PSY 234 Dev. Psy 1 Note

PSY 234
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 1
LECTURE NOTES
COURSE CODE: PSY 234
COURSE TITLE: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 1
COURSE OUTLINE:
PART 1: Introduction to Developmental psychology
General overview of stages of development
(Thomas Armstrong 12 stages/ Havighurst’s 6 stages)
Introduction to Developmental Psychology
Basic process of growth and development
PART 2: Biological foundation in human development
Conception, pregnancy and birth (Detailed prenatal stages month by month changes)
Beginning of child development
Influences and hazard to prenatal development
The new born (Body growth and development of reflex behavior)
Knowing newborn temperament
Toddlerhood (Developmental milestone from 12months – 36month)
Attachment and its impact
PART 3: Theories of human development
Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory
Freud’s psychosexual development theory
Erik Erikson theory of development
Vygotksy theory of cognitive development
Bowlby attachment theory
PART 4: Research method in developmental psychology
Research concept
Research design and methods
Research ethics
PART 1: Introduction to Developmental psychology
General overview of stages of development (Thomas Armstrong 12 stages)
Introduction to Developmental Psychology
What is Developmental Psychology?
Developmental psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on how people grow and
change over the course of a lifetime. Those who specialize in this field are not just concerned with
the physical changes that occur as people grow; they also look at the social, emotional, and
cognitive development that occurs throughout life.
Developmental psychologists are interested in common patterns of development and growth and
the way in which people differ throughout the lifespan.
The 12 stages of human life cycle by Thomas Armstrong
Prebirth - This is a period of potentials.

Birth – This is a period of hope for parents.
Infancy (0 – 3years) – This is period of vitality and pleasure seeking (id principle).
Early childhood (3 – 6years) – This is a period of playfulness.
Middle childhood (6 – 8years) – This is a period of imagination.
Late childhood (9-11years) – This is a period of ingenuity.
Adolescence (11-20years) – This is a period of passion.
Early adulthood (20-35yeras) – This is a period of enterprise.
Midlife (35 -50years) – This is a period of contemplation.
Matured adulthood (50 – 70years) – This is a period of benevolence.
Late adulthood (70 years above) – this is a period of wisdom.
Death and dying – This is a period of life, death teaches about value of living.
Havighurst's Developmental Stages

Havighurst divided human life into six developmental stages.
1. Infancy and Early Childhood: This stage typically lasts from birth through age five. In this stage,
humans learn basic survival. Babies and young children find control of their bodies, develop initial
language concepts, and form friendships.
2. Middle Childhood: This stage typically lasts from age 6 to 12. This is the stage humans learn about
self, morals, values, and personal independence. Children learn rules, different functions in society,
academic skills, and attitudes toward various groups of people.
3. Adolescence: This stage typically lasts from age 13 to 17. This is when humans learn maturity,
emotional independence, and planning for the future. Teenagers learn about careers, create personal
ideologies, and become socially responsible.
4. Early Adulthood: This stage typically lasts from age 18 to 35. Humans learn how to be productive
members of society. Adults manage to select a mate, raise a family, manage a home, and further
their career.
5. Middle Age: This stage typically lasts from age 36 to 60. This is the stage humans establish a
standard of living and support their families, often both caring for their children and parents. They
maintain jobs, find new leisure activities, manage social responsibilities, and adjust to physical
changes.
6. Later Maturity: It typically lasts from age 61 through the end of life. At this stage, humans have
worsening health and strength. A changing work schedule, adjustment to lower income, and coping
with the death of loved ones often occur during this time.
Issues in life span development: Continuity and Discontinuity

