Unit 3 PDF

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Plant requirements: moisture, nutrients, growing medium, light, air:

All plants have the same basic requirements for growth and survival: they require a
growing medium, light, moisture, and nutrients. When any one of these elements is not
at optimal levels, the productivity of the plants will be diminished. As with all systems on
Earth, most of the factors do not act independently of one another and often are
interconnected. For example, soils that are extremely porous will drain easily and water
will not be available to the plant; the temperature will affect the amount of transpiration
and respiration.
Moisture: Plant growth can be greatly affected by both low and high levels of water.
During drought conditions when water levels are low, plants will dry out; if water levels
are extremely high and the ground is saturated, the amount of oxygen in the soil will be
limited and the plants will "suffocate". By inserting drainage and irrigation systems, the
amounts of water can be regulated. In addition, soil moisture also aids in nutrient
uptake. Various plants have adaptations to different conditions of water availability. For
example, desert plants have adapted to dry conditions by reducing the size of their
leaves to small needles with the stem being the location where photosynthesis occurs;
this reduces the loss of water from the leaves through transpiration.
Atmosphere: Carbon dioxide is a product of respiration in both animals and plants.
Although it makes up only 0.035 of the atmosphere, it is critical for plant survival and for
the synthesis of organic molecules (carbohydrates) by photosynthesis. Plants, like
humans, are not immune to the effects of air pollutants in the atmosphere which can
have negative effects on plant growth, and in some cases (high levels of sulphur
dioxide) can be toxic to the plants. Acid rain has had a major impact on plants across
eastern North America as it wears away the protective outer layer of leaves, making
them more susceptible to disease and changing climate conditions.
Growing Medium, Soils: In most cases soil provides the growing medium for plants. In
addition to providing a substrate for the plant to take root and grow, soils also provide
nutrients, oxygen, and water.
Soils are made up of four horizons:
The O horizon is composed of decaying organic matter that releases nutrients into the
soil; it is often the darkest layer because of the organic matter.
The A horizon is the upper layer approximately ten to twenty centimetres thick, and it is
where most plants get their nutrients and water. The A horizon is rich in humus which is
important because it provides a crumbly structure to the soil allowing air to move
through it, water to be soaked up, and the amount of runoff and erosion to be reduced.
The B horizon or subsoil is composed of large rocks and is still in the process of
developing from the bedrock. Plant roots can acquire some groundwater from the B
horizon. The C horizon is a combination of weathered rock fragments and soil.
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Adaptations of plants
Various plants have adaptations to different conditions of water availability. For example,
desert plants have adapted to dry conditions by reducing the size of their leaves to
small needles with the stem being the location where photosynthesis occurs; this
reduces the loss of water from the leaves through transpiration.
Air pollution
Plants, like humans, are not immune to the effects of air pollutants in the atmosphere
which can have negative effects on plant growth, and in some cases (high levels of
sulphur dioxide) can be toxic to the plants. Acid rain has had a major impact on plants
across eastern North America as it wears away the protective outer layer of leaves,
making them more susceptible to disease and changing climate conditions.
Soil horizons (OABC)

The O horizon releases nutrients into the soil.The A horizon is where most plants get
their nutrients and water; it is rich in humus which provides a crumbly structure to the
soil allowing air to move through it, water to be soaked up, and the amount of runoff and
erosion to be reduced.The B horizon provides groundwater.The C horizon is composed
of weathered rock which will eventually become soil.
Soil texture: sand, silt, clay, loam

Texture: Soils can be classified based on the proportions of sand, silt, and clay (size of
the particles). Clay soils have mostly small sized particles. They are the least effective
for plant growth because the particles are packed tightly together and there are not any
spaces for air, water, or plant roots to grow. Sandy soils are the opposite, with a large
proportion of the largest particles. A much greater porosity allows for a lot of aeration,
however, water drains through them making them unsuitable for plants. Loamy soils
with equal mixtures of sand and clay are ideal because they provide enough air and
hold enough water. The porosity of soils may be affected by foot traffic and machinery
moving over the soil causing it to be compacted, therefore reducing the porosity and
resulting in a poorly aerated soil
Nutrients, fertilizers, adaptations
Non mineral nutrients required by plants and taken in from the air and water include
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Macronutrients are essential to plants and include
nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulphur. Micronutrients
including copper, manganese, boron, zinc, and iron are not critical to a plant's survival
however they are used in various internal structures.
Applying fertilizers to the soil can control nutrients. Fertilizers found in the stores
typically contain three numbers referring to the proportion of nitrogen, phosphorous, and
potassium. The type of fertilizer you purchase will depend on the outcome you want.
Fertilizers high in nitrogen will promote lush green growth, while fertilizers high in
phosphorous promotes the growth of many flowers. Potassium adds to the hardiness of
the plant (its ability to survive through harsh conditions) by promoting root growth
Many of the bogs and fens spread across Ontario have a limited availability of
nitrogen. Some plants have adapted to reduced nitrogen levels by becoming
carnivorous; they trap and digest prey in order to obtain the nitrogen. The sundew,
which can be found throughout most of Ontario, catches prey with the sticky
"needles" on the leaves. The most well known carnivorous plant, the venus flytrap,
is found in the southern U.S. and also traps flies to increase the available nitrogen.
Impact of acid rain and acid soils

