UNIT III

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The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet
protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices. It is a network of
networks that consists of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of
local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking
technologies. The Internet carries a vast range of information resources and services, such
as the inter-linked hypertext documents and applications of the World Wide Web (WWW),
electronic mail, telephony, and file sharing.
Internet architecture

WWW

The World Wide Web (WWW) is a network of online content that is formatted in HTML and
accessed via HTTP. The term refers to all the interlinked HTML pages that can be accessed over
the Internet. The World Wide Web was originally designed in 1991 by Tim Berners-Lee while he
was a contractor at CERN.

The World Wide Web is most often referred to simply as “the Web.”

The World Wide Web is what most people think of as the Internet. It is all the Web pages, pictures,
videos and other online content that can be accessed via a Web browser. The Internet, in contrast,
is the underlying network connection that allows us to send email and access the World Wide Web.
The early Web was a collection of text-based sites hosted by organizations that were technically
gifted enough to set up a Web server and learn HTML. It has continued to evolve since the original
design, and it now includes interactive (social) media and user-generated content that requires little
to no technical skills.

We owe the free Web to Berners-Lee and CERN’s decision to give away one of the greatest
inventions of the century.

FTP

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard Internet protocol for transmitting files between
computers on the Internet over TCP/IP connections. FTP is a client-server protocol where a client
will ask for a file, and a local or remote server will provide it.

The end-users machine is typically called the local host machine, which is connected via the
internet to the remote host—which is the second machine running the FTP software.

Anonymous FTP is a type of FTP that allows users to access files and other data without needing
an ID or password. Some websites will allow visitors to use a guest ID or password- anonymous
FTP allows this.

Although a lot of file transfer is now handled using HTTP, FTP is still commonly used to transfer
files “behind the scenes” for other applications — e.g., hidden behind the user interfaces of
banking, a service that helps build a website, such as Wix or SquareSpace, or other services. It is
also used, via Web browsers, to download new applications.

How FTP works

FTP is a client-server protocol that relies on two communications channels between client and
server: a command channel for controlling the conversation and a data channel for transmitting
file content. Clients initiate conversations with servers by requesting to download a file. Using
FTP, a client can upload, download, delete, rename, move and copy files on a server. A user
typically needs to log on to the FTP server, although some servers make some or all of their content
available without login, known as anonymous FTP.

FTP sessions work in passive or active modes. In active mode, after a client initiates a session via
a command channel request, the server initiates a data connection back to the client and begins
transferring data. In passive mode, the server instead uses the command channel to send the client
the information it needs to open a data channel. Because passive mode has the client initiating all
connections, it works well across firewalls and Network Address Translation (NAT) gateways.

How to FTP

Files can be transferred between two computers using FTP software. The user’s computer is called
the local host machine and is connected to the Internet. The second machine, called the remote
host, is also running FTP software and connected to the Internet.

 The local host machine connects to the remote host’s IP address.

 The user would enter a username/password (or use anonymous).
 FTP software may have a GUI, allowing users to drag and drop files between the remote
and local host. If not, a series of FTP commandsare used to log in to the remote host and
transfer files between the machines

Web Browsers

A web browser is a software program that allows a user to locate, access, and display web pages.
In common usage, a web browser is usually shortened to “browser.” Browsers are used primarily
for displaying and accessing websites on the internet, as well as other content created using
languages such as Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) and Extensible Markup Language
(XML).

Browsers translate web pages and websites delivered using Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
into human-readable content. They also have the ability to display other protocols and prefixes,
such as secure HTTP (HTTPS), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), email handling (mailto:), and files
(file:). In addition, most browsers also support external plug-ins required to display active content,
such as in-page video, audio and game content.

A variety of web browsers are available with different features, and are designed to run on different
operating systems. Common browsers include Internet Explorer from Microsoft, Firefox from
Mozilla, Google Chrome, Safari from Apple, and Opera. All major browsers have mobile versions
that are lightweight versions for accessing the web on mobile devices.
Web browsers date back to the late 1980s when an English scientist, Tim Berners-Lee, first
developed the ideas that led to the World Wide Web (WWW). This consisted of a series of pages
created using the HTML language and joined or linked together with pointers called hyperlinks.
Following this was the need for a program that could access and display the HTML pages correctly
– the browser.

