Network and System UNIT-2

Network Models:

Explain Design Issues of the Layer, Protocol Hierarchy, ISO-OSI Reference Model: Functions of each
Layer, Various Terminology used in Computer Network (C2: Comprehension)
Analyze Connection-Oriented & Connectionless Services (C4: Analysis)

Explain Internet (TCP/IP) Reference Model (C3: Application)

Comparison of ISO-OSI and TCP/IP Model (C4: Analysis)

Design Issues for the Layers of Computer Networks

A number of design issues exist for the layer to layer approach of computer
networks. Some of the main design issues are as follows −

Reliability
Network channels and components may be unreliable, resulting in loss of bits
while data transfer. So, an important design issue is to make sure that the
information transferred is not distorted.

Scalability
Networks are continuously evolving. The sizes are continually increasing leading
to congestion. Also, when new technologies are applied to the added
components, it may lead to incompatibility issues. Hence, the design should be
done so that the networks are scalable and can accommodate such additions
and alterations.

Addressing
At a particular time, innumerable messages are being transferred between large
numbers of computers. So, a naming or addressing system should exist so that
each layer can identify the sender and receivers of each message.
Error Control
Unreliable channels introduce a number of errors in the data streams that are
communicated. So, the layers need to agree upon common error detection and
error correction methods so as to protect data packets while they are
transferred.

Flow Control
If the rate at which data is produced by the sender is higher than the rate at
which data is received by the receiver, there are chances of overflowing the
receiver. So, a proper flow control mechanism needs to be implemented.

Resource Allocation
Computer networks provide services in the form of network resources to the end
users. The main design issue is to allocate and deallocate resources to
processes. The allocation/deallocation should occur so that minimal interference
among the hosts occurs and there is optimal usage of the resources.

Statistical Multiplexing
It is not feasible to allocate a dedicated path for each message while it is being
transferred from the source to the destination. So, the data channel needs to be
multiplexed, so as to allocate a fraction of the bandwidth or time to each host.

Routing
There may be multiple paths from the source to the destination. Routing
involves choosing an optimal path among all possible paths, in terms of cost
and time. There are several routing algorithms that are used in network
systems.

Security
A major factor of data communication is to defend it against threats like
eavesdropping and surreptitious alteration of messages. So, there should be
adequate mechanisms to prevent unauthorized access to data through
authentication and cryptography.

Protocol Hierarchies :
Generally, Computer networks are comprised of or contain a large number of pieces of
hardware and software. To just simplify network design, various networks are
organized and arranged as a stack of layers of hardware and software, one on top of
another. The number, name, content, and function of each layer might vary and can be
different from one network to another. The main purpose of each of layers is just to
offer and provide services to higher layers that are present. Each and every layer has
some particular task or function. In programming, this concept is very common. The
networks are organized and arranged as different layers or levels simply to reduce and
minimize complexity of design of network software.

Example :
Below is diagram representing a five-layer network. The diagram shows
communication between Host 1 and Host 2. The data stream is passed through a number
of layers from one host to other. Virtual communication is represented using dotted
lines between peer layers. Physical communication is represented using solid arrows
between adjacent layers. Through physical medium, actual communication occurs. The
layers at same level are commonly known as peers. The peer basically has a set of
communication protocols. An interface is present between each of layers that are used
to explain services provided by lower layer to higher layer.
Advantages :
 The layers generally reduce complexity of communication between networks
 It increases network lifetime.
 It also uses energy efficiently.
 It does not require overall knowledge and understanding of network.

ISO-OSI Model
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It was developed by ISO – ‘International
Organization for Standardization’, in the year 1984. It is a 7-layer architecture with each layer
having specific functionality to perform. All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the
data from one person to another across the globe.

What is OSI Model?

The OSI model, created in 1984 by ISO, is a reference framework that explains the
process of transmitting data between computers. It is divided into seven layers that
work together to carry out specialised network functions, allowing for a more
systematic approach to networking.

What are the 7 layers of the OSI Model?

The OSI model consists of seven abstraction layers arranged in a top-down order:
1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
Physical Layer – Layer 1
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for
the actual physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains
information in the form of bits. It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from
one node to the next. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and
convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame
back together.

