Report submitted for MTP Phase I

Condition assessment of railway bridges using bridge vehicle

interaction

Project report submitted

in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of
Master of Technology
By
Kumar Devesh
Roll No: 224104408

Under the guidance of

Dr. Arunasis Chakraborthy

Department of civil engineering

Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
Guwahati – 781039

0
 CERTIFICATE
It is certified that the work contained in the project report entitled " Condition assessment of railway
bridges using bridge vehicle interaction" by Kumar Devesh (Roll No. 224104408) has been carried
out under my supervision and that this work has not been submitted elsewhere for the award of a degree
or diploma.

Signature

Date: 4 December 2023

Dr. Arunasis Chakraborthy

Professor

Department of Civil Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

1
 ABSTRACT
This project report delves into the critical aspects of vehicular-bridge interaction through an
extensive literature review and the development of a sophisticated bridge model. The primary
objective is to enhance our understanding of the dynamic behavior between vehicles and
bridges, contributing to improved structural design, safety, and overall infrastructure resilience.
It also deal with various methods of doing vehicular bridge interaction and their respective
benefits and their drawbacks. It review consolidates a diverse array of research findings on
vehicular-bridge interaction, encompassing analyses of dynamic loads, vibration
characteristics, and the effects of various factors that affect vehicular bridge Interaction.

This paper delves into the multidisciplinary domain of conditional assessment of railway
bridges under bridge-vehicle interaction.The research aims to contribute comprehensive
insights into the nuanced understanding and optimization of railway bridge performance. By
examining key considerations and methodologies, this work endeavors to advance best
practices for managing the intricate interplay between trains and bridges, enhancing the safety,
reliability, and sustainability of railway infrastructure within modern rail networks.

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Arunasis Chakraborthy, Professor, Department of
Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati for his invaluable guidance and mentorship
throughout the preparation of this report. His insightful feedback and encouragement greatly enriched
the quality of this work.

I extend my deepest appreciation to my parents, whose unwavering support and encouragement have
been a constant source of motivation.

I am grateful to my friends for their companionship and collaborative spirit, which made the process
of working on this report both enjoyable and fulfilling. Their constructive discussions and shared
insights significantly contributed to the overall depth of the content.

I also acknowledge the wisdom and experience shared by M/s Arpita Ghosh who provided valuable
advice and perspectives, shaping my understanding of the subject matter.

I extend my thanks to the faculty at IIT Guwahati for fostering an environment of academic excellence.
Their commitment to education and research has been a guiding force in my intellectual development.

Special thanks to the divine for granting me the strength and wisdom to undertake this endeavor. Your
collective contributions have significantly enriched this report and my academic journey.

Signature

Date: 4 December 2023

Kumar Devesh

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Table of Contents
CERTIFICATE..................................................................................................................... 0

ABSTRACT......................................................................................................................... 2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................... 3

Chapter 1 .............................................................................................................................. 6

1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 6

Chapter 2 .............................................................................................................................. 7

Literature Review................................................................................................................. 7

2.1 Evolution to Train Track Bridge Interaction Model ...................................................... 7

2.2 3D Model ....................................................................................................................... 8

2.3 Health monitoring of railway bridge using train mounted accelerometer ..................... 8

2.4 Factors affecting bridge and train displacement response ........................................... 10

2.5 Effect of track irregularity on identification of bridge frequency ................................ 10

2.6 Dynamic amplification factor of railway masonry arch and its dependency on various
factors. ................................................................................................................................ 11

2.7 Railway bridge damage detection based on extraction of in- stantaneous frequency by
Wavelet Synchrosqueezed Trans- form.............................................................................. 12

2.8 Bridge Vehicle interaction using dynamic condensation method ................................ 15

2.9 Damage Location of Beam Railway Bridges Using Rotation Responses ................... 19

2.10 Train-track-bridge interaction by multi-time-step method and moving track

technique. ........................................................................................................................... 25

Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 28

References .......................................................................................................................... 29

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List of Figures

Figure 1Model Devlopment History .......................................................................................... 7

Figure 2 3D Model of Vehicle.................................................................................................... 8
Figure 3:Vehicle Model.............................................................................................................. 9
Figure 4:Wavelet Coeffecient vs Damage % ........................................................................... 10
Figure 5:The flowcharts of the damage detection techniques based on the bridge natural
frequency extracted from the leaving phase ............................................................................ 13
Figure 6:Flow chart for damage detection for traversing phase .............................................. 14
Figure 7:Beam for calculation of CADR ................................................................................. 20
Figure 8:Flow chart of Cadr calculation .................................................................................. 24
Figure 9:Results obtained for CADR for various damage percentage,for various speed and
various axle distance ................................................................................................................ 25
Figure 10:Flow chart for VBI using moving track method ..................................................... 27

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 Chapter 1
1.1 Introduction

The intricate dynamics of vehicular-bridge interaction play a pivotal role in the structural
integrity, safety, and overall performance of transportation infrastructure. As our societies
continue to evolve, so too does the demand for resilient and sustainable bridge designs that can
withstand the complexities imposed by dynamic vehicular loads. This project embarks on a
comprehensive exploration of this dynamic interplay, combining a thorough literature review.

The literature review encapsulates a wealth of research findings on vehicular-bridge

interaction, providing a nuanced understanding of the dynamic forces, vibration characteristics,
and the impact vehicle dynamic forces like cumulative dynamic amplification on bridge
structures. From the influence of traffic patterns to the intricacies of load magnitude and
frequency content, these insights form the foundation for addressing the challenges posed by
dynamic interactions in bridge engineering.

