ATMOSPHERE

Composition of Atmosphere
The composition of Atmosphere is said to be a mixture of different gases. It envelops around the
Earth. 99% of total mas of atmosphere is confined to highest of 32 km from the Earth’s surface.

 Atmosphere is consisting of various gases, water vapour and dust particles.

 The presence of oxygen becomes negligible at the height of 120 km from the surface of earth
with regards to the composition of atmosphere.
 Carbon dioxide and water vapour occur only upto 90 km.
 Carbon dioxide is meteorically very important as it is transparent to incoming solar radiation
but opaque to outgoing terrestrial radiation. It is also responsible for greenhouse effect.
 Ozone gas: 10-50 km above earth surface and acts as filter, absorbing ultraviolet rays from
the sun. Ozone prevents the rays from reaching the surface of earth.
 Water vapour is variable gas, decreases with altitude.
 It also decreases from equator towards the poles.
 Acts like blanket allowing the earth to neither to become too cold nor too hot. Also
contributes to the stability and instability in the air.
 Dust particles: are in higher concentration in subtropical and temperate regions due to dry
winds in comparison to equatorial and Polar Regions.
 Dust particles act as a hygroscopic nucleus over which water vapour of atmosphere condenses
to produce clouds.
The composition of atmosphere varies with local environmental factors also.

Structure of Atmosphere:
There are five layers in the structure of atmosphere depending upon temperature.
I. Troposphere:
 It is the lowermost layer.
 13 km height average with 8 km at poles and 18 km at equator (lesser at poles and greater
at equator).
 The thickness is 18 km at equator because heat is transported to great heights by strong
convectional currents.
 This layer has adult particles and water vapour.
 Climate and weather changes occur here.

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  Temperature decreases at rate of 1 degrees celcius for every 165 m of height.
 Zone separating troposphere from stratosphere is called tropopause.
 Temperature at tropopause is minus eighty degrees celcius over equator and minus forty-
five degrees celcius over the poles. This remains constant through the year.

II. Stratosphere
 It is found above the troposphere.
 Extends up to 50 km of height.
 Has ozone layer – absorbs ultraviolet radiation and shields life on earth from harmful
energy.

III. Mesosphere:
 Above stratosphere
 Reaches till 80 km height.
 Temperature decreases with altitude here, by 80 km it reaches minus hundred degrees
Celsius
 The upper limit is called mesopause.

IV. Ionosphere or Thermosphere:

 80 to 400 km above mesopause.
 Ionosphere consists of electrically charged particles known as ions.
 Radio waves which are transmitted from the earth are reflected back by this layer.
 Temperature here increases with height.
V. Exosphere:
 It is the outermost layer.
 Not much is known about this layer.

Structure of the Atmosphere

Solar Radiation

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 Earth receives most of its energy in form of short wavelengths.
 Insolation is – incoming solar radiation.
 Earth is a geoid, resembling a sphere.
 Earth is farthest from the Sun – 4th July (Aphelion position)
 Earth is nearest to the sun on – 3rd January (Perihelion position)

Factors responsible for variation in insolation during a day, season and a year:
a) Rotation of Earth
b) Angle of inclination of Sun’s rays.
c) Length of day
d) Transparency of atmosphere
e) Configuration of land in terms of its aspect.

 Earth’s axis has a 66.5 degrees angle with plane of orbit round the sun leads to variation in
insolation at different latitudes.
 Area covered by slant rays is more than vertical rays. Energy gets distributed and net energy
received per unit area decrease. The slant rays of Solar radiation are absorbed, scattered &
diffused more in deep atmosphere.
 The Solar radiation spectrum is beautifully explained by the following diagram.

 Atmosphere is transparent to short wave solar radiation.

 In troposphere – The water vapour, ozone and gases absorb near infrared radiation.
 Small- suspended particles in troposphere scatter visible spectrum. It adds colour to the
sky. Red colour of rising and setting sun is due to this. The blue colour of the sky are due
to scattering of light within the atmosphere.
 Maximum insolation is received over the sub-tropical deserts, where the cloudiness is the
least.
 The Equator receives less than tropics, because it is at 90 degrees to the angle of
insolation.

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  The same latitude, insolation is more over continents than on oceans.
 Earth heated by Solar radiation then transmits the heat to atmosphere in Long wave form.
 Conduction – It heats the lower layers of atmosphere. When two bodies of unequal
temperature come in contact with each other, there is flow of energy from warmer to
cooler body. The air in contact with land gets heated slowly and the upper layer in contact
also gets heated.
 Convection– It occurs only in troposphere. The air in contact with earth rises vertically on
heating in form of current and further transmits the heat. Vertical heating of atmosphere
is convection.
 Advection – The horizontal heat transfer through movement of air. In middle latitudes,
most of diurnal variations in daily weather is by advection. Loo is also due to advection.
 Terrestrial radiation– The insolation received by the Earth is in form of short-wave
radiation. The Earth radiates energy to atmosphere in form of long wave radiation. The
gases like Carbon-dioxide and other greenhouse gases absorb this long wave radiation is
trap the heat.
 The Atmosphere in turn radiates this heat in the space.