 Personality researchers in particular have attempted to determine whether there are
dispositions that remain consistent over life. Developmental stages are periods during which
physical or psychological functioning differs qualitatively from that of either earlier or later
periods.
 . For ease of studying life span development, we speak of stages from infancy through old
age, but in reality, people develop in continuous fashion throughout life. Even periods
marked by specific biological changes, such as puberty and the climacteric (menopause in
women), occur in gradual fashion. For example can we say difficult children will become
worrying or anxious adults
Nature and Nurture
 Nature-nurture controversy – This is a long-standing debate over relative importance of
heredity and learning in many aspects of functioning. Nature and nurture in development is
influenced by both “nature,” or heredity, and “nurture,” or the environment. Although each
individual inherits a specific pattern of genes from his or her parents, the expression of
those genes is influenced by the environment in which the individual grows. It no longer is
a case of nature versus nurture because researchers understand that both play a role in
influencing the changes throughout life. Furthermore, specific environmental factors can
influence the expression of genes. Some theorist like;
John Locke, a British philosopher, believed that human infants are born without knowledge
or skills.
Jean Rousseau, a French
philosopher, argued that
we bring into our world
our evolutionary legacy.
Developmental Psychology
This is an aspect of psychology which deals with the development, growth and behaviour in
human beings right from the time of conception to the period of adolescence when most of the
functions of the body become matured. It also deals with the factors which determine what a
child will become in future. It is therefore a scientific approach which aims to explain how
children and adults change over time. The aims of developmental psychology are to describe,
explain, and to optimize development
Developmental Processes
(1) Growth
Growth refers to quantitative changes in an organism. This usually involves permanent
increase in size and structure of organisms. These quantitative changes are both physical
and mental. These include physical changes in height, weight, girth, internal organs and
mental changes in memory, reasoning, perception and creative imagination.
All these changes make the child to be physically grown and mentally responsive. The
quantitative changes in height, weight, girth and others are as a result of multiple cell
divisions called MITOSIS (Mitotic Cell Division). This usually involves body cells called
Somatic Cells (Vegetative cells). Somatic cells always have 23 pairs of Chromosome (i.e.
46) called the Diploid number (2n).
In the process of Mitosis, one cell divides into two, then into four, eight etc. Each
daughter cell is always similar in every way to the parent cell and they always have the
Diploid number (2n) of Chromosomes.
2
n
2
n
2
n
2n
2n
2n
2
n
Mitosis
n = 23 Chromosomes
(2) Maturation
Maturation is the process of gradual unfolding of the inborn potentialities of traits
present in the individual because of hereditary endowment. According to Gessel,
“Maturation is the net sum of the effects operating in a self-limited life-cycle”.
This definition connotes individual differences.
Maturation goes along with physical growth and the development of the central
nervous system. Time and experience are also inevitable. Maturation is a
function of two major factors, which are in turn dependent on time and
experience viz:
(i) Phylogenetic
Functions
These are functions, which are common to all members of a species. These
include crawling, creeping, sitting, walking etc.
Experience is not necessary to these functions as they are time, age and
physical and mental maturity dependent.
(ii) Ontogenetic
Functions
These depend on experience. They are functions common to individuals.
Some of these functions are swimming, climbing, painting, speech, etc.
Here, without experience or training, development cannot take place.
It should be noted that no hereditary tendency can mature fully without

environmental support i.e. environment influences development.
.
PART 2: Biological foundation in human development
Conception, Pregnancy and Birth (Detailed prenatal stages month by month

changes)
The new born (Body growth and development of reflex behavior)
Toddlerhood (Developmental milestone from 12months – 36month)
Conception and Pregnancy

Have you ever imagine how you came to be, one out of several thousands of eggs and one
out of millions of sperm united to produce you. Development begins at conception when a
single sperm cell from the male unites with an ovum (egg) in the fallopian tube of the
female. This process is called fertilization and the fertilized egg is called a zygote. 23
chromosomes from each parent unite at conception to form zygote and the period from
conception to birth called the prenatal period. The prenatal development is divided into
three periods.
The three periods are:

1. The Germinal period (Zygote): Conception to 2 weeks
This is the period of prenatal development that takes place in the first
2weeks after conception. It includes the creation of zygote, continued cell
division and the attachment of the zygote to the wall of the uterus which is
called implantation. Implantation takes place 10 days after conception.
2. Embryonic period: 2 to 8 weeks
This is the period of prenatal development that occurs between 2 to 8 weeks
after conception. At the embryonic period, there is a great intensity in the
rate of cell differentiation, support system for the cells form, and the organs
appear. This intensity of rate of cell differentiation is what changes the
name of mass of cells from zygote to embryo. The inner layer of the cells is
endoderm, which will develop into the digestive and respiratory systems.
The outer layer of the cells is divided into two parts called ectoderm and
mesoderm. The ectoderm is the outermost layer, which will become the
nervous system, sensory receptors (ears, nose, eyes) and the skin parts (hair
and nails). The mesoderm is the middle layer which will become the
circulatory system, bones, muscles, excretory system, and reproductive
system. In summary, endoderm primarily produces internal body parts, the
mesoderm primarily produces parts surrounding the internal areas, and
ectoderm primarily produces surface parts.
3. Fetal period (Fetus): 8 weeks to birth.
This is the period of prenatal development that begins 2 months after
conception and last till birth. Growth and development continue their
dramatic course during this time.
THE BEGINNING OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
CHILD DEVELOPMENT DURING THE PRENATAL PERIOD

Child development begins at conception. There
are three stages of development during the
prenatal period5 . They are the first, second, and
third trimesters.
During the first trimester, conception to three months, the baby

develops:
• Nervous system (brain, spinal cord, and nerves)