Traditional methods of evaluating bridge health often involve visual inspections, structural
analyses, and material testing. While these approaches provide valuable insights, they may not
fully capture the dynamic effects of live loads, especially those imposed by moving trains. The
interaction between a bridge and passing trains introduces complex dynamic forces that can
significantly impact the structural integrity and overall condition of the bridge.

This report focuses on the novel approach of assessing the condition of railway bridges through
Bridge-Vehicle Interaction (BVI) analysis. BVI considers the dynamic effects of trains on
bridge structures, taking into account factors such as train speed, axle spacing, and wheel
configurations. By integrating BVI into the condition assessment process, we aim to enhance
the accuracy and comprehensiveness of evaluating the health and performance of railway
bridges.

6
 Chapter 2

Literature Review

2.1 Evolution to Train Track Bridge Interaction Model

Train–track–bridge dynamic interaction is a fundamental concern in the field of railway

engineering, which plays an extremely important role in the optimal design of railway bridges,
especially in high-speed railways and heavy-haul railways.

Figure 1Model Devlopment History (Zhihui Zhu, 2019)

Considering the vibrations of track structures, the traditional train–bridge interaction model has
been extended to the train–track–bridge dynamic interaction model. As seen in Table 1, the
TTBDIM can be utilised in an extremely wide range, from the basic issues to the application
in the research field of train–track–bridge dynamic interaction. The train and bridge structure
dynamically interact by virtue of the wheel–rail interaction as well as the track–bridge
interaction. On the one hand, dynamic loads of vehicles are exerted on the rail, and transmitted
downward to sleepers (or track slabs) via fasteners, and eventually delivered to the bridge deck.
As a result, vibrations of track and bridge are induced. On the other hand, the vibration and
deformation of the bridge affect the vibration of the track structure via the track–bridge
interface, which causes the changes of the wheel–rail contact geometry and wheel–rail
interactive forces. Once the wheel–rail forces vary, the dynamic behaviour of the train system
will be affected. From the mechanism in the above two dynamic processes, it could be
concluded that the train, the track and the bridge interact alternately and deeply. (Zhai, 2019)

7
2.2 3D Model

Most of the previous work was done on track bridge dynamic response of 2D sense concerning
primarily the vertical and longitudinal vibrations. For a realistic modelling, however, other
dynamic effects need be investigated, e.g., the lateral and rotational or torsional vibrations, the
responses induced by two trains in crossing, and so on. It enable us to consider coupling effect
between the lateral and rolling vibrations, which may be caused by the difference in elevation.
of the centres of gravity of the car body, bogie and wheelsets, and the linking action of any two
wheels connected by a rigid axle.There is also a probability of resonance can also occur because
of lateral and torsional vibration apart from vertical vibration.

The vertical and pitching vibrations of the train are evidently exacerbated due to the crossing
of two trains. Also, the train tends to oscillate more severe when crossing another train moving
at a higher speed. (Wanming Zhai, 2019)

Figure 2 3D Model of Vehicle (Zhihui Zhu, 2019)

2.3 Health monitoring of railway bridge using train mounted accelerometer

A method is proposed in this paper for the detection of the bridge damage through an analysis
of vehicle accelerations resulting from the train/track/bridge dynamic interaction.In this study,

8
the acceleration response of a railway vehicle is generated using a validated finite-element
vehicle-bridge interaction model called the Train-Track-Bridge (TTB) model developed by
Can-tero et al. The model generates acceleration responses at any degree of freedom in the
structure or vehicle. Damage is simulated in the bridge structure by reducing the stiffness of
affected bridge elements. Acceleration outputs from the TTB model provide the inputs for the
wavelet-based damage detection algorithm. Wavelet transforms for vehicle acceleration
responses measured for different levels of damage are compared to investigate for damage to
be detected and located.

Figure 3:Vehicle Model (Bowe, Quirke, Cantero, & O'Brien, 2015-05-27)

It is found that scales between 10 and 50 (corresponding to pseudo-frequencies of 20 Hz – 2

Hz) are most successful in finding the damage and damage location using the Mexican hat
wavelet for this particular model. The first mode of vibration of the healthy bridge (5.535Hz)
is found within the corresponding frequency range. Damage causes a change to the natural
frequencies of the bridge which manifests itself in the vehicle response thereby allowing the
detection of the damage from the vehicle response. Severity of damage in the bridge is made
corresponding to the Wavelet coefficient. (Bowe, Quirke, Cantero, & O'Brien, 2015-05-27)

9
 Figure 4:Wavelet Coeffecient vs Damage % (Bowe, Quirke, Cantero, & O'Brien, 2015-05-27)

2.4 Factors affecting bridge and train displacement response

In this paper sensitivity of random irregularities and other random variables of the train and
bridge to bridge and train responses were analysed using different combinations of random
variables from two sources at various train speeds. it came up with the result that The main
factors influencing the bridge displacement response are the mass of car-body and Young’s
modulus of the bridge; whereas the main factor affecting train response is track irregularity,
which has a much greater influence than other parameters. The bridge response demonstrates
the highest sensitivity to Young’s modulus and mass of the car-body, whereas the responses of
the train exhibit the highest sensitivity to stochastic irregularities. (Pengfei Liu, 2016)

2.5 Effect of track irregularity on identification of bridge frequency

The effect of track irregularity on the frequency identification is analyzed and the
corresponding solution is provided. It is proved that the existence of track irregularity has a
negative impact on the identification of bridge frequency. The TSM of suppressing the effect
of the track irregularity by subtracting the responses of two connected two-axle vehicles is
improved and illustrated. By using the TSM, the influence of the track irregularity can be
effectively reduced to improve the accuracy of indirect frequency identification.In the paper
the author has found the frequency of beam without considering track irregularity and after
considering track irregularity,and said that track irregularity has an negative im-pact on

10
frequency identification.so they came up with TSM method to supress the effect of track
irregularity (Ribeiro, 2023)

2.6 Dynamic amplification factor of railway masonry arch and its

dependency on various factors.

