Nanocellulose

56
Nishtha Singh, Sonal Upadhyay, and Nidhi Mishra

Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1366
Differences Among Cellulose and Nano Cellulose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1366
Applications of Nano Cellulose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1366
Different Methods of Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1367
Chemical Methods of Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1367
Synthesis Processes for Nanocellulose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1370
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1381
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1381

Abstract
Cellulose being the most ample natural-based polymer has been recently nano-
structured in the form of potential nanocellulose. Cellulose fibers at nanoscale
also known as nanocellulose or cellulosic nanoparticles have been prepared
utilizing various procedures. These serve as distinctive constituents based
on which materials are produced with enhanced potential and performance.
Basically, based on the procedures involved for the production, these have been
classified into two categories – microfibrillated cellulose and nanocrystals of
cellulose. They have the full potential to be an eco material. This chapter
highlights the synthesis and significance of nanocellulose as environmental
friendly, biodegradable, and recyclable nanoparticle making them potential can-
didates for various applications and processing of other polymer composites at
nanoscale.

N. Singh · S. Upadhyay · N. Mishra (*)

Applied Science Division, Indian Institute of Information Technology,
Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
e-mail: nishtha094@gmail.com; usonal8@gmail.com; nidhimishra@iiita.ac.in

# Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1365

L. M. T. Martínez et al. (eds.), Handbook of Ecomaterials,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-68255-6_146
1366 N. Singh et al.

Keywords
Nanocellulose · Synthesis · Biodegradable · Polymer · Hemicellulose · Lignin ·
Nanofibers · Nanocrystals · Filtration · Centrifugation

Introduction

The emerging and ever-increasing demand of ecological materials, depletion of

sources like petroleum, and environmental concerns have led to provocative explora-
tion of green materials that are environment compatible. Cellulose, a renewable
resource, exists in hemp, rice husk, sugarcane bagasse, wood, cotton, and other
materials based on plants. β-1,4-Glucopyranose units form cellulose. Cellulose has
primary hydroxyl group at C-6 position and secondary hydroxyl groups at C-2 and C-3
positions, having a molecular formula of (C6H10O5)n. These occur mainly in four
forms – cellulose I, cellulose II, cellulose III, and cellulose IV. Unit cell of crystal of
cellulose I is parallel while being antiparallel in cellulose II. These are restored by a
natural process commonly acknowledged as photosynthesis. Nano cellulose has been
found with interesting properties like high stiffness and tensile strength and excellent
biodegradability. Depending on the source of derivation of cellulose and pre-pro-
cessing methodology, highly refined nanocellulose could be extracted. These method-
ologies include physical processes like hominization using pressure or ultrasonic
process, chemical procedure like hydrolysis by acid, and biological procedure like
enzymatic hydrolysis [1]. Cellulose microfibrils and cellulose nano crystals have been
obtained. The significant properties like chemical resistance, ability to be recycled, and
hydrophilic nature have brought nanocellulose for various applications in comparison
with cellulose. These cellulosic nano crystals have high refractive index and aspect
ratio along with low density. They show certain property of rheology due to their
reactive surface and specific surface area. nanocellulose can be obtained from many
plant products like sugarcane bagasse, sisal fibers, rice husk, maize straw, etc. This
chapter provides insight to some of the techniques and methodologies for obtaining
nanocellulose from these products [2].

Differences Among Cellulose and Nano Cellulose

Cellulose being an organic compound has a molecular formula of (C6H10O5) and is

found in plants, algae, etc., while nanocellulose is synthesized by physical, chemical,
and biological methods from cellulose. Cellulose fiber has a diameter of 10–50 μm,
and nanofibers have a diameter which is less than 0.1 μm [3].

Applications of Nano Cellulose

As paper filler: Fibrillated cellulose can be used as fillers in paper as cellulose has
more strength and more amounts can be added as filler thus reducing the production
cost. Low amount of energy is required for drying purpose as there is less cellulose
56 Nanocellulose 1367

