-
ciency requirements set by the government. Oral skills, especially pronunciation, were
a particularly problematic area. Mobile learning (ML) can be a feasible solution for
teachers in the context of a developing country, as it is time saving and cost eective.
Previous research suggests that Vietnamese TESOL teachers had suitable conditions
for ML (Murphy et al. 2014); however it was unknown whether they could self-
direct their learning and practice of pronunciation. is research project aimed to
identify the factors determining the eectiveness of the self-directed practice of pro-
nunciation and the principles for ML as a way to deliver professional development
activities.
Methodology
is project adopts design-based research (Wang and Hannan 2005) and involves
two cycles of an online pronunciation course for TESOL teachers from provincial
universities outside major cities in Vietnam. Data were collected using a pre- and
post-test, questionnaire, interviews, meeting recordings, app learning analytics and
weekly learning reports. Table 8.6.1 shows the dierences between the two course
cycles.
Table 8.6.1: The online pronunciation course cycles
For self-directed pronunciation training, the participants watched a short pronun-

ciation teaching video each day and used mobile apps such as ELSA Speak to practice
their pronunciation. ey were asked to spend up to 30 minutes per day, ve days
a week using the apps. Data analysis revealed a range of individual and technology-
related factors which determine ML eectiveness.
159
Factors determining the effectiveness of self-directed pronunciation

practice
For individual factors, participants mentioned both intrinsic motivation and extrinsic
motivation as reasons for them to start and keep practising pronunciation. Regardless
of dierent levels of commitment and eort, most participants had improved scores
for their personal pronunciation problems, but there was little dierence in their
overall pronunciation accuracy. Interestingly, before the course, most participants
stated they had little condence in pronunciation, but later believed that their pro-
nunciation was correct and blamed the apps for not recognising their speech. Some
believed iOS devices outperformed Android ones in automatic speech recognition,
and technological competence played a role in providing a smooth learning process.
A signicant level of participants’ dependence on the instructor was also observed,
which indicated that they were not so ready for self-directed learning.
For technology-related factors, it was found that suitable and compatible devices
had a direct impact on learning feasibility. For mobile technologies, the participants
often required them to be user-friendly, easy to install and have at least an acceptable
performance. e combination of various apps with dierent strengths allowed them
to make up their shortcomings. Many considered themselves to be low-tech, and
found it crucial to have timely support when they encountered technical problems.
Finally, the cost of devices and technologies is also an important factor to consider in
the context of a developing country.
Fundamental principles for mobile learning in PD provision
For human-related principles, rst of all, exibility, commitment and personalised
learning experience are important elements for mobile learning eciency. e busy
participants only had a small amount of time each day for learning, so the most urgent
individual learning needs were prioritised, and some practiced their pronunciation in
the bathroom or kitchen, after their children went to bed or late at night. Secondly,
teachers’ instructions and support in problem solving are essential for teachers in the
context of Vietnam since apps can only provide pre-planned feedback on pronuncia-
tion mistakes with no detailed explanation of the issue and how to x it.
Regarding technology-related principles, it is crucial to have technologies that
can work both online and oine, as well as a stable Internet connection to ensure a
smooth learning experience. Also, the chosen technologies must be compatible with
many devices and available on as many platforms as possible. In this study, the partic-
ipants had dierent devices, needs and preferences, and the possibility to use various
tools and technologies allows for exibility and personalised learning.
Conclusion
Mobile learning is a feasible and eective way to provide PD pronunciation training
in the given context, but self-directed learning needs to be encouraged. Among the
critical success factors for mobile learning as a scalable model, exibility and instruc-
tors’ support are the most important.
n.tranle@uq.net.au
160
Going live: teaching online via videoconferencing
References
Murphy, A., W. Midgley and H. Farley. 2014. ‘Mobile learning trends among students in Viet-
nam’. Paper presented at the 13th World Conference on Mobile and Contextual Learning,
mLearn 2014, Istanbul, Turkey, 3−5 November 2014.
Wang, F. and M. J. Hannan. 2005. ‘Design-based research and technology-enhanced learning
environments’. Educational Technology Research and Development 53/4: 5−23.
8.7 Going live: teaching online via videoconferencing

Nicky Hockly The Consultants-E, Barcelona, Spain
Increasing numbers of English language teachers are turning to live online teaching via
videoconferencing. Oering real-time language classes with tools like Skype, Zoom,
Adobe Connect or similar can enable teachers to work independently from home in
their own time. However, the live online medium does pose particular challenges,
even for experienced language teachers. In my talk I explored what makes eective
live online teaching.
Context
Live online teachers work in a range of contexts. ey may be freelance language
teachers nding their own clients, or they may work for an online language school.
ey may work for their own institution as part of a blended or fully online course,
or they may provide online tutorials as support for face-to-face language classes. e
online teacher’s context will aect what decisions he/she can make about what vid-
eoconferencing tools to use, and whether additional asynchronous learning content
needs to be delivered via a virtual learning environment or other tool. A live online
teacher may be able to work from home, or he/she may be required to come into a
teaching centre or school to deliver live online classes, especially if their home Internet
connection is unreliable. Live online classes can be oered to students globally, so
when classes are oered can be a major consideration for online teachers working
across multiple time zones. And nally, context may determine whether a live online
teacher bases his/her classes on coursebook content, on pre-developed prescribed les-
son content (often the case with online language schools), or his/her own content
developed from a needs analysis with learners.
Videoconferencing platforms
Developments in hardware and software over the past decade have made videocon-
ferencing increasingly accessible to a wide audience. Current free videoconferencing
platforms include the ubiquitous Skype (with a paid-for ‘Skype for Business’ ver-
sion), Google Hangouts Meet, Facebook Live Messenger, ezTalks, appear.in and
TokBox Video Chat, among others. Paid-for videoconferencing platforms include
Adobe Connect, Blackboard Collaborate/Ultra, Zoom, GoToMeeting and WebEx,
although many of these also have free or trial versions. Paid-for videoconferencing
platforms tend to have more features than free platforms, provide a recording feature,
provide technical support, and are generally more robust; essentially, you get what you
161
pay for when it comes to videoconferencing. Nevertheless, it can be dicult to choose

a videoconferencing platform. Typical videoconferencing features include a chat box,
screen sharing and PowerPoint slide sharing, polls/quizzes, notes, plug ins, and break-
out rooms—this last feature is especially useful for carrying out pair and small group
work during live classes. For a helpful overview of platforms, watch the ‘5-minute
guide to videoconferencing platforms’ by Gavin Dudeney of e Consultants-E
(TCE) at https://youtu.be/-1t0Fi2vZ38. You can also watch a short extract from a live
class delivered by TCE online tutor Carol Rainbow with upper-intermediate English
language students, in which she and the students utilise a range of videoconferencing
features, at https://youtu.be/KvTa4tGoH8k.
Considerations
Bandwidth is a major consideration when oering live online classes. Your Internet
connection needs to be robust and reliable enough to handle videoconferencing.
Remember that your platform choice will reect your professionalism. For example, if
you choose to deliver live online classes via a free tool like Facebook Live Messenger,
you will simply not be projecting the same professional image as when you choose
a more robust platform like Zoom or Adobe Connect. For those wishing to work as
freelance live online language teachers, considerations include establishing a compel-
ling online presence and brand (for example with a mobile-friendly website and savvy
use of social media), eectively marketing yourself so to attract new online students/
clients, and dealing with online payments.
You also need to have the basic technical skills to be able to help learners on the spot
with issues like audio and video. And you need to be able to design compelling live
lessons that interest and engage learners—and get them using the language—whether
you are teaching individuals or groups. Avoiding going into lecture mode; ensuring
plenty of pair and group work (for example in breakout rooms), as well as including
a variety of tasks and media, and using a range of videoconferencing features can go
some way towards helping design interesting live lessons. You can also use the record-
ings of classes for remedial work, as well as sharing these with the students themselves,
so that they can assess their own (and possibly their peers’) language abilities.
However, the most important consideration is that live online teaching needs to be
underpinned by sound pedagogical principles and practice if it is to eectively support
your students’ language learning.
nicky.hockly@theconsultants-e.com
8.8 Enabling learners to take centre stage in an online classroom

Bindi Clements Wall Street English, Barcelona, Spain
Online language classes using videoconferencing provide opportunities for commu-
nication practice outside a physical classroom (Vurdien 2018). However, students
report having fewer opportunities for speaking practice than in face-to-face classes,
and the design and use of videoconferencing technology can result in some specic
pedagogical challenges (Pandavar 2018). is presentation drew from experience of
162
Enabling learners to take centre stage in an online classroom
both creating materials for use in an online classroom and from observations when
training online teachers, and identied two common features of synchronous language
lessons held via videoconferencing which can negatively impact student engagement.
Practical tips for promoting interaction between learners in an online (or ‘virtual’)
classroom which improve student engagement and increase speaking practice time
were provided.
Challenges to student engagement in the online classroom
e rst challenge to learner engagement is the widespread use of PowerPoint (or
similar software) to provide the class content in the videoconferencing platform.
Some teachers follow the presentation from start to nish, with insucient regard for
whether students need or are interested in all the content. When the content and pace
of a class is not determined by learner need, students are likely to feel that the class has
less relevance to them. Engagement levels fall, and learners are more easily distracted.
is problem is exacerbated because teachers receive far less direct feedback from
their learners in an online classroom than in a face-to-face setting. Even if learners
have their camera on (which is not always possible due to the bandwidth needed to
run videoconferencing software), it can be dicult for the teacher to assess whether
silent learners have not understood, are bored or have technical issues. When faced
with silent learners, teachers tend to talk more to ll in the silence, thereby increasing
teacher talking time.
e second challenge is related to the nature of the technology of videoconferenc-
ing. In a physical classroom many people can talk at once, and pair and group work
can be used to maximise the time students have to practice speaking. Multi-channel
communication is the norm. But in an online classroom (unless breakout rooms are
available; see below), only one person can talk at any one time. e standard pattern
of communication is often the teacher asking a question to Student A, Student A
responding to the teacher, the teacher asking a question to Student B, and so on,
with very little interaction between the students. is mono-channel communication
signicantly reduces the amount of time learners in an online classroom have to speak,
and again results in a more teacher-centred class.
How to maximise student interaction
Key to ensuring students are centre stage is an online class are following the needs
and interests of students, and planning ahead of time to maximise student interaction
(and minimise teacher talking time).
1 Set polls and quiz questions and use the class responses as a starting point for discus-
sion, or to check understanding of a language point. Use student responses to adapt
the direction of the class to the needs of students.
2 Use the chat function to ask students to share opinions and experiences, reinforce
instructions, privately provide students with text for an information gap activity, or
backchannel with struggling students.
3 Ask students to write or highlight on the board to brainstorm ideas, elicit vocabulary,
nd mistakes in a text, and so on.
4 Use the record function and ask students to listen back for use of key language and
pronunciation.
163
5 Remember that learners are a valuable resource and come to class with their own
ideas, opinions and experiences. Include activities that allow students to share their
opinions and to explore online resources.
6 Plan interaction patterns ahead of the class for each activity, for example, using
questions via the private chat function to prompt learners.
7 Use breakout rooms when available for pair or group work to maximise student
talking time.
8 Consider ‘leaving’ the class and let students feel they have more ‘space’. Sometimes
learners talk more freely when teachers turn their camera o during discussion
activities.
As Panavar (2018) asks, ‘What learning can be accomplished by [videoconferenc-
ing] at present that cannot be better accomplished without it?’ Online classes using
videoconferencing certainly provide great opportunities for language learning and
cross-cultural communication by bringing together cultural mixes of students (and
teachers) not possible in many monolingual environments (Jung 2013). However,
unless educators plan carefully and use the tools available to augment and transform
language learning, online classes can become teacher-focused, leaving learners feeling
that an online experience is second-best to language learning in a physical classroom.
bindi.clements@wallstreetenglish.com
References
Jung. M. 2013. ‘Videoconferencing improves student language learning in the EFL classroom’.
TESOL Journal 4/4: 743−751.
Pandavar, A. 2018. ‘VC technology: master or servant of education?’ in L. Stepanek and K.
Sedlackova (eds.). Videoconferencing in Language Education. Brno: Masaryk University Lan-
guage Centre.
Vurdien, R. 2018. ‘Motivating students to develop oral skills via interaction on videoconfer-
encing’ in T. Pattison (ed.). IATEFL 2017 Glasgow Conference Selections. Faversham: IATEFL.
164
9 Issues in assessment
is chapter contains ve papers on the topic of assessment in ELT. e chapter starts
with a report of Barry O’Sullivan’s plenary talk, in which he outlines the history of
language testing. Tom Garside then discusses the importance of prioritising the socio-
cognitive needs of learners in language testing. Kathrin Eberharter and Carol Spöttl
show how illustrative performances, or benchmarks, can support teacher and insti-
tutions in promoting good assessment practices, while Santosh Mahapatra explores
the connection between teachers’ assessment literacy and their students’ performance.
Finally, in their Forum report, Tim Goodier and Evangelia Xirofotou discuss aspects
of the CEFR.
9.1 Plenary: Living to tell the tale: a history of language testing

Barry O’Sullivan British Council, London, UK
Introduction
e history of language testing is long and, as far as I’m concerned, fascinating. From
its earliest form, as part of the Chinese imperial examination system, to the modern
industry, the story of language testing, particularly over the past century, is important
as it highlights what I have always thought of as the Atlantic divide: the very dierent
approaches to educational testing that emerged in the USA and the UK in the early
years of the 20th century and which have come to dominate our world ever since.
e story of language testing has been told before, both by myself (O’Sullivan
2012) and Bernard Spolsky (2017). On this occasion, I hope to oer a (slightly)
lighter and I hope entertaining interpretation of that story. But before starting, I must
apologise to the late Gabriel Garcia Marquez for stealing my title from his wonderful
memoir—and a much more interesting read than my eorts!
Beginnings
My story begins over two millennia ago in about 200 BC. is was during the reign of
Emperor GaoZu Han, the rst Chinese Emperor and instigator of the rst meritocra-
cy in selecting bureaucrats. At that time, character and connections were considered
to be the important attributes of a good bureaucrat, so a formal system of recom-
mendation was introduced in order to populate the newly formed imperial bureau-
cracy. About 800 years later, in the later years of the Sui Dynasty (581–618), the
Emperor Wen introduced the Kējŭ, or Imperial Examination. is system of formal
competitive tests was to evolve over the following centuries into a fully standardised
165
Chapter 9: Issues in assessment
examination structure that had at its core the element of language. e structure
included numerous innovations such as:
• designated testing centres (which could accommodate up to 11,000 candidates at
any one time;
• candidate identication cards (where physical characteristics were recorded and then
checked on entry to the test centre); and
• certicates (though only for the top candidates in any one ‘Emperor’s test’, the high-
est level).
e system of exams started at the candidate’s local area and nished, for the lucky
and seriously intelligent few, at the feet of the Emperor himself (well, there was one
Empress). e idea was to lter out the people who could be reasonably expected to
perform a role at the many levels of society, from those who went on to set up their
own preparatory schools, to those who were to become local, regional or imperial
bureaucrats. e pressure was enormous. Passing at any level meant prosperity and
prestige for not just the individual, but also for the family. Results were announced
publicly, and for the very top achieving candidates, a certicate, written by the Emper-
or himself, was presented.
So, having invented the system of standardised examinations, the ever-resourceful
Chinese invented ways to undermine it. Some were fairly basic, such as employing
imitators; others were ingenious, time-consuming and downright artistic, such as
wearing an undergarment on which a person or family has written the contents of the
ve Confucian texts (upon which some levels of the examination were directly based)
with what are now thought to have been rat hairs! By the late 19th century the system
was in serious decline, and the Qing dynasty with it. e formal education system had
by now been abandoned and the Imperial examination system left to fend for itself.
As all this was happening in China, the word was spreading. e Jesuits had trav-
elled to China in the 16th century, and among the various ideas they brought back to
Europe was that of competitive examinations. Within a century they had introduced
the idea to their over 700 schools across Europe. is quickly spread to the military,
rst in Prussia and later in France, where the need for talented and intelligent ocers
had already been recognised. However, competitive testing was pretty slow to make a
signicant impact in the UK, and the reputation of the country’s leading universities
(Oxford and Cambridge) had hit an all-time low.
Coming to the west
In a series of lectures to the Royal Statistical Society, Sir Edwin Chadwick (1858,
1859, 1863) set out the case for competitive examinations in the British civil service.
Education reform in the UK had seen the introduction of the rst public examinations
for schools in 1858, and now the scene was set for a broadening of what was seen by
Chadwick (and others) as the positive benets across the education and administrative
systems of competition.
At around the same time, Charles Darwin published his seminal work, On the Ori-
gin of Species (1859), which was to have a signicant impact on his cousin, Sir Francis
Galton. Spurred on by his cousin’s treatise, Galton set about a career in which he
researched a whole variety of topics that focused on dierences in the population, from
166
Plenary: Living to tell the tale: a history of language testing
mental and physical characteristics to facial features and ngerprints. Along the way, he
invented the science of psychometrics, which focused on psychological measurement.
Not so far away, at the University of Leipzig, Professor Wilhelm Wundt was also
working to develop a new form of scholarship. In 1874 he published a book entitled
Grundzüge der Physiologischen Psychologie (Principles of Physiological Psychology), estab-
lishing psychology as an area of academic research. Wundt’s contribution to psychol-
ogy extended to the world of assessment through two of his students, one American
and one British. James McKeen Cattell, the American, completed his PhD under
Wundt at Leipzig in 1886 (title: Psychometric Investigations) and a year later opened
the world’s rst psychometric laboratory at the University of Cambridge in the UK.
From there he moved back to the USA, taking up a position at the University of
Pennsylvania, before nally moving to Columbia University in New York in 1891.
He stayed there as Professor of Psychology until his objections to the draft saw him
lose his position in 1918. He later won a legal battle with the university and used his
settlement to set up e Psychological Corporation, a very successful test publishing
company and now part of Pearson Assessment.
Standardising testing (13 centuries after the Chinese)
At Columbia, Cattell was to inuence the emerging eld of educational measurement
through his connection with people like Edward Lee orndike, Milo Hillegas and
Frederick J. Kelly at Columbia. orndike devised the rst standardised scale for
handwriting in 1904; he did this by collecting samples of handwriting from some
of his many former students who were now teaching. He then asked a large number
of these people to rank and/or compare a number of samples. Finally, he used the
resulting data to place all samples on a quality scale. To use the scale a teacher set out
the set of samples in order of quality, then walk along the line with an example of her
pupil’s handwriting and stop where it most closely matched a sample.
A few years later, Hillegas (1912) used the same approach to create a scale for
English composition. ese innovations marked the beginning of the standardisation
movement which saw the introduction of the world’s rst standardised test battery
in 2014, the Courtis Standard Tests, in which adaptations of scales were used. e
standardised test results were then compiled into graphical representations of class
and/or school performance. is marked the rst time a systematic quantication of
test results was presented for interpretation in this way. To this movement we can add
three additional innovations which were to have a signicant impact on the whole US
approach to educational testing.
1 e move towards standardisation was driven to a great extent by the huge popu-
lations to be tested in the by now well-established education system in the USA.
Around this same time, Karl Pearson (a protégé of Galton’s) described his corre-
lation coecient (1896), while William Sealy Gosset, a student of Pearson’s and
the chief brewer for Guinness brewery in Dublin, published his Student’s T-test
(1908); as an employee of Guinness he was unable to publish under his own name
so used the name ‘Student’ instead.
2 In 1913, the decision by the Association of Modern Language Teachers of Mary-
land to move away from the testing of speaking and writing (based on a report by a
specially appointed committee) when combined with the standardisation movement
167
described above, marked the beginning of the testing industry that came to domi-
nate US education in the years since then.
3 In his Kansas Test of Silent Reading (1916), Frederick J. Kelly introduced the
concept of the multiple-choice item. Kelly was an interesting person, who had
written his PhD thesis (under orndike at Columbia) on teachers’ marks, where
he demonstrated the weaknesses of the scales built by orndike and Hillegas. He
later went on to become the President of Idaho University and is said to have reject-
ed his most famous contribution to the world of educational testing (the MCQ)
declaring that ‘ese tests are too crude to be used and should be abandoned’.
e combination of the theoretical underpinning construct denition (structural-
ism), the new item type (the MCQ) and the increasingly complex statistical proce-
dures (correlation, t-test and others) set the scene for the rapid industrialisation of the
educational testing industry in the USA.
An Atlantic divide
Meanwhile, across the Atlantic, the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syn-
dicate, UCLES (who now operate as Cambridge Assessment English) introduced the
world’s rst formal English prociency test, the Cambridge Prociency Examination
(CPE). e purpose of the test was to establish evidence of the English prociency of
students wishing to study in the UK. Weir (2003) presents an interesting history of
the CPE, with a strong focus on its links to work of the great UK language education
theorist Henry Sweet. Sweet had published his highly inuential Rationally Progres-
sive Method in 1899 and his ideas around the importance of language production
were, according to Weir, to have a long-lasting impact on the Cambridge, and UK,
approach to language testing.
e British Council entered the world of English language testing in 1941, with
the signing of a formal agreement with UCLES to provide expertise to support their
tests, the British Council providing the link to teaching and learning practice that
UCLES depended on. Among the innovations they suggested over the years were
the use of gramophone recordings to standardise the testing of speaking (1942); a
high-level prociency test (above CPE) called the Diploma (1945); the recommenda-
tion for interviewing students in pairs (1951); and the world’s rst (admittedly basic)
formal rating scale (1953/4). e combination of the British Council and Cambridge
was to act as a signicant driver of UK English language testing for 50 years (see Weir
and O’Sullivan 2017).
e so-called old approach taken by the British, which focused on observable
language performance judged by language experts and linked to contemporary lan-
guage learning theory and practice, still drives English language testing in the UK
(with few exceptions) to this day. Meanwhile, the modern approach developed in the
USA, described by Carroll (1954: 2) as representing ‘a revolt from the subjectivity,
unreliability, lack of comprehensiveness, and general cumbersomeness of the old-style
examinations’, was to dominate educational testing (including English language) in
the USA for over a century. e theories were very dierent and the tests that emerged
from these theories were equally dierent. e Atlantic divide was born.
Out of this divide grew the TOEFL in 1964. Published by the Educational Test-
ing Service in the USA, the test reected the mood of the time. Based on a strictly
168
structuralist, multiple-choice approach, it was heralded for its reliability. is concept
was actually a technical innovation devised in 1937 by Kuder and Richardson and
later rened and named alpha by Lee Cronbach in 1951 (hence the name ‘Cronbach’s
alpha’). It referred to the internal consistency of a test, the hypothesis being that a
test is focused on a single ability or trait; demonstrating this required candidates to
correctly answer a series of questions related to the trait; a perfectly reliable test (reli-
ability = 1.0) would be where all candidates either demonstrated the ability (perfect
score) or demonstrated no trace of the ability (zero score). erefore, the perfect test
falls precisely in a space between two groups, one clearly above the level of the test,
and the other clearly below the level of the test. So, the perfect test tells us almost
nothing about the groups—they are way up there somewhere or they’re way down
there somewhere. But they’re not here! Not terribly useful …
Meanwhile, UCLES introduced other tests, including the First Certicate in Eng-
lish (FCE) in the mid-1940s. is followed the by-now-familiar UCLES pattern and
went on to become very popular with learners as it was seen to provide a pathway
through the learning process towards mastery. In the following decades, other tests
were added to what UCLES referred to as their Main Suite. However, before that was
to happen, there was a signicant development in UK teaching which was to have a
major impact on the way language was tested. is was the communicative language
teaching method. e communicative approach had a major impact on the British
Council as teachers across the organisation joined international colleagues in moving
away from the more traditional grammar translation approach.
In the mid-1970s, Brendan Carroll, a British Council language testing expert,
proposed to the British Council/UCLES Joint Committee that they work to develop
a totally new type of test. is was built on the early work of John Munby (also of
the British Council) and the recent innovations in communicative language testing
and the teaching of language for academic purposes (Munby 1978). e idea was
accepted by the Joint Committee and the UCLES team tasked with developing the
test. However, when they presented their test design to the British Council, it was
rejected as not meeting Carroll’s expectations. A group of the British Council’s own
testing experts were brought together by Carroll in 1978 to design and build the
English Language Testing Service (ELTS) which was launched in 1980; see Weir and
O’Sullivan (2017) for a detailed account of the test and its development. e test was
revolutionary in concept and design, with a strong communicative focus, including
integrated reading into writing tasks, and six domain-specic papers (medicine, sci-
ence, physical sciences, social studies, technology and general academic).
e ELTS became the International English Language Testing System (IELTS)
in 1990, when the test was updated in response to a critical validation report by
Criper and Davies (1989). In addition, the partnership added IDP, the institution
responsible for Australian Higher Education recruitment, prompting the addition of
the international element. e new test, shorn of three of its domain-specic papers,
continued to grow slowly through the early years of the 1990s and was further revised
by UCLES in 1995. By now it had no domain-specic papers and no integrated tasks.
It had become exactly what Carroll had not wanted, a general prociency test (though
an extremely good one) with little or no academic domain specicity. While there is
no doubt that the original design and development team at the British Council would
169
have wrung their hands at such a move, the test was phenomenally successful and by
the early years of the new century, it had overtaken TOEFL in terms of worldwide
recognition and sales.
By this time, the world of English language testing was undoubtedly dominated
by these two tests and the dierent philosophies upon which they had been built.
However, the world of English language testing itself was beginning to change. e
professionalisation of the area was highlighted by the number of overseas students
studying language teaching and testing at universities in the UK and the USA. As
these people brought their newly acquired expertise back home, they were to form
the basis of a new generation of test developers. e growth in inuence of the lan-
guage standards and frameworks such as the Canadian Language Benchmarks and the
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) since the turn of
the century, and the understanding of the need to localise these standards for use in
particular learning systems, saw a gradual move away from the local use of large-scale
international tests—rst to locally produced high-quality tests and then to localised
global tests (led by the British Council’s Aptis testing service).
Technology
As I prepared for this plenary, I was involved with a number of British Council-led
initiatives on intelligence and language testing and teaching. As an organisation, we
were far from the only group looking at this interesting if challenging area and already
the possibilities seem endless. English language testing today is very much dependent
on technology, so the addition of AI suggests that this dependency will only increase.
Some of the uses of technology are shown in Table 9.1.1.
Final thoughts
e issues that are most important and interesting in language testing (for me) include
the growing use of articial intelligence (AI) and test localisation. So, I’ll wind up this
paper with a brief overview on my thinking on where these might be leading us.
AI has been around for some time, and we regularly read stories about how we will
all lose our jobs because of it. Like a lot of other people, I’m pretty sceptical about
that as the human element in many jobs, especially in language teaching and test-
ing, is complex and intricate. In China, companies such as iFLYTEK and Luilishuo
are leading the way in terms of the automatic scoring of candidates’ speaking tests
using AI and machine learning. e former company is due to provide the scoring
engine for major tests in China such as the Gaokao from the near future. e use of
AI in this way allows ministries of education the opportunity to introduce a more
communication-focused curriculum than their resources typically allow. It also allows
for learning and testing opportunities to be made available for English and other
languages. However, there are some serious moral and ethical issues that must be faced
up to. One issue that I see is the danger of removing the teacher and the classroom
from the testing system
I have argued for many years that assessment must form part of any successful
learning system. e approach to curriculum design, to the delivery of the system
(including all things related to classroom materials, classroom and learner manage-
ment, the physical design and layout of schools and classrooms, teacher selection,
170
Corpora Building evidence of actual language use to drive construct