In this paper it derived the value DAF as per Euro code.DAF depends on various factors like
train speed, Span length, rise/span, Effect of train length, distance between the axle.

Eurocode also proposes a detailed method for determining DAF, which is applicable for real
train loading, which is as follows (Eurocode annex C) [6].

‘L’ is the span length of the bridge, and ‘LΦ’ is the determinant length, which for masonry arch
bridges is twice the clear opening, ‘V’ is train’s speed, and ‘f’ is first natural frequency of the
bridge.

1 + 𝜑 ′ + 𝜑 ′′ for track with standard maintenance

1 + 𝜑 ′ + 0.5𝜑 ′′ for carefully maintained tracks (2.6.1)
in which
𝐾
𝜑 ′ = 1−𝐾+𝐾4 for 𝐾 < 0.76
𝜑 ′ = 1.325 for 𝐾 ⩾ 0.76 (2.6.2)
where
𝑣
𝐾 = 2𝐿 ×𝑛 (2.6.3)
𝜙 0

and
𝐿𝜙 2 𝐿𝜙 2
′′ 𝛼 −( ) 𝐿𝜙 𝑛0 −( )
𝜑 = 100 [56𝑒 10 + 50 ( − 1) 𝑒 20 ]⩾0 (2.6.4)
80

with
𝑣
𝛼= if 𝑣 ⩽ 22𝑚/𝑠
22
𝛼 = 1 if 𝑣 > 22𝑚/𝑠
in which ' 𝑣 ' is the maximum permitted speed (m/s), ' 𝑛0 ' is the first bending natural frequency
of bridge loaded by permanent actions, ' 𝛼 ' is the coefficient for speed, and rest of parameters
are as defined before.

𝜑 ′ covers the rate of loading due to the speed of traffic crossing the structure and the inertial
response of the structure. It also covers the effects of the passage of successive loads which
may excite the structure and cause resonance.

11
𝜑 ′′ covers the effects of variations in wheel loads resulting from track or vehicle
imperfections.

He came up with the conclusion that DAF is least affected by train speed and is mostly
dependent on the youngs modulus of material off bridge.According to test results, modulus of
elasticity of masonry and first vertical natural frequencies have the highest correlations with
DAF values. (Shervan Ataei, 2018)

2.7 Railway bridge damage detection based on extraction of in-

stantaneous frequency by Wavelet Synchrosqueezed Trans-
form

In bridge structural health monitoring, typically the dynamic response of the system is used to
assess the health condition of the bridge. However, the dynamic interaction between a bridge
and a passing vehicle imposes non-stationarity on the system response, whereby the bridge
modal parameters become time-dependent and detecting damage, for example, based on the
bridge modal parameters, becomes challenging. Dynamic vehicle-bridge interaction (VBI)
responses have mainly been investigated for damage detection through identifying signal
singularities and abrupt changes. The singularities are usually associated with high-frequency
components (relative to the bridge natural frequencies), and it is demanding to isolate the
damage-induced singularities from those caused by either an operational condition, i.e., track
irregularities, or noise.

This study proposes a damage detection approach based on the instantaneous and natural
frequency of the bridge extracted from the bridge forced and free vibration response,
respectively.

Generally, a bridge vibration response due to a passing train contains three phases: 1) the
entrance phase, 2) the traverse phase, and 3) the leaving phase. The entrance phase covers the
period right before the train enters the bridge, and the part of the vibration signal associated
with this phase is not investigated in this paper. The traverse phase is the period that the train
is either partly or entirely on the bridge, and the leaving phase is the period right after the train
has left the bridge. The traverse and the leaving phase correspond to the bridge forced and free
vibrations, respectively. The traverse phase is known as the vehicle-bridge interaction response
(VBI), representing the response of the coupled system of both bridge and vehicle.

12
Figure 5:The flowcharts of the damage detection techniques based on the bridge natural frequency extracted from
the leaving phase (Mostafa, 2022)

where fb and fm are the baseline and the measured bridge natural frequency extracted from the
leaving phase response. It is known that a discontinuity emerges in the response when the
moving mass crosses a damaged element. Both the traverse and the leaving phase signals
contain local and global information. However, the global properties dominate in the leaving
phase, whereby slight variations induced by damage may be overshadowed. Therefore, the
traverse phase is believed to be more sensitive to damage than the free vibration response.

