Cogent Food & Agriculture

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Greenhouse gas emissions from riparian systems

as affected by hydrological extremes: a mini-
review

Jamshid Ansari, Sougata Bardhan, Morgan P. Davis, Stephen H. Anderson &

Nasruddeen Al-Awwal

To cite this article: Jamshid Ansari, Sougata Bardhan, Morgan P. Davis, Stephen H. Anderson
& Nasruddeen Al-Awwal (2024) Greenhouse gas emissions from riparian systems as affected
by hydrological extremes: a mini-review, Cogent Food & Agriculture, 10:1, 2321658, DOI:
10.1080/23311932.2024.2321658

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Cogent Food & Agriculture
2024, VOL. 10, NO. 1, 2321658
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2024.2321658

Soil & Crop Sciences  | Review Article

Greenhouse gas emissions from riparian systems as affected by
hydrological extremes: a mini-review
Jamshid Ansaria , Sougata Bardhanb , Morgan P. Davisa , Stephen H. Andersona and
Nasruddeen Al-Awwala
School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA; bAgriculture/Cooperative Research, Lincoln University of
a

Missouri, Jefferson City, MO, USA

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Increasing atmospheric greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations causes global temperature Received 5 October 2023
rising as well as extreme hydrological events. Understanding the effects of climate Revised 29 January 2024
change-induced severe hydrological events such as flooding and drought on soil properties Accepted 16 February
2024
and subsequent GHG emissions from soil has enabled scientists to optimize different land
management and global warming potential mitigation of a system. Flooding and drought KEYWORDS
dynamics affect soil physicochemical properties and GHG emissions specifically from land use Flooding; drought; land
systems that are adjacent to streams like riparian buffers. Drivers of soil GHG emissions and use; soil moisture; global
the effect of extreme hydrological events on the GHG flux from riparian systems in three warming
climate zones (Mediterranean, temperate, and tropical/subtropical) were investigated in this REVIEWING EDITOR
review utilizing Web of Science and Scopus databases. Wet soil conditions contribute more to Tejada Manuel,
global warming (7.2 Mg CO2eq-C ha−1 h−1) than dry soils (2.1 Mg CO2eq-C ha−1 h−1) in riparian Universidad de Sevilla,
systems. Temperate riparian systems showed the greatest soil N2O emissions (0.7 mg N2O-N Spain
m−2 h−1) after flooding events/during wet seasons. The greatest CH4 (12 mg CH4-C m−2 h−1) SUBJECTS
and CO2 (15.2 g CO2-C m−2 d−1) flux from wet soils were observed in tropical/subtropical Soil Sciences;
riparian systems. Greater soil inorganic N content (NO3- and NH4+) in temperate riparian Surface Hydrology;
systems is responsible for the higher soil N2O flux during wet seasons. Intense precipitation Climate Change
events and greater soil carbon content in tropical/subtropical riparian systems contributed to
more CO2 and CH4 emissions relative to the temperate and Mediterranean riparian systems.

1. Introduction runoff ratios, and inducing heat waves (Ipcc et al.,

In recent decades, anthropogenic and natural sources
have driven a rise in greenhouse gas (GHG) concen-
trations. Between 1990 and 2019, the cumulative
warming impact of human-added greenhouse gases
on the Earth’s atmosphere rose by 45%. Specifically,
the warming effect attributed to carbon dioxide
alone saw a 36% increase during this period (Ipcc
et al., 2021). Due to the rise of GHG concentrations,
the average global surface temperature between
2001 and 2020 was 0.99 °C higher than 1850–1900
and it is projected to rise 2 °C above the pre-industrial
level by 2050 (NASA, 2021; Pathak et al., 2012). This
warming atmosphere contributes to increased evap-
oration, intense precipitation, and severe weather
conditions, altering precipitation intensity, surface
2021). Per decade global precipitation has increased
at an average rate of 0.25 cm since 1901 whereas
future projections suggest some regions will have a
continuous decrease in soil moisture (Mortsch et al.,
2000). Projections indicate further heightened hydro-
logical events like flooding or drought due to global
warming effects (NASA, 2021). Flooding and drought
events in agricultural and other land use systems
affect the quantity of soil GHG production by alter-
ing soil physical and chemical properties (Davis,
2018; Ussiri et al., 2009). Soil can be either a sink or
a source of the GHGs, carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane
(CH4), and Nitrous oxide (N2O) depending on varia-
tions in environmental conditions (Ipcc et al., 2021).
Soil physicochemical properties such as soil tempera-
ture, water content, and soil carbon (C) and nitrogen