throughout the thickness. This paper has improved properties of low porosity,
low translucency, and high printing quality. And the transportation is more effi-
ciently done.
Surface coating: Nanocellulose has found application in surface coating.
Coating formulations which are starch based have been filled with zinc oxide and
cellulose nanofibrils for antibacterial paper. This paper shows bactericidal activity
against gram-negative bacteria and gram-positive bacteria. Concentration of cellu-
lose nanofibers influenced the adhesive property.
Construction: Micro-cellulose fibrils and cellulose nanomaterials can be utilized
in concrete which would increase the toughness. Significance involves reduction in
volume of cement required, thus reducing labor cost and material cost thereby
reducing the emission of corresponding greenhouse gas.
Energy: Devices converting chemical energy into electrical energy have been
defined as fuel cells. Nano cellulose-based nanocomposites have been utilized in
manufacturing of Li-ion battery, solar cells, and fuel cells [4].
Paint: Viscosity of coatings and paints can be modified by the use of nano-
cellulose. It has been used as an additive in polyurethane paints and varnishes. It
protects paints and varnishes from wearing away due to UV radiation. It provides
protection to the underlying materials. It extends the life of paints and varnishes and
reduces the cost and burden on environment of replacing the coatings.
Personal care: Cosmetic cellulose nanomaterials have been used as rheology
modifier which is non-allergic and as hydrating agent. It has been also used
in cosmetics for coating like in eyelashes, nails, etc. With increasing demands
of natural cosmetic products, it has led to increased demands of cellulose
nanomaterials.
Electronics: There is an ever-increasing demand of solar cells, transistors,
and printed electronics in information and communication area. These require
thin Polymer films. This can be provided by nanocellulose which would
provide films that will have properties of high tensile strength, smoothness at
nanoscale, low thermal expansion coefficient, and transparency (optical) [5, 6]
(Fig. 1).

Different Methods of Preparation

There are different processes of preparing nanocellulose which have been

highlighted in Fig. 2.

Chemical Methods of Preparation

Nanocellulose can be prepared using a chemical process which involves different

chemical reactions and mechanisms. The method involves:

1. Acid hydrolysis: Preparation of cellulose nano crystals using hydrolysis of

cellulose by hydrochloric acid leads to flocculation of uncharged particles when
1368 N. Singh et al.

Fig. 1 Various applications

of nanocellulose
Food
industry

Health care Industrial

Nanocellulose

biosensors
and cosmetics
diagnostics

Textile
industry

Mechanical methods: Chemical Methods:

1)Homogenization 1) Acid Hydrolysis
2) Cryocrushing 2) Catalytic hydrolysis
3) Sonication

Different
processes of
preparing
Nanocellulose

Fig. 2 Various methods of preparation of nanocellulose

dispersed in aqueous medium. On Hydrolysis with sulfuric acid, sulfonic groups

of negative charge are formed due to reaction with hydroxyl groups at the surface.
Cellulose chains in noncrystalline portion when hydrolyzed by acid lead to
addition of proton to glucosidic oxygen or cyclic oxygen, which is trailed by
splitting of glucosidic bonds due to inclusion of water. As a result two short-chain
fragments are produced, while principal backbone structure is preserved. Besides,
56 Nanocellulose 1369

a OH OH

+
O HO O H HO
O OH O OH
O O

OH OH
HO n HO n
O O
O
H H
OH Cellulose OH

Fast equilibrium H+

OH

OH
H+ HO
O
O OH
O HO
OH
n O
O
OH + HO OH
HO
O
OH
HO
H+
OH O
O
H H OH

b O
O

S
HO OH OH2+ SO3H

O HO O HO
O OH O OH
O O

OH n OH
HO HO n + H2O
O O

OH OH

Fig. 3 (a) Mechanism showing Acid hydrolysis of cellulose chain. (b) Cellulose Nano crystal
esterification process (From Lu and Hsieh 2010) [8]

splitting of chains of hydroxyl groups is partially esterified. Due to the presence

of sulfate groups, the surface of nanocrystals becomes negatively charged. Due to
this thermostability is compromised. Therefore, neutralization of sulfate group
which is done using sodium hydroxide is suggested [7] (Fig. 3).

2. Catalytic hydrolysis: Hydrolysis of amorphous domains while protecting the

crystallite stage is a challenge. Therefore, transition metals are used. Fe(III), Co
(II), and Ni(II) are transition metals which can form coordination covalent bonds
with water molecules which are six in number and form a metal ligand complex.
Subsequently the ions of the complex were deprotonated to yield more H+ ions in
the solution which cleaved the glycosidic bond between the units of glucose, thus
degrading the glycosidic linkages. This process will be continued until the
stabilization of the complex. Therefore, oxidation states of Fe(III), Co(II), and
Ni(II) have a significant role for generation of acidic state. The more the higher
the oxidation state, the more hydronium ions (H3O+) will be produced to yield
stable state. Thus, this process helps in preparation of nanocellulose from cellu-
losic fibers [9] (Fig. 4).
1370 N. Singh et al.