Functions of the Physical Layer

 Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the

bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus
providing synchronization at the bit level.
 Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the
number of bits sent per second.
 Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.
 Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between
the two connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are
Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
Note:
1. Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables are Physical Layer devices.
2. Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also known
as Lower Layers or Hardware Layers.
Data Link Layer (DLL) – Layer 2
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The
main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to
another, over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the
responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on
the frame size of the NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and
Receiver’s MAC address in the header.

The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution

Protocol) request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination
host will reply with its MAC address.

Functions of the Data Link Layer

 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a
sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be
accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the
frame.
 Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical
addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of
each frame.
 Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in
which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may
get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be
sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
 Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple
devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which
device has control over the channel at a given time.
Note:
1. Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.
2. Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device
drivers of host machines.
3. Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
Network Layer – Layer 3
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located
in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest
path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender &
receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.

Functions of the Network Layer

 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from
source to destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
 Logical Addressing: To identify each device on Internetwork uniquely, the
network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP
addresses are placed in the header by the network layer. Such an address
distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.

Note:
1. Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet.
2. Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and
switches.
Transport Layer – Layer 4
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from
the network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is
responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete message. The transport layer
also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-transmits
the data if an error is found.
At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper
layers, performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow & Error control to ensure
proper data transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port numbers in its header
and forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.
Note: The sender needs to know the port number associated with the receiver’s
application.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually.
For example, when a web application requests a web server, it typically uses port
number 80, because this is the default port assigned to web applications. Many
applications have default ports assigned.
At the receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and
forwards the Data which it has received to the respective application. It also performs
sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.

Functions of the Transport Layer

 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the
(session) layer, and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the
segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer at the
destination station reassembles the message.
 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the
transport layer header includes a type of address called service point address
or port address. Thus by specifying this address, the transport layer makes
sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
1. Connection-Oriented Service
2. Connectionless Service
1. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes
 Connection Establishment
 Data Transfer
 Termination/disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the
source after a packet or group of packets is received. This type of transmission is
reliable and secure.
2. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this
type of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This
approach allows for much faster communication between devices. Connection-oriented
service is more reliable than connectionless Service.
Note:
1. Data in the Transport Layer is called Segments.
2. Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS
and communicates with the Application Layer by making system calls.
3. The transport layer is called as Heart of the OSI model.
4. Device or Protocol Use : TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP
Session Layer – Layer 5
This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions,
and authentication, and also ensures security.

Functions of the Session Layer

  Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows
the two processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.
 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are
considered synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points
help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and
ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start
communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
Note:
1. All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a single
layer in the TCP/IP model as the ????pplication Layer”.
2. Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself.
These are also known as Upper Layers or Software Layers.
3. Device or Protocol Use : NetBIOS, PPTP.
for Example:-
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some
Messenger application running in his browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the
application layer which provides the user with an interface to create the data. This
message or so-called Data is compressed, encrypted (if any secure data), and converted
into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.

Communication in Session Layer

Presentation Layer – Layer 6

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the
application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to
transmit over the network.

Functions of the Presentation Layer

 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another
form or code. The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext and the
 decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as
well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the
network.
Note: Device or Protocol Use : JPEG, MPEG, GIF
Application Layer – Layer 7
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application
layer which is implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the
data, which has to be transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window
for the application services to access the network and for displaying the received
information to the user.
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
Note: 1. The application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.
2. Device or Protocol Use : SMTP

Functions of the Application Layer

The main functions of application layer are given below.

 Network Virtual Terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote host.
 FTAM- File transfer access and management : This application allows a user
to
access file in a remote host, retrieve files in remote host and manage or
control files from a remote computer.
 Mail Services : Provide email service.
 Directory Services : This application provides distributed database sources
and access for global information about various objects and services.
Note: OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented on the Internet
because of its late invention. The current model being used is the TCP/IP model.
OSI Model in a Nutshell
Information
Layer Layer Form(Data Device or
No Name Responsibility Unit) Protocol

Helps in identifying the

Application
client and synchronizing Message SMTP
Layer
7 communication.