CONTACT Jamshid Ansari jadpb@umsystem.edu School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri, 302 Anheuser Busch Natural Resources
Building, MO 65211, USA.
© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unre-
stricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The terms on which this article has been published allow the
posting of the Accepted Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or with their consent.
2 J. ANSARI ET AL.
(N) play important roles in soil GHG production and
emission (Wang et al., 2021).
Riparian areas, recognized for providing ecosys-
tem services such as the removal of nutrients from
incoming surface runoffs, are susceptible to the
impacts of climate change (Gundersen et al., 2012).
The frequency and duration of climate-induced
hydrological gradients (drought and flooding) that
have increased in recent years affect riparian soil
nutrient cycle, as well as GHG emission (Aronson
et al., 2019). Riparian areas adjacent to the streams
are subjected to frequent flooding due to the heavy
precipitation and can also be loaded with surface
runoff from adjacent agricultural land use systems
(Iqbal et al., 2015). Floods, droughts, and alter-
ations in water levels can influence the availability
of soil oxygen, which, in turn, affects the microbial
processes responsible for greenhouse gas produc-
tion (Ansari et al., 2023a; Aronson et al., 2019). The
variability in greenhouse gas emissions from soil in
riparian systems across different climate zones could
be significant because it reflects the diverse ecolog-
ical and environmental conditions present in these
regions (Poblador et al., 2017). Extreme hydrological
events influence soil nutrient storage, specifically soil
C and N content by altering vegetation coverage in
tropical riparian forests (Yang et al., 2022). In tropical
riparian land use, abundant rainfall leads to the for-
mation of oxygen-depleted soil conditions as a result
of higher water table levels, consequently amplifying
the release of both N2O and CH4 (Vidon et al., 2016).
Soil moisture and carbon content can substantially
affect the emissions of CO2 and CH4 in intermittently
flooded riparian systems in temperate climates (Altor
& Mitsch, 2006; Baskerville et al., 2021). However,
soil water stress and drought conditions in the tem-
perate riparian forests are projected to be increased
under climate change which can contribute to the
lower emission of CH4 and N2O (Cholet et al., 2022).
As a result, crop coverage will be decreased in tem-
perate zones more severely than in tropical riparian
systems (Porfirio et al., 2017). Flooding occurrences
will decline in Mediterranean riparian systems, while
the frequency of soil moisture drought conditions is
anticipated to increase due to rising global tempera-
tures ranging from 1.5 °C to 2.0 °C (Poblador et al.,
2017). Elevated temperatures in Mediterranean ripar-
ian systems can support substantial respiration and
nitrogen mineralization rates. As a result, the extent
to which rewetting microbial pulses contribute to
annual carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrous oxide (N2O)
production in Mediterranean riparian soils is currently
a subject of ongoing debate (Poblador et al., 2017).
Managing and quantifying diverse sources influ-
encing GHG emissions from riparian systems can be
challenging, and there remains an insufficient level
of research on the quantity of GHG fluxes originating
from these systems (Vidon et al., 2019). Understanding
the interactions between riparian ecosystems and
broader climate change trends is crucial for effective
mitigation strategies and helps to quantify the role
of riparian zones in the global C and N cycles
(Wilcock et al., 2008). Moreover, climate-specific
approaches to address the environmental challenges
associated with GHG emissions from riparian land
use contribute to implementing regional policies
aimed at optimizing agronomic activities and urban-
ization in riparian areas. Policymakers, researchers,
and land managers need to consider these variations
when designing environmental policies and prac-
tices, especially in the context of climate change.
This review aimed to investigate, (1) the soil physico-
chemical properties that play a crucial role in the
release of greenhouse gases (CO2, N2O, and CH4)
from soil, and (2) the emission of greenhouse gases
from riparian systems vulnerable to extreme hydro-
logical events, such as flooding and drought, across
different climate zones.
2. Methods
2.1. Drivers of soil greenhouse gas emissions
A literature search was conducted using ‘soil’, ‘green-
house gas’, and ‘drivers’ as keywords and refined by
the review articles on two common databases Scopus
and Web of Science. A total of 86 and 43 review arti-
cles were retrieved, respectively. The common drivers
of soil GHG emissions were investigated in the col-
lected articles and discussed in this review. Soil C
and N content, moisture, temperature, redox poten-
tial, and pH on the production and emission of CO2,
N2O, and CH4 from soils were found as the most
common important factors discussed in the review
articles.
2.2. Soil greenhouse gas flux from riparian
systems
To access the studies on the soil GHG emissions from
riparian systems, a database search was continued
using ‘soil’, ‘greenhouse gas’, and ‘riparian’ as the key-
words for the 1990–2022 period, and 235, and 142
articles were retrieved from the Web of Science and
Scopus databases, respectively (Figure 1). The out-
come was refined by ‘wet’ and ‘dry’ keywords which

