Cleaner and Responsible Consumption 12 (2024) 100168

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Cleaner and Responsible Consumption

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Social perception on rainwater harvesting and wastewater reuse:

Opportunities and challenges of a fast-growing township in Dhaka
Md. Habibul Huq a, Md. Mafizur Rahman a, G.M. Jahid Hasan b, *
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Military Institute of Science and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Dhaka, the only megacity of Bangladesh is facing water stress due to unplanned urbanization and lack of sus­
Rainwater harvesting tainable water management practices. The two important components of Integrated Urban Water Management, i.
Wastewater reuse e., rainwater harvesting (RWH) and wastewater reuse are hardly practiced in Dhaka. A new township is growing
Water stress
in Dhaka to meet the dwelling needs of middle-income groups with the opportunities to integrate both the
Social perception
Beneficiary and functionary
systems. However, the integration is either missing or lacks considerations of sustainability. This study explores
Sustainable urban water management the perceptions of 256 respondents (beneficiary and functionary) to ascertain the opportunities and challenges of
integration of RWH and wastewater of the growing township using structured questionnaires. The awareness,
level of knowledge, willingness and key necessities have been explored through the questions. The general
awareness level on RWH and wastewater reuse ranges between 30% - 62% and 34%- 42% respectively for
different age groups. Around 70% of the respondents lack knowledge on regulatory aspects of its implementa­
tion. Apart from economic insights, the perception reveals around 64% willingness towards its integration for
urban water demand management. Complete awareness generation, enforcement of compliance and streamlining
the process of integration are the key imperatives to offset the non-adoption of both components.

1. Introduction
Water, valued as blue gold, is an inimitable component of human
sustenance and sustainable development. The annual increase of global
water use continues by about 1% per year since 1980 with a possible
increase of 20%–30% of current level of use by 2050 (WWDR, 2021).
The global average physical water stress is around 11% and ranging
from 25% to 70% for 53 countries of the world (WWAP, 2019). The
world is now more than half urban and nearly 68% of the global pop­
ulation will be living in cities with significant water stress by 2050
(Un-Habitat, 2020; UNESCO, 2019). Climate change, urbanization,
population and economic growth, and social development are the
common stresses for changing the urban environments and water re­
sources (Chaturvedi et al., 2021; WWDR, 2020; Zhang et al., 2020).
Water security has now become one of the top priorities for policy
makers, city planners, and land managers in many developed and
developing countries of the world due to its abundance, scarcity and
pollution (Kundzewicz and Kowalczak, 2009; Ge et al., 2015). While
considering the global water security index, Bangladesh along with
other developing countries are less secure in terms of water
management, access to water services, water quality and safety, and
water availability (IPCC et al., 2022).
Planned and environmentally sustainable urbanization is a pressing
need in the mega cities across the world to avoid irreversible impact on
urban water cycle. Among the 36 megacities of the world, the pace of
urbanization and population intensity are more in Asia and Africa
(Demographia World Urban Areas, 2021; UN-Habitat, 2020). Many
cities and megacities of Asia and Africa are facing numerous
water-related challenges in terms of water accessibility and water
quality caused by rapid urbanization and climate change (Pavlova and
Milshina, 2020; Kumar, 2019; Li et al., 2019). Intensive industrializa­
tion, fast urbanization, rapid modernization along with misallocation of
water resources, severe water scarcity, water pollution, uncontrolled
GW extraction and depletion and the conventional approach of water
management are the root causes of water challenges and stresses in
Asian and African megacities (NIUA and UNESCO, 2021; Chang et al.,
2020; Song et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2018; Kanwar et al., 2018; Rohilla
et al., 2017). Urban water management in megacity Dhaka is not secured
due to unabated water pollution and lack of sustainable urban water
management practices (Iftekhar and Islam, 2022; Nawar et al., 2022).

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jahid@ce.mist.ac.bd (G.M.J. Hasan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clrc.2024.100168
Received 7 July 2023; Received in revised form 18 December 2023; Accepted 1 January 2024
Available online 3 January 2024
2666-7843/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Md.H. Huq et al.
More than 78% of the water demand is met from GW with an annual
aquifer depletion rate 2–3m (DWASA, 2020).
As spatio-temporal distribution of water and its impact on urbani­
zation are uneven, urban water management demands a holistic
approach by recognizing historical, social, cultural, economic, regula­
tory, and institutional contexts along with climatic, hydrologic, land
use, and ecological issues of urban areas (Marsalek et al., 2007; Sun
et al., 2015). Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM) has been
widely propagated as a contemporary global philosophy for urban water
management by integrating rainwater and wastewater elements to
augment the water security of a city without compromising the sus­
tainability of vital ecosystems (Koop et al., 2022; WPP, 2016; GWP,
2013). However, the concept lacks practical and successful evidence in
developing countries as it involves multi-stakeholder engagement and
institutional change (Hossain and Bahauddin, 2013; Wietske et al.,
2008; van der Zaag, 2005).
