410 CHAPTER 10 SINUSOIDAL STEADY-STATE ANALYSIS

• The impedance of a capacitor is 1/jωC .

• The impedance of an inductor is jωL .
❑ Impedances combine both in series and in parallel combinations in the
same manner as resistors. (Example 10.6)
❑ All analysis techniques previously used on resistive circuits apply to
circuits with capacitors and/or inductors once all elements are replaced
by their frequency-domain equivalents. (Examples 10.5, 10.7, 10.8,
10.9, 10.10, 10.11)
❑ Phasor analysis can only be performed on single-frequency circuits.
Otherwise, superposition must be invoked, and the time-domain partial
responses added to obtain the complete response. (Example 10.12)
❑ The power behind phasor diagrams is evident when a convenient forcing
function is used initially, and the final result scaled appropriately.
(Example 10.13)

READING FURTHER
A good reference to phasor-based analysis techniques can be found in:
R. A. DeCarlo and P. M. Lin, Linear Circuit Analysis, 2nd ed. New York:
Oxford University Press, 2001.
Frequency-dependent transistor models are discussed from a phasor perspec-
tive in Chap. 7 of:
W. H. Hayt, Jr., and G. W. Neudeck, Electronic Circuit Analysis and
Design, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley, 1995.

EXERCISES
10.1 Characteristics of Sinusoids
1. Evaluate the following: (a) 5 sin (5t − 9◦ ) at t = 0, 0.01, and 0.1 s; (b) 4 cos 2t
and 4 sin (2t + 90◦ ) at t = 0, 1, and 1.5 s; (c) 3.2 cos (6t + 15◦ ) and
3.2 sin (6t + 105◦ ) at t = 0, 0.01, and 0.1 s.
2. (a) Express each of the following as a single cosine function: 5 sin 300t,
1.95 sin (πt − 92◦ ), 2.7 sin (50t + 5◦ )  10 cos 50t. (b) Express each of
the following as a single sine function: 66 cos (9t − 10◦ ), 4.15 cos 10t,
10 cos (100t − 9◦ ) + 10 sin (100t + 19◦ ).
3. Determine the angle by which v1 leads i1 if v1 = 10 cos (10t − 45◦ ) and i1
is equal to (a) 5 cos 10t; (b) 5 cos (10t − 80◦ ); (c) 5 cos (10t − 40◦ );
(d) 5 cos (10t + 40◦ ); (e) 5 sin (10t − 19◦ ).
4. Determine the angle by which v1 lags i1 if v1 = 34 cos (10t + 125◦ ) and i1
is equal to (a) 5 cos 10t; (b) 5 cos (10t − 80◦ ); (c) 5 cos (10t − 40◦ );
(d) 5 cos (10t + 40◦ ); (e) 5 sin (10t − 19◦ ).
5. Determine which waveform in each of the following pairs is lagging: (a) cos 4t,
sin 4t; (b) cos (4t − 80◦ ), cos (4t); (c) cos (4t + 80◦ ), cos 4t; (d) −sin 5t, cos
(5t + 2◦ ); (e) sin 5t + cos 5t, cos (5t − 45◦ ).
6. Calculate the first three instants in time (t > 0) for which the following
functions are zero, by first converting to a single sinusoid: (a) cos 3t − 7 sin 3t;
(b) cos (10t + 45◦ ); (c) cos 5t− sin 5t; (d) cos 2t + sin 2t− cos 5t + sin 5t.
7. (a) Determine the first two instants in time (t > 0) for which each of the
functions in Exercise 6 are equal to unity, by first converting to a single
sinusoid. (b) Verify your answers by plotting each waveform using an
appropriate software package.