Theories of Ethics

Response Paper 2

Submitted by - Nishchay Sandhu

Roll Number - 2019373

4.

Introduction
Immanuel Kant established a moral theory known as Kantian deontology. Morality, according to
Kant, is founded on rationality and reason, and individuals have a duty to act in accordance with
universal moral principles, regardless of the consequences. This is in contrast to consequentialist
views, which claim that the morality of an action is determined by its impacts or consequences.

The concept of "good will" is an important topic in Kantian deontology. Kant felt that the only
thing that is unconditionally good is good will, which means that it is good in and of itself and
not only as a means to an end. The will to behave morally is defined as good will, and it is the
only thing that can make an action morally good.

According to Kant, moral behavior is not characterised by motives other than good will, such as
self-interest or a desire for adulation or recognition. Instead, a person must be willing to act in
accordance with universal moral principles, regardless of the consequences, in order to be truly
moral.

The good will is regarded as the cornerstone of morality. It serves as the foundation for the
categorical imperative, a moral rule that all people must adhere to. The categorical imperative, a
moral rule that holds true for everyone, is connected to good will. This paper contrasts the links
between goodwill, the categorical imperative, and rational autonomy with the hypothetical
imperative. We also analyze the interconnection and distinction between the various forms of the
categorical imperative and argues that these formulations depend on a moral ontology underlying
Kantian deontology.

The Good Will, Categorical Imperative, and Rational Autonomy

The foundation of Kantian ethics is an unconditionally "good" will. It is the only quality that can
be regarded as good in and of itself, and it is the only driving force that can render a deed truly
moral. It is a purely rational motivation to act morally upright and is not based on personal
desires, goals, or interests. Good will only considers the intention behind an action and not the
results of that action. Whether or not they wanted to, Kant believed that people should act out of
a sense of duty. Because it is always good, regardless of how the action turns out, good will is
unconditional.

The categorical imperative is the universal moral principle that is based on the good will. It is an
unconditional command that requires individuals to act in accordance with moral principles.
According to Kant, the categorical imperative applies to all individuals, and is not dependent on
personal desires or goals. The categorical imperative can be formulated differently, but the most
famous formulation is "Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will
that it should become a universal law." (Kant, 1785). The categorical imperative is based on the
concept of rational autonomy, which is the idea that individuals should be self-governing and
able to make moral decisions based on reason and rationality.

Rational autonomy is the ability to make moral decisions based on reason and rationality. It is the
capacity to act in accordance with the categorical imperative and to make moral decisions based
on universal moral principles. According to Kant, individuals have rational autonomy, and this is
what makes them moral beings.

Contrasting the Categorical Imperative with the Hypothetical Imperative

In contrast to the categorical imperative, the hypothetical imperative is based on personal desires
and goals. It is a conditional command that requires individuals to act in a way in order to
achieve a particular end. For example, "If you want to get an A in this class, you should study
hard." Hypothetical imperatives are dependent on personal desires and goals, and they are not
universal.

The links between the unconditionally 'good' will, the categorical imperative, and rational
autonomy are crucial in Kantian deontology. The good will is the foundation of moral action, and
it is based on the desire to act in accordance with universal moral principles. The categorical
imperative is the universal moral principle that applies to all individuals, and it is based on the
good will. Rational autonomy is the ability to make moral decisions based on reason and
rationality, making individuals moral beings.

In contrast, the hypothetical imperative is based on personal desires and goals, and it is not
universal. The hypothetical imperative is irrelevant to Kantian deontology, as it is not based on
universal moral principles and does not reflect the unconditionally 'good' will.

The categorical imperative formulations

Kant formulated the categorical imperative in different ways to emphasize its importance and
applicability to various moral situations. The various forms of the categorical imperative are
interconnected and distinct.

The first formulation is the Universal Law Formulation. This formulation states that individuals
should act only according to the maxim that they can will to become a universal law. This
formulation emphasizes the importance of universal moral principles and requires individuals to
act in a way that they would want everyone to act in a similar situation. This formulation
emphasizes the importance of consistency and coherence in moral decision-making.

The second formulation is the Humanity formulation. This formulation states that individuals
should always treat humanity, whether in their own person or in the person of others, as an end in
itself and never as a means only. This formulation emphasizes the intrinsic value of human
beings and requires individuals to treat others with respect and dignity, and not merely as a
means to an end.
The third formulation is the Kingdom of Ends formulation. This formulation states that
individuals should always act as if they were members of a kingdom of ends, where everyone is
treated as an end in itself but never as a means only. This formulation emphasizes the importance
of rational autonomy and requires individuals to act per universal moral principles, based on
reason and rationality.

The Interconnection and Distinction between the Categorical Imperative Formulations

The different formulations which emerge out of categorical imperative are interconnected and
distinct. The Universal Law Formulation and the Humanity Formulation are connected in that
they both emphasize the importance of treating others as an end in itself and never as a means
only. The Humanity Formulation goes further than the Universal Law Formulation by
emphasizing the importance of treating humanity, whether in one's own person or in the person
of others, as an end in itself. The Kingdom of Ends Formulation is connected to the other
formulations, emphasizing the importance of treating others as an end. However, the Kingdom of
Ends Formulation is distinct in that it focuses on the idea of a kingdom of ends, where everyone
is treated as an end in itself.

The Moral Ontology Underlying Kantian Deontology

Kantian deontology is dependent on a moral ontology that underlies it. This moral ontology
consists of the belief that morality is grounded in reason and rationality, and that moral principles
are universal and apply to all individuals. According to Kant, individuals have a duty to act in
accordance with these universal moral principles, regardless of the consequences. This moral
ontology is based on the idea that individuals are rational beings and can make moral decisions
based on reason and rationality.

Kant's Claim about Practical Reason

Kant believed that the moral ontology underlying his deontological theory is the only true source
of practical reason. He argued that practical reason is different from theoretical reason, and is
concerned with understanding the world around us. Practical reason, conversely, is concerned
with making decisions and taking action based on moral principles. According to Kant, practical
reason is based on the moral ontology underlying his deontological theory, and this is the only
true source of practical reason.

Conclusion
In conclusion, Kantian deontology is a moral theory that is based on the concept of rational
autonomy, the good will, and the categorical imperative. The categorical imperative is a
universal concept that applies to all individuals, regardless of their personal desires or goals.
These different formulations of the categorical imperative are interconnected and distinct and
depend on a moral ontology underlying Kantian deontology. Finally, Kant believed that this
moral ontology is the only true source of practical reason.

References
Korsgaard, C. (2012). Kant: Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals ( Cambridge Texts in the
History of Philosophy) (M. Gregor & J. Timmermann, Trans.). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511919978

Baker, F. (2007, March). Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals, by Immanuel Kant, New
York: Oxford University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-19-875180-X (pbk). Kantian Review, 12(1),
134–154. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1369415400000844

Lechner, S. (2011, March 8). Wood's Kantian Ethics: A Hermeneutics of Freedom - Allen W.
Wood, Kantian Ethics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008, Pp. 342, pbk. Kantian
Review, 16(1), 141–150. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1369415410000129