[Fe(H2O)6]3+ + 3H2O [Fe(H2O)3(OH)3] + 3H3O+

[Co(H2O)6]2+ + 2H2O [Co(H2O)4(OH)2] + 2H3O+

[Ni(H2O)6]2+ + 2H2O [Ni(H2O)4(OH)2] + 2H3O+

Cellulose hydrolysis in
presence of metal ions
{M=Fe3+, Co2+, Ni2+}

O O
O OH
O
OH OH
HO O
HO

O
M OH
O O
O O
O
O O
OH
HO O OH O O
HO H
M

Fig. 4 Catalytic hydrolysis for preparation of nanocellulose using transition metals (From Chen
et al. [9])

Synthesis Processes for Nanocellulose

Sugarcane bagasse: Industries like alcohol and sugar yield an ample amount of
sugarcane bagasse as residue every year which is being utilized for fuel and other
energy-producing processes. These residues have been also employed for the pro-
duction of paper and pulp. Their renewability and Biodegradability had led to their
processing for production of nanocellulose and microcrystalline cellulose. Majority
of the constituent of this biomass is the crystalline cellulose, and the other constit-
uents include hemicellulose, lignin, minerals, etc. nanocellulose has been obtained
utilizing the hydrolysis by strong acid like sulfuric acid. Firstly, easily available
sugarcane bagasse was acquired and cleaned. The sugarcane bagasse was grounded
56 Nanocellulose 1371

and later dried in an oven at 60  C for 16 h; 0.7% sodium chlorite solution was
utilized to bleach the grounded and dried sugarcane bagasse. The pH of 4 was
regulated by 5% acetic acid. To remove Lignin the mixture was boiled for 5 h. After
continuous washing with distilled water, it was boiled with 5% sodium sulfite
solution (250 ml) for 5 h, thus removing Lignin completely and partially removing
Hemicellulose. The Hemicellulose was separated by boiling it with 17.5% sodium
hydroxide solution (250 ml) for 5 h. Using Filtration cellulose was collected and
washed with distilled water to make it neutral. After air-drying, 50 ml DMSO
(dimethyl sulfoxide) is added in water bath maintained at 80  C for 3 h, followed
by filtration, washing, and air-drying. Hydrolysis using 60% sulfuric acid at 50  C
for 5 h is utilized for obtaining nanocellulose. Vigorous agitation is required.
Fivefold water is added to the mixture, followed by cooling and then Centrifugation
after each washing. After five consecutive washing and Centrifugation, a colloidal
suspension is obtained. In ice bath the suspension was sonicated for 5 min and then
stored at 4  C in a refrigerator [10] (Fig. 5).
China cotton, South Africa cotton, and Waste tissue paper: These materials
were mixed with 47% sulfuric acid and it is strongly stirred for 2 h at 60  C. The
suspension was centrifuged and washed with distilled water to decrease the concen-
tration of acid. 0.5 N NaOH finally neutralized the suspension followed by washing
with distilled water. The nanocellulose suspension was stored in a refrigerator [11]
(Fig. 6).
Pineapple leaf fibers: Properties like high stiffness and specific strength are
exhibited by PALF (pineapple leaf fiber). Fibrous cell bunches form the vascular
bundle system, and the fibers are in the form of ribbons. The fibers are easily
available and inexpensive. It has a high cellulose content resulting in high mech-
anical property. Pineapple leaves are by-product of pineapple cultivation.
Bromeliaceae family plant Ananus cosomus after extraction yields lignocellulosic
fiber by a process known as retting. For separation of nanofibres the method of steam
explosion is used which involves steaming at high pressure followed by decompres-
sion at a rapid rate. Pineapple fibers were cut into pieces of size 10 cm. Further
treatment followed placing the fibers in autoclave under 20 lb pressure for a duration
of 1 h after fibers were treated with NaOH (2%) in a ratio of 1:10 (fiber to NaOH).
After releasing the pressure immediately, the fibers were removed from autoclave
and NaOH was washed away with water. Mixture of acetic acid and NaOH was used
to bleach the mixture six times. Then the fibers were washed in distilled water and
dried followed by treatment with 11% oxalic acid in an autoclave until pressure of
20 lb is reached and then the pressure was released. This process was repeated for
eight times. The nanofibrils were suspended in water and stirred with mechanical
stirrer for a duration of 4 h for 8000 rpm [12] (Fig. 7).
Nanocellulose from beer industry residues: Beer industrial residue suspension
(10%) for attainment of constant weight was boiled for 1 h and then dried at 105  C.
Then it was soaked overnight in 2% NaOH, followed by washing and treatment with
12% NaOH and then autoclaving three times at 121  C for a duration of 45 min to
obtain pulp. At temperature of 105  C, the pulp was washed and dried. For removal
of lignin, treatment was done for 1 h at 75  C by a solution of NaClO2 (3%) and
1372 N. Singh et al.