denition and understanding.
Item authoring Typically in the form of templates with built-in limits (e.g. word
limits, vocabulary lists, grammatical form lists etc.); will typically
also include quality control features (editing, trialling, etc.).
Item banking As items are deemed to have successfully passed through the
trialling and quality assurance systems they are uploaded into the
item bank. Here they are given a diculty estimate (based on the
trial results) and are tagged for content, focus and a range of other
relevant variables such as target L1 group.
Test development ese days, all major tests will include the previous two elements
platform in a single platform, often forming part of a single platform which
includes all elements included in this table.
Test delivery With more and more tests delivered digitally, test developers
platform rely even more on integrated platforms to ensure the secure delivery
of tests to all candidates.
Data collection In digital platforms all data are routinely collected automatically. e
structure of these data can be pre-determined to ensure that it can
be eciently analysed to prepare test results and to do things like
identifying pockets of similarity in responses (indicating possibly
cheating) or patterns of response (that may indicate that a group is
being biased towards or against).
Data management Without technology, data management would be extremely dicult. In
the early days of UK-style tests the numbers were very small and didn’t
really begin to grow substantially until the 1950s. In the USA, the
situation was dierent, with over 13 million Courtis tests sold in their
rst decade alone. Not a surprise then that it was in the USA that the
earliest machines for recording and structuring test data were built.
Data analysis Computer programs such as Facets, SPSS, Winsteps, Iteman and a
host of others make analysing data very much easier than it might be by
hand. Computer speeds also allow us to analyse data in seconds as
opposed to days only 30 years ago.
Test scoring e earliest machines were designed to read data cards, punched with
holes to indicate test item responses. A more modern version of
these are the ‘bubble sheets’ or optical mark reader (OMR) forms
which have been in use for many years. Many tests are now delivered
online so the answer key is built into the program, automatising the
scoring process. In tests of writing, developers have scanned students
work into a database and then sent the work out to raters to award
scores for some years now (this is called on-screen marking), while we
have seen examples of the automatic scoring of writing and speaking
emerging over the past two decades decade (with mixed success).
Report Student report forms and/or certicates are normally put together in a
construction database and bulk printed and prepared for posting, or printed to PDF
and delivery or other format and emailed direct to schools, employers or individuals.
Archive All major test developers retain archives of their tests and of test data)
which must be kept for a set period of time, depending on the laws
of the country or region (which are generally quite strict and clear,
particularly with the introduction of the General Data Protection
Regulation in 2018).
Table 9.1.1: The use of technology in testing
171
teacher education, etc.) and all assessment (formative and summative) must be based
on a unied philosophy of language and learning—see Figure 9.1.1. By taking the
teacher out of the assessment of language entirely we are signicantly weakening their
ability to support their learners. By replacing them with an AI system (particularly a
black box system which reports a test score and nothing more, and for which even the
developers have no idea of how the system estimates that score) we are falling back
into the age of the mysterious expert test developer who simply knows best. Teachers
should know how test systems work and they should ideally form part of that system.
e resultant transparency will mean that tests are no longer there to be feared (and
revered at the same time) but are seen to form part of a coherent system.
Figure 9.1.1: Learning system elements
e other signicant issue to be recognised and dealt with is the ethics around
making judgements about people which can impact on their future careers and lives
with limited understanding of how those judgements are arrived at. We do know
that AI systems are typically trained using language samples gathered from across a
particular population. e problem is, we don’t often think about the appropriateness
of the population we are collecting the data from in the rst place. Should they be
native speakers of English? Should they be procient speakers of English taken from
the target population (for example, for a test in ailand for 15 year olds, should we
only use samples from 15-year-old ai pupils?).
As for localisation of tests, we can identify two basic types:
• Tests that have been designed for a specic population and decision, which take local
considerations (test takers, education systems, stakeholder expectations etc.) into
consideration at all stages of the design, development, administration and evaluation
stages. ese are local tests.
• Tests that are built either with a specic population and decision in mind or tests
that have no particular population in mind, which are later systematically altered to
meet the needs of a particular population or decision. ese are localised tests.
e need for local or localised tests comes from the recognition that the test taker
should be central to the whole design and development process. is recognition
forms the basis of the socio-cognitive approach to test development and validation
(Weir 2005; O’Sullivan 2011, 2014, 2016). Essentially, the argument is that the test
taker must be considered when dening the construct (the aspect of language to be
tested), the test tasks, and the scoring and reporting system. An example of this might
be the fact that my test would need to look quite dierent if the age of the test taking
population changes dramatically, say from 18 year olds to 13 year olds. Tests should
be as closely tted to the test taking population as possible.
172
Of course, the ultimate in localisation will result in individualised or personalised

tests. is is where the test is focused on me as a learner, considering my interests (in
terms of themes and topics), my previous learning experience, and where possible
aspects of my personality). With our current testing systems this is not remotely pos-
sible, but with the aid of technology, this is clearly the future. Maybe there won’t be
any tests as we now know them!
Making predictions about the future is a bit of a fool’s game. However, education
policy makers, curriculum developers, teachers, materials writers, and testers we can
help to predict what the future might hold for our learners. How might we do that?
I’ll nish with a quote from Peter Drucker, a famous Austrian-born management
consultant and educator, who once suggested that ‘the best way to predict the future
is to create it’. Working together, we can do just that.
barry.o’sullivan@britishcouncil.org
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9.2 Cognitive validity in contemporary language assessment:

implementing the sociocognitive framework
Tom Garside Trinity College London, UK
e social, cognitive and evaluative dimensions of language use dened by Weir
(1990) and Weir and O’Sullivan (2011) can inform assessment practices as we move
towards a more holistic view of language testing. Prioritising test-takers and their
sociocognitive needs over the restrictions of the test construct and considering the
consequential outcomes of assessment can enable a more progressive view of what
place language assessment holds in the life of prospective university entrants.
By putting the test-taker, their interests, needs and motivations at the centre of
assessment settings, greater cognitive validity is made possible. Consider a theoreti-
cal driving simulator, providing an experience indistinguishable from that of driving
a real car, with high-res screens and movement to enhance the feeling of driving.
Despite this attempt at realism, throughout the simulated assessment process a large
part of the learner’s mind would be aware that there was no real risk to anyone on the
road; it would lack the authentic impact of driving a real car, interacting with other
road-users. As a result, someone who entirely learnt to drive and took their nal test
in this simulator would still feel very nervous about going out on the road in a real car
under normal driving conditions.
is is just how many overseas university entrants feel after taking tests such as
IELTS and TOEFL, which assess language ability in very restricted, construct-orient-
ed ways. Cognitive, linguistic and social processes brought about in these exams are
largely inauthentic; a test-taker in these settings rarely behaves, thinks, acts or produces
spontaneous, contextualised language as they would in real social or academic settings
174
Cognitive validity in contemporary language assessment
such as a college seminars or research meetings. It is therefore a common phenomenon

for high-scoring IELTS or TOEFL test-takers to arrive at university feeling personally,
socially and academically insecure, leading to lower academic performance.
ere are two reasons for this: rstly, as with the driving simulator, cognitive valid-
ity in traditional assessments is low and the setting is sociocognitively somewhat arti-
cial (test-takers know that they are answering questions chosen by the test designers,
talking about topics chosen by the examiners and fullling criteria for a passing grade
that they have been drilled to perform). Secondly, despite taking great care to focus on
specic linguistic knowledge, skills and metacognitive activity at very closely dened
levels of ability, traditional assessments tend to lack consideration of consequential
outcomes: the language requirements, social challenges and cognitive load presented
by the real-world academic situations in which test-takers will nd themselves.
A more progressive approach to language testing should take both of these fac-
tors into account. Contemporary examples of test constructs designed for sociocog-
nitive aspects of language use are found in the Trinity College London GESE and
ISE exam suites. ese include authentic, higher-order aspects of language which are
traditionally dicult to assess, but which relate strongly to skills for success in the
English-language university setting such as taking initiative in interaction, exibility
and spontaneity in language use, inference, and social appropriacy. ese competen-
cies are measured in assessment contexts that are more sociocognitively aligned to the
test-takers’ consequential settings.
In the integrated speaking and listening components of these exams, for example,
test-takers do not answer examiner-led topic-based questions, but prepare notes on a
topic of their own choice, perhaps supported with a visual aid or prop which they can
use to elaborate their talk. e interlocutor has no idea what the test-taker will talk
about, so their responses are more spontaneous and genuine (leading in turn to more
genuine responses from the candidate) than in some spoken assessments. Examiner
prompts in other sections of the test are indirect (for example, ‘Is it hot in here?’ or
‘My friend is coming to lunch tomorrow, but I don’t know what to make him …’),
prompting a wide range of possible social/functional responses, again facilitating more
exibility and ownership of interaction by test-takers and more closely mirroring the
types of language use required in real social/academic settings.
In summary, Weir’s three sociocognitive dimensions of language use are as relevant
today as they ever were, and continue to inform language assessments in terms not just
of language range and accuracy, but of communicative competences (Bachman and
Palmer 2010) and authentic performance. A candidate-driven construct can ensure
cognitive validity for the test-taker as they can control what language they use and
how they use it, just as they will in their life beyond the test.
tom.garside@languagepointtraining.com
References
Bachman, L. F. and A. S. Palmer. 2010. Language Assessment in Practice. Oxford: Oxford Uni-
versity Press.
Weir, C. J. 1990. Communicative Language Testing. New York: Prentice Hall.
Weir C. J. and B. O’Sullivan. 2011. ‘Test development and validation’ in B. O’Sullivan (ed.).
Advances in Language and Linguistics. Basingstoke: Palgrave.
175
9.3 Developing illustrative speaking performances

Kathrin Eberharter and Carol Spöttl Language Testing Research Group,
University of Innsbruck, Austria
What are illustrative performances?
Testing boards often publish video-recorded performances to illustrate the dierent
levels in an assessment scale; such performances are often referred to as illustrative
performances or benchmarks. A benchmark is a standard against which similar things
can be judged or measured. In assessment these are frequently used in the productive
skills of speaking and writing. Benchmarks are the result of a benchmarking workshop
where an expert panel rates several performances and decides on a level, band or score
for each performance. Sometimes benchmarks are also accompanied by written jus-
tications to illustrate the link between the descriptors in the rating scale and salient
features of the performance.
Why are benchmarks useful?
ere are several advantages to having a set of benchmarks, although some depend
on the purpose of the test. First, providing benchmarks is evidence of good practice
as outlined in the literature on test development and in the various codes of practice
(see link to the EALTA guidelines in the references below; ALTE and ILTA have also
published guidelines). It is also a requirement for CEFR-linked examinations in the
Manual for Relating Language Examinations to the CEFR (Council of Europe 2009).
ese situations more often apply to international, national or high-stakes examina-
tions. However, benchmarks have an important role to play at individual institution
level or in classroom-based testing. ey undoubtedly promote transparency and
fairness. ey make ratings across dierent classes or cohorts more consistent, which
in turn stabilises the standards for any examination over a longer time period. Bench-
marks become invaluable when new sta join the team or whenever a team of teachers
organise a hothousing session before administering a test. We would argue that even
just holding a benchmarking workshop contributes to an improved common under-
standing of the assessment criteria across sta members.
How can you develop your own benchmarks?
Figure 9.3.1 depicts three major steps in developing benchmarks. In the following
sections we will describe each step in more detail.
Figure 9.3.1: Steps in developing benchmarks
176
Developing illustrative speaking performances
Preparations before the workshop

First, you will need examination performances. Obtain written permission from
students or their parents well in advance of recording. ere are many legal issues
surrounding the lming of minors, and we recommend that you consult the nearest
responsible legal department for advice. Be clear about the purpose of the recording
and only lm volunteers. Should you plan to publish performances on a website,
use pseudonyms and only publish pass performances. You might also have to seek
additional permission from the student for online publication.
For the workshop itself, you will need the following documents: the tasks used
for the performances, rater numbers, the rating scale, rating slips (Council of
Europe 2009) where teachers can make notes and record decisions. If your test is
CEFR-linked, prepare at least one familiarisation task (see also Council of Europe
2009).
During the workshop
Distribute the rater numbers, rating scales and rating slips. Show the rst performance
and make sure that each rater works and rates on their own. Participants should take
notes during the performance to justify their rating and allow them to participate in
the discussion. Collect the slips and enter the results in a digital spreadsheet (such
as Excel, Numbers or Google Sheets; see Figure 9.3.2) that you can then show to
the group. Discuss the rst-round ratings at length and give raters the opportunity
to revise their rst decisions on a rating slip. e main aim of the discussion is for
everyone to share how they applied the descriptors from the scale and explain why they
have taken certain rating decisions. Collect slips again, enter any changes and present
the second-round ratings before deciding on a nal benchmark.
Figure 9.3.2: Spreadsheet of rating decisions of seven raters (R1−R7) on four different criteria
(TA, OL, LSR, LSA).
e aim of a benchmarking session is that participants reach a common under-

standing of how the scale can be applied. We know from research and experience
that raters don’t usually reach exact agreement. So, instead of trying to force agree-
ment on the participants by pressuring them to agree at all costs, focus the discussion
on reaching general consensus and refrain from coercing participants into supercial
agreement. If consensus is limited, try to at least agree on pass or fail.
After the workshop
If you do not wish to produce justications, there is not much to do after the bench-
marking workshop. If you want to write justications, use the notes from the rating
slips and the rating scale as a starting point.
177
If you are interested in how we published our B2 benchmarks, go to https://www.

uibk.ac.at/fakultaeten/soe/ltrgi/projects/speaking-performances/index.html.en.
kathrin.eberharter@uibk.ac.at
Reference
Council of Europe. 2009. Manual for Relating Language Examinations to the Common European
Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). Strasbourg: Language Policy Division. https://
rm.coe.int/1680667a2d.
EALTA. Guidelines of Good Practice. https://www.uibk.ac.at/srp/Englisch/PDFs/EALTA%20
Guidelines.pdf.
9.4 Impact of teachers’ classroom language assessment literacy on

students’ performance
Santosh Mahapatra BITS Pilani Hyderabad Campus, India
Trinity College London Language Examinations Scholarship winner
Background
Classroom language assessment literacy (CLAL) refers to the skills and knowledge
required to carry out classroom assessments eectively. Classroom assessment (CA)
is ‘learner-centred, teacher-directed, mutually-benecial, formative, context-specic,
ongoing’ (Angelo and Cross 1993: 4) in nature. Prepared by teachers, CA is integrated
into classroom teaching and involves the use of assessment methods like portfolios,
checklists, interviews, self- and peer-assessments, and so on. is presentation aimed
to explore the relationship between teachers’ CLAL and their students’ performance,
which is still an under-explored area.
Context
English teachers working at Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) second-
ary schools in India are required to carry out classroom assessments as part of the
Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) policy prescribed by the government.
However, due to lack of training in language assessment, the CLAL of most ESL
teachers is inadequate (Mahapatra 2015) and it adversely aects their CA practices.
Data collection
is longitudinal multiple-case study, which lasted for about 18 months, involved
three teachers and a class of students taught by each one from an urban English-
medium high school in Hyderabad, India. e study was carried out in three phases.
In the rst phase of the study, the teachers’ CLAL was assessed with the help of an
oral test which tested the teachers’ knowledge about CA and skills in designing CA
tasks and through observation of ve writing classes of each teacher. e assessment
tasks were assessed against a set of criteria proposed by Mahapatra (2015). en the
CLAL level of each teacher was determined using a set of rubrics which comprised
descriptors for ‘Expert’, ‘Eective’, ‘Acceptable’, ‘Inadequate’ and ‘Poor’ levels. For
example, ‘Expert’ was dened as follows:
178
Impact of teachers’ classroom language assessment literacy on students’ performance
Exhibits an excellent understanding of the principles of assessment and other basic

concepts related to assessment, designs appropriate assessment criteria and tasks,
chooses and utilises various methods of assessment effectively whenever required,
offers effective feedback to students on their writing, evaluates and improves used
assessments …
en their students’ writing portfolios, which comprised writing samples collect-
ed from students at regular intervals (once every 30 days), were assessed against a
set of rubrics adapted from Mahapatra (2018). e focus was on three aspects: Task
achievement and organisation (Category I); Sentence formation and vocabulary (Cat-
egory II); and Mechanics (Category III) which dealt with capitalisation, punctuation
and spelling. Four level descriptors were created to map students’ progress in writing.
While ‘Visible’ (represented by ‘A’) indicated clear signs of progress, ‘Some’ (represent-
ed by ‘B’) represented minor progress, and ‘Minimal’ (represented by ‘C’) referred to
absence of any observable change.
In the second phase, the teachers participated in a 60-hour CLAL-enhancement
programme which took four months and included components such as language
prociency, classroom assessment, objectives of assessment, assessment criteria, class-
room assessment methods, basic principles of assessment, designing tasks for various
language skills and sub-skills, vocabulary and grammar, and so on.
In the last phase of the study, all the steps followed in the rst phase were repeated.
Analysis of data
First, improvement, if any, in the teachers’ CLAL level and their students’ writing was
traced for each teacher through a comparison between the performance in the rst
and last phase of the study. en change in each teacher’s CLAL was placed against
the improvement in his/her students’ writing—see Figure 9.4.1.
First teacher’s change in Students’ progress (n = 65)

CLAL Category I: 45A + 20B
Poor Category II: 7A + 40B +18C
Category III: 18A + 39B + 8C
Acceptable
Figure 9.4.1: First teacher’s CLAL vis-à-vis his students’ progress in writing
Finally, a cross-case analysis was carried out in which the change in all three teach-
ers’ CLAL and their students’ writing are compared.
Teacher Improvement in CLAL Improvement in Students’ Writing