• Heart
• Sexual organs
• Muscles, arms, and legs
During the second trimester, four to six months, the baby shows:
• Increased body size

• Growth of eyelashes and eyebrows
• Increased size of the head
• Stronger heart beat
• Ability to hear sounds
• Ability to suck and make movement such as opening and closing
hands and kicking
During the third trimester, seven to nine months, the baby

can survive a premature birth and he/she shows:
• Fully developed body parts including toenails and fingernails
• Fully developed organs, including lungs prepared for oxygen
intake at birth
• Ability to sleep and be awake
• Ability to push his/her mother’s ribs or abdomen
• The right position for birth (head down)
DETAILED PRENATAL STAGES/MONTH BY MONTH CHANGES
FIRST MONTH Fertilization occurs
Zygote implants itself in the lining of the uterus ending the

zygote period
Rapid cell division occurs
Embryonic stage lasts from end of the 2nd week to end of

the 8th week
Cells differentiate into three distinct layers: the ectoderm,

the mesoderm, and the endoderm
Nervous system begins to develop
Embryo is 1/2 inch long
SECOND MONTH Heart and blood vessels form Head area develops rapidly
Eyes begin to form detail Internal organs grow, especially

the digestive system
Sex organs develop rapidly and sex is distinguished
Arms and legs form and grow
Heart begins to beat faintly
Embryo is 1 inch long and weighs 1/10 ounce
THIRD MONTH Head growth occurs rapidly
Bones begin to form rapidly, which marks the transition to

the fetal stage
The digestive organs begin to function
Arms, legs, and fingers make spontaneous movements
Fetus is 3 inches long and weighs 1 ounce
FOURTH MONTH Lower parts of the body show rapid growth

Bones are distinct in X-ray films
Reflex movement becomes more active
Heartbeat detected by physician
Sex organs are fully formed
Fetus is 7 inches long and weighs 5 ounces
FIFTH MONTH Mother begins to feel reflex movements
A fine, downy fuzz covers the entire body
Vernix (a waxy coating) collects over the body
Ears and nose begin to develop cartilage
Fingernails and toenails begin to appear
Fetus shows hiccups, thumb sucking, and kicking
Fetus is 12 inches long and weighs 14 ounces
SIXTH MONTH Eyes and eyelids fully formed
Fat is developing under the skin
Fetus is 14 inches long and weighs 2 pounds
SEVENTH MONTH Cerebral cortex of brain develops rapidly
EIGHTH MONTH Subcutaneous fat is deposited for later use
Fingernails reach beyond the fingertips
NINTH MONTH Hair covering the entire body is shed
Organ systems function actively
Vernix is present over the entire body
Fetus settles into position for birth
Neonate is 21 inches long and weighs 7 pounds

SAFE DELIVERY AND THE NEWBORN CHILD
THE IMPORTANCE OF SAFE DELIVERY

Pregnant mothers need to have a plan for safe delivery. This is
because a mother
may not always give birth at the expected time; she
might have a delay or a pre-term delivery with or
without a problem. However, most mothers who live
in disadvantaged communities lack health care
services and may face birth difficulties. Therefore,
it is important that women who lack adequate
resources receive prenatal care and support from
their community. For example, a community health
worker or a traditional birth attendant can help
pregnant women get the appropriate information
ahead of time and prepare them on what to do and
where to go during labor. One way to do this is by
providing mothers health referral information.
It is also important to be mindful that due to

