1214418

research-article2023
AEIXXX10.1177/15345084231214418Assessment for Effective InterventionStevenson et al.

Special Series Manuscript

Assessment for Effective Intervention

Assessing Classroom Management

1­–5
© Hammill Institute on Disabilities 2023
Article reuse guidelines:
Practices: Setting the Stage for Effective sagepub.com/journals-permissions
DOI: 10.1177/15345084231214418
https://doi.org/10.1177/15345084231214418

and Equitable Intervention aei.sagepub.com

Nathan A. Stevenson, PhD1 , Sara McDaniel, PhD2, and Shanna E. Hirsch, PhD3

Abstract
This introduction to the special issue, “Assessing Classroom Management Practices: Setting the Stage for Effective
and Equitable Intervention,” overviews the importance of classroom management and how the field defines classroom
management and previews the articles included in this special issue. The purpose of the special issue was to provide readers
with wide-ranging assessment tools, their strengths, and weaknesses used to assess classroom management practices. This
extends to how researchers analyze classroom management data and novel approaches to analyses. Readers will see
the special issue leads with a thorough meta-analysis of existing classroom management assessment tools, followed by
descriptions of other tools and related practices.

Keywords
assessment, behavior, classroom management, prevention

Teaching seems to require the sort of skills one would need to
pilot a bus full of live chickens backwards, with no brakes,
down a rocky road through the Andes while providing colorful
and informative commentary on the scenery (Habit, 2018).
Teaching is much more than presenting academic instruc-
tion. A large component of each teacher’s day is connecting
with students and setting up routines to support students’
understanding of what is expected during instruction. It pro-
vides students with a safe and supportive community where
they explore topics while learning new skills, working
together, taking intellectual risks, and learning to work inde-
pendently. To do this, teachers spend energy and time during
academic instruction preventing and responding to unwanted
distractions, disruptions, off-task behavior, and other behav-
ioral challenges (e.g., Brophy & Good, 1986). This skill has
had many different labels over time, most commonly “class-
room management.” Of course, classroom management is
not so much a singular thing as it is a collection of practices,
strategies, and interactions between students and teachers.
We define classroom management as the collection of prac-
tices that prevent and respond to common behaviors that
compromise the learning environment or instruction in
inclusive classrooms. This includes many common practices
not exclusive to classroom management, but generally
regarded as necessities for quality instruction (e.g., building
relationships, greeting students at the door, using reminders,
optimizing seating, providing behavior-specific praise, set-
ting clear norms or expectations, supervising students;
Sabornie & Espelage, 2023). Like many others, we regard
classroom management as distinct from behavior manage-
ment (Stevenson et al., 2020; e.g., focus on intensive behav-
ioral needs of individuals), although these concepts have a
great deal of overlap.
What Is Classroom Management and Why
Focus on It?
In certain cases, the term “classroom management” may
have a decidedly negative connotation. Some may even
characterize the term itself as pejorative. For example,
Calais and Green (2022) highlight the importance of
inspecting positive behavior support and discipline response
strategies for their role in victimizing students and perpetu-
ating white supremacy. Another perspective is that class-
room management is about control of individual students
and that behaviorism is harmful to students (Kohn, 2001).
To be clear, we advocate against manipulative or harmful
1
Kent State University, OH, USA
2
American Institutes for Research, Arlington, VA, USA
3
Clemson University, SC, USA
Corresponding Author:
Nathan A. Stevenson, Kent State University, 405 White Hall, 150
Terrace Drive, Kent, OH 44242-0001, USA.
Email: nsteve15@kent.edu
Associate Editor: Leanne R. Ketterlin-Geller
2 Assessment for Effective Intervention 00(0)
techniques aimed at controlling students and against strate-
gies that contribute to the perpetuation of racism and dis-
crimination in any way. But implemented effectively, these
concerns should be alleviated by effective, contextually,
and culturally relevant classroom management practices
(e.g., co-creating classroom expectations, equitable distri-
bution of positive practices such as praise and opportunities
to respond, and centering connection and building relation-
ships with students rather than punitive and corrective prac-
tices). There are great philosophical discussions to be had
on the role of the teacher and what vocabulary to use in
describing one’s skill and influence over students’ behavior.
However, neither the term “classroom management” itself
nor the collection of practices referenced above are inher-
ently problematic if implemented properly. By our defini-
tion, classroom management is merely a practical means of
framing the skills teachers need to create an inclusive and
supportive environment conducive to intellectual, behav-
ioral, and social–emotional growth through connection,
using contextually and culturally relevant practices.
Regardless of one’s position on the term itself, there is no