As an important component of IUWM, the global interest on the use
of RWH systems is increasing and being implemented in cities of the
developed world as opposed to the developing ones (Yannopoulos et al.,
2019). Despite recognized benefits and initiatives, RWH remains unre­
alized in Dhaka or any other urban areas of Bangladesh except for
limited use in coastal areas since 1984 (Tabassum et al., 2013). Being a
tropical country, rainwater remains a promising water source for Dhaka
as well as for Bangladesh. The known challenges from different studies
of urban RWH systems across the world include the lack of social
awareness, acceptance and attitude towards using rainwater as it is a
free resource, lack of technical knowledge and standardization for its
implementation, significant space requirement for the storage facility in
costly urban land, maintenance aspects of the system, economic con­
straints, funding mechanism and engagement of stakeholders in making
it a reality (Sheikh, 2020; Khanal et al., 2020; Campisano et al., 2017;
Mwamila et al., 2016; Fahmida, 2015; Ahmed et al., 2013). Alongside,
Bangladesh is one of the countries with the lowest level of wastewater
reuse in the Asia Pacific region and only 2% water of Dhaka is safely
managed (WWDR, 2017).
With the highest population density among the megacities of the
world, Dhaka is likely to be the 4th largest megacity after Delhi, Tokyo
and Shanghai with 28.076 million by 2030 and 31.234 million by 2035
(IPCC et al., 2022; UN, 2018). As an emerging economy of the world, the
megacity Dhaka needs to integrate RWH and wastewater reuse options
towards realizing the SDGs 6 and 11 and making a sustainable city with
better water supply and sanitation provisions. Any new urban growth in
Dhaka retains the potential to integrate both the systems. However, a
new high-density township is growing fast in Dhaka’s eastern region
with all the infrastructure, amenities and facilities for a fully functional
urban living by 2040 or beyond without much consideration of both in
meeting the overall water demand (JUDA, 2015). As social inclusion and
awareness may change the urban development paradigm, this study
attempts to explore the perception of the beneficiary (living population
i.e., land owners and residents) and functionary (urban development
authority) of the township for integrating rainwater and wastewater as
important components of overall water management and identify the
opportunities and challenges of implementation. In doing so, at first, the
location and hydrogeological settings, the broad details of land-use
change and the general information of the township have been briefly
explained. In addition, existing context and regulatory aspects of urban
rainwater and wastewater management for Dhaka and the township
have been outlined to compare and identify the knowledge gaps and
application level by the beneficiary and functionary. Then, the meth­
odology of the perception evaluation has been highlighted with the
demographic details of the survey respondents. Finally, the results of the
perception survey have been projected and discussed for RWH and
wastewater reuse separately along with the opportunities and challenges
of integration and implementation. At the end, some important insights
are suggested from the perceived knowledge for realizing RWH and
wastewater reuse for the growing township that may be useful in future
2
Cleaner and Responsible Consumption 12 (2024) 100168
urban development and sustainable water management in Dhaka and
other megacities.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Location and hydrogeological settings of study area
The growing city area is located in the eastern region of Dhaka and
lies between latitude 23◦ 47′5″N to 23◦ 49′15″N and longitude 90◦ 29′5″E
to 90◦ 31′3″E. The area is reclaimed from low-lying agricultural land to
urban land with sand-filling which had been the flood plains of the River
Balu in the west and the River Shitalakkhya in the east (Fig. 1). The soil
of the filled land after development is adequately deep and well-drained
sands with low runoff potential. Areas planned for residential develop­
ment are expected to have an average elevation of 8–8.25 m SOB
(Survey of Bangladesh) reference level. Other surrounding areas are
generally low, flat, and flood-prone and elevation varies from 0 to 12.52
m above mean sea level. The reclaimed land possesses a loose sand layer
of 5–8 m thick at top (DU, 2014).
The urban water footprint of the township is quite rich as it is
enclosed by two major rivers of Dhaka city along with an internal canal
network. One of the canals has a direct link to river Balu. There is no
treated water supply system in the area. Existing population is relying on
GW which is available now with a high-water table. The annual rainfall
of 42 (1980–2021) years from Bangladesh Meteorological Department
(BMD) in Dhaka is relatively varying with an annual average about
2041 mm.
2.2. Land-use plan and general information of the township
The land area has been divided into 17 sectors with residential,
commercial, educational, healthcare, community and utility services,
sports, and amusement facilities. The pace of development is noticeable
and infrastructure development works are ongoing. The major land-use
occupancy relates to residential plots with 335 m2. The residential area
covers around 33% of the total land-use followed by 31% for roads and
10% for water bodies. Land-use change analysis of the township during
full scale urban development was assessed applying GIS and using the
urban development control tools for Dhaka, i.e., Floor Area Ratio (FAR),
Maximum Ground Coverage (MGC) and set back distances as per land-
use occupancy (GOB, 2008; GOB, 2020). Different land-use changes
were categorized as paved, unpaved and water bodies to assess the RWH
potential of the growing township from the total structural and
non-structural components as in Fig. 2. Other general information of the
township is at Table 1.