Heat budget of the Earth – Earth maintains its temperature. The amount of heat received in form
of insolation equals the amount lost by Earth through terrestrial radiation.

 Albedo of Earth – The reflected amount of radiation or insolation from clouds, snow, and ice-
covered areas of earth is known as albedo.
 There is surplus of net radiation balance between 40 degrees North and South. While there is
deficit in poles.
 Heat represents the molecular movement of particles comprising a substance. Temperature is
measurement in degrees of how hot or cold a thing or place is.

Factors controlling Temperature are:

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 a) Latitude – Insolation received varies according to latitude.
b) Altitude – Temperature decreases with increasing height. The rate of decrease of
temperature with height is normal lapse rate. It is 6.5 degree Celsius for per 1000 meters.
c) Distance from the Sea – The sea gets heated slowly, land heats fast. While sea loses heat
slowly, land loses fast. Variation of temperature over sea is less than on land. Sea and land
breeze influence on places near sea.
d) Air-mass and ocean currents – Passage of air masses and currents affects the temperature of
places where they pass.
e) Local aspects– They also influence the local temperature.

 Isotherms are lines joining places having equal temperatures on map, are generally parallel to
latitude.
 Highest range of temperature is more than 60 degrees Celsius over North-Eastern port of
Eurasian continent, due to continentality.
Temperature Inversion:
 Normal lapse rate – Temperature decreases with increased elevation. It is 6.5 degrees Celsius
per 1000m.
 When normal lapse rate is inverted, it is called inversion of temperature.
 Short duration but common in polar regions
 Long winter night with clear skies and still air is the ideal situation.
 Heat of day is radiated off during night. So by early morning, earth is cooler than the air above.
 Surface inversion promotes stability in lower layers of atmosphere. Smoke and dust particles
collect beneath the inversion layer and spread horizontally filling lower strata of atmosphere.
 Dense fog in morning of winter season will last for few hours till the Sun comes up.
 Temperature Inversion in hills and mountains occur due to air Drainage. Cold air at hills and
mountains, produced during night, flows under influence of gravity.
 It is heavy and dense, cold air acts like water and moves down slope to pile up deeply in
pockets and valley bottoms with warm air above.
 Air drainage protects plants from frost damages.

Air in horizontal motion is Wind, And Atmospheric Pressure determines the rise and sink of air.
The pressure and winds in atmosphere determine formation of air masses and occurrence of
storms.
Atmospheric pressure – Weight of air column contained in a unit area from mean sea level to the
top of atmosphere is known as Atmospheric pressure. It is measured in force per unit area. It is
expressed in ‘milibar’/mb unit. For practical purposes, the atmospheric pressure is expressed in
kilo-pascals.
Due to gravity, air at surface is denser and has higher air pressure. It is measured by the mercury
barometer or aneroid barometer.In lower atmosphere, pressure decreases rapidly with height.
At sea level, average atmospheric pressure is 1,013.2 milibar.

Wind – When air moves from high pressure areas to low pressure areas.
Vertical pressure gradient force is much larger than the horizontal pressure gradient. But we don’t
feel strong upward winds because vertical gradient is balanced by gravitational force. Horizontal
distribution of pressure is studied by drawing isobars at constant levels. Isobars are lines

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connecting places having equal pressure. To eliminate effect of attitude on pressure, it is
measured at any station after reducing to sea level for purposes of comparison. Low pressure
system is enclosed by one or more isobars with lowest pressure at centre. High pressure system
is also enclosed by one or more isobars with highest pressure in centre.

World distribution of Atmospheric Pressure:

The following pressure belts oscillate with the apparent movement of sun. In northern
hemisphere in winter, they move southwards and in summers northwards.
 Equatorial low – It occurs near the equator the sea level pressure is low.
 Subtropical high – Along the 30 degrees North and 30 degrees South, there are high
pressure areas.
 Sub-polar Lows – Along 60 degrees North and 60 degrees South, low pressure belts.
 Polar Highs – It occurs near poles, the pressure is high.
Factors affecting velocity and direction of Wind in Atmosphere:
Air motion due to differences in atmospheric pressure is known as Wind. From high pressure to
low pressure. At sphere, wind gets friction due to pressure gradient force – Coriolis force and
gravity.
I. Pressure Gradient Force :
 Difference in atmosphere pressure produces a force.
 The rate of change of pressure with respect to distance is known as pressure gradient.
 It is strong where isobars are close to each other and vice-verse.
II. Frictional Force :
 Affects speed of wind.
 The greatest at surface and influences till 1 to 2 km.
 Over the sea, it is minimal.