1 Poor – Acceptable 70A + 99B + 26C (N=65)
2 Poor – Eective 97A + 99B + 14C (N=70)
3 Inadequate – Eective 75A + 52B + 17C (N=48)
Figure 9.4.2: Cross-case comparison of teachers’ CLAL vis-à-vis their students’ progress
in writing
179
Findings and conclusion

e teachers showed signicant improvement in theory and task design but very little
change in attitude towards CA, and better integration of CA to teaching. In the case
of students, the highest improvement was observed in ‘task achievement and organi-
sation, and the lowest was found in ‘sentence formation and vocabulary’. e correla-
tion between improvement in teachers’ CLAL and improvement in students’ writing
performance was positive in all three cases. is implies that training in assessment
can make teaching less examination-driven, and adequate CLAL of teachers is key to
the eective use of assessment-for-learning and better student learning. More studies
need to be carried out on the impact of factors like school management and teachers’
workload and self-motivation on the development of teachers’ CLAL.
santosheu@gmail.com
References
Angelo, T. A. and K. P. Cross. 1993. Classroom Assessment Techniques: A Handbook for College
Teachers (second edition). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Mahaptra, S. K. 2015. Exploring the Relationship between Classroom Language Assessment Lit-
eracy and Practices using a Short-term Teacher Education Course. Unpublished PhD esis,
University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India.
Mahapatra, S. K. 2018. ‘Using CEFR-based bilingual rubrics to improve the writing ability
of ESL learners: A multiple case study’ in B. Tomlinson and A. Keedwell (eds.). Explorations:
Teaching and Learning English in India Issue 10: Using Inclusive Practices and Multilingual
Approaches (2). London: British Council.
9.5 Forum on the CEFR

Tim Goodier Eurocentres, London, UK and Evangelia Xirofotou Aristotle
University, Thessaloniki, Greece
The CEFR Companion Volume with new descriptors

Introduction
is year the Council of Europe published the nalised CEFR Companion Volume
with New Descriptors, an ocial extension of the Common European Framework to
Reference for Languages (‘CEFR’ or ‘CEFRL’). is is the product of a three-year
international authoring and validation project, coordinated by the Eurocentres Foun-
dation as NGO consultant. e text is free to download from www.coe.int and repre-
sents a huge step forward in collating, enriching and extending the CEFR illustrative
descriptors, providing an expanded focus on communicative competences relevant for
the 21st century.
What’s new in the CEFR Companion Volume?
e CEFR Companion Volume employs the same research methodology as the original
CEFR project to validate additional ‘can do’ illustrative descriptors for the reference
levels A1−C2. e new descriptors provide the following:
180
Forum on the CEFR
1 a more nuanced description of the reference levels including a ‘pre-A1’ level, ‘plus’
levels for A2, B1 and B2, and more descriptors for the ‘C’ levels;
2 scales for areas not illustrated in the original text, including ‘mediation’, online
interaction, response to literature, plurilingual and pluricultural competences; and
3 selected revisions to the original descriptors to better reect a plurilingual model
of language competence, including the removal of any references to ‘native speak-
ers’, and the replacement of the existing phonology scale with two new scales that
emphasise intelligibility rather than a native speaker ideal.
Also included is a 20-page text on key aspects of the CEFR for learning and teach-
ing, which is a relatively accessible and practical introduction to the exploitation of
the CEFR for course design and classroom practice.
The signicance of the CEFR illustrative descriptors
e international applicability of the CEFR levels A1 to C2 is rooted in its ‘action-ori-
ented’ approach to communication regardless of the language(s) used. is promotes
a positive recognition of plurilingual and pluricultural competences, as the personal
repertoire of languages and cultural experiences employed by the individual to achieve
their communicative aims in an environment of linguistic and cultural diversity.
Hence the CEFR emphasises unique proling of ability (as demonstrated in the Euro-
pean Language Portfolio) rather than categorisation of learners according to overall
language level norms. Users of the CEFR are thus invited to exploit and adapt the
illustrative descriptors selectively according to context and learner needs.
e descriptors derive their stability and relevance from large scale statistical val-
idation involving ratings by thousands of language professionals. is has become a
key factor in the CEFR’s enduring popularity for benchmarking of assessment, to the
extent that its intended use for learning and teaching is sometimes overlooked. As
learning aims and outcomes the descriptors correspond very well with meaning-cen-
tred task-based and communicative approaches, providing concrete and positively
formulated descriptions of performances at all levels. However, by necessity it is up
to us as users to relate CEFR descriptors to learning activities that include a focus on
target language practice of relevant lexis, grammar and phonology.
Towards a richer description of 21st-century communication skills
e CEFR has always diered from the traditional ‘four skills’ model of listening,
speaking, writing and reading, instead organising communication and strategies
according to:
• ‘reception’ (e.g. listening, reading, observing);
• ‘production’ (e.g. spoken and written monologue);
• ‘interaction’ (e.g. spoken, written exchange, face to face, remotely and online); and
• ‘mediation’ (e.g. mediating communication, texts or concepts).
It is this last category of ‘mediation’ that was missing from the original illustrative
descriptors, and has now been developed considerably with 19 new descriptor scales
in this area alone. e concept of mediation in the CEFR takes in a range of commu-
nicative tasks and strategies relating to collaborative team work, integrated skills, relay-
ing and synthesising text and meanings, and fostering better understanding among
others. us mediation competences, along with the new scales for online interaction,
181
plurilingual and pluricultural competences, are highly relevant to the cluster of ‘soft’
communication skills characterised as ‘21st-century skills’ in mainstream education,
with the advantage of being concretely described at each CEFR level.
International piloting of the new descriptors indicates they can provide a very clear
focus for teachers/educators to design relevant integrated skills tasks, and for learners
to evaluate their own performances formatively. is captures a clear paradigm shift
emerging in language education, emphasising the role of the language learner as social
actor, actively facilitating better understanding in multiple ways.
e experimental research presented in the second half of this CEFR forum indi-
cates how a clear focus on mediation competences in the language classroom can pro-
mote more successful outcomes in task-based communicative assessment, and better
equip learners for contemporary education pathways.
Using mediation strategies from an L1 to an L2 text
Introduction
e CEFR emphasises linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic communicative com-
petences, explaining that these competences are activated and developed through the
language activities of mediation. According to the CEFR (2001: 14), mediation is a
process in which the language user acts ‘as an intermediary between interlocutors who
are unable to understand each other directly—normally (but not exclusively) speakers
of dierent languages’.
Translator and mediator: similarities and differences
Similarities
Both need to be bidirectional between source and target language, act as a bridge
between cultures and remain impartial and neutral in any situation. Both the trans-
lator and mediator should be unprejudiced with regard to gender, religion, ethnicity
and socioeconomic status.
Differences
e key dierence between a translator and a cultural mediator is that a translator pas-
sively conveys messages from one language to another and is not responsible for the
information contained in the communication exchange, but intercultural mediators
‘may intervene if they decide that the contents of a communication may not benet
the participating cultures’ (Wang 2017: 95).
The Greek context and the importance of mediation
In 21st-century European societies and beyond, mediation has an important role to
play in the formation of plurilingual and pluricultural competence because it involves
interaction in, understanding of, sensitivity to and respect for other linguistic and
cultural communities, not only through learning and using foreign languages but also
through the individual’s ability to interpret and mediate between dierent cultures
and linguistic systems.
e importance of mediation has become very clear in the context of people’s
mobility within the European Union, and the refugee crisis has exacerbated the situ-
ation. Regarding immigration, the social context in Greece particularly has changed
182
Forum on the CEFR
dramatically. Greece has become a host country to large numbers of economic immi-
grants and refugees, which has brought about an increase in everyday intercultural
interaction between Greeks and people from other countries. is is one of the factors
which has led to the inclusion of specic linguistic mediation tasks in the Greek
KPG exam. is exam focuses on the development of intercultural linguistic and also
socio-linguistic skills by enabling multicultural people to act as intercultural media-
tors (Stathopoulou 2013).
Research methodology and results
Taking the KPG written mediation task as the starting point of my research, I set out
to assess the eect of written mediation strategy instruction on the production of a
written text in the target language, English.
e study involved the use of two groups: one experimental and one control group
of Greek learners of English. Both groups of language learners were enrolled in exam
preparation courses at B2 (upper-intermediate) level oered by private English lan-
guage institutes in Greece. e experimental group received instruction and practice
in reading, writing and mediation strategies. e intervention consisted of nine les-
sons delivered over a period of four months and was conducted in conjunction with
the regular EFL course. e control group did not receive the treatment but followed
the regular exam preparation course. e experimental group were given instruction
in skills such as brainstorming, skimming, topic sentence identication, summarising,
paraphrasing and vocabulary expansion, to name a few.
e results showed statistically signicant dierences in favour of the experimental
group in both discourse and linguistic strategies. My conclusion is that the teaching of
mediation strategies should become part of the language learning curriculum.
The value of mediation
By including mediation as one of the new competences required in language develop-
ment, the CEFR has recognised its importance in foreign language learning. Together
with an increased need for communicating in multilingual contexts and across mul-
tiple cultures, instruction in mediation strategies, both written and oral, will enhance
cultural knowledge, oer an authentic communication experience and allow for
signicant linguistic development in practical and meaningful ways.
tgoodier@eurocentres.com
exirofotou@hotmail.com
References
Council of Europe. 2001. e Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learn-
ing, Teaching, Assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Council of Europe. 2018. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning,
Teaching, Assessment (CEFR), Companion Volume with New Descriptors. Strasbourg: Council of
Europe Publishing. https://rm.coe.int/cefr-companion-volume-with-new-descriptors-2018/
1680787989.
Stathopoulou, M. 2013. Task Dependent Interlinguistic Mediation Performance as Translanguag-
ing Practice: e Use to KPG Data for an Empirically Based Study. PhD thesis. Faculty of
English Language and Literature. National and Kapodistrian University of Athens.
Wang, C. 2017. ‘Interpreters = cultural mediators?’. TranslatoLogica: A Journal of Translation,
Language, and Literature. 1: 93−114.
183
10 From reection to research:
CPD for teachers
A good teacher never stops learning, whether that means reecting on his or her
own practice, undergoing observations and mentoring, or carrying out research.
The opening paper in this chapter is by Tessa Woodward, Kathleen Graves and
Donald Freeman; they present a number of activities in which teachers can reect
on their own professional development. Niki Christodoulou then argues in favour
of a holistic approach to teacher professionalism, one in which teacher identity and
emotions take precedence over knowledge. Next, Maria Giovanna Tassinari shows
how reection among those working as language learning advisors (LLAs) helps to
dene the nature of the profession. Moving to observation and mentoring, Ana Gar-
cia-Stone reports on a project in which she and another teacher observed each other,
with valuable insights for both; Noha Khafagi then reports on a mentoring case study
with a difference. Daniel Baines manages a school where teachers nd CPD difcult;
his solution was an online whiteboard-sharing scheme, with benets for teachers at all
levels of experience. The next two papers address teacher research: Daniel Xerri out-
lines the value of research for teachers, while Nicola Perry discusses the formulation
of suitable research questions. Our nal paper is by Rubens Heredia, who reports on
an investigation into the relative merits of specic CPD initiatives, with far-reaching
implications.
10.1 Teacher development over time

Tessa Woodward Freelance, Elmstone, UK, Kathleen Graves University of
Michigan, USA and Donald Freeman University of Michigan, USA
Introduction
We three presenters have been teachers and teacher trainers, educators and mentors
for many decades. When we came together for a writing project, it therefore made
sense to us to take as our topic the trajectory of teacher development over the arc
of a professional career. We chose three trajectorist researchers, each a proponent of
teacher learning over time and concerned with harvesting data from teachers rather
than about teachers. With a brief mention of a recently published eponymous book,
we went on to offer practical activities for participants to try out. Each activity linked
to some aspect of the research on how teachers develop over time. After each activity
we invited discussion.
184
Teacher development over time
The practical activities

We organised our activities bank into three main groups under the headings: ‘Where
have I come from as a teacher?’, ‘Where am I now?’ and ‘Where would I like to go
next as a teacher?’
Activity 1
Our rst activity under the heading ‘Where have I come from as a teacher?’ was called
‘Material Changes’. We showed a list of materials used in teaching including Banda
machines, puppets and felt boards, through board games and pictures, to interactive
white boards and tablets. We invited participants to look at the list choosing one item
that they used regularly when they started teaching, one they use regularly now, one
they had never seen and one they knew that others used but which they didn’t.
Follow-up questions asked participants to consider which aids they missed, which
they would like to try and whether they were achieving similar aims in different ways
with different materials. Older participants commented that there were some materi-
als that they really missed, such as overhead projectors. This activity links to research
about how reframing something we take for granted can help us consider our practice
in new ways.
Activity 2
Our second activity served the theme ‘Where am I now as a teacher?’ For this, partic-
ipants needed a pen and paper and were invited to write ve or six sentences starting
with the phrase, ‘In my setting, a good teacher is considered to …’ They were to com-
plete the sentences with verbs such as ‘be’, ‘do’, ‘know’ and ‘have’. Once time for this
had been allowed, people were asked to write some thoughts starting with the words
‘The reasons for this are …’ and, nally, to write on the theme ‘The way I feel about
this is …’ This activity highlights the importance of a teachers’ relationship to their
context by inviting them to consider whether they are happy with the way a ‘good’
teacher is dened in their setting. There was discussion at this stage, especially among
those who were stuck in situations where their own denitions of ‘good’ teaching
differed from institutional norms.
Activity 3
Our last activity furnished a catalyst for thinking about the question ‘Where would I
like to go next as a teacher?’ A photo of an eddy in a river was displayed to the group.
Participants were invited to consider the picture as a metaphor for their work situa-
tion. Some suggestions were given, while people looked at the image, as to the sorts
of imaginative work that could be done. What did the current in the river represent,
for example? Perhaps the ow of students through your classes? Perhaps the coming
and going of teachers through the staffroom over time? Could the river banks repre-
sent the parameters of your work setting? The curriculum? The xed seating in your
classroom? And what about the eddy? What holding pattern does it represent for you?
What routine, what habit, what pattern are you in? What if a bank metaphorically
collapsed or a tree fell in? What change would that represent? Would you be glad?
How would you manage?
Some participants felt that the fast current represented, for them, the speed of tech-
nological change in their world. Some felt happy about the eddy, for they were strong
185
Chapter 10: From reection to research: CPD for teachers
swimmers and knew they could get out of the water any time they liked. Others felt
they were being dragged down as if in a whirlpool.
Using a picture as a metaphor can make aspects of our work situation clearer to us
and can point to changes we want to make in future.
Conclusion
It was suggested that time spent on activities such as these can change a possibly
routinised, difcult and lonely job into a fullling profession.
Reference
Woodward, T, K. Graves and D. Freeman. 2018. Teacher Development over Time. New York:
Routledge.
10.2 Practicing core reection: bringing out the best in EFL

teachers
Niki Christodoulou University of Nicosia, Cyprus
Introduction
Despite the challenges of today’s knowledge society and the need for a reective
approach to teacher learning, the emphasis in most educational landscapes is still on
developing explicit teacher competencies. As a result, teacher development workshops
often focus on what teachers need to know (competencies) rather than on who they
are as individuals (identity) or how they feel about themselves and their practice (emo-
tions). A careful review of the literature in ELT practice shows that teacher personality
is a missing variable in almost all discussions of reection. Despite the need ‘to reect
on inner levels and the recent surge of interest in the themes of teacher “identity”
and “self ”, the latter remains an unexplored territory, receiving far less attention in
the literature on teaching and teacher education than the outer levels’ (Korthagen
2008: 93). As an antidote to the existing competency-based educational landscape,
Korthagen proposes a reconceptualised and holistic version of teacher education in his
onion model of change which promotes core reection as the basis for teacher pro-
fessionalism. This paper briey describes core reection, the onion model of teacher
development and a workshop in which EFL teachers from around the world had the
opportunity to reect and excavate their core qualities.
Core reection
Core reection is a deeper type of reection which focuses on the inner potential (core
qualities) of a person. Core qualities are personality characteristics such as creativity,
exibility, care, decisiveness, trust and courage. One important assumption fundamen-
tal to core reection is that although positive qualities are always present in a teacher,
they are often unconscious. Another important assumption basic to core reection is
the deliberate choice to focus on a teacher’s attributes and positive emotions. Limiting
186
Practicing core reection: bringing out the best in EFL teachers
thoughts, negative emotions or external obstacles often present in a teacher’s context

are absent from the core reection process as they block the natural ow of positive
energy. In short, core reection focuses on a teacher’s character strengths and not
on what is considered imperfect or problematic. At the heart of the core reection
process, lies Korthagen’s onion model of teacher professional development.
The onion model
The onion model of change is composed of three inner and three outer co-centric
circles which represent the six layers of a teacher’s professional functioning (Figure
10.2.1).
Figure 10.2.1: Core reection from the inner levels (adapted from Korthagen 2008)
The idea behind the model is that teacher professional development is a bottom-up
approach which starts with teachers reecting on their own experiences and concerns,
thus placing teacher mission, identity and beliefs (inner layers) in the centre of reec-
tive teacher development. Although reection on teacher competencies, behaviour
and environment (outer layers) is part of the onion process of change, reection on
the qualities already embedded in a teacher’s personality should take place rst. The
arrow and its direction added by the author (Christodoulou 2016) underline the
importance of beginning the core reection process from the inner levels of a teacher’s
professional functioning.
The workshop
The aim of my workshop was the conscious application of core reection as a tool for
excavating was is best in EFL teachers. First, the ten participants who attended the
workshop familiarised themselves with the main principles behind core reection and
with Korthagen’s onion model. Then, they were guided to place special focus solely
on the identity and mission levels of the onion model since reecting on these two
inner levels provides great insights to a teacher’s core qualities and personality. Using
the stream of consciousness approach, participants were prompted to reect on their
positive qualities and strengths by writing in their journals for ten minutes. Finally,
187
they shared their journal reections (thoughts and emotions) in pairs and in a large
group reective discussion.
Preliminary ndings of consciously applying core reection in a workshop showed
that EFL teachers enjoyed the process of excavating their positive core qualities. They
reported discovering that they possessed patience, perseverance, creativity, humour and
whole-heartedness—qualities that were hidden but always present in them. Identifying
their core qualities and character strengths and discussing them with other EFL teachers
was a new and cathartic experience as their previous habitual patterns of thought had
focused on what was wrong rather than on appreciating what is best in them.
Conclusion
Core reection and the onion model of teacher development is an empowering tool at
the hands of EFL teachers who aim to discover their identity and mission by focusing
on appreciating their character strengths and valuable core qualities.
dr.niki.christodoulou@gmail.com
References
Christodoulou, N. 2016. Reective Development through the Care Model: Empowering Teachers of
English as a Foreign Language. Newcastle Upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Korthagen, F. and A. Vasalos 2008. ‘“Quality from Within” as the Key to Professional Development’.
Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association,
March 2008, New York.
10.3 Language advisors’ self-perception: exploring a new role

through narratives
Maria Giovanna Tassinari Freie Universität Berlin, Germany
Language learning advising (LLA) was introduced in the 1970s as a support for learn-
ers involved in self-directed and/or autonomous language learning. In LLA settings,
an advisor helps a learner to organise and reect on their learning process, either in
individual face-to-face sessions or via virtual communication. In the last three decades,
language advisors have been increasingly represented in self-access centres, language
centres, schools and private companies.
Although principles and practices of LLA have been explored in depth (Mynard and
Carson 2012), less research exists on how language advisors perceive themselves, what
challenges they face, and what their needs are in terms of recognition, or profession-
al development. Working as a language advisor myself, I decided to investigate these
topics, with the aims of shedding light on the complex reality of LLA, identifying a
core understanding of LLA, investigating the advisors’ own perceptions, and giving
visibility to this role within the language learning and teaching landscape.
To this purpose, I choose narrative inquiry, which makes use of stories to nd out how
individuals make sense of their experience and is ‘the only methodology that provides
access to language teaching and learning as lived experiences’ (Barkhuizen et al. 2014:
12). For the pilot study, 20 narratives were collected ‘to get into the eld and in touch
with the rst cases and insights’ (Flick 2009: 433). The participants were asked to send
188
Language advisors’ self-perception: exploring a new role through narratives
by email a statement about their personal history as a language advisor, their under-
standing, and the mutual relationship between their advising and teaching practice.
The participants, 14 women and six men aged between 23 and 63, came from
Brazil, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Ireland, Japan, Mexico, the UK and New Zea-
land. They had all majored in English as a Foreign Language (EFL), with some of them
holding a PhD degree. Their years of experience in advising ranged from 3½ to 25.
Common understanding of LLA
The narratives show that, in spite of differences, there is a common understanding of
LLA as ‘a person-centered approach’ (advisor no. 17), the main features being active
listening, non-directive dialogue, support for reection, decision-making and auton-
omy. These aspects are summarised by the following statement:
I see my role as that of a language and cultural mediator, whereby this mediation is
between what is to be learnt, the people involved in the process, their histories, beliefs,
their external and internal triggers, the learning culture they have acquired/experienced
and the nal aim for the learning they have chosen to take. (advisor no. 9).
Although most participants are also language teachers, being language advisors is
for them a more rewarding role, since it allows a deeper and more personal interaction
with learners and helps to gain better insight into each individual’s learner biography.
Two narratives
To deepen the analysis, two narratives were contrasted, which reported on different
experiences. Advisor no. 5 and advisor no. 8, respectively 35 and 62 years old, had
been advising for six and 22 years. Although they both had a background in EFL
and worked in higher education, their understanding of LLA differed. Advisor no.
5 saw her function as ‘cater[ing]to the various needs’ of students as ‘unique individ-
uals’; switching roles and acting ‘like a chameleon’; and being in turn a ‘bookstore
staff member’ (giving information); an ‘escort runner’ (helping students to keep their
pace); a ‘coach’; and a ‘cheerleader’ (cheering up learners to boost their motivation).
On the other hand, advisor no. 8 focused on ‘giving students true ownership of their
learning’ and on ‘[c]ounselling, and caring for […] to support troubled university
students to nd their learner voices’ and develop autonomy.
Thus, while advisor no. 8 explicitly related LLA to learner autonomy as one of its
pedagogical aims, advisor no. 5 did not; in addition, working as an advisor made it
possible for advisor no. 8 to enter a ‘safe space’ with the students, in contrast to the
language classroom, which may not always be safe, especially for ‘troubled students’.
Thus, advisor no. 8 saw her role as complementary to the teacher role, while advisor
no. 5 saw herself more as a service provider. This different understanding of LLA
may be due to the different background and training for advising: Neuro-Linguistic
Programming courses, communication and self-coaching workshops for advisor no.
5, and a focus on pedagogy for autonomy, hands-on training, peer-mentoring and
research on advising for advisor no. 8.
The rich data collected in the pilot study and the feedback of the participants,
enthusiasts of being given the opportunity to reect on themselves as language advi-
sors, show that further research in this eld is needed.
giovanna.tassinari@fu-berlin.de
189
References
Barkhuizen, G., P. Benson and A. Chick. 2014. Narrative Inquiry in Language Teaching and
Learning Research. London: Routledge.
Flick, U. 2009. An Introduction to Qualitative Research. Los Angeles, Calif.: Sage Publications.
Mynard, J. and L. Carson (eds.). 2012. Advising in Language Learning: Dialogue, Tools and
Context. Harlow: Pearson Education.
10.4 Teacher agency: empowering teachers through self-directed