The population of urban growth will keep increasing with the
gradual change in the land-use. Due to leverage of the FAR as per
Detailed Area Plan (DAP) of Dhaka (GOB, 2022), the design population
and density of the urban growth is likely to be high during full-scale
urban growth. In general, water demand is directly related to the
socio-economic status of the living population and the available public
facilities. For the growing township, per capita water consumption is
considered as 135 lpcd with restricted facilities as the living population
belongs to the middle-income group as per Bangladesh National Build­
ing Code (BNBC) 2020 (GOB, 2020).
According to the water use and consumption, daily non-potable de­
mand is around (for only toilet flushing and cleaning house) 30% of
daily water demand i.e., 40.5 lpcd.
2.3. Rainwater and wastewater management context of Dhaka and the
growing township
To date, urban water management in Dhaka is not secure and resil­
ient due to acute dependency on GW and no much contribution from the
alternative water resources i.e., rainwater and wastewater. RWH of any
kind is hardly observed in Dhaka. All rainwater and wastewater are
Md.H. Huq et al. Cleaner and Responsible Consumption 12 (2024) 100168

Fig. 1. Regional boundary of mega city Dhaka and location of the growing township (Source: SOB).

Fig. 2. Land-use details of the growing township.

Table 1
General information of the study area in Dhaka.
Parameters Information Remarks/Considerations Source

Area for township 8.768 km2 Residential urban development with all modern Joshiri Urban Development Authority
development amenities and facilities (JUDA)
Projected population 9,18,057 Likely by the year 2040 JUDA
Maximum land-use 8379 plots with an area of 335 m2 Minimum area for maximum residential development JUDA
occupancy
Major land-use - Paved area 61.55% (roof catchment 25.91% - All paved surfaces include all structural components GIS analysis of the area using FAR and
details and roads and other paved area 35.64%) (roof of all buildings and roads) MGC as per BNBC 2020; GOB 2008
- Unpaved area 28.83% - Golf course, playground, parks, urban green, and
- Water bodies 9.62% unpaved spaces of all structures as per building code
- Canal network and lake
Urban water River Shitalakkhya, River Balu, internal canal All surface and GW sources are polluted and non-potable Results of lab tests of water samples of four
footprint network and GW sources from MIST

either drained to the existing combined sewer system or in water bodies
or low-lying lands. Although RWH systems are site specific, the major
components of a domestic RWH system i.e., rain and catchment area, are
available at free of cost except the expenses involved for the storage and
pipe connections. However, the costs of integration can be reduced if the
system is incorporated during the construction of a building or structure.
The growing township has the potential to integrate the system, but
the opportunity is either not recognized with due importance or un­
aware. In case of wastewater management, it has planned for separate
stormwater and sewage management with centralized Sewage Treat­
ment Plant (STP) which would be functional by phases of urban devel­
opment and the STP not before 2030 (JUDA, 2015). However, the
township lacks the plan for RWH and interim wastewater management
during the low-density urban development.

3
Md.H. Huq et al.
2.4. Regulatory aspects of rainwater and wastewater management
Dhaka has spatially extended with an area of 1528 km2 as per DAP
(2022)to meet the dwelling needs of middle-and high-income house­
holds and ensure sustainable urban growth as opposed to unplanned
urban growth in Dhaka central region (GOB, 2022). National Policy for
Safe Water Supply and Sanitation 1998, National Water Policy 1999,
National Water Act 2013, SDGs, the Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100 and
BNBC (2020) articulate the strategies, policies and guidelines for
building sustainable cities by Integrated Water Resources Management
(IWRM) or IUWM approach (GOB, 1998; GOB, 1999; GOB, 2013; GOB,
2018; GOB, 2020). However, BNBC (2020) enunciates the legal
compliance and generalized details of urban rainwater management for
both domestic use and GW recharge and the management of wastewater
from urban structures and buildings in a city framework. However,
every building/house to be constructed on land-use/plots having an
extent of 300 m2 or above should have the facilities for conserving and
harvesting rainwater (GOB, 2020).
3. Methodology
A structured questionnaire was prepared to assess the perception of
the beneficiary and the functionary on RWH and wastewater reuse as an
alternative water resource and augment the sustainability of urban
water management. The purpose was to inform both the beneficiary and
functionary on the benefits and necessity of RWH system and waste­
water reuse and assess their views for its integration and implementa­
tion. Both beneficiary and functionary are from the defense background
and either retired or serving officers of various ranks. As many as 256
respondents (256 beneficiaries and selected 10 key functionaries who
are beneficiary as well) with academic background bachelor degree and
above participated in the survey. As the township has been planned for
the population of a specific sector; the academic backbone, experience
and the knowledge base of the community are quite strong to the
respond the questions reasonably. Hence, the questions were loosely
structured to provide more space to the respondents to understand the
context and fully express themselves. Both physical and online surveys
were conducted to get the opinions. Physical surveys in the form of in­
terviews and discussions were limited for the 10 key functionaries of the
urban development authority.