6 Presentation Data from the application Message JPEG, MPEG,

 Information
Layer Layer Form(Data Device or
No Name Responsibility Unit) Protocol

layer is extracted and

manipulated in the
Layer GIF
required format for
transmission.

Establishes Connection,
Maintenance, Ensures
Session Layer Message Gateway
Authentication, and
5 Ensures security.

Take Service from Network

Transport
Layer and provide it to the Segment Firewall
Layer
4 Application Layer.

Transmission of data from

Network one host to another,
Packet Router
Layer located in different
3 networks.

Data Link Node to Node Delivery of Switch,

Frame
2 Layer Message. Bridge

Hub,
Establishing Physical
Physical Repeater,
Connections between Bits
Layer Modem,
Devices.
1 Cables

What is Network Terminology?

Network Terminology is a description of how the devices can communicate
with the network. In short, how the devices can send and receives
information over the network is known as “Network Terminology”

There are many terminologies are there where it helps to provide a

connection between devices to the network:

Network Terminologies:
LAN

LAN is a local area network that is used within less than a half kilometer of an
area, for example, small offices, homes, schools, Laboratories, etc. In short, A
network that is used in short distances or in a limited area is known as “LAN”

MAN

MAN is a Metropolitan area network, This network is larger than the LAN
network where it is used in a single large city and is known as “MAN”.
Examples: small & large cities, Industries, etc.

WAN

WAN is a wide area network where it is used within a geographical area of a

network like one country to other countries etc. It is known as “WAN”

Ethernet

Ethernet is a traditional technology for connecting devices in a Local and

Wide Area Network. It helps the devices to communicate with each other via
transmitting and receiving data through cables.

Node
A node is a physical connectivity over the network in which it send and
receives the data from one node to another node is known as “Node”

Network

It is a connection of two or more computer for the purpose of sharing the

data’s with each other is known as “Network”

Bandwidth

It is the measurement of data speed which can be transmitted at a single

point of time. we all known this word with internet connection, If we talked
about the internet bandwidth that means it describe the speed of the
internet connection which can be transmitted into our devices e.g Phones,
laptop etc.

Ping

Ping is a Packet InterNet Groper, it is one of the most important tool for
checking the connectivity between two devices these two devices may be a
server, router switch or a computer. In short we can say it helps to check the
reachability or a connectivity of your devices with a network let say internet,
e.g when you use internet in your devices the connection between the
internet and your device is checked via ping tool. Well you can check your
ping here: https://www.speedtest.net/.

Packet

Packet is a container of data where it send over the network is known

as “Packet”.

Internet

It is one of the largest network all over the world. It helps to connect the
millions of devices to the network together globally. It is known as “Internet”
MegaByte

MegaByte is a unit byte which is used for measuring the data of storage like
Hard Disk, Memory, SSD, etc. And 1 Megabyte = 1024 kb and if we convert it
to byte then it is = 1048576 byte.

MegaBit

Megabit is a multiple of unit bit which is used to measuring the data of

internet connection. And 1 MegaBit = 1000000 bits.

Byte

It is the smallest unit that represents it a binary digit which are operated
upon as a unit. It is a measurement of data that contains 8 bits(1 Byte=8Bits)

Bit

Bit stands for binary digit and it is also a smallest unit of measurement on a
computer data. It contains two binary values 0 & 1.

Network Topology

It’s define the structure of arrangement of network and the connection made
with the combination of links and nodes. It is known as “Network
Topology”.

There are two types of network topology: 1) Physical Topology and 2) Logical
Topology. In Physical Topology there is a types i) Bus Topology, ii) Ring
Topology, iii) Star Topology, iv) Tree Topology, v) Mesh Topology and vi)
Hybrid Topology. In Logical Topology there is a types: i) Broadcast Topology,
ii) Token Pass Topology.