observations
Ana García-Stone British Council, Madrid Teaching Centre, Spain
Teacher agency
The basic notion of agency is the capacity to act, but as Biesta et al. (2015) point out,
your belief system is also a dimension of agency in that you need to believe that you
can act, inuence the future and bring about change. The project described below
was the result of having the agency to act to provide self-directed CPD through a peer
observation project with a colleague.
The project
The idea came from two sources: a casual conversation at IATEFL with Tessa Wood-
ward, who suggested I work with a younger colleague, and my interest in trying alter-
native types of peer observations. So I invited a colleague to undertake the project
with me as she was a recent addition to the teaching centre where I have been working
for over 20 years. We agreed on an approach that would allow us to grow and learn
as ‘there is no professional development without exposure, and exposing weaknesses
is tricky unless there is complete trust. […] Some sense of mutuality or reciprocity is
also important for me’ (Curtis in Bailey et al. 2001: 5). This was a fundamental aspect
of our conversations, which were private dialogues in a safe space. We tried out three
types of observations over an academic year, one a term. On average, we spent around
an hour discussing the observations and an hour afterwards evaluating them.
The rst observation (O1) was unseen; we met to discuss our lesson plans, we
taught those lessons on our own, and we met afterwards to discuss how the lessons
had gone. My partner wanted to solve planning issues she was having teaching an
age group that was new to her (four year olds), and I wanted to try out Task-Based
Learning in its ‘strong’ form. I rediscovered the pleasure of planning and found myself
become increasingly involved in the process until the original lesson grew into three
consecutive lessons. My partner found she was able to develop a framework for teach-
ing this age group, which allowed her to plan more easily for the rest of the year.
The second observation (O2) was as follows: I planned for my class, my partner
taught my class, I sat in and we discussed it afterwards, and vice-versa. My partner
found my plan easy to follow but found the transitions difcult as they were not
included, so clearly these are routinised but not articulated. As my partner’s plan was
organised via ip charts, I felt I did not have the space to write vocabulary on the
board; this raised questions about vocabulary at the C2 level and how I dealt with it.
190
Creating a functional structured mentoring programme: a case study
In the third observation (O3), we recorded each other teaching for 45 minutes,
we watched those videos separately, and met to discuss any issues that we chose from
the videos. We found this observation the least fruitful as we both felt it needed to be
more structured.
Evaluation
Each type of observation offered different perspectives on our teaching. We found O1
valuable in that in one case it solved a lesson planning issue and in the other, it allowed
for experimentation. We both thrived on the fact that we were only trying to please
ourselves and were not planning or teaching for an actual observer.
O2 allowed us both to see our planning from an outside perspective although
the learning came from the experience of teaching the other’s plan. In my case I
questioned my assumptions on how much vocabulary is necessary for C2 learners
and what they need to record, so in fact I decided to run some CPD in my teaching
centre to explore this further. The act of teaching rather than thinking about teaching
allowed me to uncover a teaching belief.
O3 as stated above was the least useful as we realised we needed to specify an aspect
of our teaching that was visible, such as teacher−student interaction patterns.
Conclusion
Peer collaboration is a valuable source of CPD if done in a spirit of mutual support;
as Edge states, ‘I need someone to work with, but I don’t need someone who wants
to change me [...] I need someone who will help me see myself clearly’ (1992: 4).
These types of self-directed observations were empowering, giving us a sense of agency
and control over our environment so that we were able to make the adjustments we
wanted in our context and we were answerable only to ourselves.
ana.garcia-stone@britishcouncil.org
References
Bailey, K., A. Curtis and D. Nunan. 2001. Pursuing Professional Development: The Self as Source.
Boston, Mass.: Heinle Cengage Learning.
Biesta, G., M. Priestly and S. Robinson. 2015. ‘The role of beliefs in teacher agency’. Teachers and
Teaching 21/6: 624−640.
Edge, J. 1992. Cooperative Development: Professional Self-development Through Cooperation with
Colleagues. Harlow: Longman.
10.5 Creating a functional structured mentoring programme: a

case study
Noha Khafagi The American University in Cairo, Egypt
Introduction
The vast majority of research on mentoring has mainly targeted the benets gained
by the mentee, who usually is a novice teacher (Tomlinson 1995). Very little research
has focused on mentoring as a vehicle for advancing the profession. I demonstrated
191
that the relationship between the mentor and the mentee is symbiotic and that their
integrated roles improve the teaching/learning context. Functional structured
mentoring is a dynamic approach that makes use of both the mentor and mentee’s
competencies, knowledge, skills, and resources and results in the success of this
dynamic interaction.
The context
I reported on a mentoring case study conducted in the Department of English Lan-
guage Instruction (ELI) at The American University in Cairo over the course of one
semester. The mentee, a teaching fellow, was assigned to one 60-minute class, four
days a week. He attended and shadowed the class teacher for one hour three days a
week, and taught the fourth class.
Table 10.5.1 illustrates the difference between a standard/traditional mentoring
programme and the functional programme which I designed.
Standard/Traditional Mentoring Functional Structured Mentoring

1. Programme already established 1. Programme dynamic and exible
(initiation done by programme (meetings agreed by both mentor
directors) and mentee)
2. Focus on organisational 2. Focus on programme development
procedures rather than reective (content, goals, outcomes and
conversation reection)
3. Mentorship logistics (timeline, 3. Mentorship logistics agreed by
periodic meetings) imposed by the both parties, leading to relationship
programme building
4. Formal observations 4. Both formal and informal
observations
5. Work record sheet (log) 5. Mentor−mentee self-reection
6. Informing mentee of progress 6. Communication guidelines (based
through observation tools on reciprocity)
7. More concerned about ‘what’ to do 7. More concerned about ‘how’ to do
it
8. Teaching resources provided by the 8. Resources and support contributed
programme by both mentor and mentee
9. Measuring success together through
reective conversations and
reective tools
Table 10.5.1: Differences between traditional and functional structured mentoring
192
Creating a functional structured mentoring programme: a case study
The case study

The mentor modied the mentorship programme to allow for more interaction
between the mentor and mentee to achieve the goals of the functional structured
approach mentioned above. The mentor met with the mentee every day, before or
after class, for constructive, non-judgmental feedback. These meetings have proven
to be the most candid and realistic ways of understanding the dynamics of mentoring
and allowed the mentee to instantly identify what he did well, and what needed to
change or be modied. In a traditional mentorship, this valuable stage is often lost
when the mentee is asked to ll in the reective logs days after the teaching and
shadowing take place.
Data collection
Data collected during the 56-hour coaching, as well an end of semester questionnaire
designed to elicit more information on the reciprocal mentorship, provided remark-
able implications for administrators. The data proved that mentoring, if carried out
properly, is a strong comprehensive professional development opportunity that is
more effective than the traditional organisational programme.
Findings
Responses to the informal daily meetings and end of semester questionnaire were very
revealing. All 17 open-ended questions enquired about the complementary roles the
mentee and mentor played. The mentee attested to the dynamic interaction by saying:
‘We met routinely before class for about 15−20 minutes each session and sometimes
after as well to discuss the direction of the class.’ The mentee commended the efforts
of the mentor in organising the syllabus, lesson plans and schedule for the semester
ahead of time; he also appreciated the instant feedback. The mentee reported that
the tone and manner in which they progressed through the semester were mostly
informal. In terms of specic areas, the mentor learnt how the mentee integrated
technology in the classroom. Another noteworthy aspect was that the mentor could
see from start to nish the arc of the class through the mentee’s weekly teachings
and daily reections. He agreed that the optimal form of mentorship in an academic
setting was one that was carried outside the class as well; the mentee acknowledged
that outside experiences shaped in-class practices.
Conclusion
Functional mentoring creates a win-win situation. The approachability of the men-
tor, the frequency of meetings and informal encounters led to a better mentorship
relationship and more effective mentee’s experiences and learning outcomes. The
structured functional mentoring validated the mentor’s experience and developed the
mentee’s skills and competencies.
nohakhaf@aucegypt.edu
Reference
Tomlinson, P. 2001. Understanding Mentoring: Reective Strategies for School-based Teacher
Preparation. Buckingham: Open University Press.
193
10.6 CPD through whiteboard sharing for novice teachers

Daniel Baines Oxford TEFL Prague, Czech Republic
In private language schools in the Czech Republic and surrounding areas, teachers
are increasingly underpaid, overworked and forced to work on a freelance basis. The
result of this is that rather than being able to spend time on professional development,
teachers are instead required to work as much as possible to make a living.
The challenge for academic management in this context is to provide development
opportunities for newer teachers that do not jeopardise the teachers’ earning potential
and do not make unrealistic demands on their time. Being a director of studies for a
small language school, I tried a number of different forms of CPD with varying levels
of success:
• Workshops: these were well received, but it was impossible to nd a time that suited
everyone.
• Peer observation: dicult to organise as teachers typically work at the same time and
would have to give up work.
• Lesson planning surgeries: conicting schedules caused problems.
• Management observations: popular, but sometimes it can be a week until feedback
is given due to schedule conicts.
As a solution I set up a Facebook group where teachers could share pictures of their
boards and discuss the lessons. The idea was to provide a form of unseen peer obser-
vation and to make it accessible at any time, meaning that no teachers were excluded
due to time restriction. Participation would be possible from home or while travelling
between lessons. Initially it began with me posting a task that required teachers to pho-
tograph their board and then discuss each others’ in the comment threads. This evolved
into me posting pictures of my board and leaving some methodology related discussion
questions below and culminated in sharing boards found using #ELTwhiteboard on
Twitter and encouraging teachers to discuss and then share images they had found.
The project was not as successful as I had expected it to be, with only a few teachers
participating on a regular basis and very few actually posting pictures of their white-
boards. There was some discussion of the boards posted by me, but again, nothing
like I had imagined initially. After surveying the teachers who took part, a few things
became clear. Despite not actively participating in the group, all the teachers I spoke
to found it useful to be a part of the group. They saw the posts that I made, read them
and took ideas and inspiration from them and also found it extremely eye-opening to
be able to look into someone else’s classroom and see what they do.
Conclusions
As a CPD tool, it isn’t perfect, but it meets a lot of the requirements for busy teachers.
It is free, practically focused and, importantly, fully on demand. It can be accessed
from anywhere at any time and teachers are free to contribute as much or as little as
they like. However, to be set up and run well, there are a number of points that need
to be considered.
• A lack of active participation does not mean that the project isn’t working as a devel-
opment tool. Many teachers will not be able (or willing) to post for a number of
194
Developing teachers’ conceptions of research
reasons (insecurity, forgetting to photograph their board or feeling they don’t have
anything to contribute), but will still take something away.
• It will need a leader. Somebody will need to take responsibility for the group, at least
in the early stages. A lack of participation is not a problem in terms of learning, but it
is a problem if nobody posts anything. Over time it may become more autonomous.
It’s possible to have a bank of whiteboards and tasks to post at regular intervals to
make administration easier.
• Some posts generate more discussion than others. Tasks related to language work
well, as do posts that demonstrate specic activities. If tasks are too long or compli-
cated, teachers can nd them a little intimidating and do not know how to begin
answering. When teachers are encouraged to nd examples of whiteboards online,
they seem more willing to share and discuss them.
• Facebook is an eective platform for this type of project. Group posts allow nested
comments meaning that teachers can post images below the parent post and each
post then can have its own comment thread. It is also widely used and easy to access
on mobile.
dos@oxfordhouse.cz
10.7 Developing teachers’ conceptions of research

Daniel Xerri University of Malta, Msida, Malta
What is research?
Despite being most often associated with academia, research is a valuable enterprise
for classroom practitioners. It is both a means by which they can grow as professionals
and improve learning and teaching. However, teachers are bound to feel alienated from
research if they conceive of it as an activity that exclusively belongs to the academic
domain. This alienation is inimical to language education given that teachers are at
the chalkface. Their knowledge of the subject, context and learners most probably
makes them ideally placed to develop insider insights into what happens in the black
box of the classroom and the reasons for these events. The impact of these insights
risks being blunted by a narrow understanding of research foisted upon teachers by
the academic community that studies the classroom from an outside perspective.
Limited conceptions of research might lead some teachers to think of it as some-
thing necessarily involving a hypothesis, statistics or in-depth analysis. However, in
essence, research is the process of asking a question about something you are interest-
ed in or puzzled by, and then nding an answer to that question. This view is shared
by Christine Coombe, who says that ‘research is basically nding out something that
I either have an interest in and I didn’t know about before, or just learning some-
thing new about my students’ (as cited in Xerri 2017a: 36). What this implies is that
research is a democratic and inclusive activity that belongs to all those teachers who
are curious about language education and the events in their classrooms. However, if
teachers wish to engage with and in research, they might require support with their
conceptualisation of research.
195
Teacher research engagement

There are two dimensions to teacher research engagement. The rst one involves
teachers reading published research or listening to research talks at a conference. The
other aspect involves teachers doing research in their own classrooms. Both forms of
research engagement are benecial to teachers and can have an impact on learning
and teaching. Both of them entail a level of research literacy that enables teachers to
harness research as effectively as possible. On the one hand, it is important for teach-
ers to be able to critically engage with the research produced by other professionals
and to explore whether it resonates with their own context and learners’ needs. On
the other hand, teachers need to possess the technical competence to nd answers to
the questions they might have about their teaching and learners. Related to this, and
perhaps even more important, is the idea that teachers need to have broad conceptions
of research that allow them to see themselves as professionals who are capable and
eligible to do research.
Inclusive conceptions of research have the potential to boost teachers’ condence as
teacher-researchers and lead them to think of research as an intrinsic part of their pro-
fessional identity. In fact, Kathleen Graves laments the fact that most often ‘Teacher
and researcher are not seen as part of the same identity … Teachers may see research as
separate from them … Understanding that research is a possible part of your identity
as a teacher is important’ (as cited in Xerri 2018: 38). Once research is thought of as
something forming part of their professional identity, teachers are much more likely
to exploit the benets of research engagement.
Facilitating research engagement
The need to broaden teachers’ way of thinking about research and their relationship
with research is deemed to be so crucial that Dudley Reynolds considers it to be
one of the main challenges to teacher research engagement. He maintains that ‘the
main obstacle is simply the understanding of what research is. It’s an understanding
that can disempower the teacher; it makes them feel decient and dependent on the
outside expert. So, the rst step is really to begin to change that understanding of
what research is and how it ts into practice’ (as cited in Xerri 2017b: 12). This idea
implies that supporting teachers should go beyond merely equipping them with the
knowledge and skills to read and do research. The most fundamental form of support
consists of empowering them to see themselves as professionals who already engage in
practices that run parallel to research as an activity. By developing their beliefs about
research and themselves as research engaged professionals, teachers are encouraged
to explore the questions they have about teaching and learning. In essence, teachers
come to feel that they can and have a right to answer their questions.
daniel.xerri@um.edu.mt
References
Xerri, D. 2017a. ‘ “Breaking boulders into pebbles”: Christine Coombe on teacher
research’. ETAS Journal 35/1: 36–39.
Xerri, D. 2017b. ‘ “Teachers want to know answers to questions”: Dudley Reynolds on teacher
research’. ETAS Journal 34/3: 12–13.
Xerri, D. 2018. ‘ “Generating knowledge for themselves”: Kathleen Graves on teacher research’.
ETAS Journal 35/3: 38–39.
196
Research in language teaching: asking the right questions
10.8 Research in language teaching: asking the right questions

Nicola Perry Freelance, Baoding, China
A successful research project depends on a clear question that denes what the project
is about. This notion was the basis of the workshop that closed the ReSIG showcase
day at the 2018 conference. ReSIG promotes and supports both teacher researchers
and MA students. This issue is a recurring theme for both of these groups. However,
there are a number of tried and tested methods which will lead to a good result.
Teachers spend a lot of time asking questions in their classrooms: questions to
elicit, questions to check, questions to test. So, why is it so difcult to write a research
question? Academic research is sometimes considered daunting. Classroom teachers
may feel it is too difcult, too time consuming or not relevant to what they do day
to day. However, it is becoming widely accepted now that good classroom-based or
action research can help teachers improve their practice and enhance their profession-
al development.
The most common approach is to start with a broad topic and later, narrow the
focus. An early work on action research suggests the approach shown in Figure 10.8.1.
Purpose Why are you engaging in this action research?

Topic What area are you going to investigate?
Focus What is the precise question you are going to ask yourself?
Product What is the likely outcome of this research, as you intend it?
Mode How are you going to conduct the research?
Timing How long have you got to do the research?
Resources What resources can you call upon to help you complete the research?
Figure 10.8.1: An approach to action research (adapted from Wallace 1998: 21)
Although this guidance seems clear, many novice researchers struggle with aspects
of action research, particularly in ensuring the focus matches the product and more
especially, devising the precise question. In response to this, a number of researchers
have been seeking ways to make this simpler and more accessible. Paula Rebolledo
and Richard Smith, for example, have developed a methodology around the concept
of exploratory action research. This is a staged approach and is likened to peeling an
onion: ‘Before we start peeling an onion, what we see is the outer layer—what is
evident to our eyes. After that, layer after layer is uncovered …’ (Smith and Rebolledo
2018: 32). The method suggests having a mentor or peer to ask questions as a way of
peeling back the layers to explore the topic.
This session was a workshop so it was important that participants had the chance
to work on some questions to practice this idea. Questions we considered were as
follows:
Can I use learning journals to assess writing?
Participants were asked work in groups to analyse component parts of the question
to get inside what the project might be about. For example, if the project is about
197
learning journals, questions might be: What kind of journal? How often would they
write it? Where and when would they write it? For how long? With what purpose? If
the project is about assessment, questions would be different: Formative or summa-
tive? Several assessments over a period for one journal or one assessment after an end
date? By asking these exploratory questions, the teacher will eventually get a clearer
idea of their purpose and focus to move forward with the project.
Why do my students have problems with listening skills?
The analysis revolved around which listening skills and what kinds of problems. In
exploring these aspects, the teacher may begin to notice patterns: specic problems
with certain listening sub-skills. This helps to narrow the focus and give the teacher
ideas about what techniques to try in order to help students solve those problems.
These results can be used by the teacher to improve their classroom practice and,
maybe shared with peers or at a conference.
In the session, there were an equal number of teacher practitioners and those doing
academic research for MAs or PhDs. In this summary, I have focused on teachers
because I am a teacher and that’s what I’m interested in. However, we all agreed on the
day that the problems and how to solve them are the same for all of us. The stakes may
feel higher in some cases and projects (and the writing up of results) may be bigger
with academic research but we all face the same challenges when starting out.
nicolaperry57@hotmail.com
Reference
Smith R. and P. Rebolledo. 2018. A Handbook for Exploratory Action Research. London: British
Council.
Wallace M. J. 1998. Action Research for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
10.9 Measure and treasure: assessing teachers’ needs and

evaluating CPD initiatives
Rubens Heredia Cultura Inglesa, São Paulo, Brazil
Introduction
Continuing professional development (CPD) has become a popular topic of discus-
sion in ELT contexts, but in many cases decisions are still largely based on subjective
impressions. This presentation aimed at helping teachers and educational leaders
make more informed decisions when assessing teachers’ needs and evaluating CPD
initiatives. Information was gathered from a survey with 184 respondents carried out
in 2017, as well as analysis of results in key performance indicators (KPIs) obtained
from 400 teachers in a large Brazilian language centre between 2013 and 2017.
The decision-making process
Participants in the study were 184 professionals (64 per cent full-time teachers; 14
per cent self-employed teachers; 10 per cent part-time teachers; 10 per cent academic
198
Measure and treasure: assessing teachers’ needs and evaluating CPD initiatives
coordinators or directors of studies; and 2 per cent academic managers). They were
asked to share their perceptions of the effectiveness of different CPD initiatives. Face-
to-face courses longer than 20 hours (90 per cent) and attendance at professional
conferences (89 per cent) were considered the most effective, followed by coaching
and mentoring (88 per cent), peer observation (86 per cent) and self-study (85 per
cent). Online courses (63 per cent) were considered the least effective.
This demonstrates a general perception within the group that extended CPD ini-
tiatives mediated by a more capable peer are more useful developmental tools. This
nds resonance in the research carried out by Richardson and Díaz Maggioli (2018),
according to whom effective CPD initiatives are impactful, needs-based, sustained
and peer-collaborative, in-practice, reective and evaluated.
Frameworks for CPD
In order to help teachers and managers devise a professional development plan, I
recommended the adoption of two tools and frameworks: the European Proling
Grid (EPG) and Donald Freeman’s KASA Framework.
The European Proling Grid is a framework that comprises six development
phases in a teacher’s professional journey. Its descriptors encompass four main areas:
qualications and experience; core competencies; enabling skills; and professionalism.
This grid is thoroughly described by Rossner (2017) and is readily available online
(http://egrid.epg-project.eu/en/egrid) and includes tools for self-assessment as well as
assessment by supervisors.
The KASA Framework lists four areas for professional development: knowledge,
awareness, skills and attitude. It is based on Donald Freeman’s seminal 1989 article
and may serve as guidance for professional to map their own strengths and areas in
need of development, thus enabling them to make more conscious CPD decisions
(http://bit.ly/KASAframework).
Impact of CPD initiatives
In the last part of the presentation, I shared my nding on the impact of different ini-
tiatives used in the CPD of around 400 teachers in a large LTO in Brazil. The measure
for impact came from analysis of two of the teachers’ key performance indicators,
namely learner satisfaction and retention. Individual teacher qualications and results
were compared to the institutional average in groups of adult students and teenage
groups (14 to 18 years old).
Regarding teacher qualications, results varied according to the age group. In rela-
tion to adult student satisfaction, measured through institutional survey, 79 per cent of
teachers who had achieved CEFR level C2 had results above the institutional average;
67 per cent of professionals who held the CELTA also achieved higher results with
that group; and 59 per cent of ICELT holders were awarded above-average results.
Among teenage groups, the qualications held by teachers who had achieved the most
positive results were BA in Languages (79 per cent) and the CELTA (76 per cent).
In terms of student retention, results prior to involvement in initiatives used as part
of the teaching staff CPD were compared to results after each teacher participated
in them. Two initiatives were analysed: (1) a mentoring programme comprised of
weekly meetings with an experienced teacher and four cycles of lesson observation and
199
feedback; and (2) the CELTA, recommended as in-service for teachers who did not
have a formal initial qualication, a situation fairly common in developing countries.
Both initiatives resulted in improvement in performance by teachers in all perfor-
mance indicators. Of the teachers involved in the mentoring programme, 64 per cent
improved their adult learner satisfaction, while teenage learner satisfaction improved
in 62 per cent of the cases and retention was higher for 61 per cent of the teachers.
Results obtained by teachers taking the CELTA were slightly higher: improvement
in adult satisfaction was achieved by 67 per cent of teachers, whereas 76 per cent of
teachers obtained higher results with teenage students and 62 per cent of professionals
improved retention rates.
Conclusion
Despite the existence of numerous tools teachers and managers can use to systematise
and plan career development, a lot of decisions regarding CPD are taken in an ad hoc
manner. Teacher preferences point towards a favouring of collaborative and extended
initiatives, and those seem to have an impact on teacher performance. The creation
of customised plans and strategic choice of CPD initiative may contribute to more
impactful professional development.
rubens.heredia@culturainglesasp.com.br
References
Freeman, D. 1989. ‘Teacher training, development and decision making: a model of teaching
and related strategies for language teacher education’. TESOL Quarterly 23/1: 27–45.
Richardson, S. and G. Díaz Maggioli. 2018. Effective Professional Development: Principles and
Best Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rossner, R. 2017. Language Teaching Competences. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
200
11 Issues in ELT management
Fair hiring practices, the mental health of teachers, management of curricular change,
helping teachers to develop professionally and teacher assessment—these are the top-
ics addressed in this chapter, which will be of particular interest to those in managerial
and leadership roles. Hiring practices is our rst topic: Sebastian Lesniewski furthers
the discussion in ELT about NESTs vs. non-NESTs, while Ross Thorburn presents
empirical research on preferred attributes of teachers in a Chinese school. Next, Phil
Longwell reports on research into mental health among teachers, with implications
for managers. Moving into curriculum, Louise Emma Potter describes the role of
leaders in helping one school make the transition to a new approach to teaching and
learning. Maria Muniz and Magdalena De Stefani then discuss leadership strategies
that can enhance the professional development of teachers, while Dalia Elhawary
reports on a leadership project designed to empower senior teachers to lead profes-
sional development in their schools. The nal two papers deal with assessment of
teacher competency. Christine Irvine-Niakaris and Jenny Zimianitou outline the
development of a classroom observation checklist, useful at any stage of a teacher’s
development. Finally, Isabela Villas Boas provides a comprehensive overview of
teacher appraisal, with particular reference to one school in Brazil, but with broader
implications.
11.1 A non-NEST by any other name