returned 19 and 34 articles, respectively, from the
Web of Science, and 38 and 42 articles, respectively,
from Scopus. Duplicates were eliminated. The num-
ber of studies that have been conducted on soil
greenhouse gas emissions from riparian systems has
increased considerably during the past three decades
(Figure 1). Among all studies, soil GHG emissions
after frequently/occasionally flooded events and from
wet soil conditions (saturated soil) as well as emis-
sions during wet seasons were considered as emis-
sions under flooding events/from wet soil. Due to
the data shortage regarding greenhouse gas emis-
sions from dry soils, (i.e. at the wilting point), this
review categorizes emissions during dry seasons as
emissions from dry soil. As a result, dry seasons are
considered drought events.
Hourly basis emission units were converted into
daily units. Whenever needed, emissions were con-
verted from mol into mass basis using the appro-
priate molecular weight. The area units were
converted to hectares by the appropriate conver-
sion factor for annual emissions. Mean values of
N2O and CH4 fluxes were small and expressed to
two/three decimal places. To calculate the global
warming potential (GWP), the following formula
was used:
where 27.9 and 273 are 100-year time-horizon
global warming potential values of CH4 and N2O,
respectively, as compared to CO2 (Ipcc et al., 2021).
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to com-
pare the effect of wet and dry soil conditions on soil
GHG emissions using SAS Studio (University edition).
Treatment differences were accepted as significant at
p = 0.05 level.
Figure 1. Selected articles on soil greenhouse gas emissions from riparian systems between 1990 and 2022 from the Web of
Science and Scopus databases.
Cogent Food & Agriculture 3
3. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from soil
3.1. Soil C and N content and microbial activity
Soil-based fluxes of GHG are produced primarily
through plant and microbial respiration through
enzymatic oxidation-reduction processes that are
part of the soil C and N cycle (Stohl et al., 1996). Soil
C and N content, inorganic N, and C: N ratio affect
microbial activity and thus GHG emissions (Wan
et al., 2015). Inorganic ions such as nitrate (NO3-) and
ammonium (NH4+) are products of plant litter pro-
teins decomposition that affect soil GHG emissions
specifically N2O emission through nitrification, in aer-
obic well-aerated soils, and denitrification (reduction
of NO3- to N2) under anaerobic wet soils (Dalal et al.,
2003; Palm et al., 2002; Tenuta & Beauchamp, 2003).
The runoff from agricultural or urban areas, discharg-
ing into riparian systems, carries elevated concentra-
tions of nutrients, including NO3- and NH4+, which
can potentially stimulate greater microbial activity
and lead to increased emission of N2O (Ullah & Zinati,
2006). Greater C: N ratio (36–82) results in lower N2O
emission (Takakai et al., 2008), while the highest
emission occurs at C: N = 11 (Gundersen et al., 2012).
Soil CO2 flux is positively correlated with soil total
organic carbon and nitrogen, particulate, and dis-
solved organic C (DOC), and N (Bailey et al., 2009).
Riparian systems dominated by trees and herbaceous
vegetation can significantly enhance soil organic car-
bon (SOC) content, thereby contributing to elevated
CO2 emissions (Baskerville et al., 2021; Collins et al.,
2017; Gacengo et al., 2009). In available C shortage
conditions, CO2 is negatively correlated with soil N
availability (Hassler et al., 2015; Oertel et al., 2016).
Increased amounts of SOC within riparian systems
play a role in the occurrence of methanogenesis
(microbial-mediated CH4 production), particularly fol-
lowing soil anaerobic conditions triggered by
 4 J. ANSARI ET AL.