denying teachers have a professional, practical, and ethical
duty to create and maintain an environment in which all
students learn.
Classroom teachers can, and should, prevent behaviors
that make learning more difficult for all students. And when
unexpected behaviors do arise, the teacher must respond to
those behaviors in ways that limit any potential negative
effects (e.g., damaged relationships, shame, harm), both
immediately and into the future (Youngs et al., 2023). This is
work the teacher cannot do in isolation; it requires coopera-
tion and collaboration with students. Students respond to
connection, instruction, rules, routines, and procedures.
Teachers must deftly navigate (manage) complex interac-
tions and behaviors, and choose an appropriate and effective
response. While we refer to this as “classroom management”
throughout this special issue, we invite readers to continue to
interrogate the role of “managing” or “controlling” practices
and how these practices may or may not lead to students
forming connections, feeling a sense of belonging, inclusion
for all students, and ultimately learning.
Recently, teacher attrition has risen sharply (Ingersoll et
al., 2021) and fewer people are enrolling in teacher educa-
tion programs nationwide (García et al., 2023). In response,
many states have lowered requirements for training and
licensure, which only serves to feed the cycle of teachers
entering the workforce ill-prepared to effectively address
common behavior problems (Franco & Patrick, 2023).
Classroom management is one of many topics in education
that is, at once, a constant topic of discussion, and yet per-
petually ignored by policymakers and higher education
administrators as academic instruction is often prioritized
over behavioral instruction (Stevenson et al., 2020).
Failure to prioritize classroom management as the bed-
rock of prevention that enables effective instruction creates
an environment in which minor behavior issues are more
likely to flourish and become more intensive. Under these
conditions, educators have little choice but to rely on more
traditional disciplinary practices that rely on exclusion and
punitive consequences. Exclusionary and punitive forms of
discipline although are not effective, harmful, and lead to
disconnection, poor achievement, and equity concerns
(Gage et al., 2019; MacSuga-Gage et al., 2021). Rather than
leaning on reactive practices, educators need proactive
approaches to supporting students’ social–emotional–
behavioral outcomes. It is only one subset of the skills
teachers need to prevent and respond to behaviors that make
teaching more difficult than it needs to be.
Purpose of the Special Issue
As difficult as it is to teach effective classroom manage-
ment practices, it is just as difficult to assess the teacher
behaviors we refer to as “classroom management” prac-
tices, particularly because the field does not have one
defined set of such practices or a single tool for assessing
these practices. Instead, the field currently has a wide array
of teacher practices that may be considered “classroom
management” practices, differing opinions about the role of
classroom management in equitable, culturally responsive
schools and classrooms, and a lack of cohesion around sub-
jective, yet seemingly important constructs related to class-
room management such as student–teacher relationships,
warmth, connection, belonging, and inclusion. The purpose
of this special issue of Assessment for Effective Intervention
(AEI) is to present a variety of articles focused on assessing
classroom management practices. Assessing classroom
management carries a unique set of conceptual and techni-
cal challenges with wide-ranging implications for teacher
training, research, and school improvement. This special
issue was conceived to (a) showcase cutting-edge research
on classroom management, (b) highlight specific challenges
in classroom management research, and (c) show how
effective assessment of key areas within and around class-
room management can be leveraged to improve the quality
of instruction and intervention.
We are under no illusions that a single special issue of a
peer-reviewed scientific journal will turn the tide of behav-
ior issues in public education, nor stem the crisis of teacher
attrition. Our aim in crafting this issue is to chip away at the
expanse of fractured, diffused, and undiscovered informa-
tion on classroom management and provide a useful cohe-
sive resource by which to make incremental progress. We
hope the articles compiled here will illuminate a pathway to
improved teacher training and improved educational expe-
riences for children. The articles selected for this special
Stevenson et al.
issue present novel findings through various research
designs. Each article showcases the complexity and impor-
tance of classroom management research, along with the
many practical, logistical, and methodological challenges.
Classroom Management Assessment
The skills, assessments, and outcomes of evidence-based
classroom management span the fields of teacher education,
special education, and psycho-educational assessment.
Despite more than four decades of research and develop-
ment on classroom management issues, there is little con-
sensus on the most effective methods of assessments and
how those assessments should be used in classroom set-
tings. Likewise, there is great untapped potential in class-
room management for ensuring equity and engagement of