 Network topology
 Physical Topology
 Bus Topology
  Ring Topology
 Star Topology
 Tree Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Hybrid Topology
 Logical Topology
 Broadcast Topology
 Token pass Topology
MAC Address

MAC Address is a “media access control address”. It is a physical address

which is used for identifying the devices, Let say you have a mobile when
your mobile are connected with the network then the Macc Address assigned
a new address of your mobile, with the help of a assigned address it is easy
to find a device. The address is known as “Mac Address”.

Here is the example of mac address = “00:00:5e:00:57:af“

IP Address

IP is a “Internet Protocol address”. It is a logical address protocol where it is

used for identifying the connection of a device is known as “IP Address”.

Here is a example of IP address = “198.168.0.1”

NIC

Nic is a “Network Inteface Card”, it is a hardware device which is inbuilt in

our device. This device enable the communication with the network is known
as “NIC”.

Protocol

Protocol is a set of rules where it defines the transmission of data to devices

over the network is known as “Protocol”.
TCP/IP

TCP is a “Transmission control Protocol” or “Internet Protocol”, it is a

connection-oriented protocol in in which it is used for controlling the
connection for stable connection. TCP receives the data from the network
and convert it to different packets and distribute with switches, router etc.

In simple word a TCP is the main controller of the data which are travelling
within the network is known as “TCP”.

Analyze Connection-Oriented & Connectionless Services

Data communication is a telecommunication network to send and receive data between
two or more computers over the same or different network. There are two ways to
establish a connection before sending data from one device to another, that
are Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Service. Connection-oriented service
involves the creation and termination of the connection for sending the data between
two or more devices. In contrast, connectionless service does not require establishing
any connection and termination process for transferring the data over a network.

Connection-Oriented Service
A connection-oriented service is a network service that was designed and developed
after the telephone system. A connection-oriented service is used to create an end to
end connection between the sender and the receiver before transmitting the data over
the same or different networks. In connection-oriented service, packets are transmitted
to the receiver in the same order the sender has sent them. It uses a handshake method
that creates a connection between the user and sender for transmitting the data over
the network. Hence it is also known as a reliable network service.
Suppose, a sender wants to send data to the receiver. Then, first, the sender sends a
request packet to a receiver in the form of an SYN packet. After that, the receiver
responds to the sender's request with an (SYN-ACK) signal/packets. That represents the
confirmation is received by the receiver to start the communication between the sender
and the receiver. Now a sender can send the message or data to the receiver.

Similarly, a receiver can respond or send the data to the sender in the form of packets.
After successfully exchanging or transmitting data, a sender can terminate the
connection by sending a signal to the receiver. In this way, we can say that it is a reliable
network service.

What is a TCP?
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a connection-oriented protocol that allows
communication between two or more computer devices by establishing connections in
the same or different networks. It is the most important protocol that uses internet
protocol to transfer the data from one end to another. Hence, it is sometimes referred
to as TCP/IP. It ensures that the connection is established and maintained until the data
packet is transferring between the sender and receiver is complete.

Connectionless Service
A connection is similar to a postal system, in which each letter takes along different
route paths from the source to the destination address. Connectionless service is used in
the network system to transfer data from one end to another end without creating any
connection. So it does not require establishing a connection before sending the data
from the sender to the receiver. It is not a reliable network service because it does not
guarantee the transfer of data packets to the receiver, and data packets can be received
in any order to the receiver. Therefore we can say that the data packet does not follow
a defined path. In connectionless service, the transmitted data packet is not received by
the receiver due to network congestion, and the data may be lost.

For example, a sender can directly send any data to the receiver without establishing
any connection because it is a connectionless service. Data sent by the sender will be in
the packet or data streams containing the receiver's address. In connectionless service,
the data can be travelled and received in any order. However, it does not guarantee to
transfer of the packets to the right destination.

What is UDP?
The UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a connectionless protocol that allows
communication between two or more devices without establishing any connection. In
this protocol, a sender sends the data packets to the receiver that holds the destination
address. A UDP does not ensure to deliver the data packets to the correct destination,
and it does not generate any acknowledgment about the sender's data. Similarly, it does
not acknowledge the receiver about the data. Hence, it is an unreliable protocol.