flooding events (Ansari et al., 2023b). However,
enhanced soil available N could reduce CH4 uptake
(Hassler et al., 2015), and thus, a lower C: N ratio
positively affects soil CH4 emission (Jiang et al., 2011).
Ammonium is toxic to CH4 oxidizing bacteria which
could lead to a lower CH4 uptake (Müller et al., 2006).
3.2. Temperature
Warm temperatures are in favor of soil micro-
bial activities. Soil respiration, nitrification and
denitrification accelerate at temperatures between
25 °C and 35 °C (Butterbach-Bahl et al., 2013).
Temperatures higher than 37 °C and lower than
-7 °C negatively impact soil microbial activities
and GHG emissions (Brooks et al., 1997; Oertel
et al., 2016). Waldo et al. (2019) found a positive
relationship between the mean daily air tempera-
ture and soil N2O emission. Temperature-induced
freezing-thawing events affect the concentration
of soil N2O production. Soil thaw during the
Spring season contributes to N2O production and
emission (Castaldi, 2000; Goodroad & Keeney,
1984). Soil microbial activity is stimulated by more
available nutrients released after thaw events and
thus enhances N2O emission (Mørkved et al., 2006).
Similarly, there is a positive relationship between
temperature and CO2 emission from soil (Schaufler
et al., 2010). Greater soil CO2 emission is attributed
to a higher microbial decomposition rate (Lopez
de Gerenyu et al., 2005). Low temperatures during
the Winter season affect CO2 emission negatively
mostly due to the lower soil microbial activity
and root respiration (Groffman et al., 2006). Soil
CH4 emission in wet soils (e.g. paddy soils) occurs
once the soil temperature is less than 30 °C (Xu
et al., 2021). However, CH4 uptake increases in soils
under warmer and drier conditions. Increasing tem-
perature positively influences soil CH4 production
and emission due to the greater activity of biotic

Table 1. Oxidation-reduction reactions and associated optimum redox potential values (adapted from Zhang & Furman, 2021),
and optimum soil physicochemical properties (pH, water-filled pore space) contribute to the greenhouse gas (CO2, N2O, and
CH4) emissions from soil.
Reactions Process pH WFPS% Eh (mV) at 25 °C and pH = 7
CH2 O(organic compound) + O2 → CO2 + H2 O Aerobic respiration 7a 20–60b n.a
811
 O2 (g) + 4H2 + 4 e → 2H2O
+ −
-484
 + −
CH2 O + H2 O= CO2 (g) + 4H + 4e

NH3 → NH2 OH / HNO → NO2− → NO3− Nitrification 7–9c 30–70d 811

811
 O2 (g) + 4H2+ + 4 e − → 2H2O 363
 + − + −
NH4 + 3H2 O =NO3 + 10H + 8e

NO3− → NO2− → NO → N2O → N2 Heterotrophic denitrification ∼6–7a 70–95e 746

n.a.
 2NO3− + 12H+ + 10e − = N2 (g) + 6H2 O

 CH2 O + H2 O = g) + 4H+ + 4 e −
CO2 (g
NH → NH OH → NO − → NO → N O
 3 2 2 2

Nitrifier denitrification <5f n.a. n.a.

4Fe2+ + 2NO2− + 5H2 O → 4FeOOH + N2 O + 6H+
Chemodenitrification

Methane fermentation ∼7g 95–100h −244

CO2 (g) + 8H+ + 8e − → CH4 (g) + 2H2O
 + −
-484
 CH2 O + H2 O= CO2 (g) + 4H + 4e

NH2 OH + HNO2 → N2O + 2H2O Reactions involving hydroxylamine <5a n.a. n.a.
4Fe3+ + 2NH2 OH → 4Fe2+ + N2O + H2 O + 4H+

n.a., not available; Left braces group the combination of oxidation-reduction reactions.
a
Zhang and Furman (2021).
b
Schaufler et al. (2010).
c
Heil et al. (2016).
d
Oertel et al. (2016)
e
Säurich et al. (2019).
f
Hu et al. (2015).
g
Wang et al. (1993).
Q3 h
Moore et al. (2017) and Thiel et al. (2017).