13
 Figure 6:Flow chart for damage detection for traversing phase (Mostafa, 2022)

An instantaneous frequency extracted from a measured traverse phase response, 𝐹𝑚 , can then
differ from 𝐹𝑏 due to; 1) a variation of the operational conditions or 2) the presence of damage.
Therefore, the source of the instantaneous frequency difference must be identified first. The
shape correlation ρ and the magnitude variation δ are proposed to identify the source

14
of 𝐹𝑏 variation. If the difference is caused by damage, then δ can be used as damage index. The
proposed damage index is an attempt to quantify damage severity. (Mostafa, 2022)

2.8 Bridge Vehicle interaction using dynamic condensation method

In analyzing the vehicle–bridge interaction systems, two sets of equations of motion of the
second order must be written each for the vehicles and for the bridge. It is the interaction forces
existing at the contact points that make the two subsystems coupled. As the contact points move
from time to time, the system matrices are, in general, time-dependent and must be updated
and factorized at each time step in an incremental analysis.To solve these equations iteration
method was used. Using Dynamic condensation method this iteration was eliminated.This
technique to condense the vehicle degrees of freedom (DOFs) to the associated bridge DOFs.
These methods have been demonstrated to be efficient for computing the bridge response.
However, because of the approximations made in relating the vehicle (slave) DOFs to the
bridge (master) DOFs, they are not adequate for computing the vehicle response, which serves
as an indicator of the riding comfort generally required in the design of high-speed rail bridges.
By using the Newmark finite difference scheme to discretize the vehicle equations, rather
accurate master–slave relations have been established and used in eliminating the vehicle DOFs
from the bridge equations. The result is an accurate VBI element that can be used efficiently in
computing both the vehicle and bridge responses.

Equation of vehicle can be written as

[𝑚uu ] [𝑚uw ] {𝑑¨u } [𝑐uu ] [𝑐uw ] {𝑑˙u }

[ ]{ } +[ ]{ }
[𝑚wu ] [𝑚ww ] {𝑑w } [𝑐wu ] [𝑐ww ] {𝑑˙w }
𝑡+Δ𝑡 𝑡+Δ𝑡 (2.8.1)
[𝑘 ] {𝑑 } {𝑘 } [𝑙 ]
+ [ uu ] { u } = { ww } + [ u ] {𝑓c }𝑡+Δ𝑡
[𝑘uw ] {𝑘wu } 𝑡+Δ𝑡 {𝑓we } 𝑡+Δ𝑡 [𝑙w ]

each wheelset is represented by one vertical DOF, the wheel part can be denoted as
{𝑑w } = ⟨𝑣w1 𝑣w2 … 𝑣w𝑖 … 𝑣w𝑛 ⟩𝐈

𝑛 contact points on the bridge are denoted as {𝑑c } = ⟨𝑣c1 𝑣c2 … 𝑣c𝑖 … 𝑣c𝑛 ⟩T

15
Let [𝑚v ], [𝑐v ] and [𝑘v ] respectively denote the mass, damping and stiffness matrices of the
T
vehicle, and {𝑑𝑣 } the displacement vector of the vehicle, i.e., {𝑑v } = ⟨⟨𝑑u ⟩⟨𝑑w ⟩⟩ . The
following is the equation of motion for the vehicle:

[𝑚v ]{𝑑¨v } + [𝑐v ]{𝑑˙v } + [𝑘v ]{𝑑v } = {𝑓v } (2.8.2)

where {𝑓𝑣 } is the force vector, which can be decomposed into two parts,
{𝑓𝑣 } = {𝑓e } + [𝑙]{𝑓e } (2.8.3)
{𝑓𝑒 } =denotes the external force components excluding the contact forces
{𝑓c } =the contact forces acting through the wheels

{𝑑𝑤 } can be related to the contact displacements {𝑑c } of the bridge by the constraint
equations
{𝑑w } = [Γ]{𝑑c }, (2.8.4)
The VBI system will be analyzed in an incremental sense in the time domain. Assuming that
all information about the system at time 𝑡 is known and Δ𝑡 is a small time increment, we are
interested in the behavior of the system at time 𝑡 + Δ𝑡

Now,
[𝑚uu ]{𝑑˜u } + [𝑐uu ]{𝑑˙u }𝑡+Δ𝑡 + [𝑘uu ]{𝑑u }𝑡+Δ𝑡 = {𝑓uc }𝑡+Δ𝑡 − {𝑞𝑢𝑐 }𝑡+𝛥𝑡 ,
𝑡+Δ𝑡 (2.8.5)

where
{𝑞uc }𝑡+Δ𝑡 = [𝑚uw ]{𝑑˜w } + [𝑐uw ]{𝑑˙w }𝑡+Δ𝑡 + [𝑘𝑢𝑤 ]{𝑑𝑤 }𝑡+𝛥𝑡 ∗
𝑡+Δ𝑡 (2.8.6)

Let {Δ𝑑u } denote the increment in {𝑑u } occurring during the time step from 𝑡 to 𝑡 + Δ𝑡. By
Newmark's finite difference scheme, the vector {𝑑u } and its derivatives at the instant 𝑡 + Δ𝑡
can be related to those at the instant 𝑡

{𝑑¨u }𝑡+Δ𝑡 = 𝑎0 {Δ𝑑u }1 − 𝑎1 {𝑑˙u }𝑡 − 𝑎2 {𝑑¨u }𝑡 ,

(2.8.7)
{𝑑˙u }𝑡+Δ𝑡 = {𝑑˙u }𝑡 + 𝑎3 {𝑑˜u }𝑡 + 𝑎4 {𝑑¨u }𝑡+Δ𝑡

and
{𝑑u }t+Δ𝑡 = {𝑑u }𝑡 + {Δ𝑑u } (2.8.8)
where the quantities with subscript 𝑡 are those occurring at time 𝑡, assumed to be known.
Using Newmark's parameters 𝛽 and 𝛾, the coefficients and those to be used later can be given
as

