Education in British India

Author(s): George Allen Odgers

Source: The Phi Delta Kappan , Oct., 1925, Vol. 8, No. 2 (Oct., 1925), pp. 1-6
Published by: Phi Delta Kappa International

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/20257440

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 The Official National Organ of Phi Delta Kappa

THE PHI DELTA KAPPAN Continuing the National News Letter of Phi Delta Kappa

Published August, October, December, February, April and June at Cleveland, Ohio
By the Phi Delta Kappa Fraternity
CLAYTON R. WISE, Managing Editor
10403 St. Clair Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio
"Entered as second-class matter August 10, 1924, at the post office at Cleveland, Ohio, under the Act of August 24, 1912
Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in section 1103, Act of
October 3, 1917, authorized January 14, 1921."
Copyright 1925 by the Phi Delta Kappa Fraternity. All rights reserved.

VOL. VIII OCTOBER, 1925 No. 2

Education in British India

George Allen Odgers, Nu 261

Education presents greater complexities

sources. In 1816, David Hare, an English
watchmaker in Calcutta, joined with Babu
and differences of opinion than any other
subject in the vast area of administrative
Mohon Roy in founding the Hindu College
activity in India. The educated Indian,
for the promotion of Western secular learn
ing. In a few years the seeds were widely
with his pride stung by the intense illiteracy
of the masses around him, clamors for the sown. In 1835 a most remarkable innova
rapid expansion of educational facilities.tion was made by the establishment of the
Calcutta Medical College on European
In most cases he disregards the formulation
of a policy, and underestimates thelines. im Another impetus was the work of the
Christian missionaries. Christian schools
mensity of the task. The British official,
crushed by a mountain of responsibility and
for colleges were opened in the port cities,
maintaining law and order, is more than
to be followed by others in inland capitals.
likely to look with suspicion upon private
In 183S the Government tardily accepted
educational enterprises and experiments,
the new principle and determined to remain
and, in trying to raise the standard, to over
neutral in religious matters, but to establish
look the amount of training to be provided
its own institution of Western learning to
in the schools and colleges. The teacher,be taught through the medium of English,
chafing under countless annoying Govern to grant funds to similar private and mis
ment departmental restrictions and regula sionary schools. The same year saw the
establishment of the freedom of the press.
tions and discouraged because of low salaries
and no professional outlook, is opposed Twotoyears later, English supplanted Persian
any change, fearing lest his conditionasbe the official language in courts, and in
come more unbearable. To some the whole 1844 the Governor-General ordered that
preferance in Government appointments
system appears as a fatal blunder, resulting
from what should have been and could have should be given to those who had received a
been easily avoided. To others it is the Western
rich education. From then until now
the
fruitage of the sincere and honest effort of vernacular has been displaced by
the British to prepare a divided and back
English as the medium of instruction, and
the demand for English schools has been
ward people for nationhood and for partici
pation in the life of this modern world. greater than the means for providing them.
At first, the East India Company's Only within the last few years has there
directors and officials seem to have been
been any evidence of a counter movement.
disinclined to introduce Western learningWithout a country-wide system of edu
into the country. Such powerful men as
cation of a kind adapted to her capacity
Warren Hastings did all they could to foster
and to her needs, India cannot hope and
India's ancient learning. The desire cannot
for be expected to realize nationhood
Western knowledge arose from private
and to achieve the aspirations of her small