factors such as methanogens (e.g. Methanosaeta,
Methanocella) and methanotrophs in flooded rice
soils (Lee et al., 2014).
3.3. pH and redox potential
Soil hydrology dynamics as affected by drying-wetting
events influence soil physicochemical properties like
soil pH, redox potential (Eh) and nutrient fate (Zhang
& Furman, 2021). Redox potential indicates soil oxy-
gen status and plays a key role in soil nutrient cycling
and GHG emissions (Moore et al., 2017; Zhang &
Furman, 2021). Redox potential decreases in flooding
events and becomes negatively correlated (r = -0.25)
with CH4 production (Moore et al., 2017). Wang et al.
(1993) observed the maximum CH4 emissions at pH
= 6.9. In flooding events, soil pH reduces due to the
reduction reactions and denitrification (Hansen et al.,
2014). During denitrification, N2O as an intermediary
product is produced and increased as soil acidity and
NO3- concentration increase (Krichels et al., 2019).
Soil pH < 7 accelerates denitrification while pH
between 7 and 9 is in favor of nitrification (Heil et al.,
2016; Oertel et al., 2016) (Table 1). Acidic soils (pH <
5) stimulate the chemodenitrification process (Hu
et al., 2015) through which N2O is produced via oxi-
dation of Fe2+ coupled to the reduction of NO3-,
nitrite (NO2-), or nitric oxide (NO). The neutral and
alkaline soil stimulates soil CO2 fluxes (Wang et al.,
2010). Wang et al. (2010) reported the lowest and
highest soil CO2 flux at soil pH= 3.65 and 8.55,
respectively.
3.4. Moisture/flooding and drought
Spatial and temporal variations in soil GHG efflux are
associated with heterogeneity in soil moisture con-
tent (Turner et al., 2008; Zhong & Makeschin, 2006).
Soil water content controls the amount of available
oxygen to microorganisms and affects soil microbial
population size and therefore GHG emissions (Krichels
et al., 2019). Soil water-filled pore space (WFPS) plays
an important role in the rate of nutrient decomposi-
tion and mineralization, as well as GHG emissions
from soil (Galic et al., 2019). Soil aerobic (WFPS≈
20%–70%) and anaerobic conditions (WFPS ≈ 70%–
100%) control soil GHG production by regulating res-
piration, nitrification, and denitrification (Oertel et al.,
2016) (Table 1).
Soil WFPS between 20% and 60% accelerates CO2
emissions (Moore et al., 2017). ; Schaufler et al.,
2010). The greatest CO2 emission was observed at
Cogent Food & Agriculture 5
WFPS = 20% by Schaufler et al. (2010). The lowest
CO2 emission occurs in soil-saturated conditions at
WFPS≥ 90% (Ruser et al., 2006). Proton consumption
by imported NO3- and Fe3+ ions through redox reac-
tions in flooding conditions could increase soil pH.
Raising soil pH and available nutrients due to flood-
ing events increases soil enzyme and microbial activ-
ity, soil respiration, and CO2 emission from riparian
systems (Moore et al., 2017; Ou et al., 2019). Moreover,
translocation of oxygen from above-ground shoots
into below-ground roots by riparian vegetation under
flooding conditions could increase substrate oxida-
tion and CO2 emission at the cost of CH4 reduction
(Nag et al., 2017). On the contrary, O’Connell et al.
(2018) and Koebsch et al. (2020) reported that
short-term drought events can stimulate plant root
respiration and CO2 flux. However, they consider
well-aerated soils with a sufficient amount of organic
C in which oxidation decomposition rate mediated
by heterotrophic microorganisms is increased and
thus can raise CO2 flux. These uncertainties in the
relationship between extreme hydrological events
and soil CO2 emissions from riparian systems are due
to the differences in site-specific factors like microcli-
mate, soil and vegetation type, temperature, and
microbial community diversity (Baskerville et al.,
2021; Patel et al., 2021).
The greatest N2O flux was observed at soil
WFPS> 60% by Merino et al. (2004). According to
Yanai et al. (2003) N2O emissions accelerate at
WFPS~60% while, lower N2O production occurs at
WFPS< 30% (Gao et al., 2014). Soil WFPS between
70% and 95% maximizes the reduction of NO3- into
N2O gas (Ruser et al., 2006; Säurich et al., 2019).
Due to the damage of severe flooding, degraded
riparian vegetation roots cannot remove excess N
from soil (Ou et al., 2019; Peralta et al., 2014).
Several studies found a positive correlation between
soil N2O-N flux in riparian systems and concentra-
tion of NH4+ and NO3- which are imported to the
system through surface runoff during flooding
events (Davis, 2018; Nag et al., 2017; Xu et al.,
2021). Riparian forests subjected to frequent flood-
ing emit more N2O relative to occasional flooding
events (Jacinthe et al., 2012). Soil pH controls the
activity of N2O reductase, and the decreased soil
pH caused by flooding events inhibits the function
of the enzyme and results in an incomplete denitri-
fication process from N2O to N2 (Davis, 2018; Nag
et al., 2017). Soil inorganic N (NO3− and NO2−) con-
centrations are responsible for nitrification-derived
N2O products in dry soil conditions. In soils with
6 J. ANSARI ET AL.
higher N content which are subjected to dry cli-
mate conditions, ammonium ions are oxidized