Sugarcane bagasse grounded and dried

Add 0.7% sodium chlorite solution to bleach

Boil to remove lignin

After washing pH was regulated by 5% Acetic Acid

Hemicellulose was removed by boiling with 17.5% NaOH (250 ml)

Filteration cellulose was collected and washed with distilled water

Hydrolysis using 60%H 2SO4

NanoCellulose

Fig. 5 Flowchart description of methodology of synthesis of nanocellulose using sugarcane

bagasse

CH3COOH (1.5%) two times. For removal of Hemicelluloses, the pulp was soaked
in a 3% KOH solution for a night followed by treatment for a duration of 1 h at
80  C. NaClO2 (3%) and CH3COOH (1.5%) bleached the pulp (1 h at 75  C)
followed by drying at 105  C. Hydrolysis of purified cellulose to 10% hydrochloric
acid was done for durations of 2 h, 4 h, and 6 h at 80  C. Washing was done by
centrifugation (three times) for 30 min at 4  C and 6000 rpm. Neutralized cellulose
was subjected to ultrasonic treatment for dispersion for 15 min that yielded nano-
cellulose [13] (Fig. 8).
Maize straw for preparation of Nanocellulose: Zea mays (maize straw) have
high carbon to nitrogen ratio making them resistant to degradation from microor-
ganisms in soil and thus decaying takes a longer time. Maize straw contains 28–44%
of cellulose. Cutin, pectin, and others were removed by Soxhlet method utilizing
ethyl alcohol (2 h), deionized water (4 h), and hexane (2 h) and dried at 80  C in an
56 Nanocellulose 1373

China Cotton, South Africa cotton, Waste tissue paper + 47% H2SO4 and strongly stirred

Centrifugation

Washed with distilled water

Neutralization of suspension with 0.5N NaOH

Nanocellulose suspension stored in refrigerator

Fig. 6 Flowchart description of methodology of synthesis of nanocellulose using China cotton,

South Africa cotton, and waste tissue paper

oven. It was then treated with NaOH (5% w/v). The suspension of straw (1:100
straws to liquor ratio) was treated for 2 atm pressure at 121  C in an autoclave for
durations of 15, 30, 45, and 60 min. The pulp was filtered and washing was done
with deionized water till the attainment of neutralization. H2O2 (2% v/v) and tetra
acetyl ethylene diamine (0.2% w/v) was used to treat the pulp at 48  C for 12 h where
straw and liquor ratio is 1:25. The pulp was washed with deionized water. Dried pulp
was treated with acetic acid (80% in 1:33 ratio) and nitric acid (65% in 1:4 ratio) for
a duration of 30 min while stirring at 120  C. It was washed and filtrated in water
and ethyl alcohol. Purified cellulose was then treated with sulfuric acid (64%).
While stirring the hydrolysis with acid was carried out for different durations of
15,30,60,90,120,150, and 180 at temperature of 25  C. Cold deionized water was
added to stop the reaction. Ultrasonification for 15 min was done after Centrifugation
for 1 h at 3000 rpm [14] (Fig. 9).
Preparation from sisal fibers: The sisal fibers were washed with distilled water
and later dried in an oven for 24 h at 80  C and then cut into 5–10 mm length. Fibers
were boiled in a mixture of toluene/ethanol (2:1 v/v) for 6 h in a Soxhlet. The fibers
were washed, filtered with ethanol for 30 min, and later dried. Removal of lignin is
done by treatment with NaClO2 (0.7% w/v) and boiling for 2 h and treating with
NaHSO4 solution (5% w/v) followed with treatment by NaOH (17.5% w/v). Filter-
ing and washing is done with deionized water and dried in vacuum. Nanofibres are
1374 N. Singh et al.