Any urban development in Dhaka involves the engagement of many
stakeholders and approvals from many government authorities. If the
urban area is beyond the jurisdiction of Dhaka City Corporations (DCC),
the urban water management in general, is the responsibility of urban
development authority until government authority owns that. The
growing township is beyond the jurisdiction of DCC. As such the urban
development authority of the township was considered as the key and
only functionary for the perception evaluation avoiding engagement of
too many stakeholders.
The perception evaluation broadly relates to the awareness and
benefits of rainwater and wastewater, water conservation, willingness to
use and reuse, implementation difficulties, legal compliance and doable
aspects for promoting urban RWH and wastewater reuse. However, the
major part of the questions was for identifying the knowledge gaps and
barriers of non-adoption of RWH. Moreover, all beneficiaries and
functionaries of the township have legal compliance for RWH integra­
tion as the minimum land-use is 335 m2 or above. The perception
evaluation on wastewater reuse was limited to identify the awareness
and knowledge level along with the necessities of implementing the
safely managed sanitation based on the temporal development of the
township from low to high density. The respondents were categorized
with four age groups i.e., 21–30, 31–40, 41–50 and 51–60 years
(Table 2). Around 70 % of the respondents were between the ages 21 to
40.
Due to lack of considerations on the potentials of RWH and waste­
water reuse, one single questionnaire was prepared for both beneficiary
4
Cleaner and Responsible Consumption 12 (2024) 100168
Table 2
Age groups of the respondents.
Age Group % Population
21–30 41%
31–40 29%
41–50 26%
51–60 4%
and functionary with mostly close-ended answers along with the options
of open-ended answers where necessary. The consent was taken from
every individual who participated in the questionnaire survey. A brief
illustration was given for every question so that the rationale of the
question is understood by all respondents. The selected questionnaire for
perception evaluation is briefly stated at Table 3 with the intended ob­
jectives of perception evaluation. Interviews and discussions were con­
ducted to identify the knowledge gaps of key functionaries. The
collected data were processed in excel as a source file, then sorted,
analyzed, simplified and interpreted as per the objectives of the study.
4. Results
The results of the perception study have been outlined separately for
RWH and wastewater reuse along with the opportunities and challenges
of integration and implementation.
4.1. Perception on RWH systems
The perception of beneficiary and functionary on RWH is evaluated
below for the growing township in Dhaka.
According to the age group, the percentage of complete awareness on
RWH ranges from 30 % to 62 %. Lack of awareness is more among the
relatively younger population aged between 21 and 40 years. Consid­
ering the overall awareness of the respondents, it is observed that
around 20% of the surveyed population are not aware of RWH and its
potential benefits. However, around 41 % are completely aware and 39
% are partly aware. Although results of general awareness are prom­
ising, there is a necessity to aware all beneficiaries and functionaries of
urban growth on the benefits of urban RWH systems for its effective
implementation (Fig. 3).
Five broad reasons were surveyed in order to identify the key causes
of non-adoption or rejection of urban RWH systems (Fig. 4). However,
lack of social awareness programs on application and benefits of RWH
system (33 %) and the unavailability of technical information, guide­
lines, and training on RWH and its installation (32 %) have been iden­
tified as the key two reasons for not adopting RWH in Dhaka city or
other urban areas. The other three reasons for non-adoption relates to
absence of functional RWH system, lack of knowledge and involvement
of additional cost for its operation and maintenance.
To assess the lack of water conservation or saving by the urban
dwellers as many as nine reasons were identified. Around 20% perceive
that the lack of water saving culture and no awareness and priority in the
country on water conservation and saving are the main reasons for non-
adoption. Other key reasons are availability of water and no real feeling
of water scarcity, not recognizing water as a finite resource or as an
economic good and lack of environmental and sustainability concern.
The survey finds no cultural and religious issues related to using rain­
water. Among others, 6% of the respondents think that low water tariff
and treating rainwater as wastewater are the likely reasons for lack of
water conservation and savings. In fact, all the reasons (Fig. 5) have
cumulative impacts towards non-conservation in urban water
management.
Around 70% of the beneficiary and functionary are unaware of the
assorted requirements for the implementation or compliance of rain­
water management plan as per the existing rule. Moreover, knowledge
and awareness gaps remain for most of the respondents on the
Md.H. Huq et al.
Table 3
Questionnaire for perception survey on RWH and wastewater reuse.