Acidity: The type of plants grown (coniferous needles increase the soil acidity), acid
rain, and the surrounding bedrock affect the pH of soils. The pH of the soil may affect
the availability of nutrients. For example soils that are highly acidic result in a low
availability of phosphorus, as well as an increased solubility of aluminium, which is toxic
to plants and animals. The pH of soils can be altered by adding limestone to reduce the
acidity or by adding sulphur to increase the acidity.
Humus
Humus refers to the organic matter that has been broken down to the point where it
resists further decomposition. By spreading humus on lawns and adding organic mulch
to gardens, the soil structure can be improved and the effects of compaction minimized;
humus is also an effective buffer and can prevent changes in pH. Soil that is rich with
humus will contain many active microorganisms that are important in the decomposition
process and the release of nutrients as well as microbes that attack and control
diseases.
Green Revolution
USAID director William Gauld first used the term "Green Revolution" in 1968 in order to
describe the many new technologies and advances in the agricultural industry. The
movement first began in the mid 1940s and has transformed agriculture, allowing food
production to keep pace with the growing global population. The Green Revolution
involved the hybridization of crops and the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides
together with the development of specialized farm equipment to increase crop yield in
response to the food demands of an expanding population. However, the green
revolution has had major social and ecological impacts and critics of the green
revolution argue that the Earth is currently overpopulated and has far surpassed its
carrying capacity. They argue that the green revolution has encouraged the population
explosion and eventual collapse will be inevitable as food supplies will eventually be
unable to keep up with demand. The result will be global famine.
Agricultural issues: erosion, monocultures, compaction, chemicals, salinization

Soil Organic Matter: This is important for crops because it provides nutrients for
growth. However, the organic matter is limited and decreases after five to ten years of
agricultural activity. Some solutions include adding crop residues and organic compost,
and by mixing certain plants in with the crops. For example, clover is nitrogen fixing and
converts unusable nitrogen to a form that plants can use.
Erosion: This is the removal of soils from an area due to wind or water, and is the
biggest contributor to soil degradation. Extensive erosion may lead to desertification, the
conversion of land to desert-like conditions. There are many agricultural activities that
may aid in reducing erosion, including minimizing the amount of tillage, leaving crops to
decompose, contour plowing, and planting wind breaks (trees planted along the edges
of farms to reduce winds).
Monocultures: In industrialized countries, large scale farming activities often

have led to monocropping (typically of corn and wheat) where farms are
dominated by one particular crop. Planting only one variety of crop means that
the entire harvest may be susceptible to insects and disease, as was the case
in Ireland when the entire potato crop was destroyed by potato blight. The loss
of plant and animal diversity may also result in the inability to adapt to changing
conditions.
Compaction: Heavy machinery that continuously moves over the soil compacts the soil
decreasing the air content of the soil and the ability of animals (such as worms), water,
and roots to move. By minimizing the movements of farm equipment over the land and
with tillage (however, tillage could result in erosion) the effects of compaction can be
decreased.
Chemical Use: Use of fertilizers to add nutrients to the soils and pesticides to kill off
unwanted pests increases the yields of the crops. However in both cases, concerns
about the chemicals washing away and contaminating the environment have been
evident. A better understanding of timing for application and the additions of natural
products (organic fertilizers and biological pest controls) could reduce the environmental
impact.
Salinization: This is the build up of salts at or near the surface due to irrigation
activities (which adds salt to the land via the water, and when the water
evaporates the salt remains). High levels of salt begin to crush the vegetation
and prevent roots and plants from acquiring water by osmosis. Better timing and
direct irrigation to the roots are alternatives being investigated.
Importance of forests: aesthetic, environmental, and economic values

