1

RURAL DEVELOPMENT
Rural development is a process of improving of the living standards of people in the countryside (lands,
cattleposts, villages) socially, politically and economically. Rural development is achieved if the
government, local leaders and people work together. A rural area is place/settlement where majority of
people are engaged in agriculture.

Rural development is important because:

-most people in LDCs live in rural areas, many of them poor farmers
-it reduces rural- urban migration
-creates employment for rural people
-empower women who are a majority in rural areas
-increases agricultural output/ self -sufficiency in food/agricultural produce sold in urban areas and
some exported
-create market for goods produced in towns
-income generating activities reduce poverty and malnutrition
-remove inequalities between rural and urban areas
-agricultural production can provide raw materials for local industries

Obstacles to rural development in LDCs

-lack of good market
-people in rural areas are uncredit worthy
-shortage of labour due to migration
-poor managerial/marketing skills
-poor infrastructure making it difficult for farmers to reach urban market
-lack of skills/training/knowledge
-natural disasters eg drought
-shortage of social amenities
-women who do about 80% of agricultural work are powerless

TRADITIONAL RURAL SOCIETIES

Traditional rural societies were mainly shaped by the natural environment and changing seasons. They
made a living using natural resources which surrounded them and used simple technology (tools made
out of wood, stones, sticks etc to survive and produced for family consumption.

a)Hunter-gatherers eg San of Kalahari, Pygmies of Central Africa

The hunter-gatherers depended on the natural environment for survival, lived in caves/shelter made
out of animal skins. Their tools were made from wood, bones and sharpened stones. Men hunted using
poisoned arrows while women gathered wild fruits and roots to eat. The hunter- gatherers were
nomadic and had less effect on the environment as they were few in number.

b) Nomadic pastoralists eg Masai in Kenya, Dinka in Sudan, Fulani in Nigeria

Nomadic pastoralists kept livestock (cattle, goats, sheep, camels) and the natural grassland provided
pasture for their livestock so moved from one place to the other looking for land and rainfall. Nomadic
 2

pastoralists used simple technology and animals provided them with meat, milk, wool and skins. Blood
from cattle was mixed with milk to make a delicious healthy diet.

c)Agriculturalists eg Bantu
The agriculturalists settled in one area and grew crops and kept livestock to survive/for family
consumption. They cleared fields by burning and practiced shifting cultivation/slash-and- burn using
improved simple technology eg iron tools.
 3

Characteristics of subsistence farming

-there is mixed cropping
-use of simple technology
-use traditional methods eg seed broadcasting
-use of family labour
-use natural inputs eg relies on natural soil fertility, rainfall
-small piece of land is used
-land is communally owned
-farming is seasonal
-production is labour intensive
-use of seeds from last year”s harvests
-low yields/ small scale production

Advantages
-cheap since it is labour intensive and uses simple technology
-it is a source of income since surplus is sold
-causes less harm to the environment
-it is a source of food to rural people

Disadvantages
-use of poor farming methods lead to low productivity
-easily affected by drought since it is depended on rainfall
-crops and animals are easily attacked by pests and diseases
-poor methods lead to poor soil fertility and soil erosion
-low quality products due to use of simple technology

RURAL POVERTY
Poverty –having insufficient needs for survival
Rural poverty- is whereby people in the countryside are unable to meet their basic needs (food, shelter,
clothing. Poverty is common in rural areas in developing countries

Characteristics of rural poverty

-physical weakness
-large families with many children, aged, disabled
-isolation from the society
-hunger and at times starvation
-poor housing
-illiteracy
 4

Causes of rural poverty

-land dispossession- Africans lost land during colonialism and this started poverty which has continued
to present day
-population pressure- people increase faster than land supply in countries south of Sahara and people
occupy land for farming
-lack of alternative incomes- agriculture is unable to provide enough jobs for rural people and there are
few industries to provide alternative incomes to rural dwellers.
-lack of skills and technology by rural people- many farmers lack modern education as many
governments in developing countries are reluctant to spend scarce money training farmers
-unequal access to land- some people have more access to land than others. People with less land are
unable to meet their basic needs
-lack of money for investment –small farmers fail to get loans from banks because they are uncredit
worthy
-environmental problems eg drought, floods
-poor medical facilities resulting in ill-health leading to low productivity
-cultural practices which discourages new ideas eg gender bias