rather than methane which could be the reason for
the higher N2O emission in drought conditions
(Aronson et al., 2019). Moreover, lower soil water
drainage and plant N uptake in dry seasons or dry
soil conditions contribute to NO3-N accumulation
and N2O emission (Iqbal et al., 2015; Venterea et al.,
2011). Jacinthe et al. (2012) reported that within a
mature riparian forest experiencing frequent flood-
ing (four to six times annually), the average N2O
flux exhibited a notably higher level compared to
periods of occasional floods (2 to 3 times per year)
or infrequent floods (occurring every 20 years).
Therefore, lower soil water content and shifting
from anoxic to oxic conditions in severe drought
conditions could reduce the denitrification rate and
thus N2O emission (Liu et al., 2021).
Microorganisms that are involved in CH4 pro-
duction through the methanogenesis process are
anaerobes (Methanogen microbes) that function
better under soil-saturated conditions in flooded
soils (Angel et al., 2012; Nazaries et al., 2013; Smith
et al., 2003). The maximum CH4 efflux rate from
riparian forest soils under investigation by Moore
et al. (2017) was observed at soil saturation condi-
tions. Dry soils are CH4 sinks due to the increased
methanotrophic activity under improved soil aera-
tion (Kwak et al., 2019). Riparian systems in flood-
plain soils under saturated conditions emit more
CH4 than under normal season conditions due to
the lower redox potential and oxygen diffusion
(Moore et al., 2017; Peralta et al., 2014). In flooded
soils, methanogenic microorganisms become dom-
inant and facilitate the breakdown of organic
matter. As a result, an increased presence of soil
C leads to elevated CH4 emissions in riparian sys-
tems following flooding events (Xu et al., 2021).
The standing water above the soil surface after
flood events influences the CH4 release positively
(Shi et al., 2021). The two groups of methanogens
(acetoclastic and hydrogenotrophic) play a key role
in the biogenically produced CH4 in anoxic condi-
tions when the water stands above the soil surface
(Kollah et al., 2018). Moreover, water table depth
is negatively correlated with soil CH4 emission
(Soosaar et al., 2011). As the water table increases,
the shift from aerobic to anaerobic conditions
occurs, and methanogens use soil carbon sources
to generate CH4 (Keane et al., 2021). In dry seasons
methane oxidation becomes the limiting factor in
CH4 production from soil (Sha et al., 2011). Soil CH4
production is substantially correlated (r2=0.32) with
soil moisture content (Amadi et al., 2016) and thus
CH4 emission is reduced during drought conditions
(Keane et al., 2021). However, rewetting the soil
could trigger soil CH4 production in post-drought
periods (Keane et al., 2021; O’Connell et al., 2018).
4. Greenhouse gas flux from riparian
systems under extreme hydrological events
4.1. CO2 exchange
Wet soil conditions due to the flooding and heavy
rainfall events contributed more to the soil CO2
emission (7.4 g CO2-C m−2 d−1) relative to dry soil
conditions (3.1 g CO2-C m−2 d−1) (Figure 2B). Soil CO2
emissions from dry and wet soil tropical/subtropi-
cal riparian systems (dry: 3.9 g CO2-C m−2 d−1; wet:
15.2 g CO2-C m−2 d−1) were greater than temperate
and Mediterranean riparian land use systems (Figure
2). The emission of CO2 from dry riparian soils was
substantially (P = 0.007) greater in tropical/subtropi-
cal climates than in temperate regions (2.1 g CO2-C
m−2 d−1) (Figure 2A). This could be attributed to the
higher soil and ambient temperatures in tropical/
subtropical regions as compared to temperate and
Mediterranean climates (Table 2). A strong posi-
tive correlation (r2=0.56) between soil CO2 emission
from a riparian system and soil temperature was
observed by Gebremichael et al. (2017). Moreover,
higher soil CO2 flux in tropical riparian zones could
be correlated with higher soil temperature, as well
as lower substrate quality of these land use sys-
tems (Keane et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2022) (Table
2). Intense precipitation events in tropical/subtropi-
cal regions cause a sharp increase in soil moisture
content which in turn triggers soil enzyme activity
and microbial respiration and thus CO2 emission (Liu
et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2022) (Table 2) relative to
temperate and Mediterranean riparian systems. Mean
soil C: N ratio and DOC were greater by roughly 1.5
and 19 times, respectively, in Mediterranean riparian
systems compared to the temperate systems. This
could be the reason for the higher CO2 flux from
Mediterranean riparian systems (dry soil: 3.3 g CO2-C
m−2 d−1; wet soil: 3.9 g CO2-C m−2 d−1) relative to tem-
perate systems. Although soil carbon content derived
from the studies conducted on tropical/subtropical
riparian systems was expressed in units other than
dissolved organic carbon (DOC), Kachenchart et al.
(2012) noted that the DOC concentration in tropical
riparian systems is estimated to be roughly three
times higher than that reported for temperate ripar-
ian zones. Since CO2 emission is positively correlated
 Cogent Food & Agriculture 7