The majority of Canada's forests (94%) are publicly owned and are managed by the
provincial and federal governments. Forests are and have always been a central part of
Ontario's cultural, economic, and social background. Prior to the arrival of Europeans,
Ontario's aboriginal people depended on the forests and their products for food, shelter,
and clothing as well as their culture.
Economic Value: Today, Ontario's forests support more than 81 000 jobs directly
related to the primary industry, and it is estimated another 324 000 jobs are supported in
other areas including tourism, manufacturing, construction, fishing, and hunting.
Specialty products from Ontario's forests include everyone's favourite pancake topping,
maple syrup.
Environmental Value: For every 1000 kg of new wood growth, approximately 1500 kg
of carbon dioxide is removed from the air and more than 1000 kg of oxygen is released
back into the air. Each forest is a diverse community and may be composed of a dozen
different tree species along with more than 100 different plants and animals. Forests are
important to the function of ecosystems because they protect soils from erosion. They
are also important in the nutrient (carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorous) and water cycles,
and they help to protect the quality of streams, rivers, and lakes.
Aesthetic Value: Forests are appealing to almost everyone and they provide
peace of mind for those looking for a relaxing environment. In the fall, the brilliance
of colour draws many nature lovers to the forests. Ontario's forests also provide a
place for camping, hiking, bird watching, hunting, and other recreational activities.
Silviculture
With the influence of human activities on the forest ecosystems, management plans are
important for developing sustainable forests for future generations.
Silviculture is the manipulation of forest vegetation in order to control forest
composition, growth, and forest pests and diseases. Silvicultural practices may include
a variety of cutting styles and controlled fires to maintain a healthy forest.
Cutting: clear, patch, selection, shelterwood
Clear-cutting system involves the removal of all trees in an area leaving a barren
landscape. Advantages of clear-cuts are that the post clear-cut treatments may include
burning the brush/stumps that are left behind, returning some nutrients to the soil;
foresters argue that this method is similar to natural forest fires. From an economic
standpoint it is the fastest, cheapest, and safest method for logging. However, there are
many harmful environmental impacts including the replanting of the forest with one tree
type producing a forest with a uniform size, shape, and species composition. The
removal of all trees (shelter and food) reduces the wildlife significantly. In addition,
ecosystem functioning and in particular soil, is degraded due to increased erosion, and
the water quality (fish habitat) is damaged from the runoff of soil and nutrients.
Shelterwood system is the clear-cutting of part of an old growth forest usually in long
strips (also referred to as strip clear-cutting). The benefits are that groups of seed
bearing trees are left beside the clear-cut areas to regenerate the area, and the rows of
trees protects against soil erosion. In general, these clear-cut areas have the same
problems as a full clear-cut, but with reduced effects.
Patch system is the clear-cutting of small areas (100-200 hectares), leaving the rest of
the forest intact. This leaves the most connectivity in the forest allowing the movement
of animals within the tracts of land. Seed bearing trees surrounding the cut areas are
able to regenerate naturally. One negative aspect of this system is that specialized
equipment (helicopters) may be needed to move the felled trees, or fragmentation may
be increased because more access roads would be required.
Selection system is harvesting only the mature trees of the desired shape, size, type,
or quality. The forest is left to regenerate naturally, and there is less soil erosion and
runoff. Habitat disruptions are minimized and habitat is left intact for the wildlife. The
main drawbacks of this method are economic as it is the most expensive of all methods
and requires the construction of more access roads that may lead to some forest
fragmentation.
Fire and Pests
Because most of the forests evolved with forest fires as a natural occurrence, some
species of trees and plants (e.g., jack pine and fireweed) adapted to and require
fire to germinate and thrive in the charred landscape. Humans have limited the
spread of natural forest fires for economic reasons and the safety of communities.
As an alternative, prescribed burns have been recommended by forest scientists to
emulate the natural fire conditions.
Forest insects and diseases can readily change forest conditions, often over large
areas. A number of major pests and diseases have had significant impacts on Ontario's
forests, including the spruce budworm, Dutch elm disease, gypsy moth, European
sawfly, emerald ash borer, and the Asian long horned beetle.
Ontario Crown Forest Sustainability Act
The Ontario Crown Forest Sustainability Act (1994) ensures that before any forestry
activities take place, a forest management plan is prepared. Forest companies are
licensed to manage the Crown forests for a period of 20 years.
A number of federal forest-related laws also govern aspects of forest management
activities in Ontario, including the Constitution Act, the Fisheries Act, and the Pest
Control Products Act.
The MNR is also responsible for 40 other laws dealing with resource management and
conservation issues related to forestry, provincial parks, conservation authorities,
fisheries, wildlife, water resources, aviation, firefighting, public lands, privately owned
lands, and aboriginal resource matters.
Ontario's parks and protected areas have added close to 2.5 million hectares since
1999 and close to 9 million hectares of land are now protected, with 6 million hectares
of forested area.
Pesticide use: impact and government guidelines
Pesticides:
Pesticides have been used extensively over the last century to control and destroy the