Sebastian Lesniewski Freelance, Cambridge, UK
The strengths of non-native English-speaking teachers (non-NESTs) have been rec-
ognised and appreciated in ELT thanks to the numerous consciousness-raising initia-
tives that have been undertaken since Péter Medgyes’ 1994 book. It has been pointed
out that the advantages non-NESTs have over native teachers include high language
awareness, the ability to empathise with learners, and the potential to be realistic role
models for their students. Therefore, it is no longer unusual for L2 teachers to work
alongside their native speaker colleagues, including in ESL contexts.
However, some of the recent NEST/non-NEST initiatives (like the work of TEFL
Equity Advocates or Silvana Richardson’s IATEFL 2016 plenary talk) seem to have
focused mainly on challenging the use of the terms ‘native speaker’ and ‘non-native
speaker’, and on agging up the fact that job advertisements specifying preference
for L1 teachers violate employment laws. As a non-NEST with 16 years’ teaching
experience, and having worked in the UK for the last 11 years, I decided to contrib-
ute to this debate. I suggested that while the terms ‘native speaker’ and ‘non-native
201
Chapter 11: Issues in ELT management
speaker’ do label language teachers in an over-simplied manner and create a false

and self-perpetuating dichotomy, simply replacing these terms with more constructive
ones in professional ELT discourse (including job advertisements) is not enough to
effectively solve the problem.
The terms ‘native speaker’ and ‘non-native speaker’ are by no means satisfactory.
Firstly, they are overly broad and supercial: the term ‘non-native speaker’ applies to
a B2-level user of English, as much as it does to a PhD-qualied linguist. Secondly, in
a world where it is common for people to re-locate, marry speakers of other languag-
es and raise children in multilingual settings, it may be hard to decide who can be
categorised as a ‘native speaker’ of a language. Thirdly, it has been suggested that the
prex ‘non-’ contributes to perceiving non-native teachers as ‘have-nots’ (Richardson
2017: 79).
On the other hand, it is not unusual for terms to be imprecise, which is why
academic texts tend to begin by outlining key denitions. Thus, the fact that the
terms ‘native’ and ‘non-native’ speaker only broadly categorise language users does
not necessarily mean that they ought to be given up, also bearing in mind that alter-
native terms that have been proposed have not caught on. Furthermore, the pre-
x ‘non-’ does not need to be seen as marking inferiority, but rather as a technical
device distinguishing mutually exclusive categories. After all, the terms ‘non-smoker’,
‘non-conformist’, ‘non-dening relative clause’ or ‘non-governmental organisation’ do
not evoke negative connotations.
The problem of unequal access to employment opportunities for non-native lan-
guage teachers is not likely to be solved simply by changing terminology. As long
as the concept of a ‘native speaker’ being an ideal language model remains so deep-
ly entrenched in people’s consciousness, other terms that could replace it (such as
a ‘native-level’, ‘native-like’ or ‘uent and idiomatic’ speaker) are likely to be mere
euphemisms. Therefore, rather than trying to invent a new label, we might want to
claim back the term ‘non-native language teacher’, so that it becomes associated with
high competence in providing language training.
Raising awareness about the value of the non-native teacher needs to involve open
discussion of the native and non-native teachers’ areas of strength, rather than pre-
tending that there are no differences between the two (not very precisely dened)
groups. The real reasons for which non-native teachers might be regarded as less
desired are their less reliable language intuition, and the quality of language input that
they can offer. A language-aware native speaker intuitively knows what sounds natural
and what does not (in terms of word choice, collocations, and the use of preposi-
tions and articles), even though they may not be able to explain why. As a result, the
language input coming from a native speaker is likely to differ from one that comes
from a non-native teacher. This is reected in Eric Nicaise’s 160,000-word corpus of
teacher talk, which shows that native teachers use a wider range of tenses and modal
auxiliaries, and a higher number of phrasal verbs and subordinating conjunctions,
while non-native teachers use more metalanguage (Nicaise 2017).
Open discussion of the native and non-native teachers’ areas of strength, and not
shying away from acknowledging that in certain areas some NESTs might have advan-
tage over some non-NESTs (and vice versa), can help non-native teachers realise their
202
‘Native’ and ‘non-native’ English teachers: contrasting opinions
own value and understand how much they have to offer to their students. It can also
result in better understanding of how native and non-native teachers can complement
each other.
lesniewskis@gmail.com
References
Medgyes, P. 1994. The Non-native Teacher. Houndsmills: Macmillan.
Nicaise, E. 2018. ‘A corpus study of teacher talk in the EFL class’ in T. Pattison (ed.). IATEFL
2017 Glasgow Conference Selections. Faversham: IATEFL.
Richardson, S. 2017. ‘The native factor: the haves and the have-nots ... and why we still
need to talk about this in 2016’ in T. Pattison (ed.). IATEFL 2016 Birmingham Conference
Selections. Faversham: IATEFL.
11.2 ‘Native’ and ‘non-native’ English teachers: contrasting

opinions
Ross Thorburn TEFL Training Institute, China
Discrimination against non-native English-speaking teachers (non-NESTs) is com-
monplace: non-NESTs tend to get paid lower salaries, are given fewer promotion
opportunities and get passed over for jobs. A 2007 investigation found that almost
three quarters of higher education institutions in the UK made hiring decisions based
on perceived native/non-native speaker distinctions (Clark and Paran 2007). What is
the rationale behind these discriminatory hiring practices?
The common assumption is that students demand native English-speaking teach-
ers, or NESTs (Holliday 2008), student demands inuence hiring decisions and
hiring decisions embody discrimination. Do these assumptions hold up to scrutiny?
Research
To test these assumptions about students’ demands, I surveyed and received respons-
es from 323 sales and service staff; 151 adult students; 97 parents of young learner
students; and 552 teachers. Of the teachers, 273 self-identied as non-NESTs and
279 self-identied as NESTs; 247 of them were Chinese. All respondents worked or
studied at the same private language school in China.
The sales and service staff surveyed were responsible for communicating with
adult students outside class, keeping parents informed of students’ progress and most
importantly, selling language courses. All teachers performed the same job duties,
albeit with teachers from ‘native’ English countries receiving higher salaries than those
from China.
Respondents were asked to identify the importance of different qualities in teach-
ers. The characteristics were as follows: ability to speak the students’ rst language
(L1); appearance; being a native speaker; nationality; personality; relationships with
students; attitude; and qualications. The preferences of parents and students were
combined to make the results easier to interpret, as were the responses from sales and
service staff.
203
Results
Sales and service staff showed stronger preferences for native English teachers than
parents and students. Sales and service staff considered the ability to speak students’
L1 to be less important than parents and students; they considered being a native
speaker to be more important than parents and students; they considered nationality
to be more important than parents and students (Table 11.2.1); and they were more
commonly prepared to pay more money to study with a native English teacher than
parents and students (Figure 11.2.1).
Teachers Parents & Students Sales & Service

1. Most Attitude Attitude Personalities
important
2. Relationships Personalities Attitude
with students
3. Personalities Qualications Being native
speakers
4. Qualications Being native Qualications
speakers
5. Being native Relationships Nationality
speakers with students
6. Appearance L1 ability Relationships
with students
7. L1 ability Nationality Appearance
8. Least Nationality Appearance L1 ability
important
Table 11.2.1: Attitudes towards characteristics of teachers. Attributes related to the native/
non-native English teacher dichotomy are highlighted in italics.
Figure 11.2.1: Agreement with the statement ‘I would pay more to learn/for my child to learn
from a native English teacher.’
204
Improving the mental health of English language teachers
Discussion and implications

These results imply that parents and students, in general, place less value on having
native English teachers than do sales and service staff. They also demonstrate that the
preferences of sales and service staff may play a bigger role in inuencing students’
opinions and stafng decisions than previously thought. It should not surprise us that
sales staff are unconcerned with ending discriminatory hiring practices in the TEFL
industry, but it should surprise us that they may be unaware of the unique benets
and insights a non-NEST can offer students. These benets include being imitable
models of successful English learners, the ability to anticipate language difculties,
empathy with students’ problems and the use of the students’ L1 to teach learning
strategies (Medgyes 1992).
Participants in this talk suggested teachers host workshops and webinars to raise the
awareness of this issue with sales and service staff. Those unable to organise events on
larger scales can simply speak to non-teaching staff in their schools to raise awareness
this issue, highlight the role sales and service staff could play in solving it and empha-
sise the ‘selling points’ of ‘non-native English teachers’ described above.
Sales and service staff are regularly excluded from our professional discourse.
Including them in this conversation about eradicating discrimination seems especially
apt.
ross.thorburn@yahoo.com
References
Clark E. and A. Paran. 2007. ‘The employability of non-native-speaker teachers of EFL: a UK
survey’. System 35/4: 407−430.
Holliday, A. 2008. ‘Standards of English and politics of inclusion’. Language Teaching 41/1:
119−130.
Medgyes, P. 1992. ‘Native or non-native: who’s worth more?’ ELT Journal 46/4: 340−349.
11.3 Improving the mental health of English language teachers

Phil Longwell INTO UEA and Freelance, UK
Introduction
A lot has been discussed about student wellbeing and even teacher wellbeing in ELT,
but not so much that is specically about the mental health of English language teach-
ers. My original research, carried out in December 2017, was based on data from
501 informants, who were mainly language teaching professionals from around the
globe. I noted a general lack of research into this specic topic, although a substantial
collection on language teacher psychology (Mercer and Kostoulas 2018) had just been
published at the time of this talk. What follows is a brief summary of the ndings.
Diagnosed or undiagnosed conditions
I looked at both diagnosed and undiagnosed conditions. Although many respond-
ents disclosed one, such as ‘generalised anxiety disorder’ or ‘ADHD’, which had been
given to them by a medical professional, many more wrote about symptoms they
205
experienced, without any kind of actual diagnosis. ‘Stress’ or ‘insomnia’, for example,
are commonplace.
In the workplace
Two connected questions from the survey related to the workplace. The rst asked
if respondents had suffered from a mental health issue which affected attendance or
performance at work; the second asked whether support had been given. A number
of respondents said that they felt very supported, giving examples. However, a much
larger number said they were not. Many did not fully explain what was wrong or how
they were suffering for fear of reprisals. ‘Support’ can often be quite unsympathetic.
Being perceived as unreliable can have a negative effect.
Disclosing a condition upfront
A key question was whether prospective employees would you feel comfortable dis-
closing a mental health condition upfront or in an interview. Of the respondents,
284 said ‘no’ before giving their reasons; 125 said ‘not’, ‘not really’, ‘never’ or some
variation; and 73 said ‘yes’ and gave reasons. The most common response was that
there was a concern or worry that they would not get the job or it would affect their
chances: 37 informants used the word ‘stigma’ in their reply, while others referred to
the perception of disclosure. It is a taboo in some cultures. Many felt there would not
be the required support or understanding.
Factors which cause stress
Many of the factors reported included personal attributes and perceptions, such as
homesickness, perfectionism and ‘impostor syndrome’. Many informants expressed a
combination of internal and external factors, but examples of the latter include ‘work-
load’, ‘unmotivated students’, ‘job insecurity, ‘poor pay’, ‘unrealistic expectations and
‘harassment’ or ‘bullying’. The issue of the ‘perception’ of stress was also highlighted
(Eyre 2017).
Recognising symptoms
Of the managers surveyed, 35 said they were ‘very condent’ in their ability to recog-
nise symptoms. Managerial experience and personal experience of poor mental health
both had a bearing on the degree to which managers expressed this. The majority had
little or no condence. Staff often try to hide their symptoms and don’t disclose any-
thing. A further question went on to enquire whether informants had ever received
training in how to support teachers’ mental health. The overall response was that they
had not had anything ofcially, but some managers drew on their own knowledge and
personal experiences.
Individuals managing symptoms
Two related questions dealt with tactics, coping mechanisms and ways to improve
one’s own mental health. Coping mechanisms are generally ways of getting through
a situation and are not necessarily a healthy option. Both are about management of
the symptoms experienced. Mindfulness and meditation featured highly here, along
with physical activity.
206
The long and winding road of pedagogical management
Institutions
Another key question focused on what employers and institutions within ELT could
do to support employees. Awareness and training featured highly here. Overall, a lack
of knowledge and training in this area was highlighted by many. Specic working con-
ditions within the industry and circumstances that are unique to language teaching
were raised. Counselling featured in many answers. A few institutions already provide
this, more commonly available for students, but it requires trained staff. A lack of
training currently exists in the sector.
Conclusion
To improve their mental health, ELT professionals need support in the workplace.
The survey did not deal with the question of whether teachers go into language teach-
ing with existing conditions, which are then exacerbated by the conditions they face.
It is unwise to draw any conclusions that the profession causes poor mental health.
Nonetheless, some working conditions do compound issues.
While sympathy can be given to the fact that institutions need a reliable workforce,
the constant striving to be competitive and the business demands of many workplaces
can lead to teachers being undervalued, mere commodities in the process. We are
people, not disposable ‘human resources’. One respondent stated that ‘Until teachers
are treated as people and not commodities then the whole mental health issue in EFL
is not going to change.’
philiplongwell@gmail.com
References
Eyre, C. 2017. The Elephant in the Staffroom: How to Reduce Stress and Improve Teacher Wellbe-
ing. Abingdon: Routledge.
Longwell, P. 2018. ‘The mental health of English language teachers: research ndings’. https://
teacherphili.wordpress.com/2018/04/10/the-mental-health-of-english-language-teachers.
Mercer, S. and A. Kostoulas. 2018. Language Teacher Psychology. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
11.4 The long and winding road of pedagogical management:

Project-Based Learning
Louise Emma Potter Teach-in Education, São Paulo, Brazil
Introduction
Project-Based Learning (PBL) is not an easy path to follow, especially when teaching
a foreign language in a mainstream school in Brazil. According to Thomas (2000:
2), PBL involves ‘complex tasks, based on challenging questions or problems’. The
question is, in fact, what will guide, or ‘drive’ students to nd solutions to a real-life
issue. In this approach, the students are the true protagonists of the process and are
actively involved ‘in design, problem-solving, decision making, or investigative activ-
ities’. During the workshop, I guided teachers through how we introduced PBL in
our school; we had to not only restructure our teacher training course but also make
students aware that they were agents of their own learning.
207
Context
In 2012, we were hired to restructure the English programme at the school Divina
Providência situated in Jundiaí, state of São Paulo, Brazil. Upon arrival, we realised
that the language teachers lacked an identity with the school’s philosophy, they worked
independently and they had no solid model of language teaching. We knew that to
change was going to be a tough journey; however, not to change would have been fatal.
Having that in mind, we began our path to implement PBL in the language classroom.
Implementation: steps
Teamwork
Our rst step was to build an effective team. Teachers had to embrace the changes
so we implemented two-hour weekly meetings. However, a few steps back had to
be taken before actually beginning to talk about PBL. The starting point was having
teachers and students understand the concept of collaborative work. Not only did the
students need to understand the concept but we also had to show the teachers that it
was their job to teach students how to work in groups. New classroom practices were
introduced, such as learning stations, think–pair–share, and handing out different
roles to students within a group task. During these training sessions other concepts
and techniques were introduced: using graphic organisers in the classroom (KWL
charts, Venn diagrams, mind maps); webquests; understanding HOTS and LOTS
(higher/lower-order thinking skills); analysing Bloom’s taxonomy; and understanding
the consequences and importance of questioning inside the classroom. Differentiated
instruction, rubrics and assessment also began to be understood and applied by the
teachers. We nally introduced the concept of driving questions and had teachers
work on at least two projects a year in the format of PBL.
Giving teachers a voice
Apart from reinforcing the hours for teacher training and having the language teach-
ers comprehend that teaching a language goes beyond the lexis and structure, we
also implemented a ‘teachers teach teachers’ day. Once a month each teacher was
given the opportunity to take the stage and present any topic they wished to debate
with other teachers. By doing this, we as coordinators were also able to observe other
issues teachers were concerned about related to the classroom. When working within
a team, we also realise that each and every member of the team has different skills and
abilities. Taking advantage of these skills and bringing out the best in everyone is a
very important aspect when working in a team.
Time management
A great concern we have when working with PBL in the language classroom is time.
Knowing we are working with time constraints, it is crucial to manage our time in
the classroom and establish clear goals and set procedures in the classroom. Although
working with PBL is about having students lead the process, teachers do have to be
extremely organised in order to guide and monitor the students’ work. There are
steps, deadlines, planning, assessments, self-assessments, moments of teacher input
and teacher centredness and many other issues that need to be carefully planned and
timed.
208
Sustainable professional development: a leadership perspective
Establishing a culture of classroom/peer observation