Objectives of Evaluation
Questionnaire on Rainwater Harvesting (RWH)
Level of awareness
Reasons for non-adoption
Lack of conservation of water
Knowledge on regulatory aspects/
compliance
Willingness towards rainwater
management
Feasible options for RWH
Uses of rainwater
Key necessities for successful
integration or implementation for
RWH systems
Questionnaire on Wastewater Reuse
Level of awareness
Key necessities of wastewater reuse
Cleaner and Responsible Consumption 12 (2024) 100168
Table 3 (continued )
Objectives of Evaluation Questions
Questions
⁃ Do you want to incorporate soakage pit or
absorption or infiltration trenches to
⁃ Are you aware of the term ‘Rainwater reduce pollution load on sewerage system
Harvesting (RWH)’ and its benefits for and increase GW recharge?
water management before? ⁃ Around 14% of the total urban growth is
⁃ What are the most important reasons for unpaved and open for urban green. This
not adopting RWH methods in Dhaka city can be managed easily with wastewater
or other urban areas? reuse through the greenery management
⁃ Why the conservation or saving in water (ecological and low-cost wastewater gar­
is not much practiced by the urban dens). Do you support such cost opti­
dwellers or in Dhaka city? mized integration for the greenery
⁃ RWH has a legal compliance for all plot management?
owners having plot size 300 sqm or above ⁃ Do you support decentralized small STPs/
as per Bangladesh National Building Code small wastewater treatment plants for the
2020, are you aware of the compliance? management of total wastewater as
⁃ Do you want to integrate RWH provision opposed to centralized system?
in your plot/building as you now know ⁃ Do you agree on the necessity of social
on its compliance? awareness programs to manage
⁃ Do you feel the necessity of knowing the wastewater properly for sustainable
procedural requirements for getting water management?
permit for installation of domestic RWH
or GW recharge systems before
constructing/developing your own
house?
⁃ To conserve part of the annual rainwater
from the roof, the plot/building owner
needs to have a moderate size storage
tank to manage 30% of the monthly
demand for “toilet flushing and house
cleaning” of a household of 5 family
members during dry months (Nov, Dec,
Jan, Feb, Mar & Apr). As a property
owner, will you invest for this water
saving approach from rainwater?
⁃ Whether individual, clustered, sector
wise or centralized RWH is planned, are Fig. 3. General awareness on RWH.
you willing to pay or share the financial
requirement during its construction?
⁃ RWH for GW recharge is one of the most
important options for water
conservation. This is like injecting
rainwater back to ground through some
cheaper and easier methods such as
recharge pit, infiltration trench, etc. Do
you support the inclusion of RWH for GW
recharge?
⁃ What should be the suitable domestic
usage of harvested rainwater?
⁃ Do you feel any incentive mechanism
from the government or water
management authority to promote and
integrate RWH system in all new
urbanization for individual or collective Fig. 4. Perception for non-adoption of RWH in urban areas.
implementation?
⁃ Do you agree on the necessity of social
awareness programs to promote RWH for
sustainable water management?
⁃ Do you feel the necessity of enforcement/
compliance from concerned authority to
integrate RWH in all new establishments/
buildings?
⁃ Are you aware that wastewater is a
resource and can be used sustainably in
various ways?
⁃ Do you feel the necessity to integrate
properly designed septic tank system for
your dwelling to better manage the
wastewater from the toilet facility and
reduce the pollution for treatment?
⁃ Do you intend to integrate septic tank
system and Fecal Sludge Management
(FSM) hygienic living until conventional
sewerage system with wastewater Fig. 5. Perception on lack of water conservation.
treatment plant is functional?
5
Md.H. Huq et al.
responsible implementing authority for RWH systems and water man­
agement. The role of different government/non-government stake­
holders such as city, town and water development/management
authority remain unclear, uncertain and unintegrated. Urban develop­
ment authority as a functionary needs to know this aspect, integrate,
inform and ensure its implementation by the urban dwellers. The
knowledge level on other regulatory aspects of RWH implementation
such as permit, application, separate site plan and licensing re­
quirements for installation are mostly unknown to both beneficiary and
functionary.
Having informed the regulatory requirements, questions were to
assess the state of willingness for the adoption of domestic RWH. The
results of the perceived willingness are at Fig. 6. First, around 64 %
respondents are interested in integrating the domestic RWH systems
while 30% are undecided mainly because of the lack of complete
awareness and knowledge on the benefits of RWH. Second, an assess­
ment was done whether an individual feels the necessity of knowing.
Second, around 84% are interested to know the details of requirements
for integrating RWH for domestic water use and GW recharge before
constructing their own house and only 16 % are either not interested or
disagree for RWH systems. Third, around 63 % agree to invest for
integrating RWH systems and the rest are unsure or not interested. Last
question was to assess the willingness to pay for the share whatever
arrangement is made for RWH by the functionary. To conserve the
rainwater, there may be different options for storage such as individual,
clustered arrangements (with some buildings/plots together), sector
wise (17 sectors), or centralized arrangement. However, 52% are willing
to pay or share the investment requirement during its construction and
38 % intend to consider later as being unsure.