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 2 THE PHI DELTA KAPPAN

educated class. The ideas of her masses dents get beyond the lowest class, and many
must be enlarged. Caste must be destroyed. soon lapse into illiteracy after leaving the
Otherwise, India will never be able to school. Many of these schools meet on the
develop the power necessary for the attain verandas of the teacher's mud house, beside
ment of social, economic, political and a mosque, or over a store in the bazaar, and
religious well-being. Without such a change the teacher is more interested in the few
the millions of her masses must continue cents which he receives from each child
poverty-stricken and superstitious, the than he is in the learning process and the
women remain non-producers, economically amount of knowledge acquired.
and intellectually, and the progress of It is generally recognized that India must
sanitation and the eradication of disease solve this illiteracy problem before she can
must be indefinitely postponed. have her national education firmly estab
The most obvious features of India's lished. This problem, however, is com
educational position today are the defects plicated by factors peculiarly Indian.
in the present educational structure, and Among them must be included the extreme
the control .of this exceedingly important poverty of the masses, the inadequate means
subject by Ministers of Education respon of communication, caste, the purdah, child
sible to the Provincial Legislative Councils marriage, child widowhood, the conflict of
established under the Chelmsford-Montagu communal interests and ambitions, and the
Reforms. # seemingly unbridgeable chasm between
Of the 247,000,000 inhabitants of British urban and rural life; all of which have
India, less than 9,000,000 are at present operated to prevent the growth of a desire
being educated. Compare this with the for education among the masses which are
21,200,000 out of the United States' largely rural and agricultural. The financial
106,000,000?India's 4%, America's 20%. condition constitutes another serious diffi
Scarcely 3% of India's population is en culty. The amount of revenue annually
rolled in the primary school. The preva available for educational enterprises is hope
lence of illiteracy is general. According to lessly inadequate, the total expenditure
the 1921 census, the number of Indian in a year being approximately 366,000,000,
literates was 19,800,000 males and 2,800,000 as compared with the United States'
females, total 22,600,000. No less than 31,300,000,000 (approx.).
one-half of one per cent Q/2%) ?f tne total Moreover, in India at present it is not
population is in secondary schools. Still possible to spend this school money advan
more striking are the figures of University tageously. Social conditions are such that
education, where the percentage is no less women teachers can be employed only in
than 0.027%. Compare this with the exceedingly small numbers and never for
0.089% of England and Wales. It is thus boys' schools. Equally difficult and serious
evident that the structure of Indian educa is the condition of the village school. Life
tion is top-heavy. The poorer classes are and customs in the village are so discourag
predominantly illiterate, while the middle ing that men who have been college trained
classes are educated in a proportion equal refuse to go away from the cities.
to that of countries which are socially and If a man comes up out of the village,
economically much more highly developed. he almost never returns to it. He lifts
The middle class has demanded a literary himself, or is lifted by some missionary, but
type of education, looking to Government very seldom does he return to serve his own
service or the law. Vocational training, people. Further, the educated man in
while strongly advocated by many Indians, India does not find in the indigenous relig
has thus far not attained any great success. ious organizations the same opportunities
Some of the technical schools founded not and scope for social work as does his brother
so very long ago, have been closed, and the in the Occident. The Indian medical
remaining institutions have great difficulty graduate fails to find in the villages an
filling the classes. Primary education is opening similar to that existing in the
not only unsatisfactory in quantity, but the American rural and village sections. The
standard of work is deplorable. Few stu Indian landed class does not ordinarily

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 EDUCATION IN BRITISH INDIA 3