As PBL is a new concept not only for the students but also for the teachers and coor-
dinators, peer and classroom observation are extremely important practices we imple-
mented in order to monitor the process and exchange ideas among the colleagues.
Clear goals
Clear goals for management, for the team, for each teacher and for the year are crucial.
However, exibility is also a must.
Conclusion
We still have a long way to go before we can actually say we have implemented PBL
as a whole in the language classroom. But we have come a long way. Teachers have
realised they need to go beyond the coursebook, and students are much more moti-
vated to learn the language by taking agency over their own learning. You can read
more about PBL in the language classroom by downloading our ebook from Amazon:
Project-Based Learning Applied to the Language Classroom.
louise@teach-in.com.br
Reference
Thomas, J. W. 2000. A Review of Research on Project-Based Learning. http://www.bie.org/
research/study/review_of_project_based_learning_2000.
11.5 Sustainable professional development: a leadership

perspective
Maria Muniz Ivy Thomas Memorial School, Montevideo, Uruguay and
Magdalena De Stefani Universidad ORT Uruguay
As part of a forum on Continuous Professional Development presenting the voices
of teacher educators from different parts of the world (Bulgaria, England, Uruguay),
this talk focused on issues of how to make CPD sustainable by applying leadership
strategies.
The talk began with the discussion of some conceptual aspects framing our per-
spective, with regard to the role of leadership strategies in promoting effective teacher
learning. We presented the idea that, just like learners, teachers need to be enabled to
acquire both cognitive (higher-order thinking) skills, and ‘soft’ skills, such as empathy
and exibility, which will determine the effectiveness of team work. It is thus that, as
leaders and teacher educators, we must ensure the provision of both types of skills in
a sustainable way.
We also focused on the importance of regarding CPD, not as particular instances
of training, but as a continuous process occurring during the professional lives of
teachers who are part of a professional learning community. A professional learn-
ing community, in the context of this talk, is understood as a group of educators
who engage in team work with colleagues as part of their day-to-day teaching and
learning processes. We believe that, as leaders, our role is to foster collaboration and
cooperation as part of professional learning, thus the importance of this community
209
learning spirit in our institutions. Within a professional learning community, leaders

must ensure there will be opportunities for those involved to be both ‘leaders’ and
‘followers’. This implies adopting a distributed leadership style, and trusting teachers
enough to allow them to take the lead at certain times.
But what do we mean by ‘sustainable’ CPD? Sustainability was dened in our
talk as the creation of an effective way of learning collaboratively that will become
part of the institutional culture. It is a long-lasting venture and cannot be restricted
to particular initiatives. Successful, sustainable CPD will have certain characteristics.
First of all, for professional development to be sustainable it needs to be relevant
to the needs of teachers. We must, therefore, allow teachers to voice their needs,
interests and preferences. It must also have an awareness-raising function, in that
it has to foster reexivity among teachers and lead to their learning more about
themselves as professionals, and as members of this particular professional learning
community. Equally essential for the sustainability of professional learning within
institutions is that it has a tangible impact. Teachers will need to see the effects on
them and their learners, and ultimately on the effectiveness of the institution, in order
to remain engaged in their collective professional learning process. Finally, we need
to ensure a balance between top-down and bottom-up teacher learning initiatives.
That is, some learning processes, dynamics or topics will be proposed by the leaders
or management, in order to provide a certain sense of direction. However, it is equally
necessary that teachers themselves feel empowered and trusted to make their own
suggestions.
But how do we help to create this sustainability? We attempted to provide a series
of concrete strategies in the form of a model, in the hope that it could be applicable
in a variety of educational contexts around the world.
Our model focuses on three particular leadership strategies. First of all, we start with
the idea of a distributed leadership style that involves facilitating rather than directing
teacher learning, promoting collaboration and always aiming to empower teachers.
Professional trust involves an in-depth knowledge of the staff, shared accountability,
and a certain amount of ‘responsible freedom’, understood as not over-supervising
teachers simply to be authoritative. Last but denitely not least, the affective aspects of
the professional learning community are essential for the sustainability of institutional
learning processes. Being aware of the importance of caring about the personal and
professional lives of teachers, creating a cohesive professional network, and offering
positive reinforcement whenever possible are only examples of how important affect
is in the learning process.
To conclude, we reected on the challenges and opportunities facing all the above
mentioned suggestions from a leadership standpoint. We drew on our research expe-
rience to emphasise that despite the potential drawbacks, this leadership model of
CPD has, in our educational context, resulted in an increase in teacher motivation,
commitment and sense of self-efcacy.
mamuniz@gmail.com
magdalenadestefani@gmail.com
210
Leadership for sustainable teachers’ development and improved pupils’ learning
11.6 Leadership for sustainable teachers’ development and

improved pupils’ learning
Dalia Elhawary Faculty of Education, Alexandria University, Egypt
Trinity College London Teacher Trainer Scholarship winner
Introduction
Leading teacher learning and development is dened as having the greatest impact
on students’ outcomes (Robinson 2011), whereas, teachers’ capacity for collaboration
and self-direction is underpinned as a crucial factor for sustainable and successful
teacher professional development (King 2014). This research report describes how
an innovative leadership project was designed and implemented to empower senior
teachers to become middle leaders who could develop within themselves and their
teachers the skills of self-direction and collaboration, who could lead their own and
their teachers’ professional development and who could improve pupils’ experience of
learning English.
Context and background
This project was inspired by a study I conducted with colleagues in 2016 which inves-
tigated the views of 394 pupils in Egyptian primary schools on how to improve their
learning of English. We concluded that in order to improve pupils’ experience of
learning English, teachers needed systematic learning opportunities inside the school,
time and space to talk and reect together, and support to experiment with new ideas,
and take the lead on their professional development (Hargreaves et al. 2016).
I worked with another colleague on training seven primary English language senior
teachers in six schools in Alexandria, Egypt, on how to use coaching as a leadership
style and how to set up teacher learning communities. By doing so, we introduced
cultures and practices different from those prevailing in Egyptian schools, which are
characterised by the dominance of the commanding leadership style and the one-shot,
out-of-school training model for teacher professional development.
Data collection
The study used qualitative, exploratory and inductive design. We collected data
through interviews and classroom observations. We interviewed the seven middle
leaders, twelve teachers and 62 pupils in their classes.
Implementation
We trained seven primary English language senior teachers to become middle leaders.
Each middle leader set up a teacher learning community (TLC) in his/her school.
Middle leaders used coaching conversations to help teachers identify what they
needed to change in their lessons to improve pupils’ learning. Following this, they
supported teachers in the development of action plans based on the use of fun and
innovative short ten-minute activities to bring improvements to their lessons. The
choice of short activities was important as teachers had limited time and had to cover
a long and demanding pre-set syllabus.
The middle leaders set up a model of peer observation for learning; this was impor-
tant in that it provided constructive, reective and challenging feedback to teachers
211
on their action plans. Each teacher chose how, when and by whom to be observed.
This was a new practice for teachers, who were only familiar with ‘observation for
inspection’ conducted by supervisors.
The middle leaders planned and conducted regular monthly TLC meetings for
teachers to share experiences, get support, reect on their action plans and get new
input for learning by sharing readings and resources. We, the trainers and researchers,
attended these monthly meetings to support the middle leaders and their teachers in
implementing change and overcoming challenges.
Impact on teachers’ development and pupils’ learning
Teachers were able to challenge and change their pre-set conceptions about their prac-
tices and pupils’ abilities and as a result they could better support pupils’ learning,
especially for those who were struggling. For example, one teacher decided to use
group work to involve disengaged pupils whom he had previously ignored and consid-
ered ‘lazy’ and ‘bad’. This teacher had never used group work before in class. He was
able to discover and then support one pupil with autism in his class. His struggling
pupils were able to learn and achieve better in English because of the chance to talk
with each other in the classroom in English.
Pupils reported that they started to like English because they were working in
groups. Working together helped them nd more and better ideas than what each
student on his/her own could come up with. They also recognised that the support
they were getting from peers made learning English easier for them.
Conclusions
Teachers felt empowered to support pupils’ learning and development and this made
them feel motivated and condent. Teachers were able to make decisions about how
best to improve their own and their pupils’ learning and development. Both teachers
and pupils could see the value of collaboration among themselves, regardless of differ-
ences in experiences or attainment.
Except for the challenge of providing teachers with time and space, the model we
used is one that is exible and can work in challenging contexts where teachers have
limited time and resources and are used to traditional teacher-centred approaches.
Acknowledgement
I worked on this training and research project with Dr Eleanore Hargreaves from
IOE in London. The Middle Leaders Project was funded by Education Development
Trust.
delhawary@alexu.edu.eg
References
Hargreaves E., M. Mahgoub and D. Elhawary. 2016. An Investigation into Improved Primary
School English Language Learning in the Traditional Classroom (An Egyptian Case Study).
London: British Council.
King, F. 2014. ‘Evaluating the impact of teacher professional development: an evidence-based
framework.’ Professional Development in Education 40/1: 89−111.
Robinson, V. 2011. Student-Centered Leadership. Hoboken, N.J.: Jossey-Bass.
212
Professional development for English language teachers
11.7 Professional development for English language teachers: a

competency-based approach
Christine Irvine-Niakaris Hellenic American University, Athens, Greece and
Jenny Zimianitou Hellenic American University, Athens, Greece
Our presentation demonstrated how an organic classroom observation checklist,
based on national and international teaching standards and with input from teachers,
can be used to promote competency-based teacher development and self-reective
practices throughout teachers’ careers. The presentation focused on two key issues:
how the checklist was developed and how it is used for formative assessment of Eng-
lish language teachers in Greece at different levels of professional development.
Context
We aimed to develop a classroom observation checklist which would be exible enough
to serve two different teaching contexts: a practicum for teacher education at graduate
level at our university and in-service education for teachers at a parallel institution
which offers English language programmes (ELP) to learners of English as a foreign
language. Based on previous experience of using classroom observation checklists,
our priorities in developing a new one included a view of the teacher’s knowledge
base which focused on language competence and pedagogy; specic examples of how
teacher competencies are demonstrated in the classroom; and space for describing new
ways these competencies are demonstrated as observed in actual classroom practice.
Development of the checklist
We consulted several sources for descriptions of competencies and found the Cam-
bridge English Teaching Framework (2014) and TESOL International Standards
(2010) to be the most useful as a starting point for the development of own checklist.
Both sources addressed the importance of language competence and pedagogy and
reected current issues in the eld of teaching, such as assessment, professional devel-
opment and values. Our checklist was divided into seven sections and descriptions
were created for each one:
• Knowledge about language
• Methodology
• Awareness and exibility
• Lesson planning
• Classroom management
• Attitude
• Reection
Design of the checklist
We were greatly inuenced by the design of an observation checklist created by Mar-
shall and Young (2009). The layout facilitated ease of use in a classroom observation
setting, with general categories of competencies on the left side, and specic descrip-
tions of competencies related to the category on the right side. The signicant feature
of the layout was a space for ‘Other’ on the right side. This space was created for new
213
realisations of competencies related to the general category of the competency which

occurred in actual classroom observations.
Figure 11.7.1 shows the instructions for the checklist, followed by a table which
shows the design of the rst section:
The observer places a check next to classroom behaviour he/she observes. If the competency
was not demonstrated consistently or if there is room for improvement, the observer places
a question mark and makes a reference in the section provided for ‘Observer’s Comments’.
Figure 11.7.1: Section I. Knowledge about language
Use of the checklist

We have presented the checklist in workshops for teachers in Greece and each time
teachers have made suggestions for competencies to be added to the list; one such sug-
gestion is the effective use of the L1 in the classroom. So far, we have used the check-
list for classroom observations for the practicum in our graduate programme and
observed new demonstrations of competencies which we have also added, particularly
214
Dilemmas and solutions in a standards-based teacher appraisal system
in the section for classroom management. The checklist has also proven to be useful
for pre-and post-lesson discussions during the practicum. It provided opportuni-
ties for teachers and the observer to reect on specic competencies which needed
development and the creation of new realisations of competencies as they occurred
in the lesson. The contributions to the checklist suggested by teachers allowed them
to become more invested in the assessment process and professional development.
However, teachers’ reections on this process will need to be explored further for
evidence of positive or negative views from their perspective.
Limitation of space prevents us from including all the sections of the checklist.
It is therefore available for download for those wishing to explore its organic nature
further and use it for professional development or classroom research. To download
the checklist, please visit http://hauniv.edu/images/News/Checklist_of_teacher_com-
petencies.pdf.
References
Marshall, B. and S. Young. 2009. Observing and Providing Feedback to Teachers of Adults
Learning English. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics. https://les.eric.ed.gov/
fulltext/ED505392.pdf .
TESOL International Association. n.d. The TESOL Guidelines for Developing EFL Professional
Teaching Standards. Alexandria, Va.: TESOL. https://www.tesol.org/docs/default-source/
papers-and-briefs/tesol-guidelines-for-developing-efl-professional-teaching-standards.
pdf?sfvrsn=6.
UCLES. 2014. Cambridge English Teaching Framework. http://www.cambridgeenglish.org/
images/165722-teaching-framework-summary-.pdf.
11.8 Dilemmas and solutions in a standards-based teacher

appraisal system
Isabela Villas Boas Casa Thomas Jefferson, Brasília, Brazil
Introduction
Teacher appraisal is a controversial issue in education. Quirke (2015) enumerates
the characteristics of an effective teacher appraisal system: fairness and transparency;
teacher-centredness; focus on enhancing teaching; focus on prevention; summative
and formative; consistent, valid and reliable; and based on multiple data sources. A
major dilemma involving teacher appraisal is whether it should focus on measurement
or development. In a survey of teachers, Marzano (2012) concludes that most believe
the system should focus on both measurement and development. Systems that focus
on development should be comprehensive and specic, include a developmental scale
and acknowledge and reward growth.
My presentation reported how a non-prot English-language-teaching institute in
Brasília, Brazil, adopted these concepts to develop its teacher appraisal system and
discussed the dilemmas faced and the solutions found. With over 250 teachers and
15,000 students, it is a context in which standardisation of procedures and quality
control are of the utmost importance, as is the focus on teacher development.
215
Steps in the creation of the appraisal system

The rst step was to create performance standards for teachers, based on the guidelines
provided by TESOL International Association (2010). They address nine domains:
Planning; Instructing; Interpersonal Dynamics; Assessing; Learning; Language,
Culture and Digital Literacy; Investment in Professional Development; Professional
Attitude and Commitment; and Attention to Rules and Procedures. Each standard
has a general description and performance indicators; for example, the description for
planning is:
Teachers plan instruction to promote learning and to meet learners’ goals and
needs, being able of modifying and adjusting instruction plans in relation to learner
engagement, achievement, age, and prociency level.
The next step was to develop an observation protocol based on each standard
and focusing on the observable indicators. For planning, the observation criteria are
shown in Figure 11.8.1.
1. e lesson was logically sequenced.

2. e activities were suitable for the age, level, and needs of the group.
3. e activities were directly related to the aims and objectives of the lesson.
4. e class contained a variety of activities for dierent reception modes.
5. Practice in dierent language skills was provided.
6. e teacher designed student-centred activities.
Figure 11.8.1: Observation criteria
Observation data for the yearly appraisal is collected by means of at least three
observations a year. The observation system follows a formative format, with pre- and
post-observation meetings.
Only after the development of the standards and of the observation protocol was
the appraisal form developed. It contains the nine standards and performance descrip-
tors indicating levels of achievement: exceeds the standard, meets the standard fully,
meets the standard most of the time, meets the standard partially, and does not meet
the standard.
Finally, a self-evaluation instrument was designed to collect data beyond classroom
observations, such as teacher participation in professional development activities,
school events, academic meetings, and so on. Teachers also reect on their perfor-
mance based on the standards and their indicators. Data for the appraisal is collected
from the observations, the self-evaluation, and other school records of attendance,
participation in meetings, special occurrences, among others.
Dilemmas and solutions
In the development of the system, many dilemmas had to be considered:
• How can we ensure that all evaluators follow the same criteria? ere are around 20
evaluators in the institution. To assure consistency in the observation and appraisal
216
Dilemmas and solutions in a standards-based teacher appraisal system
process, we hold constant calibration meetings. ere are also written guidelines
for lling out the appraisal form, and there is a nal checking of consistency in the
appraisals.
• How can we dierentiate between teachers with various levels of expertise? e
number of observations varies according to teachers’ experience and expertise. Senior
teachers with consistently good appraisals can substitute an observation for another
professional development activity, such as mentoring a novice teacher, writing for
the school blog, or developing a special project, among others.
• How can we encourage innovation and risk-taking? We have introduced what we
call an Experimental Observation. e teachers request this type of observation
when they want to try out something innovative. In this case, a descriptive form is
used.
Given the context, comprised mostly of children and teenagers, is it fair to use
student performance data and satisfaction surveys as input for the evaluation? In a
semester-based system, it is difcult to attribute student performance to the current
teacher. Also, in the Brazilian culture, in which students are not used to evaluating
teachers, satisfaction surveys may not be totally reliable. Thus, we do not use this data
systematically in the appraisal system, but we do monitor both indicators and, when
we see a trend along various semesters, then the information is considered.
isabela.villasboas@thomas.org.br
References
Marzano, R. J. 2012. ‘Teacher evaluation: what’s fair? What’s effective?’. Educational Leadership
70/3: 14–19.
Quirke, P. 2015. ‘A system for teacher evaluation’ in A. Howard and H. Donaghue (eds.).
Teacher Evaluation in Second Language Education. New York: Bloomsbury.
TESOL International Association. 2010. TESOL P–12 Professional Teaching Standards (second
edition). Alexandria, Va.: TESOL.
217
12 Moving into teacher training
The nal chapter in this volume addresses teacher training. First, Beth Davies and
Nicholas Northall suggest ways of supporting new trainers; then, Karin Krum-
menacher argues in favour of differentiation in month-long initial teacher training
courses. The next two papers present research into teacher training: Alastair Douglas
discusses the use of observation tasks for new trainees and suggests new approaches
to observation, and Olga Connolly reports on her research into feedback on CELTA
courses. Next, Anita Lämmerer discusses the needs of teachers training to teach
in CLIL environments, and David Jay draws from the performing arts to present
techniques for training. Next, Teti Dragas draws our attention to the profession-
al development needs of teacher trainers, suggesting that more work in this area is
needed. The chapter ends with two papers from South America. Loreto Aliaga-Salas
reports on changes to initial teacher education in Chile, while Maria Esther Linares
and Ralph Grayson share lessons learned about contextualised trainer development
programmes, specically in Peru.
12.1 ‘No-one told me that!’ Top tips for new trainers

Beth Davies and Nicholas Northall University of Shefeld, UK
Introduction
Making the transition from teacher to teacher trainer can be an exciting yet also
challenging process. Although there are several courses available to help experienced
teachers make this step, there appears to be a dearth of support aimed at newly quali-
ed trainers. It is our belief that many early-career trainers nd themselves essentially
thrown in at the deep end with a lack of resources to help them in their new role.
Therefore, in this workshop, we wanted to address the needs of newly qualied or
inexperienced trainers by sharing advice and offering ideas.
Terminology
Throughout the workshop we used the term ‘teacher trainer’, but this could be replaced
with ‘teacher educator’ or ‘teacher developer’. We considered trainers in a variety of
contexts, not just those working on pre-service qualications such as CELTA or Trin-
ity CertTESOL, but also in-house teacher developers, those educating experienced
teachers and those who perhaps mentor or line manage. For brevity, we use the terms
‘trainer’ and ‘teacher’ to refer to those delivering and those receiving teacher education
courses respectively.
218
‘No-one told me that!’ Top tips for new trainers
The workshop
In our workshop, we looked at four areas of teacher training which we feel most new
trainers would be involved in.
Input sessions
Most trainers involved in teacher education will have to deliver input sessions or
workshops which are a platform for discussing ideas for best teaching practice. For the
initial task in our workshop, we asked delegates to rank elements of a good input ses-
sion, justifying their choices. We concluded that a good teacher training input session
should essentially model good teaching practice with a variety of real teaching tech-
niques, activity types and procedures present. Like a good lesson, thorough planning
is essential, as is giving the teachers an exit ticket (that is, something to take away).
Finally, delegates decided that less is more in that we should not try to overwhelm our
participants with too much information.
Support with lesson planning
If the teacher training programme includes a practicum, part of the trainer’s role may
be to offer help and advice with lesson planning. Delegates were asked to discuss ques-
tions about helping teachers to plan lessons. We found that the amount of support
offered to a teacher really depends on their experience, as pre-service teachers will
obviously need much more support than more experienced teachers. However, even
with new teachers, we decided that planning a teacher’s lesson is counter-productive.
Furthermore, we felt that all teachers should be encouraged to think of the lesson
from the learners’ point of view.
Observation and feedback
As a major part of working as a trainer involves observing lessons and offering feed-
back on these lessons, we asked delegates to play a board game discussing their ideas
about these aspects. We concluded that being a good observer would involve the
trainer remaining focused throughout the lesson observation and focusing on clearly
agreed aspects of the lesson. Post-teaching, the trainer needs to provide clear feedback
to the teacher giving them realistic action points for future lessons. On courses such
as CELTA, where feedback is mainly evaluative, the trainer should also attempt to be
developmental in their approach.
Dealing with trainees
Pastoral care is an aspect of teacher training which is often overlooked. As many
teacher training courses can be very intensive, emotional and stressful experiences for
all involved, good communication skills are essential. During the workshop, delegates
were given a number of scenarios in which a trainer might nd themselves (such as a
teacher bursting into tears following an unsuccessful lesson) and were asked to discuss
what they would do. Delegates were also asked to role-play situations in pairs in
which one participant played the role of a disgruntled teacher, while the other offered
support as a trainer. We summarised that there are several qualities essential for a
teacher trainer with the rst being good people skills. A trainer needs to be sensitive,
approachable, supportive and rm but fair. Trainers have to show empathy with the
219
Chapter 12: Moving into teacher training
people they are training; they also need to ensure that expectations of what can be
achieved are managed.
Summary
Overall, there are many elements of being a new teacher trainer which are similar to
being a new teacher: new teacher trainers need to be prepared for a lot of hard work;
they need to be familiar with the course they are working on; and they should try to
gain as much varied experience as they can. Most importantly though, new trainers
need to enjoy the job!
e.davies@shefeld.ac.uk
n.northall@shefeld.ac.uk
12.2 Accommodating the changing needs of multilingual initial

teacher training groups
Karin Krummenacher Freelance, Derby, UK
This talk highlighted the changing needs of trainees on initial teacher training courses
(ITTCs), like the CELTA and CertTESOL. It pitched ideas on how to adapt the four-
week model to an increasingly diverse clientele to remain relevant and professional in
the 21st century. Based on suggestions on how to introduce differentiation on ITTCs
I proposed that needs analyses and trainees’ personal aims need to be considered more
and that differentiation in teacher training should become standard.
Issues with ITTCs
I began by emphasising that I advocate ITTCs but simultaneously fully acknowledge
alleged shortcomings, such as a lack of professionalism, nativespeakerism and general
lack of suitability. Suggestions for improvement have not caught on because they
contravene the model itself. Alternative approaches, such as offering longer courses,
is not of economic interest for centres delivering up to 12 courses a year and may not
appeal to the clientele either.
CELTA and CertTESOL have an annual candidature of at least 13,000 but do not
disclose much information on candidates, other than their linguistic background. The
talk looked at a group of trainees and found not only of a mixture of linguistic abilities,
nationalities and beliefs but also career changers, future diploma candidates, backpack-
ers, experienced teachers and people overcoming their fear of public speaking. There
was also a variety of educational backgrounds from high school to PhD graduates and
local teachers with MAs in pedagogy. All these individuals were offered the same ready-
made timetable. While some ambitious teacher trainers do adapt their timetables to t
their trainees’ needs, they are unfortunately a minority. A quick, uncomplicated way
for centres with many trainees to offer differentiated courses is needed.
Tweaking the four-week model
The idea I pitched relies on a thorough needs analysis of trainees’ abilities and goals.
Results of a diagnostic test fed into Excel deliver 18 different timetables based on
220
Accommodating the changing needs of multilingual initial teacher training groups
trainees’ abilities. For example, candidates answering questions on verb tenses incor-
rectly will be assigned sessions on verb tenses, whereas candidates answering these
questions right will not attend these sessions. Each trainee will receive an individ-
ual schedule based on their needs. In addition, each teaching practice tutor agrees
on personal aims with their trainees and discusses achievement twice per course to
ensure teaching practice is geared towards individual needs. The diagnostic test may
be repeated as summative assessment and the results and personal aim achievement
then establish the starting point for continuing professional development. Candidates
are made aware of their needs in terms of development and see that ITTCs are not
meant to be a means to an end but a starting point. Additionally, the centre may offer
courses beyond initial teacher training.
While I was unfortunately unable to trial the schedule, planning made evident that
introducing differentiation means adopting new forms of input delivery. For most
centres it will not be feasible to deliver all input face to face when implementing more
differentiated sessions. The talk encouraged trainers’ creativity and consideration of
ideas such as specic pre-course tasks based on needs analysis, peer-teaching, action
research, online learning, ipped inputs, Q and A sessions with tutors as well as boot
camps (very intensive sessions on, for example, grammar). Different ways of delivery
were discussed based on group size, availability of tutors and space. Answering a ques-
tion from the audience, it was explained that all trainees will still have the same num-
ber of input sessions, just different ones at different times. This allows multilingual
teachers to acquire input on L1 usage in the classroom while monolingual teachers
learn a foreign language to empathise with their students.
Figure 12.2.1 shows part of a possible timetable.
Monday Tuesday Wednesday