Problems caused by rural poverty

-rural- urban migration of young able bodied people
-women carryout heavier responsibilities in rural areas
-high crime rate
-pollution
-farmers become stressed as they produce less from the same land
-decline in soil fertility due to soil erosion
-deforestation
-overgrazing/ poor livestock production
-diseases and malnutrition becomes common

Solutions to problems of rural poverty

-land reforms/ redistribution of land
-family planning/ use of contraceptives
-extension services
-use of modern methods of farming
-bush conservation
-low interest loans to rural people

The effects of colonialism on rural people

Colonialism -is a rule of one country by another (politically, economically and militarily), normally a
powerful country rules a weal country.
Colony- a country being ruled
Colonizer- a country which rules another.
 5

Colonialism began between the 17th and 18th century when Europeans occupied parts of South America,
Africa and Asia. European countries like Britain, France, Germany, Portugal started scrambling for Africa
because:
-they wanted land to get raw material
-they wanted to exploit cheap labour
-wanted market in Africa for their finished products
-wanted land to be occupied by Europeans as there was overpopulation in Europe
-wanted to spread Christianity
-to set up plantations for industries at home
-to expand their political influence/ national pride
-to create/ protect trade routes

Positive/ good effects of colonialism on rural societies

-introduced modern education
-introduced modern health
-infrastructure development eg roads, railways constructed
-introduced manufactured goods
-brought improved technology
-introduced modern lifestyles
-introduces Christianity
-created employment for rural people
-introduced cash crops like tea, tobacco, cotton, coffee etc / commercial farming

Negative/ bad effects of colonialism on rural people

-Africans lost culture
-Africans lost land/property
-loss of labour due to migrant labour system
-loss of cattle/ livestock
-family breakups because of migration
-introduced unhealthy diets/ alcoholic beverages
-introduced hut tax or cash economy
-Africans forced to sell cheap labour to Europeans
-food shortage as land was used to produce export crops
-increased work load for women
-introduced unknown diseases

Commercial /cash crop farming – is the growing of crops and rearing of animals for sale/profit

Characteristics
-production is for sale
-use of advanced technology
-paid labour is used
-there is use of fertilisers/ pesticides/ hybrid seeds
-there is large scale production/high yields
 6

-takes place on a large piece of land

-land is privately owned
-production is capital intensive
-one crop is produced in one large field
-takes pale all year round

Advantages
-a source of foreign exchange
-the use of complex technology lead to high quality products
-improves GDP of the country/ contributes to economic growth
-creates employment as paid labour is used
-empowers farmers with skills as they constantly go for training/workshops

Disadvantages
-large scale use of machines lead to destruction of the environment
-application of chemicals may result in the pollution of underground water leading poor health of people
and animals.
-it is expensive so only the rich can afford it
-high competition for market may lead to loss
-poor storage facilities normally lead to loss
-commercial farming may be affected by prolonged drought

Problems faced by commercial farmers

-poor soils
-pests and diseases
-unserviced land eg land without electricity
-natural disasters eg drought
-expensive farm inputs
-lack of skilled labour
-shortage of market/ lack of processing industries
-competition for market

Solutions to the problems faced by commercial farmers

-funding of commercial farmers
-education/ training of farmers
-use of improved/appropriate technology
-improvement of infrastructure
-marketing produce from farmers
-control of pests and diseases
-agricultural extension services
-protection of small producers
 7

The migrant labour system

Migrant labour system involved the movement of young able bodied men from rural areas to the white
settlers in search of jobs. Migrant labour was caused by:
-land dispossession resulting in shortage of land for agriculture
-introduction of hut tax