Figure 2. Mean greenhouse gas emissions from soils under different climate and hydrological conditions (A); and mean soil
emissions (all climates) under dry-wet conditions (B). Bar charts are standard errors. Bars (±SE) followed different letters in
each hydrological condition, showing significant differences at p < 0.05. In this study, soil greenhouse gas emissions during the
dry season and after flooding events/from saturated soils are considered dry and wet soil emissions, respectively. Source: Altor
and Mitsch (2006); Hernandez and Mitsch (2006); McLain and Martens (2006); Hinshaw and Dahlgren (2016); Audet et al.
(2013); Kachenchart et al. (2012); Lopes de Gerenyu et al. (2011) (2015); Batson et al. (2015); Jacinthe et al. (2015); Mander
et al. (2015); Vidon et al. (2017); Vidon et al. (2016); Jacinthe and Vidon (2017); Gebremichael et al. (2017); Poblador et al.
(2017); Smith et al. (2017); Kaiser et al. (2018); Kandel et al. (2019); Mafa-Attoye et al. (2020); Schindler et al. (2020); Liu et al.
(2021); Wang et al. (2021); Mander et al. (2022); Zhang et al. (2022).

Table 2. Mean environmental properties in the reviewed riparian systems.

Total Dissolved
Organic C Total N organic C NO3- NH4+ Soil temperature Air temperature Precipitation
Climate C:N g kg
-1
g kg-1
mg kg-1
mg kg mg kg-1
-1
°C °C mm pH
Mediterranean 14:1 3.64 0.3 265.7 13.2 10.05 19.5 13.05 445 6.5
Temperate 10:1 87.94 n.a. 14.3 14.4 20.1 15 8.8 600 6.7
Tropical /subtropical 13.2 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 27 26.3 823 6.2
n.a., not available.
Source: Altor and Mitsch (2006); Hernandez and Mitsch (2006); McLain and Martens (2006); Hinshaw and Dahlgren (2016); Audet et al. (2013);
Kachenchart et al. (2012); Batson et al. (2015); Jacinthe et al. (2015); Mander et al. (2015); Vidon et al. (2017); Vidon et al. (2016); Jacinthe and Vidon
(2017); Gebremichael et al. (2017); Poblador et al. (2017); Smith et al. (2017); Kaiser et al. (2018); Kandel et al. (2019); Mafa-Attoye et al. (2020);
Schindler et al. (2020); Liu et al. (2021); Wang et al. (2021); Mander et al. (2022); Zhang et al. (2022).

with the soil DOC (Bailey et al., 2009), this could be 4.2. N2O exchange
another factor that contributes to the higher CO2
Soil N2O flux was greater under flooding events
flux from tropical riparian systems relative to tem-
(0.25 mg N2O-N m−2 h−1) as compared to dry soil
perate systems.
8 J. ANSARI ET AL.