B: Teaching Practice/Feedback/Lesson Planning
T1 B: How to Teach Writing B: Peer teaching slot
Unknown foreign language
T1 T2: Using L1 in the T2: English for
Grammar Bootcamp Classroom Language Teachers
T2: T1: Grammar
English for Language Bootcamp
Teachers
T1: Monolingual trainee with low language awareness
T2: Multilingual trainee with high language awareness
B: Attended by both
Figure 12.2.1: Part of a possible timetable
The need for more encouragement of centres to use the exibility of the CELTA
syllabus through Cambridge and replacement of the unknown foreign language
assignment on the CertTESOL was highlighted
221
Conclusions
Successful differentiation may result in increased professionalism and trainee aware-
ness of personal professional development, allowing them to enter the profession as
more reective beginner practitioners. Eventually, the audience discussed how the ide-
as presented may apply to or be implemented in their specic context, acknowledging
that this talk intended to inspire differentiation in some form, rather than presenting
another ‘one-size-ts-all’ solution.
karin.krummenacher@gmail.com
12.3 I can see clearly now: rethinking teacher training observation

tasks
Alastair Douglas Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, UK
Observation of both experienced teachers and peers is a common requirement of
teacher training courses. It provides data allowing you to examine the central con-
cepts of your teaching, including opportunities for critical reection on how you
teach (Richards 1998). Wajnryb (1992) suggests that observation releases us from the
concerns about the process of teaching and affords us the freedom to look at lessons
from different perspectives.
To aid observation, written observation tasks are often used. These help narrow the
scope of the observation, provide a means of collecting data and help train trainees
to see the things tutors want them to notice. Having used observation tasks for some
time, various problems have become apparent to me:
• Not all trainees complete them, possibly only the stronger ones. us those who
stand to gain the most from observation are not participating.
• e observation task given before the lesson might not be relevant when the lesson
starts, with other aspects being more signicant.
• Trainees often nd it hard to relate what they see to their own teaching.
• e task can appear to be more judgemental than developmental.
The talk focused on an experiment to modify the design of the tasks to make
them more effective in developing teachers. New tasks were trialled with a group
of trainees taking a nine-month CELTA as part of their BA English Language and
English Language Teaching. The tasks were also used with Delta Module 2 candidates
on a six-week course. The modications were aimed principally at the nal two issues
above, in the hope that by making the tasks more relevant, the other issues would also
be addressed.
Task on giving instructions
In this example (see Figure 12.3.1.), the prompt questions and second column are quite
conventional; however, the additional two columns ask the trainees to consider alterna-
tives and evaluate them. This is a signicant departure as it asks trainees to think about
what is happening and why it is happening, and to compare it with what they might do.
222
I can see clearly now: rethinking teacher training observation tasks
Figure 12.3.1: Task on giving instructions

Task on language clarication
Write down two different ways the teacher claried the meaning of lexis. Think of an
alternative way for each situation. What are the pros and cons of each?
• Item 1:
• Item 2:
Here, too, the trainees are asked to think of alternatives and their advantages and
disadvantages. This moves away from an evaluative approach and encourages the
trainees to consider options. Two further examples of tasks were presented in the talk,
focusing on using visual aids and emerging language.
The design principle behind these tasks is that the trainees are being asked to engage
critically with what is happening by thinking of alternatives. They are asked to take
what they have seen and work with it. To make these tasks effective, the focus needs
to be very narrow, for example, by only looking are one set of instructions in example
one above, or two lexical items in example two. Ideas are evaluated and developed.
The tasks outlined above engaged the trainees more; however, the issue of selecting
the task in advance and it not being of direct relevance to the lesson persisted.
Chatroom
A suggestion that came from Marie Therese Swabey’s presentation at the CETA 2017
conference was using chatrooms such as Slack or Flock during teaching practice as a
way of directing the trainees’ observation. This was the next area for experimentation.
Using Slack in the classroom enables the tutor to provide instant observation tasks,
such as ‘What do you think of the instructions?’, ‘Can you think of some alternative
concept questions?’ and ‘Why do you think the students are struggling here?’ The
questions are prompts to highlight aspects of the lesson that you want the trainees to
notice. You are able to communicate directly with them, and they can communicate
with each other.
223
After using both the new tasks and a chatroom with one cohort, I asked them to
comment on each. While some commented that their attention occasionally drift-
ed and that they tasks were not always relevant to the lesson, most found the new
observation tasks useful as they were precise and they could make the link to their
own teaching. Using Slack received an even more positive response, with the trainees
saying it kept their attention, it was adaptable to the lesson and they felt less pressure
to write something formal.
Alastair.douglas@anglia.ac.uk
References
Richards, J. 1998 Beyond Training. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wajnryb, R. 1992 Classroom Observation Tasks. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
12.4 Ensuring development during CELTA lesson feedback

Olga Connolly BKC-International House Moscow, Russia
Introduction
My talk was a report of a two-year study, which was the basis of my master’s disserta-
tion investigating the correlation between CELTA tutors’ beliefs about their develop-
mental role in post-lesson feedback and the realisation of these beliefs in practice. To
carry out the research I analysed the recorded feedback sessions using a set of criteria
devised as a result of a literature review. They reected the trainers’ inuence on the
four educational constituents that contribute to development: attitude, awareness,
knowledge and skills (Freeman 1989). My research showed that feedback addressed
all of them and was largely developmental.
Developing attitude
Post-lesson feedback is one of the most signicant parts of any training course, because
it is an opportunity for tutors to trigger changes in teachers’ awareness through their
contribution to feedback discussion. These contributions or interventions were divid-
ed by Heron into six categories of intervention (2001). They can be authoritative
(prescriptive, informative, confronting) or facilitative (cathartic, catalytic and sup-
portive). Two of them are clearly evaluative: confronting and supportive as the former
encompasses critical evaluation, and the latter shows praise. The others can be both
evaluative and developmental.
My research revealed that developmental discussion took considerably more time
than delivering evaluative comments, which shows that tutors prioritised it. Interest-
ingly, evaluation and development were closely interlinked regardless of the individual
style of the trainer. In fact, neither critical nor praising comments stood on their own,
but were followed by discussion about rationales and consequences. This not only
appeals to cognition but also increases motivation. However, decit-based explora-
tion prevailed over strengths-based exploration: while issues were usually discussed
very thoroughly, there was less attention paid to analyses of good practices. This is
224
Ensuring development during CELTA lesson feedback
disappointing, as the recognition of success is one of our natural expectations, and the
wise trainer should take advantage of this.
Developing awareness
Using their intervention tutors can inuence teachers’ self-awareness in the teaching
process and their role in it. Self-awareness, however, is impossible without constant
reection, which is developed through discussions of the reasons for behaviour,
suggested strategies, techniques or alternatives, and exploring alternatives. Without
understanding the reasons one cannot appreciate the value of actions, and without
discussing alternatives one cannot deal with problems. These were the two most com-
mon ways of raising trainees’ awareness used by the tutors during feedback, which is
a positive feature.
Trainer talk plays a crucial role in developing awareness. Exploring reasons and
discussing alternatives were scaffolded by the tutors. This appeared in various forms
from simple prescriptions to more cognitively engaging speculative questions (Engin
2013). Tutors used a variety of scaffolding techniques. However, the most productive
ones were those that scaffolded a discovery with further exploration of rationales and
alternatives. Such a model serves teachers’ self-development on the course and beyond.
Developing knowledge
Focusing on individual learners as a starting point for developing teachers’ strategic
competence is a great bottom-up strategy. Surprisingly little emphasis was placed on
teachers’ inuence on the learning process in contrast to the attention paid to teach-
ers’ actions. In some feedback sessions students were only mentioned as doers, while
in others the focus was totally on teachers’ actions without a deep exploration of
individual students’ features, reaction to tasks, and so forth. Tutors should probably
make more explicit links between those in order to push trainees in thinking about
connecting teacher’s actions with learners’ outcomes.
Developing skills and strategies
To evaluate the development of skills and strategies, I analysed tutor interventions as
recipe-based (discrete-item, self-focused teaching) and strategy-based (dealing with
most common classroom situations and making conscious decisions with a stronger
focus on the learner).
Strategy-based comments were widely used. Recipe-based comments were quite
common too, but they were often followed by a rationale or a strategic suggestion
applicable to a number of similar situations. I called the result of strategy-based dis-
cussions ‘thinking between the lines’ as they allow each trainee to make their own
inferences without imposing the ‘right’ answer.
Conclusion
The research conrmed that trainers’ feedback is largely developmental. It also
proved that evaluation during feedback serves developmental purposes as it reinforces
developmental effects. The quality of training impacts both teachers’ professionalism
and the well-being of their future students. Therefore, through discovering ways to
encourage positive changes in trainees will benet both future teachers and students.
225
Apart from my personal professional development, I hope that this research will be of
value for other teacher trainers and educational managers.
oconnolly@bkc.ru
References
Engin, M. 2013. ‘Questioning to scaffold: an exploration of questions in pre-service teacher
training feedback sessions’. European Journal of Teacher Education 36/1: 39−54.
Freeman, D. 1989. ‘Observing teachers: three approaches to in service training and develop-
ment’. TESOL Quarterly 23/1: 27−45.
Heron, J. 2001. Helping the Client: A Creative Practical Guide. London: Sage.
12.5 Empowerment and challenges of CLIL as perceived by

pre-service teachers
Anita Lämmerer University of Graz, Austria
Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) is an increasingly popular teach-
ing approach. Yet, little attention so far has been given to the training of the teachers
working with it. Preparing educators to teach the dual-focused nature of CLIL should
be prioritised (Banegas 2012). This talk reported on a study which aims to better
understand the development of pre-service teachers within a CLIL training course.
Research context
In Austria, all teachers are trained in two subjects. In this study, they all specialised
in teaching English as a Foreign Language (B2 CEFR level tested in entrance exams)
and another subject in humanities, natural sciences or physical education. They
were all in the nal stages of their master’s studies. The course aimed to develop the
teachers’ ‘three separate but intertwined abilities in order to operate within this new
approach: target language ability, content knowledge and CLIL methodology’
(Hillyard 2011: 5).
Establishing a CLIL teaching internship
To add an authentic practical component, a university−school partnership was includ-
ed. Mentors in school and pre-service teachers were matched through a list of topics
based on the national curriculum. The pre-service teachers could then select a topic
and meet the class they would teach, parallel to their CLIL training at university. The
participants volunteered and appeared highly motivated by this practical component
as seen in the post-teaching interviews as well as their reections during the four
months leading to this. Knowing that their materials would actually be used appeared
to affect the way the participants adapted CLIL theory for their needs and added extra
motivation.
A multiple case study
Using a case-study approach, the development of the 30 pre-service teachers (21
female, 9 male) within the four months of the university-based teacher-training
226
Empowerment and challenges of CLIL as perceived by pre-service teachers
course and its practical component was examined. In the university course, which
is based on the European Framework of CLIL Teacher Education, participants were
introduced to CLIL methodology, the 4Cs, Basic Interpersonal Communication
Skills (BICS) and Cognitive Academic Language Prociency (CALP), Bloom’s tax-
onomy and task-based learning, before developing an eight-session CLIL module for
secondary schools. The participants’ progress in understanding CLIL and designing
CLIL activities was captured via an autobiography and four reection tasks. They
were also given the option to do a short internship parallel to their CLIL training
course, in which they observed two lessons (one English lesson and one lesson of their
content subject, often held in their mother tongue) and taught two CLIL lessons.
Post-teaching interviews were conducted with ve of the participants (three female,
two male) who taught their lessons in school.
Experiencing empowerment and challenges
What motivated the pre-service teachers most throughout the training is the oppor-
tunity to combine their two subjects and the subsequent sense of purpose that CLIL
gave them. While most participants enjoyed the creativity in designing CLIL materi-
als and reported liking the autonomy provided by CLIL, one participant stated that
she was ‘not the creative type’ and hated designing materials. It also became evident
that some topics are more suitable for CLIL than others. The CLIL topics seemed to
provide an additional challenge for some, while they greatly inspired others like Diana
who said, ‘I feel condent and motivated about what I have planned as I am enthu-
siastic about the topic.’ In addition to the general challenges involved in teaching a
foreign language, such as nding the appropriate language level and lesson planning,
the pre-service teachers mainly struggled with the dual responsibility of combining
language and content. Despite the explicit focus on CLIL material design, a wish
for more appropriate ready-to-use CLIL materials was frequently expressed. Further
struggles included legal regulations concerning assessment specic to the Austrian
context and the fact that preparing CLIL lessons was perceived as more time consum-
ing than preparing general lessons.
Conclusion
The ndings suggest a need for CLIL methodology training focusing especially on
how to full the dual responsibility of combining language and content. It also illus-
trates the usefulness of a CLIL teacher internship within a pre-service teacher educa-
tion programme.
anita.laemmerer@uni-graz.at
References
Banegas, D. L. 2012. ‘CLIL teacher development: challenges and experiences’. Latin American
Journal of Content & Language Integrated Learning 5/1: 46–56.
Hillyard, S. 2011. ‘First steps in CLIL: training the teachers’. laclil 4/2: 1–12.
Marsh, D., P. Mehisto, D. Wolff and M. J. Frigols Martin. 2012. European Framework for CLIL
Teacher Education. Graz: European Centre for Modern Languages.
227
12.6 No drama? Two theatrical strategies for initial teacher

training
David Jay Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, UK
Introduction
The use of theatrical strategies for language teaching, including role play, improvisa-
tion and voice work, is well documented in the literature (Belliveau and Kim 2013).
However, the specic application of performing arts strategies to teacher training
has received less widespread attention. This presentation outlined and evaluated the
implementation of two theatrical strategies to support trainee teachers on intensive
CELTA courses at Anglia Ruskin University.
Training challenges
The initial phase of the intensive CELTA course presents specic challenges for train-
ees and their trainers. During the rst week of teaching practice, many trainees strug-
gle with classroom logistics, e.g. matching their teacher position and voice level to the
appropriate lesson phase. Some trainees may also have difculty with ELT terminol-
ogy such as nominating, i.e. using the names of individual students to elicit answers
from the whole class (Roberts 2017). For trainers, the challenge is to give precise
feedback which trainees can grasp and implement within the time constraints of an
intensive course. The following strategies were developed to address these challenges.
Strategy 1: a numbered shorthand for teacher position
Perhaps surprisingly, this strategy is taken from classical dance. Those who have
attended elementary dance classes will be familiar with set positions, numbered rst,
second, third, and so on. This long-established shorthand allows dance teachers to
describe body position precisely, and is also used to record choreography in written
form. Transferring this principle (but not the dance steps themselves!) to the language
classroom, a simple numbered shorthand was devised for teaching practice, in order
to describe three key teacher positions and corresponding voice levels, as shown in
Table 12.6.1.
Trainees were encouraged to use this shorthand when preparing their lessons in
the rst week; some included it in their lesson plans to help them match the most
Short- Classroom
hand Position Body Voice level Purpose
1 Front Standing High, projected Giving instructions
Presenting language
Giving feedback on the board
2 Front Sitting Medium, natural Sharing informal feedback
3 Near Lowered to Lower Monitoring pair or group
students eye level work
Table 12.6.1: A numbered shorthand for teacher position
228
No drama? Two theatrical strategies for initial teacher training
appropriate position and voice to specic lesson phases. The trainer was also able to
refer to it when talking through lesson ideas with trainees in preparation time, and in
teaching practice feedback.
The strategy was evaluated through a short questionnaire circulated to trainees
from recent courses. A total of 12 responses were collected; this was admittedly a
small sample, but it was sufcient to provide quantitative data for analysis, supported
by optional free-text comments for qualitative evaluation. When asked to rate the
helpfulness of the numbered shorthand, trainees responded positively overall: 88.9
per cent of trainees on courses where this strategy was used rated it as either ‘very
helpful’ or ‘quite helpful’. The free-text comments revealed that trainees with prior
classroom experience were less likely to make a note of teacher position ‘as this gener-
ally happened naturally’. It is therefore suggested that the strategy is more useful for
trainees who do not have prior experience.
Strategy 2: an emphasis on trainee-centred rehearsal
To help trainees grasp the practical meaning of terms like nominating, the trainer had
previously relied either on verbal explanations or short demonstrations. To supple-
ment this, an emphasis was now placed on trainee-centred rehearsal, with the trainer
‘directing’ and trainees taking the role of ‘teacher’ and ‘learners’, as recommended by
Thornbury and Watkins (2007). Rehearsals of this type were also incorporated into
input sessions and teaching practice feedback workshops.
In the evaluative questionnaire mentioned above, trainees were asked whether
trainee-centred rehearsal, trainer demonstration or trainer explanation was their
preferred way to learn about classroom techniques in the early stages of the course.
Their responses showed mixed preferences. Although rehearsal was preferred by some
trainees (33.3 per cent), there was a tendency to favour trainer demonstration (50 per
cent), while some preferred verbal explanations (16.7 per cent). Perhaps the overall
response to this strategy is best summed up by one trainee’s comment that ‘all three
are essential’.
Conclusion
The ndings of this small-scale research project suggest that strategies from the per-
forming arts are benecial for trainee teachers as they start out in the classroom. A
numbered shorthand for teacher position and voice may be helpful, particularly for
those who have no prior classroom experience. Trainers need to be ready to deploy a
range of strategies, including verbal explanation, demonstration, and trainee-centred
rehearsal, in order to respond exibly to the needs and preferences of their trainees.
david.jay@anglia.ac.uk
References
Belliveau, G. and W. Kim. 2013. ‘Drama in L2 learning: a research synthesis’. Scenario 7/2:
7– 27.
Roberts, R. 2017. The CELTA Teaching Compendium. http://the-round.com/resource/
the-celta-compendium/
Thornbury, S. and P. Watkins. 2007. The CELTA Course Trainer’s Manual. Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press.
229
12.7 Professional development for teacher trainers: a neglected

area?
Teti Dragas Durham University, UK
This presentation focused on an important but often neglected area: the training and
professional development of teacher trainers and educators. The talk reported on the
results of an online questionnaire and six follow-up interviews that sought to explore
this question through an analysis of trainers working and learning experiences, draw-
ing on data from over 50 teacher trainers/educators working within ELT in a variety
of contexts around the world. It was hoped that this would open up discussion on
these practices, facilitating change in the area.
Background: why call teacher training a ‘neglected’ area?
Professional development for language teachers often focuses on two key types of
teacher: the pre-service teacher who needs ‘training’ to learn to teach and the in-ser-
vice teacher who needs further ‘development’. However, as Rod Bolitho (2013: 12)
reminds us, while
the practicum in pre-service training and developmental observation for serving
teachers are acknowledged as crucial planks in maintaining and improving
standards of teaching … the trainer’s or educator’s role as an observer, supervisor
or assessor remains largely underexplored, susceptible to subjectivity in its practices
and cloaked in silence and handed-down traditions rather than opened up in
public debate.
Beyond the questions—‘How did they get to be a trainer?’ and ‘Who “trained”
them?’—lie the more important questions: Who is responsible for their own profes-
sional development as ‘teacher trainers’? How do we/they ensure that their ‘training
and development’ practices are in check?
The impetus for this exploration began from my own experiences as one of these
‘breeds of teacher’ whose practices, according to Bolitho, ‘were cloaked in silence’.
Having worked in the eld for over 20 years (ten years focused on teacher training
and development), I often wondered to what extent my own practices sat within the
wider practices of trainers and educators in the eld. So I began to ask: To what extent
was my experience common? Did it matter how I learnt? How do I know that I know
enough? How can I evaluate my practice? In short, was Bolitho right? This led to
the development of an online questionnaire and follow-up interviews which sought
to capture some of the ‘answers’ to the above questions in order to gain insight into
both how professionals working in the training and development have acquired their
knowledge and practices, and into how they understand these.
Analysing trainers’ learning experiences
My own entry into teacher education was in 2006, when I was trained to be a CELTA
trainer, through the trainer-in-training programme administered by Cambridge
ESOL. Although I received ‘formal’ training, it was quite prescriptive: it focused on
‘teaching’ pre-service teachers according to the CELTA syllabus; it was relatively brief
230
Professional development for teacher trainers: a neglected area?
(one month) from shadowing to practice. While this experience was certainly valua-
ble, it was not enough. According to the survey, 40 per cent of respondents had also
entered the eld through this route (CELTA or Trinity Cert), followed equally by 35
per cent of respondents who had been ‘trained in-house’ within a school or institu-
tion. Interestingly, over 25 per cent of respondents had received no training what-
soever, and had simply ‘just started doing it’. This shows that trainer learning, is in
fact situated primarily in practice. In fact, unsurprisingly perhaps, the survey revealed
this to be true for trainers who labelled ‘experience’ as the most inuential factor in
their own learning and development. Further analysis of inuences revealed ve key
inuences from most to least inuential: (1) working with/talking to other trainers/
colleagues/peers; (2) experience teaching different kinds of teachers; (3) reection in/
on action—self-evaluation and reection and experimentation; (4) observation of
others’ practice/mentoring; and (5) reading/study.
In teacher interviews, context revealed itself to be vitally important in terms of
situating that experience and its inuence. Not only did context determine learning
experience for teacher trainers and educators but, it was their teacher-learners—‘the
people in the room’ (Interviewee 1)—that shaped their practice and inuenced their
thinking and their approach to teacher education. All gave specic examples (critical
incidents) that moved them to question their own beliefs and practices—‘in response
to resistance’ (Interviewee 6)—and which, in turn, changed how they practised teach-
er education. Another important nding was that although ‘knowledge’ was deemed
to be the most important quality for professionals working within teacher educa-
tion, other important qualities were situated in humanistic methodologies: openness,
empathy, patience, understanding and supportiveness.
Conclusions
The study raises a number of interesting questions about entry into teacher training
which we need to further explore as a profession. While researchers such as Stephen
Bax (1997) have long since talked about context-sensitive language education, and the
post-method era has waxed lyrical about the importance of bottom-up practices for
ELT, there is more work to be done in exploring what this means for ELTE and for
professionals working in the eld more broadly.
Acknowledgements
I want to thank all respondents to the online survey who participated in this research
and without whom it would not have been possible.
areti.dragas@durham.ac.uk
References
Bax, S. 1997. ‘Roles for a teacher educator in context-sensitive teacher education’. ELT Journal
51/3: 232−241.
Bolitho, R. 2013. ‘Dilemmas in observing, supervising and assessing ceachers’, in Powell-
Davis, P. (ed.). Assessing and Evaluating English Language Teacher Education. New Delhi:
British Council.
231
12.8 Curriculum change in language teacher education: what does

it take?
Loreto Aliaga-Salas University of Leeds, UK and RICELT Chile
Becoming a teacher of English in Chile