As the township will be dependent on the GW supply for its popu­
lation initially, RWH as GW recharge is important. The inclusion of RWH
for GW recharge for the township was assessed with five given options as
(i) all rainwater should be for GW recharge, (ii) rainwater from all roof
catchments should be for GW recharge instead of domestic RWH, (iii)
rainwater from all roof catchments and unpaved open area for GW
recharge, (iv) partly for GW recharge and partly for domestic water
demand management, and (v) unsure. Maximum of the population,
around 60% suggested RWH for both domestic water demand and GW
management.
Suitability of domestic usage of harvested rainwater was assessed
with ten given options. Around 88% of the respondents suggested non-
potable uses of rainwater while only 5% and 6% proposed for potable
uses as drinking and cooking respectively. However, house cleaning
(14%), gardening (14%), toilet flushing (13%), washing clothes (13%),
washing car and parking lot (12%), and cleaning utensils (11%) are the
major non-potable uses suggested by the urban dwellers. As such the
RWH systems tend to be more suitable for non-potable demand man­
agement of the growing city.
To explore the effectiveness of implementation of RWH, perception
was assessed on the requirements of incentive mechanisms for RWH
adoption, social awareness programs on the benefits of RWH and the
Fig. 6. Perception on willingness to integrate domestic RWH systems.
6
Cleaner and Responsible Consumption 12 (2024) 100168
Fig. 7. Perception for essentials of RWH implementation.
necessity of enforcement of compliance from the concerned authority
(Fig. 7). Around 90% of the respondents suggested an incentive mech­
anism to implement RWH systems in all new urbanization, 74% pro­
posed social awareness programs to promote RWH systems and more
than 80% were in favor of enforcement of compliance for the integration
of RWH systems.
4.2. Opportunities and challenges of RWH
It is evident from the perception survey that the maximum of both
beneficiary and functionary possess the useable knowledge and will­
ingness to integrate RWH systems despite some issues. To realize it,
social awareness programs need to be invigorated so that the population
of those who are unaware and in dilemma can be brought under the
same umbrella. As there are no cultural and religious barriers to using
rainwater for non-potable uses, RWH for non-potable water manage­
ment for the city can be implemented easily. The land-use details of the
township provide substantial opportunity and potential for RWH. The
available roof catchment can meet the annual potable or non-potable
water demand of a significant population. Runoff from road and un­
paved areas if harvested can lessen the overall water demand from other
sources. The educational institutions, business centers and religious and
recreational facilities and other occupancies in need of more non-
potable water can be well managed with rooftop RWH systems with
adequate storage facilities. In fact, domestic RWH may be planned for
non-potable demand management considering the suggested uses of
rainwater by the beneficiary. Alongside, as initial sustainment of the
population is on GW due to the absence of any use of surface water,
overall approach for rainwater management should involve options for
both domestic RWH and GW recharge.
Lack of social awareness on the application and benefits of RWH
system is one of the key root causes of non-adoption of urban RWH
systems. It should be offset by the functionary i.e., the urban develop­
ment authority involved in water management avoiding engagement of
too many stakeholders. The awareness generation would ultimately
promote the water saving culture and water conservation by realizing
water as a finite resource. The next important barriers are unavailability
of technical information, guidelines, and training on RWH and its
installation, the lack of knowledge of both beneficiary and the func­
tionary on regulatory aspects and the intricacies of getting the permit for
its installation. Minimization of knowledge gaps, capacity building and
training on RWH system installation are required for streamlining the
effective operation of RWH systems through the coordinated efforts of
both beneficiary and functionary. However, the initiative should be
taken by the functionary for better management of the rainwater.
Considering the land-use occupancies of the township, functionaries
should decide and inform the beneficiary on the roof area to be used as
catchment for domestic RWH systems and for GW recharge. Finally,
with reinvigorated social awareness and incentive mechanisms, the
integration and implementation of RWH should consider strict compli­
ance by the beneficiary and enforcement and monitoring by the
Md.H. Huq et al.
functionary.
4.3. Perception on wastewater reuse
The perception evaluation on wastewater reuse was attempted to
explore the level of awareness and knowledge of the beneficiary and
functionary for its management.
The general awareness on wastewater was assessed whether it was
known as a resource and could be used sustainably in various ways. The
level of awareness varies among different age groups (Fig. 8). However,
a higher percentage of ‘unaware’ exists among all age groups that ranges
from 37% to 50% and ‘complete awareness’ varies 34%–42%. General
awareness on wastewater is poorer compared to RWH and invokes
awareness generation for both beneficiary and functionary to bring all in
a common platform.
The key perception was related to better reuse of wastewater and its
management based on the temporal land-use planning of the township.
The township is likely to grow gradually with the provision of central­
ized STP by 2030. However, individual low-density building/urbaniza­
tion is observed in the township without the disposal facilities and
unconnected to the sewer system as it would take time to develop. As
such a septic tank system is a fundamental requirement for containment
and treatment of wastewater from the individual houses or buildings.