III. Coriolis Force:

 Force exerted by rotation of Earth is known as Coriolis force.
 French physicist had described it in 1844.
 It deflects the wind to right direction in Northern hemisphere and to left direction in
Southern hemisphere.
 More deflection when wind velocity is high.
 Coriolis force is directly proportional to the angle of latitude. Hence, it is maximum at
poles and minimum(absent) at equator.
 It acts perpendicular to pressure gradient force. The pressure gradient force is
perpendicular to isobars.
 As a result of these two forces operating perpendicular to each other, in the low-pressure
area the wind blows around it.
 At equator, the Coriolis force is zero and wind blows perpendicular to isobars. The low
pressure gets filled instead of getting intensified. That’s why tropical cyclones are not
formed near the equator.

IV. Pressure and Wind in Atmosphere:

 When pressure and winds in atmosphere have different velocity and direction, net wind
generating force come to work.

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  The winds above 2 to 3 km from surface are free from frictional effect of surface and
controlled by pressure gradient and Coriolis force.
 When isobars are straight and no frictional force acts then – Coriolis force balances
pressure gradient force and resultant wind blows parallel to isobars, known as Geo-
strophic winds.
 Wind circulation around a low is called cyclonic circulation, while wind circulation around
a high is known as anti-cyclonic circulation.
 Rising of air is essential for cloud formation & precipitation, it is caused not only by
Convergence but also by some eddies, uplift along fronts, orographic uplift, convection
currents. For cloud formation and precipitation.

General Circulation of Atmosphere

The Pattern of planetary pressure and winds in atmosphere, depends upon the following:
a) The latitudinal variation of atmospheric heating
b) Emergence of pressure belts
c) migration of belts following apparent path of Sun.
d) Distribution of continents and oceans.
e) Rotation of Earth.

This Pattern of movement of planetary winds is called General circulation of atmosphere. It sets
in motion the ocean water circulation which influences the Earth’s climate. The following diagram
explains the patterns of atmosphere circulation very clearly.

I. Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) at equator. Zone of low atmospheric pressure and
ascending air. Rising air currents are due to global wind convergence and convection from thermal
heating (which causes low pressure). The converged air rises along with convective cell and
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reaches up to 14 km. Then it moves towards poles. This accumulates air around 30 degrees North
and South.

II. Subtropical highs – The part of accumulated air sinks to ground to form subtropical high. The
air sinks because it gets cooled down when it reaches 30 degrees North and South.

III. Easterlies (come from east) – Near land surface, air flows towards the equator, this is known
as easterlies. These Easterlies converge from North and South at equator at ITCZ. This forms the
Hadley cell in tropics.

IV. Westerlies – Middle lattitudes the circulation of sinking cold air from poles and rising warm
air blows from subtropical high are called westerlies. This cell is called Ferrel Cell.

V. Polar Cell – At poles latitudes the cold dense air subsidies near poles and blows towards middle
lattitudes as polar easterlies.
 The Hadley cell, Ferrel cell and Polar cell set pattern for general circulation of atmosphere.
 Heat transfer from lower latitude to higher latitude maintains it.

Figure: General Circulation of Air

Effect of General atmospheric circulation on Oceans:
Pacific Ocean is most important in general atmospheric circulation terms. Warm water of central
pacific slowly drifts towards South American Coast and replaces the cool Peruvian current.
 Appearance of warm current off the coast of Peru – El nino.
 Closely associated with pressure changes in Central Pacific and Australia.

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This change in pressure condition over Pacific is known as Southern Oscillation. The combined
effect of both these is known as ENSO. When ENSO is strong, that year large scale variations are
seen in weather around the world.

WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE

Since Atmosphere contains water in form of vapour, it causes various changes in the environment.
Therefore, the presence of water in the atmosphere causes various weather phenomena. This
water is present in all three forms in the atmosphere – solid, liquid and gas.
Absolute Humidity – actual amount of water vapour present in the atmosphere. It is measured in
grams per cubic metre.

Moisture in atmosphere comes from –

 Water bodies, through evaporation.
 Plants, through transpiration.
Ability of air to hold water vapour depends entirely on its temperature.
Relative humidity – percentage of moisture present in atmosphere as compared to its full capacity
at a given temperature. It is greater over the oceans and least over the continents.
Saturated air – That air which contains moisture to its full capacity at a given temperature.
Dew point – Temperature at which saturation occurs in a given sample of air is known as its dew
point.
Latent heat of Vaporisation – Temperature at which water starts evaporating.
Condensation – It is transformation of water vapour into water. It is caused by loss of heat.
Sublimation – If water vapour directly condenses into solid form.
Most favourable conditions for Condensation are decrease in air temperature. Condensation
occurs when dew point is lower than freezing point as well as higher than the freezing point.