In 1993, a new browser known as Mosaic was developed, which soon gained widespread usage
due to its graphical-interface capability. Marc Andreesen, a member of the Mosaic development
team, left in 1994 to develop his own commercial browser based on Mosaic. He called it Netscape
Navigator and it quickly captured over 90 percent of the nascent browser market. It soon faced
stiff competition in 1995 from Microsoft’s Internet Explorer, which was freely bundled with
Windows 95 (and later versions of Windows). It was pointless to buy Navigator when Internet
Explorer was free, and as a result, Navigator (and Netscape) were driven into the ground. But while
Mosaic and Netscape are no longer around, the age of the browser was launched and continues to
this day, as more and more applications move to the web.

Search Engines

Search engine is a service that allows Internet users to search for content via the World Wide Web
(WWW). A user enters keywords or key phrases into a search engine and receives a list of Web
content results in the form of websites, images, videos or other online data. The list of content
returned via a search engine to a user is known as a search engine results page (SERP).

To simplify, think of a search engine as two components. First a spider/web crawler trolls the web
for content that is added to the search engine’s index. Then, when a user queries a search engine,
relevant results are returned based on the search engine’s algorithm. Early search engines were
based largely on page content, but as websites learned to game the system, algorithms have become
much more complex and search results returned can be based on literally hundreds of variables.

There used to be a significant number of search engines with significant market share. Currently,
Google and Microsoft’s Bing control the vast majority of the market. (While Yahoo generates
many queries, their back-end search technology is outsourced to Microsoft.)

E-Mail
E-mail (electronic mail) is the exchange of computer-stored messages by telecommunication.
(Some publications spell it email; we prefer the currently more established spelling of e-mail.) E-
mail messages are usually encoded in ASCII text. However, you can also send non-text files, such
as graphic images and sound files, as attachments sent in binary streams. E-mail was one of the
first uses of the Internet and is still the most popular use. A large percentage of the total traffic
over the Internet is e-mail. E-mail can also be exchanged between online service provider users
and in networks other than the Internet, both public and private.

E-mail can be distributed to lists of people as well as to individuals. A shared distribution list can
be managed by using an e-mail reflector. Some mailing lists allow you to subscribe by sending a
request to the mailing list administrator. A mailing list that is administered automatically is called
a list server.

E-mail is one of the protocols included with the Transport Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) suite of protocols. A popular protocol for sending e-mail is Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol and a popular protocol for receiving it is POP3. Both Netscape and Microsoft include an
e-mail utility with their Web browsers.

Gopher

Gopher is a client/server directory system that launched in 1991. It allowed people to quickly
browse resources on the internet. When you used a Gopher client, you would see a hierarchical
menu of links that either led to documents, telnet-based applications, FTP sites, or other Gopher
servers.

The Gopher is a communication protocol designed for distributing, searching, and retrieving
documents in Internet Protocol networks. The design of the Gopher protocol and user interface is
menu-.driven, and presented an alternative to the World Wide Web .

Gopher is an Internet application that allows you to browse many different kinds of
resources by looking at menus or listings of information available. Its function is easy to
remember because of its name: you use Gopher to "go fer" information that is on other
computers all over the world. The menus in the Gopher system allow you to see what
 information is there; the Gopher client on your system then brings the information you
want to your computer screen. The Gopher servers of the world are all interconnected and
have been compared to a large library full of resources.

You need to have a Gopher client running on your server to access and use this
application. To find out if you have Gopher, either click on the Gopher icon or type
"Gopher" at the command prompt. If your system is running a Gopher client, this will
connect you to a root menu of resources from which you can proceed to browse the
"libraries" of the world. The menus are constructed in a hierarchical order; to return from
whence you came you simply need to type "u" for "up"--this takes you up to the next menu
level. You can also just "quit" the application from whatever point you are. Some Gophers
are text-based and others use icons (graphical representations) to lead from menu to menu.

If you find a site with interesting and useful information, you can mark it by using the
bookmark function of the Gopher service. Then, the next time you log on, you can view
your bookmarks and go directly to that useful site. All Gopher clients are different, so you
need to check the documentation of the system you are using to know what command to
use for bookmarks and other useful Gopher functions.

Below is the first screen of the FLTEACH gopher. This will give you an idea of what a
gopher menu looks like. Moving the arrow to the item you want is the way to select and
move through the layers of each menu.

IoT:

The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to a system of interrelated, internet-connected objects that are
able to collect and transfer data over a wireless network without human intervention.