First, the perception was evaluated to integrate a properly designed
septic tank system for the dwellings to better manage the wastewater
from the toilet facility and reduce the pollution load of wastewater for
treatment. Second, the need for Fecal Sludge Management (FSM) was
assessed during the low-density urban development for a better and
hygienic living until the conventional or centralized STP is functional.
Third, the necessity of wastewater use for the greenery management was
also assessed. Fourth, with the focused benefits and knowledge, the
requirement of wastewater management with decentralized small STPs/
small wastewater treatment plants of the township was assessed against
the centralized system. Finally, the need for social awareness programs
for sustainable wastewater management was evaluated.
In all cases, the positive response varies within 65%–69% (Fig. 9).
The perception on the reuse of wastewater bears the testimony of will­
ingness and justifies the need for integration in the growing township by
the coordinated efforts of beneficiary and functionary. However, a sig­
nificant portion are unsure or disagree mostly due to lack of knowledge.
In order to manage the wastewater during the low-density urban
development, all beneficiaries need to be sensitized and convinced on
the reuse of wastewater for a better urban living with minimal envi­
ronmental pollution. In essence, the functionary needs to be more
equipped with knowledge of wastewater management and ensure
implementation by the beneficiary.
4.4. Opportunities and challenges of wastewater reuse
The land-use plan of the growing township retains the potential for
wastewater reuse. If properly planned, it can minimize the overall water
demand and reduce pollution load of the wastewater streams. As the
minimum plot size is 335 m2, a properly designed septic tank system can
Fig. 8. General awareness on wastewater reuse.
7
Cleaner and Responsible Consumption 12 (2024) 100168
Fig. 9. Perception on essentials of wastewater reuse.
be easily integrated as the sand-filled reclaimed land has high infiltra­
tion capacity. Septic tanks of all dwellings need to be properly sited,
designed, constructed, maintained and connected to an efficient soil
infiltration system. The functionary should ensure integration of onsite
sanitation systems (properly designed septic tank systems) till urban
growth reaches a high-density population or up to 2030 and gradually
link to conventional offsite sewerage systems. Around 14% of the total
area of the township which is unpaved with parks, garden, golf course,
playing fields and urban green can be managed with wastewater for the
nutrient requirements of soil. Urban greenery management with soil
conditioner is also possible from FSM.
Although the majority of the respondents are positive on imple­
menting the essentials for wastewater reuse, the key challenge remains
in bringing all beneficiaries and functionaries to a common under­
standing of wastewater reuse. Awareness sensitization and the knowl­
edge gaps of both the beneficiary and functionary need to be improved
and bridged to realize the potentials of wastewater reuse in the town­
ship. However, the extensive involvement of functionaries is crucial in
managing the wastewater during the low-density development.
5. Discussions
The social perception evaluation in this study was broadly intended
to identify the opportunities and challenges of integrating RWH and
wastewater reuse provisions of the growing township of Dhaka city to
minimize the water stress and towards achieving sustainability in the
overall urban water management in future. There is no such study in
Bangladesh. However, a perception study on domestic RWH with the
help of a structured questionnaire was conducted in six cities of Iran to
identify the barriers of its adoption towards minimizing water scarcity
and urban flooding crisis (Sheikh, 2020). Very recently, perception for
domestic RWH for three urban areas of the UK was assessed using the
explicit and implicit tests to identify the uses of rainwater and maximize
the resource potential for increasing water demand (Snelling et al.,
2023a,b). Both the studies identified the preference of rainwater uses
and the knowledge level of the respondents. Similar to this study, public
preference is towards non-potable uses and signified limited knowledge
of the respondents on the beneficial uses of rainwater.
Although this study reveals positive response and willingness of both
beneficiary and functionary towards integrating RWH systems and
reusing wastewater, lack of social awareness programs on application
and benefits of RWH and the unavailability of technical information,
guidelines, and training have been identified as the key barriers for not
adopting RWH in Dhaka city or other urban areas. While the distinct
knowledge gaps exist on regulatory aspects, the knowledge and
awareness level of the respondents on RWH fare better than wastewater
reuse. Some incentive mechanism, awareness generation, enforcement
of compliance and streamlining the process of integration through the
coordinated efforts of beneficiary and functionary may change the total
urban water development paradigm of the growing city.
Md.H. Huq et al.
RWH and wastewater reuse are the two important components of
IWRM/IUWM that are often neglected in urban development initiatives.
Besides, these are essential non-traditional alternatives for water saving
and urban water management amid today’s climate change realities
across countries. The inclusion of social perception evaluation on RWH
and wastewater reuse as suggested in this study can be a useful tool
towards bridging the knowledge gaps and identifying the opportunities
and barriers of integration in the overall urban water management plan.