learners that have been historically and systemically ill-
served in public schools.
Methods of assessment vary quite dramatically in the
scope and type of data collected (e.g., direct observation,
rating scales, self-reports, rubrics) as well as the consis-
tency, reliability, and social validity of such instruments.
Various forms of tools are available to collect these data
(e.g., video analysis, classroom observation). In light of the
recent pandemic, researchers are reconceptualizing class-
room management to include synchronous (live, online) as
well as dual-modality (blended online/in person) settings
(Hirsch et al., 2021). This reconceptualization also means
data collection strategies must be adapted or invented to
meet new conditions. Furthermore, the field is moving
toward implementing and assessing equitable, culturally
responsive classroom practices which require valid, reliable
assessment as well. Each of these new branches adds a layer
of complexity to an already convoluted field of study. As
the scope and purpose of classroom management assess-
ment evolve, so must the assessments themselves. Existing
tools and techniques must be honed and adapted to new
situations. New tools must also be developed to meet spe-
cialized needs and contexts. Data produced by such tools
need to be easily interpretable and actionable. And, teachers
and administrators need proper training to make meaning-
ful, effective use of these tools in challenging practical
classroom settings.
Scope and Purpose of This Special Issue
Currently, there are no cohesive sources of information on
assessment of classroom management that draw together
and unpack the technical and practical implications for vari-
ous approaches to classroom management assessment. The
purpose of this special issue is to summarize and highlight
various approaches to assessing classroom management,
and the ways such assessment can be used to inform teacher
3
practice and professional improvement. Authors were asked
to specifically address the ways in which an approach or
instrument for assessing classroom management including
equitable and culturally responsive practices can inform
teacher practice and/or the classroom environment that
serves as backdrop for instruction and intervention for all
students.
Summary of Included Articles
This special issue solicited submissions across a wide array
of approaches and traditions. Preference was given to arti-
cles that specifically addressed issues of engagement, jus-
tice, and equity in classroom management practices and
assessments. There are two types of articles in this special
issue. First, we have four full reports. These are full articles
that describe psychometric studies and outcomes. Then, we
have two brief reports. Brief reports are shorter articles that
highlight key components of classroom practice assessment
but do not extend to the full description seen in the full
reports. The standards of practice and process of peer
review are identical for full and brief reports. Articles were
chosen through an open submission process, and were all
fully peer-reviewed in a masked process by reviewers with
extensive expertise and experience. This process yielded six
strong and diverse articles that we hope will contribute to
the literature base and practical application of assessment,
tool development, and educational practice. Moreover, the
six articles related to assessing classroom management illu-
minate how classroom management research has evolved
over time and foreshadow the direction of classroom man-
agement research into the future.
To frame the wide range of existing and overlapping
assessment tools, the first article in the issue is a systematic
review and meta-analysis of classroom management assess-
ment. Jason Chow, Kristen Granger, Yang Fu, and Ashley
Morse describe existing assessment of classroom manage-
ment in the school-based literature along with their psycho-
metric properties. The authors analyzed 74 studies which
captured 76 different classroom management assessments.
They describe the high levels of variability in assessment,
study designs, ages of student populations, duration in num-
ber and length of observations, as well as number of items
on surveys and scales. To that end, they provide implica-
tions for future research in classroom management.
The second article importantly focuses on classroom
management practices that are culturally sustaining, and
how best to use assessment of classroom management prac-
tices to promote equity. Schools often rely on office disci-
pline referral data as a marker for disproportionality. This
article by Lindsay Romano steps beyond office referrals to
capture more nuanced information on the ways teachers use
classroom management assessments to inform practice.
4 Assessment for Effective Intervention 00(0)
This article presents qualitative findings from 25 educators
that highlight how educators do or do not integrate culture
into their classroom management practices and how assess-
ment data can be or are used to promote equitable instruc-
tional opportunities for all students, and presents a hopeful
glance at how best to extend this work in the future.
The third article describes the development and evalua-
tion of the Assessing School Settings: Interactions of
Students and Teachers (ASSIST; Rusby et al., 2011) tool.
Catherine Bradshaw, Summer Braun, Heather McDaniel,
Chelsea Kaihoi, Elise Pas, Jessika Bottaini, Ann Cash, and