culture, some mothers may prefer to give birth to
their child at home, without being aware of the
danger signs that can put the life of both the
mother and the child in harm’s way. Some
examples of danger signs are “feeling very weak;
pain in the belly; swelling of hands and face;
blurred eyesight; fever” (Hesperian). In such
situations, it is important to respect the families’
norms and values. But it is also important to
counsel them about the
danger signs and how to access safe delivery
services in case of emergency, or even for quality
safe delivery.
Birth:
During this stage, it is important to know how the transition from fetus to new
newborn unfolds and what are the important strategies that can be used to deliver
the baby.
Stages of birth:
There are three stages involved in the birth process. In the first stage, uterine
contractions are 15 to 20 minutes apart at the beginning and last up to a minute.
These contraction causes the woman’s cervix to stretch and open. As the first stage
progresses, the contraction come closer together appearing every 2 to 5 minutes and
the intensity increases. By the end of the first birth stage, contractions dilate the
cervix to an opening of about 4 inches, this is to enable the baby to move from the
uterus to the birth canal.
The second birth stage begins when the baby’s head starts to move through the
cervix and the birth canal. It terminates when the baby completely emerges from
the mother’s body. This stage lasts for approximately one and half hours. At every
contraction, the mother bears down hard to push the baby out of her body. By the
time the baby’s head is out contraction reduces to about a minute each till the third
stage.
The third stage is called the Afterbirth, and at this stage, the placenta, umbilical
cord, and all other membranes are detached and expelled from the womb of the
mother. This final stage happens to be the shortest of all the three stages because it
lasts for only few minutes.
SIGNS OF LABOR
There are characteristic changes in the body of woman in labor and every woman's
experience is unique and different. The signs and symptoms of normal labor can
begin three weeks prior to the anticipated due date up until two weeks afterward,
and there is no precise way to predict exactly when a woman will go into labor.
These are the 10 most common signs and symptoms that labor is near
1. The baby drops
Medically known as "lightening," this is when the baby "drops." The baby's head
descends deeper into the pelvis. For some women, this occurs up to 2 weeks prior
to the beginning of labor; other women may not notice this event at all.
2. An increased urge to urinate
An increased urge to urinate can be a result of the baby's head dropping into the
pelvis. The low position of the baby's head puts even more pressure on the urinary
bladder, so many women approaching labor might feel a frequent need to urinate.
3. The mucus plug passes
Passage of the mucus plug is a known sign that labor is near. Thick mucus produced by the
cervical glands normally keeps the cervical opening closed during pregnancy. This mucus
plug must be expelled before delivery. Pressure from the baby's head causes the mucus
plug to be expressed from the vagina.
4. The cervix dilates
Dilation of the cervix is a sign that labor is approaching, although this is detected by the
health-care professional during a pelvic examination. "Fully dilated" means the cervix has
dilated to a width of 10 cm.
5. Thinning of the cervix
In addition to dilation, thinning (effacement) of the cervix also occurs. This occurs in the
weeks prior to labor, since a thinned cervix dilates more easily.
6. Back pain
Many women note they experience back pain, especially dull pain in the lower back that
comes and goes, as labor approaches. Back pain may accompany contractions felt in other
locations or may occur on its own.
7. Contractions
Contractions, which can vary among women and can be described as pounding, tightening,
stabbing, or similar to menstrual cramps, increase in strength and frequency as labor
approaches. When contractions begin to occur less than ten minutes apart, this frequently
signals the onset of true labor.
8. A burst of energy
Contrary to feeling extra tired as is typical of pregnancy, many women describe feeling a
sudden burst of energy and excitement in the weeks prior to labor. Often referred to as
"nesting," this impulse often is accompanied by a sense of urgency to get things done or
make plans for the baby.
9. Feeling the urge to have a bowel movement (diarrhea)
Women often describe the pelvic pain and pressure as feeling the urge to have a bowel
movement. Some women also report experiencing diarrhea or loose bowel movements in
the days preceding labor.
10. Water break
Rupture of the amniotic membranes, or one's "water breaking," usually is a sign that labor
has begun. It is a slower dripping or trickle. Amniotic fluid should be colorless and
odorless. It can sometimes be hard to distinguish from urine.
There are several factors that can affect prenatal development

Environmental Influences- Our modern industrial world filled with different radiation,
chemicals and other hazards can cause a great danger to the fetus. Radiation from X-ray at
the early stage of conception can affect a developing embryo and fetus
 During rapid stage prenatal development, even small environmental disturbances
can have serious and lasting consequences.
 Maternal malnutrition – A developing fetus depends completely on its mother for
nutrition which happens to come from the mother’s blood. Children born to
mothers who are malnourished are likely to be born deformed.
 Psychoactive Drugs and chemicals- These are drugs that act on the nervous system
to alter state of consciousness, modify perceptions, and change moods. Studies have
shown that there is a link between many of these drugs to prenatal and child
development.
Alcohol - heavy drinking increases probability of having smaller babies and babies
with retarded physical growth, poor coordination, poor muscle tone, and
intellectual retardation; collectively these are called fetal alcohol syndrome. Fetal
alcohol syndrome (FAS)- This is a cluster of abnormalities that appears in the
offspring of mothers who drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy e.g. facial
deformities, defective limb and heart.
 Maternal emotional state and stress- this can cause hormone changes and reduces
oxygen available to fetus. e.g., when a pregnant woman experiences fear, there is
production of adrenaline to the system which can result in restriction of blood flow
to the uterine area and can diminish the supply of oxygen to the fetus. Also, an
emotionally distraught mother might have irregular contraction and a more difficult
labor.
The New Born