Pineapple Fibres were cut into pieces each of 10 cm

Treated with NaOH (2%)

Fibres placed in autoclave for 1 hr

Then washed with water

Bleached with mixture of Acetic acid+ NaOH

Washed with distilled water and then dried with 11% Oxalic acid in autoclave for 8 times

Nanofibrils formed were suspended in water

Fig. 7 Flowchart description of methodology of synthesis of nanocellulose using pineapple leaf

fibers

obtained by acid hydrolysis. This is done with sulfuric acid solution (60%) for
30 min at 45  C while stirring [15] (Fig. 10).
Preparation of Nano cellulose from rice husk: Rice husk constituents are
cellulose, Hemicellulose, silica, and lignin. Rice husk was treated with KOH (3%
w/v in ratio of 1: 12) and boiled for 30 min and left for a night. After filtering
it was washed with distilled water, and hydrochloric acid (10%) was added.
Silica precipitate was removed. Lignocellulose residue was treated with NaClO2
(1:50 ratio) for 2 h at pH 4, then treated with sodium bisulfite solution (5%) for 1 h at
room temperature, and later dried at 100  2  C. NaOH (17.5%) was used to treat
for 8 h. The nanocellulose was obtained by treatment with sulfuric acid for 30 min
while stirring. To obtain the neutralized pH, washing was done with deionized water.
It was centrifuged and later dried using liophilizator [16] (Fig. 11).
From rubber wood fibers: Nanofibres of rubber wood were formed by two
treatments: (1) enzymatic and (2) ultrasonic. A solution of 3% was prepared by
suspending well-dried fibers (15 g) in deionized water (485 g). pH of 5 was
56 Nanocellulose 1375

Fig. 8 Flowchart description

of methodology of synthesis Beer industrial residue suspension boiled and dried
of nanocellulose using beer
industry residues

Soaked for overnight in NaOH

Washed and treatment with NaOH and autoclave

Pulp obtained was washed and dried

Treated with solution of NaClO2 and

CH3COOH to remove lignin

Soaked in KOH solution to remove

hemicellulose from pulp

Hydrolysis with HCl

Washed by centrifugation

Ultrasonic treatment

Nanocellulose
1376 N. Singh et al.

Using Soxhlet method utilizing ( ethyl alcohol+ deionised water + hexane)

to remove Cutin,pectin from Zeamays

Treated with NaOH

Suspension was treated in Autoclave

Washed with Deionized water (DI)

Treated with H2O2 and tetra acetyl ethylene diamine and then
washed with deionized water

Then treated with Nitric Acid and Acetic Acid

Washed with H2O2 and Ethyl alcohol

Treated with H2SO4 acid and then add cold DI to stop reaction

Ultrasonification

Nanocellulose

Fig. 9 Flowchart description of methodology of synthesis of nanocellulose using maize straw

maintained by using buffer solution of CH3COOH and C2H3NaO2. Required oxi-

dation of Lignin was obtained by using 6 U/g of enzymes. This enzymatic pre-
treatment was carried at 40–65  C. For best results, the whole process was kept at a
speed of 160 rpm for a duration of 24 h. After the process, the Filtration of
suspension was done, and to cease the reaction, it was exposed for a night to heat
at 60  C. In chemical pretreatment, the residual Lignin was removed NaClO2
56 Nanocellulose 1377

Sisal fibres washed with distilled water and then cut into 5-10 mm in
length

Boil the fibres in mixture of toluene/ ethanol in soxhlet

After washing with ethanol removal of lignin is done by NaClO 2

Boil and treat with NaHSO4 followed with treatment by NaOH

Then washed with deionized water

Acid Hydrolysis

Nanofibres

Fig. 10 Flowchart description of methodology of synthesis of nanocellulose using sisal fibers

(acidified) for 60 min at 75  C. For removal of Hemicellulose and remaining starch,

the sample was treated with KOH (3%) for 2 h at 80  C and KOH (6%) for 2 h at
80  C. Neutralization of the sample was done by filtration and then washing with
deionized water. To prevent formation of hydrogen bonding, the sample throughout
the treatment was kept in water-swollen state. Then the sample was put through
ultrasonic treatment for 30 min to obtain nanofibers [17] (Fig. 12).
1378 N. Singh et al.