Katrina Debham describe a pair of complementary studies
designed to evaluate the reliability and validity of ASSIST
across a variety of classrooms and school types. Results of
these studies indicate the ASSIST instrument and protocols
produce consistent and reliable observational data over time
and across a variety of settings. The strength of evidence
suggests ASSIST is a suitable tool for data collection in
research and practice applications. Implications, recom-
mended uses, context, and limitations are discussed.
The fourth article from Jessica Torelli, Christina Noel,
Thomas Gross, and Kaitlyn Morris presents a novel
approach to not only assessing classroom management but
how to analyze those data and make the best use of data to
provide necessary professional learning to improve prac-
tice. They suggest an adapted alternating treatments design
may be a simple and efficient approach to collecting data,
analyzing data, and using these data to support teachers.
They worked with eight classroom teachers and introduced
an online supplementary intervention and coaching as an
intervention to promote effective classroom management
practices. This adaptation of methods commonly used in
single-subject experimental research to application in pro-
fessional development has distinct advantages over more
traditional forms of professional development.
The fifth article is a brief report on the Classroom
Atmosphere Rating Scale—Brief (CARS-B; Wehby et al.,
1993) with a focus on student behavior. Allison Gilmour,
Joseph H. Wehby, and Jessica R. Boyle assessed the proper-
ties of the CARS-B using item response theory and multi-
level models. They found that the CARS-B is a promising
tool for assessing classroom management as the theta scores
were positively associated with students’ on-task behavior.
They also describe considerations for future research related
to revising the CARS-B.
To conclude the special issue, Anniette Maldano, Aaron
J. Fischer, Hannah Michael Wright, Rylee L. Jensen, Ashley
N. Coombs, Sara N. Mathis, Keely Lundy, Leanne Hawken,
Keith C. Radley, and Lauren Perez present a brief report of
preliminary validation for a universal classroom manage-
ment assessment tool. This brief report describes the results
of a factor analysis of the Components of a Successful
Classroom (CSC; Fischer et al., 2019) tool. Results indicate
the assessment tool performs best with three factors (i.e.,
preventive supports, feedback provision and engagement,
and expectations and consequences) and the results of this
assessment tool can be used to provide targeted consultation
to support more effective classroom management practices.
Conclusion
Classroom management in schools is one area in desperate
need of improvement. Without high-quality, accurate, reli-
able, and meaningful means of assessment, it is impossible
to make consistent systematic improvements in teacher
training, disciplinary outcomes, or any other outcome of
importance. The articles in this special issue of AEI repre-
sent a cross-section of approaches, methods, and priorities
in classroom management research. Individually, they each
make an important contribution. Chow and colleagues pull
together pertinent information into a helpful meta-analysis
and descriptive review. Bradshaw and colleagues overview
the ASSIST tool that was used across elementary and mid-
dle school with 41 teachers. Similarly, Gilmour and col-
leagues overview the CARS-B but this was tested with 158
general education and special educators. Also, Maldano
and colleagues report on the use of the CSC that was tested
in general education but inform consultation. The article by
Torelli and colleagues also describes the use of assessment
data in coaching but worked across PK to 12 with seven
teachers. Finally, Romano reports on important qualitative
findings from secondary teachers. Together they showcase
key challenges and innovations in the evolution of class-
room management assessment, training, and application.
We encourage readers to think of these articles not as end-
points, but as catalysts for further creativity and scientific
study.
Moreover, we encourage readers to think critically
about how each of the articles applies to students and
teachers in contemporary classrooms. As the journal’s
name itself suggests, assessment has a specific purpose.
Advancements in the assessment and classroom manage-
ment skills are not merely for the advancement of science
but for the expressed purpose of providing more effective
educational experiences for students, particularly for those
with persistent learning challenges. The articles included
in this special issue provide assessment approaches across
diverse settings and with a diverse populations of teachers
and students. Articles report from PK to 12th grades,
include general education and special education teachers,
and vary in their assessment methods from brief tools
(e.g., CARS-B; nine items) to longer methods (e.g.,
ASSIST; 42 items, 15-minute observation). We conceived
and crafted this special issue of AEI under a refrain of
what this work means for students and teachers. We hope
readers will do the same.
Stevenson et al.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect
to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
ORCID iDs
Nathan A. Stevenson https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8009-8578
Shanna E. Hirsch https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3044-9338
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