The Merriam-Webster dictionary simply says a newborn is a child who is recently born
while World Health Organization (WHO) defines a newborn infant, or neonate, as a child
that's under 28 days old. Coming into the world is a big and scary adventure for babies. At
first, they don't know you are there to feed and care for them - they only know when they
feel comfortable and safe, or otherwise. However, even from birth, they start to
communicate and give you little signals when they are tired or hungry, or awake and alert.
They are learning all the time, and the job of parents is to help them know that the world is
a welcoming place where their needs will be met. Between birth to 1 year of age, babies
grow and develop at an astounding rate. They learn to smile, roll over, sit up, wave, clap,
pick objects up, crawl, babble, and some may even start saying a few words.
They learn to bond with and trust their caregivers and they often understand more than they
are able to communicate. Babies enjoy music, movement, and simple games like peek-a-
boo.
By the end of this period, many babies are standing up and walking around holding onto
furniture, if not walking completely independently. They've also typically tripled their birth
weight and grown around 6 to 8 inches by the time they're a year old.
Reflexes present at birth (mediated by the hindbrain and

spinal cord):
1. Grasping reflex: Holds a finger or other object firmly
2. Rooting reflex: Turns head towards anything that strokes their cheek or when
touched on the cheek
3. Gag reflex: Clears the throat
4. Moro/Startle reflex: Flings out the arms, fans

the fingers, and arches the back in response to a
sudden noise
5. Sucking reflex: Sucks objects placed in mouth
6. Babinski reflex: Curls toes when outer edge of sole of

foot is stroked
7. Walking or stepping reflex: It is present at birth even though infants are unable to
support their own weight, therefore when sole of their feet touches a flat surface they will
attempt to walk by placing one foot in front of the other.
KNOWING NEWBORN’S TEMPERAMENT

Each child is born with unique personal
characteristics or temperament that seems to stay
with them as they grow. Some children have a
temperament that is challenging
to caregivers and some are easy. Some are lively and
some are quiet or inactive. Most children belong in
one of three types of temperament categories:
• An easy child responds positively and happily to

routine activities without making a fuss; he/she
gets along well with the caregiver and adjusts
quickly to the surrounding environment. This child
often elicits positive reaction and responses from
the caregiver.
• A child with a challenging temperament has
difficulty in getting along with caregivers and routine
activities, resists new activities with intense reactions
and takes time to adjust to changes of routines. This
child is more likely to elicit unfavorable reactions
or responses from the caregiver. For example, a
caregiver might ignore the child; her indifferent
reaction in turn affects the bonding between her and
the child and this can cause the child to experience
emotional problems.
• A slow-to-warm-up child is quiet, shows little
reaction to changes in routines, and takes time to
adjust to new happenings and experiences. This
child may receive somewhat slow responses and
reactions from the caregiver when compared to a
child who engages emotionally with the
caregiver.
Because each child has a unique personality, it is

important for caregivers to be mindful of this fact and
provide their support as appropriate to each child’s
individual needs.
Social and emotional development in new born

Even shy and sleepy babies take an interest in your voice and face. A big section of the
brain is devoted to understanding and remembering faces, and a large part of our social
behaviour is based on how we 'read' other people's faces. Looking into someone's eyes is a
necessity for 'falling in love', so show your baby your face and talk to them soothingly right
from the start. Don't feel rejected if they turn away; tiny babies often get tired when they
interact. This so because Newborns:
 Don't understand what is happening to them, or realise they are a separate person
 Don't know who is feeding them, or who helps them when they cry
 Cry when they are hungry or tired, but don't know they are being cared for
 Can't cry 'for attention' or to 'get at' their parents - a newborn is not capable of
responding to you with any conscious purpose
 Can feel, but not think
 Smile by five to seven weeks
 Laugh out loud by three months.
Physical development in new born:
Common characteristics include:
 Many babies who are under three months cry a lot, especially in the late afternoon
or evening. ('Jiggling' babies is not a good way to help them settle and can be very
scary or even painful for the baby, even if they stop crying. It is very important not
to shake a baby.)
 Your baby is bombarded by external stimuli (shapes, sounds, colours) and can
easily feel overwhelmed.
Hearing and seeing
Newborns can hear, and have been hearing noises from well before they were born.
Newborns have immature eye muscles and, while they can see (particularly at close range),
they can't organise the visual images into meaningful shapes.
Developmental characteristics include:

 In the first two months, they are attracted by bright light, primary colours, stripes,
dots and patterns.
 Eyes move in unison, most of the time, by six weeks.
 The human face is the first 'object' they recognise.
 Over the first three months, they begin to recognise particular faces and other things
(like their teddy bear) in their world.
Using their bodies
Infants in the first eight weeks have no control over their movements and all their physical
activity is involuntary or reflex. They move their bodies while they are awake, but they do
not yet know how to make each part of their body move, or even that all the bits belong to
them.
Developmental characteristics include:

 Sucking, grasping, startling and pulling to stand are all reflexes.
 They start to work out how to lift their heads when lying on their tummy, and kick
their legs by about eight weeks.
 In their third month, they begin to watch their hands and feet wave in the air, and
also begin to wave that fist towards your face or some other desired object.
Speech and language
For the newborn, crying is their only means of communication. It is important to respond
to your baby as soon as possible, so they begin to understand that you will be there for
them. Characteristics of speech include:
 By seven or eight weeks, they begin to discover their voice and make cooing noises
and vowel sounds.
 Even by about eight weeks, they will listen to what you say, then make noises back
as they 'talk' to you.
Areas of Concern
Babies develop at different rates, and it is normal for them to reach milestones at very
different ages. However take note if your baby seems to lag behind in these areas:
 Smiling
 Waving, pointing, reaching and making other gestures with their hands
 Rolling over, crawling, or sitting up unassisted
 Babbling or otherwise attempting to communicate vocally
 Knowing and responding to their name
Toddlerhood
As the name implies, a toddler is classically defined by the Merriam-Webster dictionary as
a child who is just learning to walk or one who toddles. This is often around 1 year of age.
Toddlers may be considered children that range from 1 year to 4 years of age, though
others may have different definitions of these terms. There's no official definition of the
upper limit of toddlerhood. However, most people consider the end of the toddler age to be
around the time a child is ready to transition into preschool.
Growth and Development
As babies move into their second year of life, they become more mobile and more
independent, exploring everything they can access. Nearly all children are walking by 18
months. They're also learning to talk, to identify and imitate the people around them, and to
follow simple instructions.
As they get older, they learn to express more emotions, speak in phrases and sentences and
can help get themselves dressed and ready for the day. They enjoy simple games, songs,
and rhymes, and they can start learning their colors, shapes, and alphabet.
Like little sponges, toddlers soak up everything, so memorization comes fairly easily.They
still need a lot of sleep and may take a nap or two during the day, as well as sleep 10 to 12
hours a night.
Areas of Concern for toddlers

Again, it is completely normal for toddlers to develop at different rates. But take note and
seek for help if your toddler isn't meeting developmental milestones, such as:
 Walking
 Holding lightweight objects
 Chewing and swallowing food
 Adding new words to their vocabulary regularly
 Showing interest in you and other familiar people
 Using two-word phrases (by age two)
Motor development milestones or stages (provided in respective average ages):
1. 1 month: Rolls over
2. 1 month: Grasps rattle
3. 6 months: Sits without support
4. 7 months: Stands holding on

5. 8 months: Grasp with thumb and finger
6. 11 months: stands well alone
7. 12 months: Walks well alone
8. 15 months: Builds tower of two cubes
9. 17 months: Walks up steps
10. 24 months: Jumps in place
ATTACHMENT AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN THE

EARLY STAGE OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT7
WHAT IS ATTACHMENT?
A positive, trusting relationship that a caregiver and a child
form during the first three years of the child’s life is called
attachment. During this period the child’s brain develops as
he/she actively interacts with the caregiver and learns about
his/her world through the five senses: touch, smell, taste, sight,
and hearing. Attachment is the foundation for all aspects of the
child’s development: the psychological, intellectual, and social.
HOW IS ATTACHMENT FORMED AND WHEN DOES IT TAKE PLACE?