In an Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystem, two things are very important: the Internet and physical
devices like sensors and actuators. As shown in Fig. 1, the bottom layer of the IoT system consists
of sensor connectivity and network to collect information. This layer is an essential part of the IoT
system and has network connectivity to the next layer, which is the gateway and network layer.
Sensors:

The main purpose of sensors is to collect data from the surrounding environment. Sensors, or
‘things’ of the IoT system, form the front end. These are connected directly or indirectly to IoT
networks after signal conversion and processing. But all sensors are not the same and different IoT
applications require different types of sensors. For instance, digital sensors are straightforward and
easy to interface with a microcontroller using a Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) bus. But for analog
sensors, either analog-to-digital converter (ADC) or Sigma-Delta modulator is used to convert the
data into SPI output.

Actuator:

An actuator is a device that produces a motion by converting energy and signals going into the
system. The motion it produces can be either rotary or linear.
Some common types of IoT sensors

Temperature sensors

These devices measure the amount of heat energy generated from an object or surrounding area.
They find application in air-conditioners, refrigerators, and similar devices used for environmental
control. They are also used in manufacturing processes, agriculture, and the health industry.

Temperature sensors can be used almost in every IoT environment, from manufacturing to
agriculture. In manufacturing, sensors are used to monitor the temperature of machines. In
agriculture, these can be used to monitor the temperature of the soil, water, and plants.

Temperature sensors include thermocouples, thermistors, resistor temperature detectors (RTDs)

and integrated circuits (ICs)

Humidity sensors

The amount of water vapour in air, or humidity, can affect human comfort as well as many
manufacturing processes in industries. So monitoring humidity level is important. Most commonly
used units for humidity measurement are relative humidity (RH), dew/frost point (D/F PT) and
parts per million (PPM).
Motion sensors

Motion sensors are not only used for security purposes but also in automatic door controls,
automatic parking systems, automated sinks, automated toilet flushers, hand dryers, energy
management systems, etc. You use these sensors in the IoT and monitor them from your
smartphone or computer. HC-SR501 passive infrared (PIR) sensor is a popular motion sensor for
hobby projects.

Gas sensors

These sensors are used to detect toxic gases. The sensing technologies most commonly used are
electrochemical, photo-ionisation and semiconductor. With technical advancements and new
specifications, there are a multitude of gas sensors available to help extend the wired and wireless
connectivity deployed in IoT applications.

Smoke sensors

Smoke detectors have been in use in homes and industries for quite a long time. With the advent
of the IoT, their application has become more convenient and user-friendly. Furthermore, adding
a wireless connection to smoke detectors enables additional features that increase safety and
convenience.

Pressure sensors

These sensors are used in IoT systems to monitor systems and devices that are driven by pressure
signals. When the pressure range is beyond the threshold level, the device alerts the user about the
problems that should be fixed. For example, BMP180 is a popular digital pressure sensor for use
in mobile phones, PDAs, GPS navigation devices and outdoor equipment. Pressure sensors are
also used in smart vehicles and aircrafts to determine force and altitude, respectively. In vehicle,
tyre pressure monitoring system (TPMS) is used to alert the driver when tyre pressure is too low
and could create unsafe driving conditions.

Image sensors

These sensors are found in digital cameras, medical imaging systems, night-vision equipment,
thermal imaging devices, radars, sonars, media house and biometric systems. In the retail industry,
these sensors are used to monitor customers visiting the store through IoT network. In offices and
corporate buildings, they are used to monitor employees and various activities through IoT
networks

IR sensors

An infrared (IR) sensor is an electronic device that measures and detects infrared radiation in its
surrounding environment.

These sensors can measure the heat emitted by objects. They are used in various IoT projects
including healthcare to monitor blood flow and blood pressure, smartphones to use as remote
control and other functions, wearable devices to detect amount of light, thermometers to monitor
temperature and blind-spot detection in vehicles.

Proximity sensors

These sensors detect the presence or absence of a nearby object without any physical contact.
Different types of proximity sensors are inductive, capacitive, photoelectric, ultrasonic and
magnetic. These are mostly used in object counters, process monitoring and control.

What is the industrial internet of things (IIoT)?

The industrial internet of things (IIoT) refers to the extension and use of the internet of things (IoT)
in industrial sectors and applications. With a strong focus on machine-to-machine (M2M)