Effects of the migrant labour system on rural areas/ rural life

Good/positive effects of migrant labour system

–more job opportunities in rural areas
-reduced pressure on land due to rural depopulation
-migrants workers sent money/ remittances to their families to improve their living standards
-less mouths to feed in rural areas
-migrants brought back new technology/new skills/ new id
-some migrants invested their savings in rural areas into new businesses like shops, public transport

bad/negative effects
-shortage of labour for agriculture
-reduction in rural population
-women assumed double roles
-sex imbalance ie more women than men
-erosion of culture by migrants on coming to rural areas
-spread of diseases by migrants when coming back
-family break ups because husbands spent longer periods away from home
-child indiscipline because of absence of fathers

COLONIAL RULE IN BOTSWANA

Botswana became a British protectorate in 1885 and gained independence in 1966. The land of
Botswana became important to the British because of the road to the north used by traders, hunters
and missionaries. The British also thought Botswana might have minerals and provide cheap labour. The
Europeans used land for agriculture, a railway and telegraph line from Cape to Zimbabwe passed
through Botswana.
During colonialism the following were done
-a grinding mill was built at Lobatse for farmers to sell their crops
-Bechuanaland abattoir now BMC was established in 1954
-cattle were protected against diseases eg foot and mouth, cattle breeds were improved

Conditions in rural Botswana at independence

Rural areas in Botswana were totally neglected by the British colonial government. There was wide
spread rural poverty characterized by low living standards.
There was:
-lack of infrastructure eg roads, power lines, telecommunications etc
-high illiteracy
-shortage of health facilities
 8

-high unemployment
-shortage of clean/ safe water

Positive changes in Botswana since independence

-tarred roads constructed linking villages and towns
-media communications eg daily news, radio Botswana, BTV, private press etc
-schools built/ educational facilities
-clinics/ hospitals built
-improvement in the agricultural sector
-boreholes/dams to provide clean safe water to all
-rural electrification

Aspects/ effects of rural development

Positive
-increased agricultural output
-provision of clean safe water
-employment creation
-provision of social services eg health, education
-infrastructure development
-rural development committees set up
-rural electrification
-women empowerment

Negative
-increase in crime
-loss of culture
-shortage of land
-pollution from agricultural chemicals
-unemployment if work in the industries is done by machines
-breakdown of families
-loss of traditional skills/ loss of craftsmanship
-soil erosion by agricultural machines
-deforestation
-inequalities with emergence of rich farmers and majority poor.

To solve problems of rural development government have introduced rural schemes, rural projects and
rural programmes
1.rural schemes

a) loans and credit schemes – farmers are given loans at low interest rate to buy farm inputs eg
machinery, seeds, fertilisers. The money can also be invested eg drilling boreholes for irrigation or
 9

animals. Botswana National Development Bank provide loans to farmers. CEDA provide loans to people
who wish to start businesses
b) farmer’s co –operatives – this is when a group of agriculturalists join together to increase production
or share production costs. Co –operative is when a group of producers join together for some purpose.

A farmers co-operative can provide its members with services shown below:

-sale of farm inputs to farmers/buy agricultural equipment

-farmers share the cost of inputs eg seeds, fertilisers
-credit schemes
-government extension services
-marketing and sale of produce
-storage of produce
-maintenance of vehicles and agricultural equipment
-supply of fuel
-purchasing of produce from farmers

Advantages of a farmer’s co- operative

 10

-the co-operative buy in bulk therefore pay less for seeds, fuel, pesticides, fertilisers, etc
-reduced transport costs
-farmers buy equipment like tractors, cultivators and trucks and use these together
-crops and livestock are collected at one place and sent to the market which becomes cheap and time
saving
-farmers share ideas, extension workers can even advise them as a group
-a manager can be employed to run the co-operative
-the farmers can organize storage for their equipment and crops
-it is easy to borrow money from banks as a co-operative than as individual farmers
-the co-operative can provide members with credit

THE GREEN REVOLUTION

The green revolution involves the breeding and use of high-yielding seeds, introduction of new farming
methods /modern farming technology, use of fertilisers and pesticides. The high breed seeds produce a
very large crop, all of which is ready at the same time therefore farmers need modern storage facilities
and transport to take produce to the market. The green revolution mostly benefit large scale farmers/
commercial farmers who have money to invest. Governments then offer subsistence farmers cheap
loans/ credit so that they take part in the green revolution even though subsistence farmers end up
unable to pay back the loans and some end up landless as their land is taken for failing to pay the loans.