Attachment develops through a continuous positive interaction between
a caregiver and a child. Attachment becomes successful when the
caregiver provides the child with loving care, stimulation, and protection
from any kind of psychological and physical harm. It takes place over the
child’s first two years and happens in four stages.
STAGE 1—PRE-ATTACHMENT
The first stage of attachment takes place between birth to four or six
months. The child easily complies with any caregiver’s comforting
gesture (e.g., holding, cuddling) without fussing. To fulfill his/her
attachment need, the child communicates with the caregiver using
body language, gestures, and verbal cues like smiling, crying, and
cooing. Babies cry when they feel hungry. However, when a baby cries
continually, it is a sign of seeking attention and comfort from the
caregiver. It is important that the caregiver responds to the child’s
communication needs on time and with sensitivity. The caregiver can
do this by hugging, cuddling, playing, singing, or humming traditional
songs or rhymes and playing with the baby.
STAGE 2—ATTACHMENT-IN-THE-MAKING
The second stage of attachment takes place between four to eight or
nine months. The infant begins to show the ability to recognize
familiar voices, faces, or people around him/her. This ability is related
to the cognitive development of the infant because he/she is now able
to tell whether their primary caregiver is present or absent in the
room. The infant follows the movement of the primary caregiver with
his/her eyes, smiles at them, and cries or fusses when the caregiver
leaves the room orwhen being left with another unfamiliar person. The
state of the infant’s ability to know that his/her caregiver or other
object still exists, even if she or it is out of sight, is called object
permanence.
STAGE 3—CLEAR-CUT-ATTACHMENT
The third stage of attachment takes place around eight or nine
months up to two years of age. The infant begins to show interest to
actively engage and make contact with the caregiver. The infant’s
relationship with the primary caregiver becomes stronger and he/she
comes to know their caregiver well. Therefore, the infant begins to
show discomfort when being separated from his/her caregiver
and/or held by an
unfamiliar person. The infant resists separation by crying and clinging to
the caregiver and hides behind her when seeing a stranger. This state of
fear is a sign of normal cognitive and emotional development and is
called separation or stranger anxiety.
STAGE 4—FULL ATTACHMENT WITH CAREGIVER

The fourth stage of attachment takes place around 24
months and beyond. The child begins to form a give-and-
take relationship with the caregiver; he/she begins to
understand the caregiver’s intentions and they begin to have
a two-way interaction. The child plays with increased
collaboration with the caregiver, assuming adult roles. For
example, the child will say to the caregiver, “I am the mother,
you are the baby” and pretends to go out and collect water
saying to the “baby” (caregiver), “I will be back soon.” The
child shows increased trust and ability to think mentally. This
ability allows the child to play independently without the
presence of the caregiver because he/she knows that
his/her caregiver will be back. The ability to explore and
strive
for independence is a key characteristic of toddlers.
Caregivers at this stage need to foster toddlers’ need for
independence while at the same time setting clear and
developmentally appropriate guidance and expectations for behaviors
MILESTONES AND FOSTERING THE

DEVELOPMENT OF INFANTS AND
TODDLERS
• Physical-motor
• Spiritual-moral
• Social-emotional
• Cognitive-language
A milestone is a developmental skill or behavior that most

children can do by a certain age or within a certain block of
time. Most milestones usually build on one another.
Developmental milestones are useful because they help parents
and family caregivers know what is expected of their child at a
particular age. They can observe and reinforce the child’s
developmental progress through their appropriate support.
Infants Birth to 1years Old

Physical-motor development
0-6 month old
Large muscle development
• Lifts head and chest when lying on stomach
• Moves and kicks with arms and legs
• Pushes arms and legs when held
• Rolls over from stomach to back (and back
to stomach)
• Lifts up knees
• Sits with support
• Stands up if held under arms
Small muscle development

• Opens and closes hands
• Plays with fingers and toes
• Takes hand to mouth
• Grasps and tries to hold objects or a finger
Social-emotional development
• Tries to tell you he/she is hungry, tired, wet, or
needs a cuddle
• Gets easily excited or upset
• Loves to be held and cuddled
• Begins to smile in response to someone else
• Learns to recognize the faces and voices of
parents, family, and caregivers
• Returns a smile
• Shows excitement through waving arms, kicking,
wiggling
• Scared of loud noises, new situations, and people
Cognitive development
• Focuses on and follows moving objects with eyes
• Cries in different ways to say he/she is hungry,
sore, or wet
• Makes sounds – babbles, coos, and gurgles
• Turns towards familiar voices and sounds, e.g., a
rattle or bell
• Turns towards bright lights and colors
• Plays with fingers, hands, and feet
• Forgets about objects he/she cannot see
• Explores things with his/her mouth
Language development
• Communicates needs by crying
• Babbles and coos when pleased or to get
attention
• Knows familiar voices
• Begins to understand some words (tone of voice)
• Starts to make simple sounds
• Smiles back at a parent
Approaches to learning
• Uses his/her mouth to explore and learn
• Explores his/her own hands and feet
• Watches interesting objects and people nearby
• Looks for, reaches for, and puts objects in his/her
mouth
• Turns his/her head toward sounds
• Explores for a purpose, e.g., hits an object to
make it move
• Cries, shouts, or moves his/her body to get
attention
• Smiles when an adult talks or interacts
Physical-motor development 6-12month old

• Creeps on his/her stomach and crawls
• Sits alone without support
• Pulls up to a standing position
• Stands holding onto furniture with support
• Stands alone
• Walks with help or by holding on to furniture