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 1 1 1
𝑎0 = 𝛽Δ𝑡 2 , 𝑎1 = 𝛽Δ𝑡 , 𝑎2 = 2𝛽 − 1, 𝑎3 = (1 − 𝛾)Δ𝑡,
𝛾 𝛾 Δ𝑡 𝛾 (2.8.9)
𝑎4 = 𝛾Δ𝑡, 𝑎5 = 𝛽Δ𝑡 , 𝑎6 = 𝛽 − 1, 𝑎7 = (𝛽 − 2) .
2

After Substituting above Newmark constants we need to solve to get {Δ𝑑u } using eq number
(2.8.7), (2.8.8), (2.8.9)
[Ψuu ]{Δ𝑑u } = {𝑓uc }𝑡+Δ𝑡 − {𝑞uc }𝑡+Δ𝑡 + {𝑞u }𝑡 , (2.8.10)
where
[Ψuш ] = 𝑎0 [𝑚uu ] + 𝑎5 [𝑐uu ] + [𝑘uu ] (2.8.11)

{𝑞u }𝑡 = [𝑚uu ] (𝑎1 {𝑑˙u } + 𝑎2 {𝑑¨u } ) + [𝑐uu ] (𝑎6 {𝑑˙u } + 𝑎7 {𝑑˙𝑢 } ) − [𝑘𝑢𝑢 ]{𝑑𝑢 }𝑡 (2.8.12)
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡

the displacement increments {Δ𝑑𝑢 } can be solved as

{Δ𝑑u } = [Ψuu ]−1 ({𝑓ue }𝑡+Δ𝑡 − {𝑞uc }𝑡+Δ𝑡 + {𝑞u }𝑡 ). (2.8.13)
Now, the displacement {𝑑𝑢 }𝑡+Δ𝑡 and its derivatives can be obtained as

{𝑑˜u }𝑡+Δ𝑡 = 𝑎0 [Ψuu ]−1 ({𝑓uc }𝑡+Δ𝑡 − {𝑞uc }𝑡+Δ𝑡 + {𝑞u }𝑡 − 𝑎1 {𝑑˙𝑢 }𝑡 − 𝑎2 {𝑑¨𝑢 }𝑡 , ) (2.8.14)

{𝑑˙u }𝑡+Δ𝑡 = 𝑎5 [Ψuu ]−1 ({𝑓uc }𝑡+Δ𝑡 − {𝑞uc }𝑡+Δ𝑡 + {𝑞u }𝑡 ) − 𝑎6 {𝑑˙𝑢 }𝑡 − 𝑎7 {𝑑¨𝑢 }𝑡 (2.8.15)

and
{𝑑u }𝑡+Δ𝑡 = [Ψuu ]−1 ({𝑓uc }𝑡+Δ𝑡 − {𝑞uc }𝑡+Δ𝑡 + {𝑞u }𝑡 ) + {𝑑u }𝑡 (2.8.16)

Here the accuracy is same as the accuracy of Newmark method.

After the upper body solution we need to find Contact forces for coupling action to find
various parameters of bridge.

{𝑓c }𝑡+Δ𝑡 = [𝑚c ]{𝑑¨w } + [𝑐c ]{𝑑˙w }𝑡+Δ𝑡 + [𝑘c ]{𝑑w }𝑡+Δ𝑡 + {𝑝c }𝑡+Δ𝑡 + {𝑞c }𝑡 (2.8.17)
𝑡+Δ𝑡

where the contact matrices [𝑚c ], [𝑐c ] and [𝑘c ] are

[𝑚c ] = [𝑙w ]−1 ([𝑚ww ] − [Ψwu ][Ψuu ]−1 [𝑚uw ]), (2.8.18)

[𝑐c ] = [𝑙w ]−1 ([𝑐ww ] − [Ψwu ][Ψuu ]−1 [𝑐uw ]) (2.8.19)

and
[𝑘c ] = [𝑙w ]−1 ([𝑘ww ] − [Ψwu ][Ψuu ]−1 [𝑘uw ]);

17
the load vectors {𝑝𝑐 }𝑡+Δ𝑡 and {𝑞𝑐 }𝑡 are
{𝑝c }𝑡+Δ𝑡 = [𝑙w ]−1 ([Ψwu ][Ψuu ]−1 {𝑓ue }𝑡+Δ𝑡 − {𝑓we }𝑡+Δ𝑡 ) (2.8.20)
and
{𝑞c }𝑡 = [𝑙w ]−1 ([Ψwu ][Ψuu ]−1 {𝑞u }𝑡 − {𝑞w }𝑡 );
and
[Ψwu ] = 𝑎0 [𝑚wu ] + 𝑎5 [𝑐wu ] + [𝑘wu ],
{𝑞w }𝑡 = [𝑚wu ] (𝑎1 {𝑑˙u } + 𝑎2 {𝑑˜u } ) + [𝑐wu ] (𝑎6 {𝑑˙u } + 𝑎7 {𝑑¨u }𝑡 ) − [𝑘wu ]{𝑑u }𝑡 ∗
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡

From Eq. (2.8.21), it can be seen that the contact forces {𝑓c }𝑡+Δ𝑡 depend not only on the
wheel response and the forces acting on the vehicle at time 𝑡 + Δ𝑡, but also on those at time 𝑡.
By the constraint equation (3), the contact forces {𝑓c }𝑡+Δ𝑡 can be expressed in terms of the
contact displacements {𝑑𝑐 } of the bridge as follows:

{𝑓c }𝑡+Δ𝑡 = [𝑚c ]{𝑑˜c } + [𝑐c ]{𝑑˙c }𝑡+Δ𝑡 + [𝑘c ]{𝑑c }𝑡+Δ𝑡 + {𝑝c }𝑡+Δ𝑡 + {𝑞c }𝑡 (2.8.21)
𝑡+Δ𝑡

from which each of the contact forces 𝑉𝑖,𝑡+Δ𝑟 , with 𝑖 = 1, … , 𝑛, can be given as
𝑛

𝑉𝑖,𝑡+Δ𝑡 = 𝑝c𝑖,𝑡+Δ𝑡 + 𝑞c𝑖,𝑡 + ∑ (𝑚c𝑖𝑗 𝑑¨c𝑗,𝑥+Δ𝑡 + 𝑐c𝑗𝑗 𝑑˙c𝑗,𝑡+Δ𝑡 + 𝑘c𝑖𝑗 𝑑c𝑗,𝑡+Δ𝑡 ). (2.8.22)
𝑗=1

Now, by using the contact forces, we need to solve for various parameters of the bridge and
formulate a dynamic condensation equation.
EOM of bridge,
[𝑚bi𝑖 ]{𝑑˜bi } + [𝑐bi𝑖 ]{𝑑˙bi𝑖 }𝑡+Δ𝑡 + [𝑘bi ]{𝑑be }𝑡+Δ𝑡 = {𝑓b𝑖 }𝑟+Δ𝑡 − {𝑓bc𝑖 }𝑡+Δ𝑟 (2.8.23)
𝑟+Δ𝑡

where [𝑚biv ], [𝑐bu ] and [𝑘bv ] denote the mass, damping and stiffness matrices of the 𝑘𝑖 th
element of the bridge

{𝑑bu } is the nodal displacement vector, {𝑓𝑏𝑖 } is the vector of external forces acting directly on
the nodal points

{𝑓bei } is the vector of equivalent nodal forces resulting from action of the 𝑖 th vertical contact
force 𝑉𝑖,𝑡+Δ,

18
{𝑓𝑏𝑒𝑡 }1+Δ𝑡 = {𝑁𝑐𝑡 }𝑉𝑖+Δ, ,
where {𝑁𝑖 } denotes the interpolation vector of the 𝑘

the bridge element in which all entries are set to zero except those associated with the vertical
displacements, which are represented by Hermitian cubic polynomials

𝑣
{𝑁𝑐𝑑 } = {𝑁 ∨ (𝜉𝑖 )},

where 𝜉𝑖 is the local coordinate of the 𝑖 th contact point on the 𝑘𝑖 th element.

By substituting the variables in the bridge equation we come up with,

𝑛

[𝑚bi ]{𝑑⃗bs } + [𝑐b𝑖 ]{𝑑˙bu }𝑡+Δ𝑡 + [𝑘br ]{𝑑bu }𝑡+Δ = {𝑓bs }𝑟+Δ𝑡 − ∑ ([𝑚cb𝑗
∗
]{𝑑¨b𝑗 } +
𝑟+Δ𝑡
𝑗=1

∗
[𝑐c𝑗 ]{𝑑˙bj } ∗
+[𝑘cij ∗
]{𝑑by }) − {𝑝c𝑗 } ∗
− {𝑞𝑐𝑖 }0 (2.8.23)
𝑡+Δ,

where the matrices with an asterisk represent the interaction effect of the VBI elements due to
the interlocking action of the riding vehicle,
∗
[𝑚𝑐𝑖𝑗 ] = {𝑁𝑐𝑖𝑣 }𝑚𝑐𝑖𝑗 ⟨𝑁𝑐𝑗
𝑣
⟩,
(2.8.24)
∗
[𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑗 ] = {𝑁𝑐𝑖𝑣 }𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑗 ⟨𝑁𝑐𝑗
𝑣
⟩
∗
[𝑘𝑐𝑗 ] = {𝑁𝑐𝑖𝑣 }𝑘𝑐𝑗 (𝑁𝑐𝑗
𝑣
);
The above equation of the bridge is called condensed dynamic equation of bridge as it is free
from all the DOF of the vehicle and is the function of Contact forces and bridge parameters
only. (Yang, 2001)

2.9 Damage Location of Beam Railway Bridges Using Rotation Responses

The method is based on deformation area analysis of the operational rotation response of
bridges to the passage of trains. The theoretical basis of this method is elaborated. The
calculated deformation curvature area difference ratio (CADR) change is used to identify
damage in bridges.

To obtain the curvature area, a technique is proposed for the curvature area calculation. The
results are presented in terms of the damage condition extracted from each ratio, which was
obtained by dividing the deformation area from the current interval to the sum of the areas from

19
all the intervals. The location of damage was identified by observing the magnitude of the
changes in the CADR.