Connection-Oriented vs Connectionless
Service

S. Comparison Connection-oriented Service Connection Less Service

No Parameter

1. Related System It is designed and developed based It is service based on the postal
on the telephone system. system.

2. Definition It is used to create an end to end It is used to transfer the data

connection between the senders to packets between senders to
the receiver before transmitting the the receiver without creating
data over the same or different any connection.
network.

3. Virtual path It creates a virtual path between the It does not create any virtual
sender and the receiver. connection or path between
the sender and the receiver.

4. Authentication It requires authentication before It does not require

transmitting the data packets to the authentication before
receiver. transferring data packets.

5. Data Packets All data packets are received in the Not all data packets are
Path same order as those sent by the received in the same order as
sender. those sent by the sender.
 6. Bandwidth It requires a higher bandwidth to It requires low bandwidth to
Requirement transfer the data packets. transfer the data packets.

7. Data Reliability It is a more reliable connection It is not a reliable connection

service because it guarantees data
packets transfer from one end to the
other end with a connection.
service because it does not
guarantee the transfer of data
packets from one end to
another for establishing a
connection.

8. Congestion There is no congestion as it provides There may be congestion due

an end-to-end connection between to not providing an end-to-end
sender and receiver during connection between the source
transmission of data. and receiver to transmit of data
packets.

9. Examples Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) User Datagram Protocol (UDP),

is an example of a connection- Internet Protocol (IP), and
oriented service. Internet Control Message
Protocol (ICMP) are examples
of connectionless service.

TCP/IP Reference MODEL

TCP/IP Reference Model is a four-layered suite of communication protocols. It
was developed by the DoD (Department of Defence) in the 1960s. It is named
after the two main protocols that are used in the model, namely, TCP and
IP. TCP stands for "Transmission Control Protocol" and IP stands for "Internet
Protocol".

The four layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite are −

1. Host-to- Network Layer −It is the lowest layer that is concerned with the physical
transmission of data. TCP/IP does not specifically define any protocol here but supports all
the standard protocols.
2. Internet Layer −It defines the protocols for logical transmission of data over the network.
The main protocol in this layer is Internet Protocol (IP) and it is supported by the
protocols ICMP, IGMP, RARP, and ARP.
3. Transport Layer − It is responsible for error-free end-to-end delivery of data. The protocols
defined here are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
4. Application Layer − This is the topmost layer and defines the interface of host programs
with the transport layer services. This layer includes all high-level protocols
like Telnet, DNS, HTTP, FTP, SMTP, etc.
The following diagram shows the layers and the protocols in each of the layers −

Comparison of ISO-OSI and TCP/IP Model

Following are the differences between OSI and TCP/IP Reference Model −
OSI
OSI represents Open System
Interconnection.
OSI is a generic, protocol
independent standard. It is
acting as an interaction
gateway between the network
and the final-user.
The OSI model was developed
first, and then protocols were
created to fit the network
architecture’s needs.
It provides quality services.
The OSI model represents
defines administration,
interfaces and conventions. It
describes clearly which layer
provides services.
The protocols of the OSI model
are better unseen and can be
returned with another
appropriate protocol quickly.
It is difficult as distinguished to
TCP/IP.
It provides both connection
and connectionless oriented
transmission in the network
layer; however, only
connection-oriented
transmission in the transport
layer.
It uses a vertical approach.
TCP/IP
TCP/IP model represents the
Transmission Control
Protocol / Internet Protocol.
TCP/IP model depends on
standard protocols about
which the computer network
has created. It is a
connection protocol that
assigns the network of hosts
over the internet.
The protocols were created
first and then built the
TCP/IP model.
It does not provide quality
services.
It does not mention the
services, interfaces, and
protocols.
The TCP/IP model protocols
are not hidden, and we
cannot fit a new protocol
stack in it.
It is simpler than OSI.
It provides connectionless
transmission in the network
layer and supports
connecting and
connectionless-oriented
transmission in the transport
layer.
It uses a horizontal
approach.
The smallest size of the OSI
header is 5 bytes.
Protocols are unknown in the
OSI model and are returned
while the technology modifies.
The smallest size of the
TCP/IP header is 20 bytes.
In TCP/IP, returning protocol
is not difficult.