send its sons to the University, where they Not only is primary education receiving
could come in contact with their fellows increased attention, but both the officials
from the professional and commercial classes, and the educated public are coming to realize
and be moulded by the current social more and more that there are certain grave
reform movements. Instead these youths, defects in the secondary and University
who are later to control the lives of the systems. Secondary education is of a very
ryots on their vast estates, and in whose low standard and exceedingly poorly ad
hands lies the opportunity of delivering ministered. The high schools cram their
their people from ignorance, are given an students for the University matriculation
inconsequential education by private tutors. examination, and offer practically nothing
If a member of the landed gentry does which prepares the student for citizenship.
attend the University, he rarely, if ever, Fortunately, it is becoming more generally
returns to live upon his zemindari. The recognized that secondary education must
village teacher is thus forced to live an be radically remodeled to bring it into
isolated life denied the stimulus of contact contact with the needs of the country. It
with intellects better trained than his own. is becoming increasingly evident that when
One is safe in saying that in India there is the change is made the secondary stage will
almost a complete absence of honorary be complete in itself, and the secondary
services and personal interest in educational schools of India will become "the people's
activities by the wealthier and educated colleges" as have the American high schools.
classes, who in America have done so much It was for this reason that the Sadler Com
to foster public education. mission, when it made its survey of the
It is gratifying, however, and a happy Calcutta University, recommended the sepa
omen, that the transfer of educational con ration of secondary from University educa
trol to Ministers responsible to the recently tion, the raising of the former into a self
constituted representatives has been ac contained system, and the confining of each
to its proper sphere. Already in several
complished. Provincial Legislative Council
has strengthened the contact between theprovinces effect has been given to these
provincial Departments of Education and proposals. The whole secondary system is
public opinion, and interest in educational being overhauled. Methods of inspection
problems is being shown by an increasing are being revised. The salaries of teachers
number among the educated class. In are being raised. Manual and industrial
almost every province great educational arts, physical education, and the boy scout
activity is seen, especially against illiteracy. movement are being encouraged. The
The principle of compulsion was introduced junior college plan is rapidly coming into
in Bombay in 1918, and other provinces its own in India, and the universities will
have followed rapidly. The first laws have be worthy of the name.
been found to be defective or inadequate, There are at present fifteen universities
and revised acts have been passed. The in India, which with the exception of certain
power to compel school attendance has been sectarian institutions and Delhi University,
delegated to muncipalities and districts, are under the control of the Provincial
but these bodies have been reluctant to Governments. The Imperial Government,
apply coercive measures even to the collec however, still retains certain functions in
tion of their own taxes. It is therefore not connection with university matters, par
surprising that the progress achieved in ticularly in the sphere of legislation. Fol
compulsory school attendance has been lowing the publication of the findings and
small. But a start has been made, public recommendations of the Calcutta Univer
sentiment has been aroused, and the neces sity Commission, striking changes have
sary public opinion is growing. At present been made. Up until then the Indian
the principle is being applied only in pri University was an examining syndicate,
mary schools, and it is evident that more with a system of affiliated colleges which
effort will be employed in keeping the prepared students for the degree examina
pupils longer in school than in enlarging tion. Little or no work of real university
the numbers attending the primary schools. rank was done. The substitute proposed

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 4 THE PHI DELTA KAPPAN

was the residential university, from which contribute the conception of large institu
was to be removed all instruction which was tions carried on without state aid, which is
not of university grade. This teaching something new in India, and did bring to
was to be given in the intermediate college, light evidence of the genuine dissatisfac
equivalent to the American junior college, tion with the present educational system
which was to be a separate institution and its methods.
providing a full six-year secondary course. The student of Indian education is today
The problem has been, how to effect the carefully watching certain tendencies. I
changes. Where finances have been avail shall only mention them here. Indian
able, new residential or unitary universities educators are keen to experiment with new
have been established, i. e., at Lucknow, methods and there is a zest in the prepara
Aligarh, Delhi and Nagpur. Being new tion of definite programs of expansion. It
institutions it has been possible to follow is encouraging to see a new desire on the
the Commission's recommendations. The part of local bodies to spend a greater per
reconstruction of the old universities has centage of their revenues for education.
proceeded with difficulty, and is still incom There is, however, a marked divergency of
plete. Allahabad University is now a dual opinion regarding the administrative ma
institution, being both residential and chinery. Some favor the direct and personal
affiliating. It is proposed to establish an control of the Minister of Education.
affiliating University at Agra to care for the Others advocate the decentralization of
scattered colleges of the United Provinces. educational control, and the establishment
The Rangoon residential university scheme of local school boards.
has been modified so as to allow for the The Central Advisory Board of Educa
affiliation of outside colleges. The univer tion, which was established in 1920, has
sities of the Punjab, Bombay, and Madras been abolished because of lack of funds.
have adjusted themselves to the new de This was the one educational body in India,
mands. Calcutta University still lags which was competent to collate, for the
behind. benefit of the provinces, the educational
It is thus evident that the transfer of experience derived from the whole of the
education to popular control has been Empire. It is hoped that this Board will
accompanied by many developments. It is be re-established, as there must be some
possible that much of this would have taken body which will mitigate provincialism by
place without the transfer. It must, how holding conferences between provincial au
ever, be realized that this transfer was thorities, pool experience, and keep before
accomplished under very unfavorable cir itself the national as opposed to the local
cumstances. It coincided with a wide aspects of education. This is especially
spread financial stringency, and with the necessary in India, if the country is ever to
nationalistic non-co-operation movement. achieve nationhood, for at present the vast
Lack of funds delayed many schemes, the population is divided and sub-divided and
Gandhites did all they could to wreck the again divided by race, caste and creed.
entire educational system of the country. A very large part of the education now
The public was generally opposed to any needed in India is adult education, and
reduction of Government expenditure on particularly of a kind which will provide
education, but was too easily intimidated the new electorate with some guidance in
and led by the Government opponents. It the use of their recently acquired suffrage
is to be regretted that the "national educa rights. This requires the solving of two
tion" experiment failed. Provided the work distinct problems, the education of the
and the discipline of the existing institu great majority of the population which has
tions were left alone, many of the educa never been instructed in schools, and the
tional authorities would undoubtedly have developing of civic consciousness in the
welcomed the scheme, and been glad to present educated class. University exten
have had it succeed. But it was a most sion courses in cities are steadily accomplish
unsettling and destructive movement, and ing much for the latter. But the main
produced little of value. It did, however, problem is that of reaching the rural dis