The vibration-based damage detection method by identified mode parameters has been
extensively investigated. The curvature model is very sensitive to the partial change of
structure; hence, among these accelerations-based methods, the curvature modal shape is
always utilized to locate the damage

Figure 7:Beam for calculation of CADR (Liu Yuan-Zheng, 2021)

Relation between Model Shape Curvature and Stiffness

𝐿 is the length of a simply supported beam. The figure demonstrates a row of constant loads
moving on a simply supported beam that does not include damping. The train loads move at a
constant speed 𝑉. The load spacing is 𝑑𝑣 , and the load value is 𝑃. The time delay of any two
continuous loads is Δ𝑡 = 𝑑𝑣 /𝑉

𝑁−1
∂4 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) ∂2 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝑘 ⋅ 𝑑𝑣
𝐸𝐼 4
+ 𝑚
‾ 2
= ∑ 𝛿 [𝑥 − 𝑉 (𝑡 − )] 𝑃 (2.9.1)
∂𝑥 ∂𝑡 𝑉
𝑘=0

where 𝐸 = elastic modulus; 𝐼 = moment of inertia of the beam; 𝐸𝐼 = bending stiffness; 𝑚

‾ =
mass per unit length; 𝑥 = coordinate along the beam length; 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = displacement of the
beam at position 𝑥 and time 𝑡; 𝑃 = value of the moving load; 𝑡 = time when the first load acts
on the leftend of the simply supported beam; 𝑁 = number of loads; and 𝛿(𝑥, 𝑡) = delta
function, which makes sure that the loads come into play only when they are on the bridge.

The initial state of the beam can be stated as,

20
 𝑦(0, 𝑡) = 0
𝑦(𝐿, 𝑡) = 0
∂𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡)
| =0
∂𝑥 𝑥=0
∂𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡)
| =0
∂𝑥 𝑥−𝐿
∂2 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡)
| =0
∂𝑥 2 𝑥=0

∂2 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡)
| =0
∂𝑥 2 𝑥=𝐿

As the displacement, velocity and acceleration of beam is zero before train travels. The
Solution of above equation can be written as:
∞

𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = ∑ 𝜑𝑗 (𝑥)𝑞𝑗 (𝑡) (2.9.2)

𝑗=1

where 𝑗 = modal order; 𝜑𝑗 (𝑥) = 𝑗-th order modal displacement; 𝑞𝑗 (𝑡) = modal coordinates;
𝑞𝑗 (𝑡) = function of 𝑡; and 𝑡 = position information of the train load. The derivative of the
amplitude 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) with respect to the position 𝑥 is not affected by the generalized coordinate
𝑞𝑗 (𝑡)

At any time, the bending moment of the beam 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑡) can be expressed in the following form
given in

𝑑2 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡)
𝑀(𝑥, 𝑡) = −𝐸𝐼(𝑥, 𝑡) (2.9.3)
𝑑𝑥 2
where 𝐸 = elastic modulus of the material; 𝐼 = moment of inertia; 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = deformation of
the beam; 𝑥 = position coordinates; and 𝑀(𝑥) = bending moment. Curvature is the second
derivative of the displacement. The derivative of 𝑦 to 𝑥 at any time is independent of time 𝑡,
that is, the running position of the train.

∞
𝑀(𝑥, 𝑡) ∂2 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡)
𝜅(𝑥, 𝑡) = = = ∑ 𝜑𝑗′′ (𝑥)𝑞𝑗 (𝑡) (2.9.4)
𝐸𝐼(𝑥) ∂𝑥 2
𝑗=1

21
where 𝜅(𝑥, 𝑡) = curvature of the simply supported beam bending vibration curve at time 𝑡; and
𝜑𝑗′′ (𝑥) = 𝑗-th curvature mode. Damage is described by the elastic modulus 𝐸 and can be
expressed as Δ𝐸. The damage factor can be expressed as follows:

𝐷 = Δ𝐸/𝐸
The value of 𝐷 is in the range of 0 to 1 for different damage degrees. The greater 𝐷 is, the
greater the damage. Then, the damage factor at the 𝑥 position can be written as 𝐷(𝑥), which
reflects the degree of damage at different locations. For a damaged bridge, its vibration
deformation curvature can be expressed by
∞
𝑀𝐷 (𝑥, 𝑡) 𝑁
𝜅𝐷 (𝑥, 𝑡) = = ∑ 𝜑𝐷𝑗 (𝑥)𝑞𝐷𝑗 (𝑡) (2.9.5)
[1 − 𝐷(𝑥)]𝐸𝐼(𝑥)
𝑗=1

Now,

𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝜔= 2√
𝐿 𝑚‾

𝜔‾ = 𝜋𝑉/𝐿
Then, the curvature mode of the damaged simply supported beam can be expressed by Eq.
(2.9.6)

′′
𝜑𝑗′ (𝑥) 𝑀𝐷 (𝑥, 𝑡) 𝑞𝑗 (𝑡)
𝜑𝐷𝑗 (𝑥) = ⋅ ⋅ , 𝑗=1 (2.9.6)
1 − 𝐷(𝑥) 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝑞𝐷𝑗 (𝑡)

Relation between Deflection and Damage Location

The damaged mode curvature is the amplification of the intact mode curvature by the damage
factor. The displacement curvature of the damaged simply supported beam is an amplification
of the undamaged beam,

′′
𝜑𝑗′ (𝑥)𝑞𝑗 (𝑡) 𝑀𝐷 (𝑥, 𝑡)
𝜑𝐷𝑗 (𝑥)𝑞𝐷𝑗 (𝑡) = ⋅ , 𝑗=1
[1 − 𝐷(𝑥)] 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑡)
1
𝑦𝐷′′ (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦 ′′ (𝑥, 𝑡)
1 − 𝐷(𝑥)
Calculation of Δ𝐴𝑘
The deformation curvature shape of the beam is approximately a straight line in a small area.
Hence, the integration of the curvature area is converted into a direct subtraction of the rotation
angle of the two integration points according to the integral formula .Therefore, the location of
damage can be determined by calculating the rotation angle between the intact and damaged
bridges. Then, the area of the displacement curve can be calculated by integrating the
displacement curve by