c)collective /communal farming –farmers are encouraged to join all their land and work on it as one
large farm.
d)resettlement schemes – resettlement schemes are designed to change land ownership laws so that
everybody has access to enough land eg in Botswana women can own land. Remote area dwellers are
also asked to settle in one place so that they are provided with facilities. Land reforms without good
facilities cannot bring about rural development.

2. rural projects
-construction of bus shelter
-drilling of boreholes/ construction of dams
-building community halls
-construction of VDC houses

-rural electrification
-construction of kgotla buildings
-roads construction

3. rural programmes
a) Drought relief/ Ipelegeng
The government of Botswana introduced drought relief/ Ipelegeng to create jobs for people especially in
rural areas through building fences to separate cattle posts from land, roads and dams were also
constructed.
 11

b) Integrated Support Programme for Arable Agriculture Development ( ISPAAD)

-farmers given seasonal loans by NDB at low interests to buy seeds, fertilisers, seeds, farm machinery.
pay workers and transportation
-farmers helped by ploughing, planting, harrowing up to 5 hacters of crop land for free
-provision of drinking water (boreholes)/ boreholes are drilled and given to a group of farmers in areas
under cluster management committee to operate
-cluster fencing- farmers assisted to fence their fields as individuals or as cluster
-farmers given high quality seeds of field crops. More than 16 hecters farm the farmer is given 50%
subsidy
-farmers are provided with fertilisers

c) National Master Plan for Arable Agriculture and Dairy Farming (NAMPAAD)
Arable agriculture and dairy farming are improved to change subsistence farming to commercial
farming.
d) Livestock Management and Infrastructural Development (LIMID)

Advantages of rural schemes , programmes and projects

-create employment opportunities for rural people
-create income generating activities which gradually reduce poverty
-reduce rural- urban migration
-promotes self -sufficiency in food production
-there is development of rural areas
-there is fairly balanced development between rural and urban areas

Problems /disadvantages
-lack of basic skills/ illiteracy by rural dwellers fails the schemes, programmes
-poor management/ lack of supervision by government officials
-lack of time, adequate research contributes to failure of projects
-corruption in implementing the strategies
-natural hazards eg livestock diseases, drought etc
-shortage of serviced land
-lack of banking facilities in rural areas

Integrated Rural Development

Since independence Botswana government has engaged in integrated rural development, integrated
rural development means improving all aspects of lives of people living in the countryside.
Improvements have taken place in rural areas and these are called elements or essentials of rural
development:
-improved infrastructure-tarred and gravel roads, telecommunications, electricity, dams and boreholes
 12

-improved water supply- people have access to clean and safe water supply, water borne diseases
eradicated
-improved social amenities- provision of schools, clinics, hospitals ie universal education, cheap health
care and supplementary feeding eg tsabana
-improved agriculture /modern farming –farmers are given loans at National Development Bank, CEDA
to buy farm inputs or improve farming. They are also taught better methods of farming
-land reforms – land is redistributed to help landless people
-rural industries-factories are set up in the countryside to give people jobs and avail goods and services.
-storage markets- establishment of buildings and selling points for farm produce eg BAMB, VDC stalls
-loans and credit schemes
-use of appropriate technology
-farmers are encouraged to form/ join farmer’s co-operatives
-government extension services- government officials are posted/send to rural areas to help in the
development of rural areas

Changing family roles in rural areas

-female headed families
-child headed families
-men/ boys/husbands do household duties eg cooking, bathing children
-women contributes financially to the welfare of the family/ women are now breadwinners
-there is use of hired labour eg housemaids, herdboys etc
-women/ girls look after livestock
-husbands and wives makes joint decisions eg family size
-management of family property and resources is done by both husbands and wives/ men and women
-grandmothers/fathers have less influence over upbringing/ raising of children
13