Fig. 11 Flowchart
description of methodology of
synthesis of nanocellulose Rice husk +KOH and then boiled
using Rice husk

Wash with Distilled water and HCl

Silica removed

Lignocellulose residue treated with NaClO 2

Treated with sodium bisulphite solution

Treat with NaOH

Nanocellulose

Cryocrushing: Cryocrushing is a least used method where microfibrils are in

a range of 0.1–1 μm. This is a mechanical method for production of nanocellulose.
In this fibers are first frozen at a low temperature which is in liquid nitrogen,
followed by crushing in high speed. The forces and high shear turn them into
powders where they contain microfibrils. They are then dispersed in water
suspension. Nanofibres which are in the range of 10–100 nm are usually obtained
(Fig. 13).
56 Nanocellulose 1379

Solution of fibres + deionized water

Oxidation of lignin using enzymes and filtration done

Residual lignin removed using NaClO 2

Hemicellulose and remaining starch was removed by using KOH at different

concentration and temperature

Neutralization done by deionized water.

Ultrasonic treatment for 30 min

Nano fibres.

Fig. 12 Flowchart description of methodology of synthesis of nanocellulose using rubber wood

fibers

Homogenization: In this process after refining and dilution of suspension of

cellulose fibrils, they are pumped through a valve at a high pressure. Closing and
opening of these valves is done very rapidly leading to a drop in pressure along with
forces affecting the fibers. Depending on the starting material being used, the number
of passes through the valve varies. High amount of microfibrillation is achieved due
to high pressure, shear, and forces [18] (Fig. 14).
Compression mechanical techniques: After removal of Lignin from cellulose
materials, they are placed in bed of stripes which is placed between two plates, and
then it is subjected to a load of 10 tons which is constant for time duration of 10 s.
Roller mechanical techniques: In this after removal of Lignin from cellulosic
fibrils, the strips are forced in between two rollers of which one is fixed and other is
rotating [19] (Table 1).
Challenges and future tendencies: The use of nanocellulose as bio-scaffold for
interaction of cells and nanocellulose is mysterious and also requires extensive in
vivo studies. The need of technology for preparation of films, composite of cellulose,
1380 N. Singh et al.

Fig. 13 Flowchart
description of methodology of
synthesis of nanocellulose by Fibres are frozen at low temperature
Cryocrushing

Then crushed at high speed

Turned into powders containing microfibrils

Fig. 14 Flowchart
description of methodology of
Suspension of cellulose fibrils is refined and diluted
synthesis of nanocellulose by
Homogenization

Then it is pumped through valve at high pressure

High amount of microfibrillation is achieved.

and nanocellulose can be a challenge. If nanocellulose is utilized in packaging

industry, then moisture should be diminished which is a challenge, and when applied
for nanocomposites, then dispersion would be a challenge [20].
Nanocellulose has become a material of the future, with potential properties like
strength, renewability, biodegradability, barrier properties, and biocompatibility.
Owing to these properties, Nano cellulose in today’s scenario and future has
widespread and promising applications in various fields of drug delivery, in the
form of nanocomposites, or use in construction, personal care, etc. [21]
56 Nanocellulose 1381

Table 1 Summarization Methods of Year and

of the use of different Raw materials used preparation reference
raw materials and
Sugarcane bagasse Chemical method 2011
methods of preparation
of nanocellulose [7]
China cotton, South Africa Chemical method 2013
cotton, waste tissue paper [8]
Pineapple leaf fibers Chemical method 2010
[9]
Beer industrial residues Chemical and 2015
mechanical methods [10]
Maize straw Chemical and 2014
mechanical methods [11]
Sisal fibers Chemical method 2008
[12]
Rice husk Chemical method 2011
[13]
Rubber wood fibers Chemical and 2015
mechanical methods [14]

Conclusion

The need and demand for biodegradable and sustainable natural resources have led
to research for methods for production and use of nanocelluloses. Cellulose is
biodegradable, easily available, and cheap (relatively). Nanocellulose of different
shapes has been produced using different precursors and different methods (chem-
ical and mechanical). These nanocelluloses with improved properties have wide-
spread applications in the field of biomedical (surgical wounds, tissue engineering,
etc.), in construction, in paints, and in other applications. Nanocelluloses have also
been used as polymer nanocomposites. Being easily available and economical, the
use of natural cellulosic fibrils outweighs the limitations associated with them.
Taking into consideration environment cellulose which is biodegradable and natural
renewal polymer is an attractive combination finding role in various applications.
This chapter discusses various methods for production of nanocellulose, and also
few applications have been mentioned.

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