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 EDUCATION IN BRITISH INDIA 5

tricts, where 90% of the people live. Pro ing, agricultural, mining and commercial
vincial Departments of Agriculture and colleges are maintained; also schools of art
Public Health, the Y.M.C.A., Social Service and of forestry, But as yet little real pro
Leagues, and Missions are attacking this gress has been made. The old arts colleges
phase of the problem. continue to maintain their lead, in spite of
Vast as is the problem of adult education, the growing popularity of the science
its solution is simple in comparison with the colleges. Until the industrial condition of
complexities presented by female education. India changes considerably, and the open
It is often said that the purdah is the chief ings for technically trained men offer
obstacle to female education in India. This greater scope, the technical institutions will
is only partly true. The formidable diffi not flourish. In the meanwhile, the law
culty is the complete absence of effective colleges continue to be gorged with students,
demand. The advanced thinkers and advo and the medical colleges flooded with appli
cates of female education are faced with the cations for admission.
problem of devising a curriculum which will In addition to the schools for Indians,
appeal to the Indian public. Even if such there are schools for Europeans and Anglo
a course of study is produced, no rapid Indians. The latter is now the accepted
expansion will be possible without an ade designation of the race descended from
quate supply of competent women teachers. European and Indian mixed marriages.
Only a great social revolution can effect The Europeans number about 140,000,
this; the men of India must change their half of whom are soldiers; the Anglo
attitude towards their mothers, their wives, Indians over 100,000, half of whom live in
and their sisters. The number of Indian the provinces of Bengal and Madras. The
schools for these two communities are
girls under instruction is increasing, but the
rate of progress is exceedingly slow. Hap under the control of special Inspectors for
pily, the forward-looking section of the European schools, and were not transferred
to the Ministers of Education with the
public is pushing for female education.
Indian women are gradually entering the Indian schools. This has led to great
teaching, nursing, and medical professions. difficulties in some Provincial Legislative
Others are finding opportunities for service Councils when educational grants were
with the Y.W.C.A. being voted. What is to be the future of
these schools no one can say. Some are
The Muhammadan community has been
highly endowed, but most of them depend
notoriously backward educationally. Every entirely upon fees and state grants for
boy of the community is required to spend maintenance. On the whole these schools
a considerable time on religious studies, and
has little time or inclination for secular do a high grade of work. The Europeans
and Anglo-Indians who can afford to do so,
instruction. The Reforms have forced the
send their children to England to school.
Muhammadans to see that the reason why The parents of more moderate means send
they have produced so few great leaders is their children to the "Hill" schools in the
because they have neglected the education Himalayas and other mountain summer
of their boys. The Muhammadans have
resorts. The last choice are the "plain"
been deeply stirred because so many im
schools, most of which are in the larger
portant Government positions have been cities. The Catholic orders maintain many
given Hindus. The raising of the Muslim
strong schools. The Church of England
College in Aligarh to university rank, the
ranks next in number. Then the independ
special facilities for Muhammadans at the
ent and non-denominational, and last of all
new Dacca University, and the establish the Non-conformist Schools. These schools
ment of an Islamia College in Calcutta may.rank from primary day schools to residen
be expected to contribute much to the up
tial junior colleges, preparing for the Cam
lift of the Muhammadan community. bridge Higher School Certificate Examina
The standards of the law and medical tion. The European schools in India have
colleges are being raised. The demand for made a definite contribution to Indian
technical education is not great. Engineer education by educating some of India's