22
 𝐿 𝐿
Δ𝐴𝑘 = ∫ 𝑦𝐷′′ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑦 ′′ 𝑑𝑥
0 0
𝑥0 𝑥0 𝑥1 𝑥1
= (∫ 𝑦𝐷′′ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑦 ′′ 𝑑𝑥) + (∫ 𝑦𝐷′′ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑦 ′′ 𝑑𝑥)
0 0 𝑥0 𝑥0
𝐿 𝐿
+ (∫ 𝑦𝐷′′ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑦 ′′ 𝑑𝑥)
𝑥1 𝑥1
𝑥1 𝑥1
= 𝑎0 + (∫ 𝑦𝐷′′ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑦 ′′ 𝑑𝑥) + 𝑎1
𝑥0 𝑥0
= 𝑎0 + {𝑦𝐷′ (𝑥1 ) − 𝑦𝐷′ (𝑥0 ) − [𝑦 ′ (𝑥1 ) − 𝑦 ′ (𝑥0 )]} + 𝑎1
= 𝑎0 + [𝑦𝐷′ (𝑥1 ) − 𝑦𝐷′ (𝑥0 ) − 𝑦 ′ (𝑥1 ) + 𝑦 ′ (𝑥0 )] + 𝑎1
𝑎0 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥0
′ (𝑥 ) ′ (𝑥 ) ′ (𝑥 ) ′ (𝑥 ),
= {𝑦𝐷 1 − 𝑦𝐷 0 − 𝑦 1 + 𝑦 0 𝑥0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥1 (19
𝑎1 , 𝑥1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝐿

The damaged area is located at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 to 𝑥 = 𝑥1 . In this way, the integration domain is divided
into three segments, namely, 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 𝑥0 , 𝑥 = 𝑥0 to 𝑥 = 𝑥1 , and 𝑥 = 𝑥1 to 𝑥 = 𝐿, where
the displacement curvature that is damaged 𝑦𝐷′′ can be expressed by the undamaged
displacement curvature, 𝑦 ′′ , through the damage factor 𝐷(𝑥). The damage factor 𝐷(𝑥) for the
undamaged area is equal to zero. The are difference of the displacement curvature Δ𝐴(𝑥), for
which 𝑎0 and 𝑎1 in the undamaged area were equal to zero, is obtained through the presented
calculation. The difference in the displacement curve area Δ𝐴(𝑥) only contributes in the
damaged location.

23
 Figure 8:Flow chart of CADR calculation (Liu Yuan-Zheng, 2021)

Below is the results obtained for CADR various degree of damage and of the beam,for various
axle location and for various speed. (Liu Yuan-Zheng, 2021)

24
Figure 9:Results obtained for CADR for various damage percentage,for various speed and various axle distance (Liu
Yuan-Zheng, 2021)

2.10 Train-track-bridge interaction by multi-time-step method and moving

track technique.

The train-track-bridge coupled system (TTBS) is separated into the train subsystem, the track
subsystem, and the bridge subsystem. These subsystems are coupled by the interaction forces
between them. A fine time-step is adopted for the train subsystem and the track subsystem due

25
 to the high-frequency wheel-rail contact. A coarse time-step is adopted for the bridge subsystem
due to its low-frequency vibration. To reduce the number of degrees of freedom (DOFs) of the
track structure, a moving track technique.

The dynamic response of railway bridge due to moving train vehicles is a major consideration
for the design and maintenance of high-speed railway infrastructure. As train operating speeds
increase, moving trains have a much higher dynamic impact on the bridge structures and cause
them to vibrate. The strong vibrations not only directly influence the working state
and serviceablity of the bridge, but also reduce the moving stability and safety of the train
vehicles, deteriorate the passenger riding comfort, and sometimes, may destabilize the track on
the bridge.Therefore it becomes very important to asses the vehicle structure interaction
properly.

In this Method,
❑ A fine time-step is adopted for the train subsystem and the track subsystem due to the
high-frequency wheel-rail contact.
❑ A coarse time-step is adopted for the bridge subsystem due to its low-frequency
vibration.
❑ To reduce the number of degrees of freedom (DOFs) of the track structure, a moving
track technique is applied in this paper.
Condition only at which the model is updated.

𝑑𝐹𝐻 < 𝑙𝐹𝐻 OR 𝑑𝐹𝐸 < 𝑙𝐹𝐸

𝑑𝐿𝐸 = length between the last wheelset of the train and the end of the moving track
ℓ𝐹𝐻 =length between the first wheelset of the train and the head of the moving track.
Lmt = LFH + LV + LLE

26
Figure 10:Flow chart for VBI using moving track method (Zhihui Zhu, 2019)

27
 Conclusion

vehicle-bridge interaction, with a specific focus on railway bridges, has provided a nuanced
understanding of the dynamic complexities inherent in the interaction between trains and
bridge structures. The reviewed studies have delved into various aspects, including the
dynamic behavior of trains, bridge response under moving loads, and the impact of these
interactions on the overall safety and integrity of railway infrastructure.
After reading the paper and various methods of conducting Vehicle bridge interaction, it can
be said that every methodology has some merits and demerits. VBI deals with many iteration
processes which in turn makes the calculation very complicated, to overcome it Condensation
method was introduced. But to cut down the complexity it reduces the degree of freedom of
the overall system by eliminating DOF of the vehicle. Therefore in this method we don’t get
any information about vehicle which in turn compromise the comfortablity of the passenger.
VBI using signaling method can give exact location of the defect in the bridge but don’t give
overall stiffness details of the bridge. Whereas Rotational method can only be applied to short
length beams.

28
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29