Dew in the atmosphere:

 When moisture is deposited in form of water droplets on cooler surfaces of solid objects, it is
called dew.
 Ideal conditions: Clear sky, calm air, high relative humidity, cold and long nights.
 Dew point > above freezing point.
 Saturation of air with moisture should happen above Freezing point.

Frost in Atmosphere:
 When condensation takes place below freezing point, frost is formed.
 Dew point is at or below freezing point.
 Air temperature must be at or below the freezing point.

Fog and Mist:

 Fog is a cloud with its base at or very near to the ground.
 Mist contains more moisture than fog.

Clouds:
Clouds are a mass of water droplets or crystals of ice of minute size located at considerable
elevations. These clouds take up various shapes and sizes. This allows for the study of different
types of clouds to understand the behaviour of water in atmosphere.

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 Figure: Common types of Clouds in the Troposphere

 Cirrus – at high altitudes

 Cumulus – cottoning
 Stratus – layered clouds
 Nimbus – thick vapour.

Precipitation : release of moisture after condensation.

Sleet: Frozen raindrops and refrozen melted snow water.
Since Atmosphere contains water in form of vapour, it causes various changes in the environment.
The presence of water in the atmosphere causes various weather phenomena. This water is
present in all three forms in the atmosphere – solid, liquid and gas.
Absolute Humidity – actual amount of water vapour present in the atmosphere. It is measured in
grams per cubic metre.
Moisture in atmosphere comes from –
1. water bodies, through evaporation.
2. Plants, through transpiration.
Ability of air to hold water vapour depends entirely on its temperature.
Relative humidity – percentage of moisture present in atmosphere as compared to its full capacity
at a given temperature. It is greater over the oceans and least over the continents.
Saturated air – That air which contains moisture to its full capacity at a given temperature.
Dew point – Temperature at which saturation occurs in a given sample of air is known as its dew
point.
Latent heat of Vaporisation – Temperature at which water starts evaporating.
Condensation – It is transformation of water vapour into water. It is caused by loss of heat.
Sublimation – If water vapour directly condenses into solid form.

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Most favourable conditions for Condensation are decrease in air temperature. Condensation
occurs when dew point is lower than freezing point as well as higher than the freezing point.

Dew in the atmosphere:

 When moisture is deposited in form of water droplets on cooler surfaces of solid objects, it is
called dew.
 Ideal conditions: Clear sky, calm air, high relative humidity, cold and long nights.
 Dew point > above freezing point.
 Saturation of air with moisture should happen above Freezing point.

Frost in Atmosphere:
 When condensation takes place below freezing point, frost is formed.
 Dew point is at or below freezing point.
 Air temperature must be at or below the freezing point.

Fog and Mist:

 Fog is a cloud with its base at or very near to the ground.
 Mist contains more moisture than fog.

Clouds:
Clouds are a mass of water droplets or crystals of ice of minute size located at considerable
elevations. These clouds take up various shapes and sizes. This allows for the study of different
types of clouds to understand the behaviour of water in atmosphere.

 Cirrus – at high altitudes

 Cumulus – cottoning
 Stratus – layered clouds
 Nimbus – thick vapour.

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Precipitation: release of moisture after condensation.
Sleet: Frozen raindrops and refrozen melted snow water.
Hailstorms: Released as raindrops, pass through colder layers so freeze before reaching the
surface.

Types of Rainfall:
According to its basis of origin, rainfall is primarily classified into 3 major types:
Convectional rainfall: cumulous clouds in equatorial regions and continent interiors especially in
Northern hemisphere.
Orographic or relief rain: Windward slopes receives greater rainfall because air is forced to
ascend mountain and expands, temperature decreases hence results in condensation.
Cyclonic rain: The rains occurring due to extra tropical cyclones.

Precipitation regimes:
The water in Atmosphere is eventually falls on Earth in form of precipitation, The pattern of
precipitation regimes is helpful in understanding the distribution of rainfall.
a) Equatorial belt, windward slopes along western coast in cool temperate zone and coastal
areas of monsoon land receives heavy rainfall of over 200 cm/annum.
b) Moderate 100-200 cm/ anuum rainfall in interior of continental areas.
c) 50-100 cm/annum rainfall in central part pf tropical land and eastern and interior parts of
temperate lands receive rainfall 50-100cm/annum.
d) 50 cm/annum rainfall in rain shadow areas of interior of continents and high latitudes.

There is even distribution of rainfall occurs in equatorial belt and western parts of cool temperate
regions.
Rainfall is more over oceans than land.
Heavier rain on eastern coast and decreases towards west – between lattitudes 35 degrees and
40 degrees north and south of equator.
Due to westerlies, first rainfall on western margins of continents and it goes on decreases towards
east of 45 degrees and 65 degrees N and S of equator.

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