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 6 THE PHI DELTA KAPPAN

leading thinkers, and many of her out been accomplished, and in spite of diffi
standing women. culties we can expect greater achievements.
Indian education is in the flux. The The people of India are awakening to their
best minds of the country, aided by educa opportunities and possibilities. Conse
tors from abroad, are grappling with the crated and forward-looking indigenous and
situation. The elements are many. The foreign educators are giving themselves to
problems are complex. The outlook is both India. The road is rough and long, but it
discouraging and promising. Much has leads upward.

Education in China
A. A. Bullock, Beta 281
Phi Delta Kappans see very little of each
other in China. The land is large and our
numbers comparatively small. One or two
get-togethers have been organized and
plans made for a sub-chapter with but
partial success so far. This does not mean
that nothing is being done along the lines
of professional education. So far as I know
each and every one is hard at work on some
problem or problems that are of direct and
necessary interest to his field of activity.
I presume most efforts are in the way of
applying laws and principles already worked
out, but a surprising number of research
problems are under way. Brother Keys,
at Canton Christian College, is doing a
very constructive piece of work devising
English tests for Chinese students. These
tests are having a very wide use in all sorts
of schools in China. Brother Heinz is
doing fine work at Tsing Hua College?the
Boxer Indemnity College which prepares
students to study in America. Lacy is in
Fukien and was developing a geography
test and I understand is also working hard
on administrative problems in one of the
most successful missionary educational sec
tions in China. Anderson and Westbrook
are both in Shanghai College, the latter as
Dean of the College of Arts, and both
actively connected with the administration
of education among the Baptists. I know
of no institution where a more determined
effort is being made to organize all depart
ments on scientific lines. They have one
of the largest educational faculties of any
missionary school in China.
These few remarks do scant justice to
those who have been mentioned and leaves
out the greater number of whom I have had
no recent information.
My work is more strictly Chinese than
most. This institution teaches only in
Chinese; its graduates go out into the ele
mentary and secondary schools to teach in
the native language and with only a scanty
knowledge of English. What I have done
in productive ways has been demanded by
some practical exigency either of our own
admissions or for a large block of schools
for which I have acted as examiner for five
consecutive years. We now have standard
ized tests in arithmetic, silent reading, and
a pair of comprehensive "achievement"
tests. The latter are just being finally
published. Several years ago we worked
out a scale of compositions in English
written by Chinese students. The work of
preparing such is perhaps less arduous and
certainly less galling than getting them
used willingly and intelligently. As head
of the department of education, the two
attached schools which are on the campus,
one of elementary and the other of junior
high school grade, come under my survey.
The detail involved is rather large and the
preparation of teachers to teach in them a
magnum opus. For all our teachers our
method has had to consist in a selection of
our own most brilliant graduates and then
in sending them away for graduate study
abroad, even as far as the west. At this
present writing there are four or five study
ing far afield for special work in this College
on their return. It reminds one of the
situation several decades ago when so many
students went to Germany in preparation
for college posts. We experience the very
greatest difficulty in getting proper teachers.
They cannot be picked up.
At this time, while waiting for a suitable
permanent head, I have to supervise the

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