activities of pests. Pests can have a negative impact on human health. For example,
infected mosquitoes can spread malaria and West Nile virus throughout the human
population. Agricultural pesticide use includes insecticides to prevent crop damage and
fungicides to prevent plant disease. In forestry, pesticides are used to eliminate various
species that eat specific trees, e.g., to control the spread of gypsy budworm in Eastern
Canada.
Government Guidelines:
Health Canada's Pest Management Regulatory Agency (PMRA) regulates all pesticides
used, sold, or imported into Canada. The Pest Control Products Act (PCPA
implemented in June 2006) is a federal legislative authority. Before a product and its
use is registered, the PCPA requires the federal government to provide a science based
assessment of the pesticide to ensure that there is no risk to human health and the
environment. The PMRA requires additional protection for children and pregnant
women, and to take into account pesticide exposure from all sources, including food
and water.
Health Risks:
Pesticide intake may occur through dietary sources (food and water) as pesticides are
primarily used in agriculture to protect crops and livestock. In some instances, residues
of these pesticides can remain in or on foods that are being consumed, or the pesticides
may be washed away resulting in contamination of the drinking water.
Organophosphates (OPs) are a group of closely related pesticides used extensively in
agricultural and non-agricultural sites that have the potential to affect functioning of the
nervous system. The risk assessment of these pesticides is currently being conducted,
and several of the pesticides have been voluntarily discontinued and residential uses
severely restricted.
Carbamate Pesticides are a group of closely related pesticides used in homes,
gardens, and agriculture that have potential to affect the functioning of the nervous
system. As with the OPs, a risk assessment is being conducted.
Lawn Care Pesticides have generated increased concern over their use in residential
areas and this has led to a review by the PMRA of four herbicides and four insecticides
commonly used in lawn care. As a result of the review, the insecticides chlorpyrifos,
diazinon, and malathion (broadcast turf use), and the herbicide mecoprop are being
phased out.
Soil analysis tests: porosity, moisture, pH, nutrients
Soils that are mature, fertile, and undisturbed develop from the chemical and physical
weathering processes of rock along with the decomposition of plant and animal material
over many centuries. In most cases, soil provides the growing medium for plants by
providing a substrate for the plant to take root and grow. In addition, soils also provide
nutrients, oxygen, and water.
Soil is a mixture of particles and organic matter (which provides nutrients to the soil
when decomposed) of varying sizes, in which the classification of soils are based.
Sandy soils are composed of mostly large sized particles with large pore spaces
whereas clay soils are composed of small particles containing many small pore spaces.
The porosity (a measure of the volume of space between particles of soil) is important
to plants and soil development because it determines the rate in which water and air
moves throughout the soil.
Sandy desert soil and the soil found on forest floors will have vastly different properties.
Soil type together with precipitation and temperature determine the type of vegetation
supported in an ecosystem.
Composting
Adding organic matter to the soil is advantageous in many ways. It increases the ability
of the soil to hold water, it improves the soil structure, and the natural decomposition
process releases nutrients (reduces the cost and environmental issues of adding
fertilizers). A simple way to get organic matter into your soil is by adding compost which
you can buy or produce yourself with nearly no expense.
Composting is the aerobic decomposition of organic matter. Composting reuses the
organic waste produced in your home (or on your farm) and reduces the amount of
"green" wastes going to the landfills. It is important to remove the "green" wastes
from the landfills because the anaerobic breakdown releases methane gas that is a
much better greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide (i.e. it is better at trapping the
radiation).
Approximately 80% of wastes produced in the home are split between recyclable
(cans, paper, plastic, glass) and organic waste (food leftovers including apple
cores, banana peels, egg shells, etc.). Most communities across Ontario and
Canada have recycling programs for glass, plastic, aluminium, and paper; however,
only a few including the Greater Toronto Area (G.T.A.) have the green box for
organic wastes.
Needs of a compost pile

Compost piles require moist conditions (adding water to the pile), heat for increased
microbial activity (generated by the organisms in the compost), oxygen (from the turning
of the compost pile), and the addition of nitrogen and carbon.
What to add to compost piles
How to add Nitrogen-rich (soft and green) material
● manure from chickens, cows, horses, rabbits, pigs, and other herbivores
● fruit and vegetable peels
● grass clippings, green leaves
How to add Carbon-rich (brown) material
● wood chips, ground-up twigs, pruning scraps
● sawdust
● autumn leaves
● straw
Some materials that should not be added to home composting piles include meat, dairy
products, cooking oil, and manure of non herbivores for a number of reasons including
slower decomposition, attraction of animals, unpleasant odours, and the need of much
higher temperatures to kill pathogens.
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Review:

Plant requirements: moisture, nutrients, growing medium, light, air:

Soil horizons (OABC)

Soil texture: sand, silt, clay, loam

Impact of acid rain and acid soils

Agricultural issues: erosion, monocultures, compaction, chemicals, salinization

Monocultures: In industrialized countries, large scale farming activities often

Importance of forests: aesthetic, environmental, and economic values

Needs of a compost pile

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