(0.03 mg N2O-N m−2 h−1) conditions (Figure 2B). N2O higher N2O flux from temperate riparian systems in
emissions from wet soils in temperate riparian sys- wet seasons and after flooding events as compared
tems (0.7 mg N2O-N m−2 h−1) were greater than ripar- to the Mediterranean and tropical/subtropical ripar-
ian systems located in tropical/subtropical (0.03 mg ian systems (Kandel et al., 2019).
N2O-N m−2 h−1) and Mediterranean climate (0.04 mg
N2O-N m−2 h−1) (Figure 2A). Soil N2O emissions under
wet soil conditions were 2 times greater than dry 4.3. CH4 exchange
conditions in temperate riparian systems. The greater
The higher soil CH4 flux was observed under soil satu-
wet soil N2O flux from temperate riparian systems
ration conditions after flooding events (12 mg CH4-C
relative to the two other climates is due to the
m−2 h−1) than from dry soils (2.6 mg CH4-C m−2 h−1).
higher soil inorganic N content (Table 2). A strong
Soil CH4 flux was greater from riparian systems in trop-
positive correlation (r2= 0.83) between soil N2O flux
ical/subtropical climate (dry: 7.7 mg CH4-C m−2 h−1; wet:
and soil NO3- concentration for a temperate riparian
22.9 mg CH4-C m−2 h−1) as compared to the temperate
system during the wet season was reported by
(dry: 0.05 mg CH4-C m−2 h−1; wet: 1.7 mg CH4-C m−2 h−1)
Jacinthe and Vidon (2017). Moreover, Kachenchart
and Mediterranean (dry: ~0.0 mg CH4-C m−2 h−1; wet:
et al. (2012) reported a positive correlation (r = 0.13)
not available) riparian systems (Figure 2A). Greater soil
between soil NH4+ concentration and nitrification
DOC along with, rainfall and WFPS accumulation in
rate in a tropical riparian system. Also, a positive cor-
tropical climate contribute to the more CH4 flux
relation (r = 0.24) between soil N2O flux and NH4+ was
(Kachenchart et al., 2012). In contrast, when the water
observed by Gebremichael et al. (2017) in a
level drops below the soil surface in dry seasons, ripar-
Mediterranean riparian system. A higher dry soil N2O
ian soils become CH4 sinks (Liu et al., 2021). Dry soil
flux in Mediterranean riparian systems (0.05 mg
CH4 flux from tropical/subtropical riparian systems was
N2O-N m−2 h−1) than temperate (P = 0.03; 0.01 mg
higher by almost 4 and 8 times relative to temperate
N2O-N m−2 h−1) and tropical/subtropical (0.013 mg
and Mediterranean riparian systems. Following summer
N2O-N m−2 h−1) riparian landuse systems could be
flooding events causing soil saturation, the elevated
attributed to the higher soil temperature during dry
dry season temperatures in tropical/subtropical cli-
seasons (Datta et al., 2011) (Table 1). Increased soil
mates, compared to temperate and Mediterranean
NH4+ oxidation due to the higher temperature in dry
regions, stimulate both CH4 production and oxidation
seasons could be responsible for the greater N2O
in riparian systems (Liu et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2022).
emission in Mediterranean riparian systems relative
Due to the greater GWP of CH4 and N2O relative
to temperate and tropical/subtropical riparian sys-
to CO2, an estimated GWP of riparian systems under
tems (Jacinthe & Vidon, 2017; Kandel et al., 2019).
severe weather conditions revealed that the wet con-
Some of the temperate riparian systems were adja-
ditions with higher soil N2O and CH4 fluxes could
cent to the agricultural fields (Audet et al., 2013;
seriously impact climate change (Figure 3) as com-
Kandel et al., 2019). Therefore, discharging NO3- from
pared to dry soil conditions. Although this was not
adjacent fertilized agricultural systems into the ripar-
the aim of this study, to estimate the overall GWP of
ian area could be another important reason for
riparian ecosystems, the net C budget of the system

Figure 3. Soil CO2 eq of CO2, N2O, and CH4 from riparian systems under dry and wet soil conditions. Soil greenhouse gas
emissions during the dry season and after flooding events/from wet soils are considered dry and wet soil emissions,
respectively.

including C restoration and C output (GHG emis-
sions) should be evaluated in future studies. Limited
information on the net carbon release from riparian
systems still hinders the assessment of the sources/
sinks from these ecosystems and their contribution
to the global climate.
5. Conclusions and future prospects
Riparian areas are ecologically important transition
zones between terrestrial and aquatic environments,
and their role in greenhouse gas emissions is an area
of active research. Riparian systems play crucial rules
in global C cycling and can influence or be influ-
enced by climate change-induced hydrological
events. Several factors such as land use, vegetation
types, soil characteristics, and climatic conditions can
influence the greenhouse gas dynamics in riparian
zones. This review indicated that, (1) soil moisture,
among various soil properties, plays a crucial role in
influencing the emissions of GHGs from soil, and wet
soil conditions contribute more to global warming
by almost three times relative to dry soils in riparian
systems; (2) the greatest soil N2O and CH4 emissions
occur in wet soil conditions/after flooding events in
temperate and tropical/subtropical riparian systems,
respectively.
There are still opportunities for new research ini-
tiatives to address the gaps in understanding green-
house gas emissions from riparian system soils in
various climates. We propose that further research
studies should address the following questions:
1. Is there a potential tradeoff between the nutri-
ent removal capabilities of riparian systems from
soil and water and their role in contributing to
climate change and air quality through green-
house gas emissions from the soils of these
systems?
2. What is the influence of land use changes in
riparian areas on greenhouse gas emissions, and
how can land management practices mitigate or
exacerbate these emissions?
3. What effective mitigation strategies can be
employed in riparian areas to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions, and how can these strategies be
integrated into broader climate change mitiga-
tion efforts?
4. What role do various plant and microbial com-
munities in riparian zones play in greenhouse
gas dynamics, and how might shifts in these
communities affect emissions?
Cogent Food & Agriculture 9
Disclosure statement
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this article.
ORCID
Jamshid Ansari http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3854-4014
Sougata Bardhan http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2829-4755
Morgan P. Davis http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1310-2201
Stephen H. Anderson http://orcid.
org/0000-0002-5664-6121
Nasruddeen Al-Awwal http://orcid.
org/0000-0001-8172-4913
Data availability statement
The data that support the findings of this study are avail-
able from the corresponding author, [Jamshid Ansari],
upon reasonable request.
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