In fact, the social engagement of both beneficiary and functionary is
crucial towards achieving sustainability in urban water management,
minimizing the water stress for any new urban growth, and making
sustainable cities with IUWM/IWRM. As evidenced in different litera­
ture, institutional difficulty and engagement of too many stakeholders in
urban water management often results in a bleak state of water man­
agement. The results of this study suggests social engagement of the
beneficiary along with one key functionary (responsible for urban
development or specifically for urban water management) towards
managing RWH and wastewater reuse and meeting the water demand of
a growing city sustainably. As the studied perception is from an
educated community, varying perceptions may result due to commu­
nities with different educational backgrounds. However, awareness,
knowledge and compliance of the statutory provisions of RWH and
wastewater reuse of the beneficiary and implementation by the func­
tionary should help realize sustainable urbanization in water stressed
township, cities and megacities having similar climate and institutional
difficulties. Despite existing rules, codes and policies on urban water
management, there is no specific policy for social engagement by
involving both beneficiary and key functionary with specific re­
sponsibility on urban water management. Hence, the social engagement
policy should be formulated to help plan and implement RWH systems
and wastewater reuse in all new and future urbanization with or without
water stress for climate resilience and sustainability.
6. Conclusions
The overall urban water management of the megacity Dhaka is
insecure due to growing demand and the absence of IUWM and sus­
tainable practices. Water stress is common in many parts of Dhaka due to
acute reliance on GW. RWH system and wastewater reuse as important
components are not internalized in the overall water demand manage­
ment of Dhaka or other urban areas despite high average annual rainfall.
As an emerging economy of the world, the megacity Dhaka needs to
secure urban water management by using rainwater and reusing
wastewater. But the paradigm shift needs to involve both beneficiary
and functionary towards achieving sustainability in the overall urban
water management. The social perception of the living population as
beneficiary and the urban development authority as functionary of any
new urban growth are important for inclusive urban water management.
In this study, the social perception of a growing township in Dhaka was
assessed due to lack of concern on the opportunities of integration of
RWH systems and interim low density wastewater management.
The social perception of both beneficiary and functionary of the
growing township reveals a positive response on RWH integration and
poses some challenges for implementation. The successful integration of
the system rests on the adequate social awareness, knowledge on the
regulatory aspects and deeper engagement of the functionary and ben­
eficiary. In fact, well planned decentralized, centralized or hybrid stor­
age systems for RWH in all new urbanization of Dhaka could reduce the
water stress, increase the water saving efficiency and ensure sustain­
ability of the urban water management. To offset the challenges of RWH
implementation, following aspects need immediate consideration in
Dhaka or other urban areas for both beneficiary and functionary.
i. Social awareness generation and bridging the knowledge gaps on
benefits and legal compliance of domestic RWH systems and GW
recharge.
8
Cleaner and Responsible Consumption 12 (2024) 100168
ii. Enforcement and monitoring of compliance for RWH installation
as per promulgated building codes for urban development.
iii. Delineation of area to be used as roof catchment for RWH as per
land-use occupancy with approved FAR and MGC.
iv. Delineation of potable or non-potable use of rainwater as per the
structural use of building and the land-use type.
v. Capacity building and skill development through training on
RWH system installation.
vi. Provision of GW recharge if partial rainwater is used for potable
or non-potable demand management.
vii. Easy permit for RWH integration in the overall water supply
system.
viii. Incentive mechanism for RWH implementation.
Although the functionary of the growing township has planned for
separate wastewater management with centralized STP, no wastewater
reuse has been planned during the low-density urban development. As
the township intends to grow gradually, existing sand filled land and the
land-use plan can manage the wastewater effectively through a septic
tank system with planned FSM till the conventional sewerage system is
functional. Despite lack of awareness and knowledge among beneficiary
and functionary, the need assessment for wastewater reuse reveals
willingness of majority to integrate the essentials required for better
wastewater management and support its implementation. However, the
key challenge remains on the social awareness of wastewater as a
resource and its implementation for reuse by the functionary during the
low-density urbanization.
The social perception on RWH and wastewater reuse are critical to
manage the overall water demand sustainably and reduce water stress in
the megacity Dhaka. Any new urban growth can use this paradigm and
involve both the beneficiary and functionary to manage the water de­
mand. This will reduce the need for involvement of too many stake­
holders and institutional changes that are assumed as the barriers of
integration of RWH and wastewater reuse in many developing countries.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Md. Habibul Huq: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal anal­
ysis, Methodology, Visualization, Writing – original draft. Md. Mafizur
Rahman: Supervision, Conceptualization. G.M. Jahid Hasan: Writing –
review & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgments
This study deeply acknowledges the data support and cooperation of
Bangladesh Meteorological Department (BMD), Survey of Bangladesh
(SOB) and urban development authority of the growing township and
the Military Institute of Science and Technology (MIST) for the labora­
tory support for the water quality tests. In particular, the authors would
like to express sincere gratitude to all respondents as beneficiary and
functionary of the growing township for their candid response and time
for the perception survey.
Md.H. Huq et al. Cleaner and Responsible Consumption 12 (2024) 100168

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