There are over 90 language teacher education programmes in Chile, offered by over
30 universities. Most universities do not require candidates to know or be procient
in English. Thus, within four to ve years, universities aim to develop pre-service
teachers’ English prociency (a C1 level is expected upon graduation), along with
teaching about the language and how to teach it.
An innovation in language teacher education
My presentation reported on a language teacher education programme in Chile, from
the perspective of teacher educators and student teachers living through change. The
innovation, called the Integrated Curriculum, is a ve-year programme which aims
at the integration of content knowledge and language teaching, inspired by CALLA,
CLIL, task-based learning and critical pedagogy. The integration is based on the need
for teacher educators from all the curricular strands (Integrated English Language,
practicum, education and methodology) to function together, drawing upon and
supporting each other. This research looks at the Integrated English strand, since
it comprises 60 per cent of the teaching hours and the largest number of teacher
educators of the programme. As the backbone of the Integrated Curriculum, the Inte-
grated English Language strand aims at developing language prociency, knowledge
about the language, knowledge about other subjects, and critical thinking. From the
perspective of four language teacher educators, and 27 student teachers, I discuss
curricular innovation and its implications for teacher education.
What does curriculum change mean for those who implement and
receive it?
Teacher educators, as the implementers of the curriculum, are responsible for translating
innovation into the language classroom with student teachers. The strand integration
challenges their preparedness to teach the curriculum: they question their own knowl-
edge to teach various subjects and topics, with little support from the institution.
Looking at their own practices, teacher educators wonder about the implications
of teaching future teachers of English: teacher educators’ lack of connection with the
school context where their student teachers will work becomes evident. The focus is
not only on teaching future teachers of English, it is on teaching teachers who will
mainly work in the school system. This means that teacher educators’ practices need
to account for what the schools are expecting them to know and do, while bearing in
mind the core principles of the Integrated Curriculum.
From the perspective of student teachers, as the receivers of the innovation, they
mainly focus on the teaching of English rather than on adopting a multi-discipli-
nary perspective whereby they question the way they learn through an integrated
approach and the discussion of various topics. They believe in a traditional language
teaching approach. For example, they would like to study grammar and phonetics to
232
Recharging methodological batteries: A Peruvian project aimed at teacher trainers
strengthen their English foundations, particularly those with lower prociency levels
at the beginning of their teacher training.
So what?
The Integrated Curriculum is a daring programme in a context that remains vastly
unchanged, with deeply rooted beliefs and a focus on ‘language, language acquisition,
and linguistic disciplines’ (Barahona 2015: 29). The Integrated Curriculum aims at
teaching teachers of English to become agents of change through contextually relevant
and informed practices. As shown by RICELT (2017), there is an increasing number
of publications based on the Chilean ELT context, which can now be used as resourc-
es to inform Chilean language teacher education.
Seven years after implementation, the reections of teacher educators and student
teachers suggest that curriculum change is a slow process which requires extensive
planning and support. Teacher educators, as the implementers, require a sustainable
support system, for example, using exploratory talk or dialogic reection (Mann and
Walsh 2017) to review their teaching and learning practices. They must be able to
adapt both content and teaching strategies to the emerging needs of student teachers.
Likewise, student teachers also struggle to adapt to this change. They come from the
school system, and they go back to it, after graduation, as teachers. In this transition,
student teachers nd themselves trying to change their beliefs and adjust to their new
‘self ’, as well as balancing university and school demands.
Promoting curriculum change, such as the Integrated Curriculum, is brave and
requires extensive support for the implementers to respond to the newness and the
school system demands. Most importantly, teacher educators’ work, hopefully, will
be reected in their student teachers’ practices. It is in the school language classroom,
where these critical and innovative language teachers work to make an impact on their
students’ lives, that change starts.
loreto.aliaga.salas@gmail.com
References
Barahona, M. 2015. English Language Teacher Education in Chile: A Cultural Historical Activity
Theory Perspective. Abingdon: Routledge.
Mann, S. and S. Walsh. 2017. Reective Practice in English Language Teaching: Research-Based
Principles and Practices. New York: Taylor & Francis.
RICELT. 2017. Research on ELT in Chile: Bibliography. http://www.ricelt.cl/2018/01/publica-
tions-on-chilean-elt-context.html
12.9 Recharging methodological batteries: a Peruvian project

aimed at teacher trainers
Maria Esther Linares and Ralph Grayson British Council, Peru
Introduction
According to the Ministry of Education in Peru, there are about 12,800 public sec-
ondary English teachers in the country, but a further 6,000 are needed to supply the
233
public system in full at that level. This demand for teachers is expected to be met by
the public pedagogical institutes which employ around 160 trainers for their Initial
Teacher Training programmes.
In 2016, the British Council in Peru was commissioned to design a trainer develop-
ment programme for 50 of the 160 existing trainers from the pedagogical institutes.
The Initial Teacher Training department of the Ministry had very specic require-
ments for this programme, which included:
• a placement test to ensure that participants were at least at CEFR B2 level;
• a 120-hour blended programme (online plus video conferencing);
• content around four specic areas: curriculum, planning; evaluation of and for
learning; skills development; and management of resources, media and educational
material; and
• an exit English test which could provide participants with a certicate.
According to the requirements, the programme would update trainers on peda-
gogical skills, but it would also be an opportunity for them to improve their level of
English by participating in live interaction online. It would also need to cater for
trainers who were spread across the country, which explains the requirement for a
blended programme.
The response to the challenge
As the project management team designed the programme, one main question
emerged: How did authorities ensure that the content requested t the trainers’ needs?
The answers led us to discuss how differently things may (or may not) be if we asked
trainers to self-assess their pedagogical skills. As the programme commenced, a self-as-
sessment tool was used; this disclosed that two of the pieces of content pre-determined
by the Ministry were, in fact, areas that the trainers considered their strengths.
The programme ran for 120 hours, 72 of which were devoted to self-study and
focused on the four content areas mentioned above. The rest of the hours were devot-
ed to live online webinars, self-reection tasks and practical tasks that invited partici-
pants to put the pedagogical content into their particular contexts.
Besides the obvious mismatch between programme content and participants’
needs, other challenges emerged:
• A very slow progression rate meant that the participants were not accessing the mate-
rial at the expected speed or with the programmed frequency.
• Many of the participants declared that they had two or three jobs and could not cope
with the amount of material provided.
• Some participants needed to travel long distances to reach a point where their Inter-
net connection was strong enough to access the learning management system.
Contrary to what the project team was advised, local telephone and online sup-
port was included, which helped to identify participants’ problems, provide pastoral
support and systematise information to make decisions about adapting programme
contents and tasks.
To further monitor and assess the programme, a videoed class observation task
was implemented. This consisted of a short video submitted by participants in which
they demonstrated the strategies explored in the programme. The observations
234
Recharging methodological batteries: A Peruvian project aimed at teacher trainers
demonstrated trainers’ condence in most commonly used strategies, but weaknesses

in the use of more complex ones. These class observations were the backbone of a
set of recommendations for the Ministry to take forward in future iterations of pro-
grammes of this nature.
The programme ended with 44 per cent of the participants fully certied and 43
per cent partially certied. This distinction was made on the basis of the extent of
achievement in the programme. The satisfaction score of the programme reached 87.5
per cent, and 92 per cent of the participants acknowledged that they had valued the
learning experience.
Conclusions
Through the work carried out in this project, the team provided the Ministry of
Education with clear guidelines about future programme design which should ideally
explore potential participants’ contexts, needs and proles and which should refrain,
as much as possible, from making assumptions about what participants need or do
not need in the content to be delivered. This programme also demonstrated that
delivery methods and overall design must t the context and be achievable, therefore
considering participants’ realities and expectations (e.g. programme content, length,
and dedication). Finally, the team demonstrated that, in challenging contexts, they
themselves cannot be rigid in their delivery; they must be exible to respond to local
needs, customise any original dictated programme model and know the tools that can
help them make things happen.
ralph.grayson@britishcouncil.org
melinares_2000@yahoo.es
References
Borg, S. 2015. Continuous Professional Development. London: British Council.
Day, C. 1999. Developing Teachers: The Challenges of Lifelong Learning. London: Falmer Press,
235
236
Index of authors
Al-Saadi, Zulaikha 3.5 Hall, Graham 2.5 Northall, Nicholas 12.1
Alhassan, Awad 7.2 Handy, Sophie 6.2
Aliaga-Salas, Loreto 12.8 Harries, Patricia 1.2 O’Sullivan, Barry 9.1
Amos, Eduardo 4.8 Harrison, Tilly 1.3 Ortega, Lourdes 1.1
Appel, Helene 5.3 Heredia, Rubens 10.9
Arnold, Wendy 6.10 Hockly, Nicky 8.7 Palanac, Aleks 4.5
Horn, Birte W. 7.6 Paraná, Raul Albuquerque
Bahrenscheer Jensen, Maria Hunter, Michelle 7.4 6.8
5.3 Hyde-Simon, Caroline 7.5 Perry, Nicola 10.8
Baines, Daniel 10.6 Peter, Lisa 5.7
Bilbrough, Nick 4.7 Ibrahim, Nayr 6.1 Platzer, Hans 7.1
Brown, Steve 4.2 Irvine-Niakaris, Christine 11.7 Potter, Louise Emma 11.4
Bruton, Anthony 6.9
Bryson, Emily 4.6 Jacobsen, Susanne 6.5 Rahman, Arifa 4.3
Jay, David 12.6 Rixon, William 1.7
Camerer, Rudi 2.4 Rosenberg, Marjorie 7.3
Carrier, Michael 8.2 Kerr, William 3.2 Ruas, Linda 3.1
Christodoulou, Niki 10.2 Khafegi, Noha 10.5
Clements, Bindi 8.8 Kharbamon, Tarun Kumari 5.4 Šaric-Cvjetković, Božica 6.3
Connolly, Olga 12.4 Kilbon, Jayn 3.4 Schoenmann, Julietta 3.1
Costa Lopes, Ana Carolina Kilpelä, Jonathan 6.8 Sowton, Chris 4.4
5.8 Knight, Ben 2.7 Spöttl, Carol 9.3
Koch Junior, Joao Carlos 1.8
Davies, Beth 12.1 Koifman, Julia 6.4 Tassinari, Maria Giovanna
De Stefani, Magdalena 11.5 Krummenacher, Karin 12.2 10.3
Deschner, Annette 5.7 abet, Rida 4.7
Douglas, Alastair 12.3 Lamb, Martin 8.3 omas, Nathan 2.3
Dragas, Teti 12.7 Lämmerer, Anita 12.5 orburn, Ross 11.2
Duarte, Analia 2.4 Laubacher, Laura 3.8 Tran, Tran Le Nghi 8.6
Duarte, Heloisa 1.6 Lebeau, Ian 5.1
Lefever, Samúel 6.7 Underhill, Adrian 2.1
Eberharter, Kathrin 9.3 Lesniewski, Sebastian 11.1
Elhawary, Dalia 11.6 Lethaby, Carol 1.2 Verdonk, Désirée 7.1
Ellis, Gail 6.1 Lewko, Alexander M. 3.6 Villas Boas, Isabela 11.8
Emmerson, Paul 2.6 Linares, Maria Esther 12.9
Loder, Conny 5.6 Waddington, Julie 1.4
Fernandez Schmidt, Brita 4.1 Longwell, Phil 11.3 Wakeling, Joanna 1.7
Ferreira, Cornée 4.9 Webb, Caroline 3.3
Fogh Jensen, Benthe 8.5 Mader, Judith 2.4 Williams, Gemma 2.4
Ford, Helen 5.5 Mahapatra, Santosh 9.4 Wittmann, Cosima 7.7
Freeman, Donald 10.1 Makhlouf, Sanaa Abdel Hady Woodward, Tessa 10.1
5.2
García-Stone, Ana 10.4 Mavridi, Sophia 8.1 Xerri, Daniel 10.7
Garside, Tom 9.2 Melgaard, Bente 6.5 Xirofotou, Evangelia 9.5
Giannikas, Christina Nicole Mendes Peixoto, Isabelita
8.4 Solano 2.2 Young, Roslyn 2.1
Goodier, Tim 9.5 Messum, Piers 2.1
Graves, Kathleen 10.1 Milagres Dyna, Aline 2.2 Zemach, Dorothy 2.8
Grayson, Ralph 12.9 Muniz, Maria 11.5 Zimianitou, Jenny 11.7
Gregson, Mark 6.10 Murase, Fumiko 1.5
Gruenbaum, Tatia 6.6 Murre, Piet 3.7
237
238
Index of topics
Age and learning: Ortega, 1.1; Duarte, 1.6 Drama: abet and Bilbrough, 4.7; of
Shakespeare: Loder, 5.6; Peter and Deschner,
Assessment and testing: O’Sullivan, 9.1; 5.7; in teacher training: Jay, 12.6
Garside, 9.2; Eberharter and Spöttl, 9.3;
Mahapatra, 9.4; Goodier and Xirofotou, 9.5 ELT, goal and purpose of: Underhill, Messum
and Young, 2.1; Brown, 4.2; Rahman, 4.3
Autonomous learning: Murase, 1.5
English and globalisation: omas, 2.3;
Business/workplace English: Camerer, Brown, 4.2; Rahman, 4.3; Ferreira, 4.9
Williams, Duarte and Mader, 2.4; Zemach,
2.8; Platzer and Verdonk, 7.1; Alhassan, 7.2; English as a lingua franca: Camerer, Williams,
Rosenberg, 7.3; Hunter, 7.4 Duarte and Mader, 2.4
CELTA: Heredia, 10.9; Krummenacher, 12.2; English as a medium of instruction (EMI):

Douglas, 12.3; Connolly, 12.4 Al-Saadi, 3.5; Murre, 3.7; Alhassan, 7.2
Coaching: Rixon and Wakeling, 1.7 English for Specic/Academic Purposes: Webb,
2.3; Kilbon, 3.4; Al-Saadi, 3.5; Lewko, 3.6;
Common European Framework of Reference Hyde-Simon, 7.5; Horn, 7.6; Wittman, 7.7
(CEFR): Camerer, Williams, Duarte and
Mader, 2.4; Wittman, 7.7; Eberharter and Error correction: Ortega, 1.1
Spöttl, 9.3; Goodier and Xirofotou, 9.5
Gestures: Camerer, Williams, Duarte and
Content and Language Integrated Learning Mader, 2.4
(CLIL): Sowton, 4.4; Kilpelä and Paraná,
6.8; Bruton, 6.9; training for: Lämmerer, Growth Mindset model: Harrison, 1.3; Handy,
12.5 6.2
Continuing professional development IELTS: O’Sullivan, 9.1; Garside, 9.2

(CPD): for teachers: Woodward, Graves
and Freeman, 10.1; Christodoulou, 10.2; L1, classroom use of: Hall, 2.5
Tassinari, 10.3; García-Stone, 10.4; Khafagi,
10.5; Baines, 10.6; Xerri, 10.7; Perry, 10.8; Language advisors: Tassinari, 10.3
Heredia, 10.9; Muniz and De Stefani,
11.5; Elhawary, 11.6; Irvine-Niakaris and Learner dierences: In university students: Koch
Zimianitou, 11.7; for trainers: Dragas, 12.7; Junior, 1.8; in children: Šaric-Cvjetković,
Linares and Grayson, 12.9 6.3; Koifman, 6.4
Critical thinking: Schoenmann and Ruas, 3.1; Literature, storytelling and Ferreira, 4.9; Ford,
Appel and Bahrenscheer Jensen, 5.3 5.5; through picture books: Jacobsen and
Melgaard, 6.5; Gruenbaum, 6.6
Cultural identity: Mendes Peixoto and
Milagres, 2.2; omas, 2.3; Camerer, Management in ELT: Lesniewski, 11.1;
Williams, Duarte and Mader, 2.4; Palanac, orburn, 11.2; Longwell, 11.3; Potter,
4.5; Lebeau, 5.1; Makhlouf, 5.2; Appel and 11.4; Muniz and De Stefani, 11.5;
Bahrenscheer Jensen, 5.3; Kharbamon, 5.4; Elhawary, 11.6; Irvine-Niakaris and
Costa Lopes, 5.8; Lefever, 6.7 Zimianitou, 11.7; Villas Boas, 11.8
Curriculum reform: Arnold and Gregson, Materials writing/publishing: Knight, 2.7;

6.10; in teacher education: Aliaga-Salas, 12.8 Zemach, 2.8; Brown, 4.2; Amos, 4.8; Costa
Lopes, 5.8
Dictogloss: Kerr, 3.2
239
Index of topics
Mental health: Longwell, 11.3 Strategies in teaching and learning: Harries

and Lethaby, 1.2; Waddington, 1.4; Duarte,
Mentoring: Khafagi, 10.5 1.6; Underhill, Messum and Young, 2.1;
Schoenmann and Ruas, 3.1; Kerr, 3.2;
Migrants and refugees: Fernandez Schmidt, Webb, 3.3; Hunter, 7.4; Potter, 11.4
4.1; Rahman, 4.3; Sowton, 4.4; Palanac,
4.5; Bryson, 4.6; abet and Bilbrough, 4.7 Teacher training: Douglas, 12.3; Connolly,
12.4; Lämmerer, 12.5; Jay, 12.6; Dragas,
Motivation: Ortega, 1.1; Waddington, 1.4; 12.7; Aliaga-Salas, 12.8; Linares and
Duarte, 1.6; Horn, 7.6 Grayson, 12.9; new trainers: Davies
and Northall, 12.1; dierentiation in:
NESTs vs. non-NESTs: Lesniewski, 11.1; Krummenacher, 12.2
orburn, 11.2
Teaching online: Hockly, 8.7; Clements, 8.8
Observation and feedback: of teachers:
García-Stone, 10.4; Irvine-Niakaris and Technology: teaching with: Makhlouf, 5.2;
Zimianitou, 11.7; Villas Boas, 11.8; of Appel and Bahrenscheer Jensen, 5.3;
trainees: Douglas, 12.3; Connolly, 12.4 Mavridi, 8.1; Carrier, 8.2; Lamb, 8.3;
Giannikas, 8.4; Fogh Jensen, 8.5; Tran,
PPP: Emmerson, 2.6 8.6; Hockly, 8.7; Clements, 8.8; in testing:
O’Sullivan, 9.1
Peace and conict: Amos, 4.8; Fernandez
Schmidt, 4.1; Kharbamon, 5.4 TOEFL: O’Sullivan, 9.1; Garside, 9.2
Personalisation: Rixon and Wakeling, 1.7; Transitional world: Fernandez Schmidt, 4.1;
Palanac, 4.5; Mavridi, 8.1; of teacher Rahman, 4.3; Sowton, 4.4; Carrier, 8.2;
training programmes: Krummenacher, 12.2 Lamb, 8.3
Prejudice/discrimination: Mendes Peixoto and Vocabulary, development of: Lewko, 3.6;

Milagres, 2.2 Murre, 3.7; Laubacher, 3.8
Pronunciation, development of: Tran, 8.6 Women, education and: Fernandez Schmidt,
4.1
Project-based learning (PBL): Potter, 11.4
Writing skills, teaching of: Al-Saadi, 3.5;
Lewko, 3.6; Ferreira, 4.9; Fogh Jensen, 8.5
Reection/self-perception in teachers:
Christodoulou, 10.2; Tassinari, 10.3 Young learners, teaching of: Ellis and Ibrahim,
6.1; Handy, 6.2; Šaric-Cvjetković, 6.3;
Research in ELT: Ortega, 1.1; Xerri, 10.7; Koifman, 6.4; Jacobsen and Melgaard,
Perry, 10.8 6.5; Gruenbaum, 6.6; Lefever, 6.7; Kilpelä
and Paraná, 6.8; Bruton, 6.9; Arnold and
Social media in ELT: Giannikas, 8.4; in teacher Gregson, 6.10
development: Baines, 10.6
240
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Conference Selections

Edited by Tania Pattison

52nd International Conference

Edited by Tania Pattison

Editorial Committee: Jennifer MacDonald, Amos Paran, Daniel Xerri

Copyright for whole volume © IATEFL 2019

Copyright for individual reports/papers remains

The views expressed in this book are of the author(s) and

First published 2019

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

ISBN PRINTED: 978-1-912588-18-3

For a complete list of IATEFL publications including

Cover photographs © 2018, Syke A. K.

2 e big picture: models, methods and materials

3 Lessons from the classroom

4 Working for global change

5 Culture in the classroom

5.5 Using literature featuring non-standard English in ELT: some

6 Working with young learners

7 English for work

8 Teaching with technology

10 From reection to research: CPD for teachers

10.9 Measure and treasure: assessing teachers’ needs and evaluating

11 Issues in ELT management

12 Moving into teacher training

Index of authors 237

remember their live-streaming of a drama production by schoolchildren in Gaza. The

1.1 Plenary: What is SLA research good for, anyway?

In a nutshell, we have unequivocal empirical evidence that teachers know motiva-

1.2 Use your brain! Exploiting evidence-based teaching strategies

How can these strategies be applied to ELT?

1.3 Panicking, relaxing or learning? Exploring the Growth Zone

Figure 1.3.1: The Growth Zone model

1.4 Am I motivating enough?

practice. In order to structure the session, I drew on Zoltán Dörnyei’s process-oriented

Figure 1.4.1: Dörnyei’s process-oriented approach to motivation (2001: 29)

Task 2: Which parts of the process are we working on?

Figure 1.4.2: Results of study presented in Waddington (2017)

1.5 Advanced-level EFL students’ engagement in autonomous

1.6 Older English learners: when motivation alone is not enough

• choosing materials with motivating and interesting topics;

1.7 Creating a personalised course programme

1.8 Language learning disabilities in higher education: a

2.1 Language is for expression before it is for communication

another—each expressing themselves but not actually communicating with the

2.2 Linguistic prejudice: understanding and applying concepts in

2.3 A usage-based model for speakers of Global Englishes

levels of investment, traditional models no longer provide an adequate description of

2.4 Forum on English as a lingua franca (ELF)

Among other innovations, pronunciation skills are no longer described in relation

Figure 2.4.1: Reactions to sentences from an ELF corpus

2.5 Own-language use in the language classroom: why, when and

2.6 Whatever happened to the third P?

Extensive Intensive Analysed

Extensive Intensive Analysed

2.7 Integrating life skills into English language programmes

• Identies inconsistencies in stories

e papers in this chapter present examples of lessons, activities or classroom-based

3.1 F is for fake: how students deal critically with post-truth

Figure 3.1.1: Poster to help students recognise fake news

• Encourage students to negotiate meaning by translating posters in their own lan-

3.2 Dictogloss redux: rethinking a learning masterpiece in a

3.3 Multimodal EAP research projects: developing pragmatic