• Grasps objects with thumb and forefinger
• Lets go with hands
• Bangs and shakes things
• Uses finger to point
• Drinks from a cup
• Begins to eat finger foods
• Puts things in boxes and takes them out again
• Responds when called by name
• Talks to self in front of a mirror
• Needs to have parent or familiar person in sight
• Is afraid of strangers and new situations
• Imitates what other people do
• Has a favorite toy or blanket
• Shows frustration when needs are not met
• Repeats actions that cause a response e.g., shakes a rattle to repeat a sound
• Claps hands, waves bye-bye
• Solves simple problems, e.g. moves one toy to reach another toy
• Drops toys over and over again
• Looks for things not in sight, e.g., a play thing under a blanket
• Follows simple instructions
• Places objects inside one another
• Understands more words, e.g., body parts
• Makes word sounds
• Begins to say first words by the 10th or 11th
month, e.g., da-da or ma-ma
• Vocabulary between two and twelve words
Approaches to learning
• Feels different textures
• Tries new sensory experiences
• Interacts with an object in more than one way
• Experiments with objects for a purpose
• Uses different senses to explore objects
by looking, touching, mouthing, and
banging
• Looks for objects that are out of view
• Shows pleasure when someone reads, talks, or
sings
Toddlerhood 1-2 Physical development
• Walks alone
• Takes a few steps backwards and sideways
• Pulls or pushes toy when walking
• Crawls up steps and climbs onto low furniture
• Starts to run around
• Dances to music
• Tosses or rolls a ball

• Begins to use a spoon
• Stacks two to four blocks
• Enjoys taking things apart
• Takes things out of cupboards and boxes
• Takes off pull-on clothing
• Wants to do things on their own
• Plays alone or beside other children
• Has difficulty sharing
• Gets upset when separated from a parent
• Shy around strangers
• Finds it difficult to remember rules
• Imitates others, e.g., pretends to talk on a
telephone
• Says ‘me’ and ‘mine’ a lot
• Likes the attention of adults
• Looks for objects that are out of sight
• Points to and names objects, body parts, and
familiar people
• Imitates animal sounds
• Starts to play make-believe and copies actions
observed, e.g., feeds a doll
• Begins to sort shapes and colors
12–18 months
• Uses single words to say the names of things and
people
• Points towards things or pictures when named
• Says ‘hi’ and ‘bye’ if asked
• Makes two-word sentences, e.g., ‘daddy,’ ‘ball.’
18–24 months
• Uses two or three words in a sentence
• Vocabulary of a few hundred words,
• says ‘please’ and ‘thank you’ if asked
Spiritual-moral development
• Has undifferentiated concept about self and others
• Has no sense of right or wrong and no religious or spiritual beliefs yet
• When a loving, kind, tender caregiver who meets their needs cares for infants, infants begin to trust and
ultimately develop faith in that person—a foundation for having faith and a relationship with God
THEORIES OF LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT: Cognitive theories

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development: The theory of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget
is most commonly taught in terms of stages, from sensory motor to formal operations.
Piaget based his approach to cognitive development on observations he made of his own
children but subsequent researchers examined developmental changes in terms of
children’s abilities to solve problems.
The three fundamental concepts to understand in Paget’s theory centers on:
*Acquiring Schemas- A concept or category about the world i.e. Processes for organizing
and forming mental representations. For example, a child may have a schema about a type
of animal, such as a dog. If the child's sole experience has been with small dogs, a child
might believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose then that the child
encounters an enormous dog. The child will take in this new information, modifying the
previously existing schema to include these new observations.
*Assimilation- taking in new information and fitting it into existing schemas i.e. the
tendency to interpret new experiences in terms of existing schemas. In the example above,
seeing a dog and labeling it "dog" is a case of assimilating the animal into the child's dog
schema.
*Accommodation- Changes in schemas to incorporate information from experiences i.e
changing and revising existing schema in face of new experiences or new information.
Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor stage (0 to 24 months)
 The child understands the world in terms of actions, not words, discover by sensing
and doing.
o Causality important schemas learned
o Object permanence develops
 Preoperational stage (2 to 7years). The child is unable to use logical operations to

solve problems and does not understand concepts such as reversibility. During this
period the child can only see problems from one perspective, a phenomenon
referred to as “egocentrism.” Due in part to the lack of reversibility, children in this
stage don’t understand the concept of conservation (a concept in which properties
such as volume, mass, and number remain the same despite changes in forms of
objects).
o Begin to use symbols - usually words
o Do not understand how to manipulate symbols
o Animistic thinking - imagining inanimate objects having life and mental

processes
o Concentration - too focused on single perceptual quality to notice or
understand event.
 Concrete operations stage (7 to 15years). The child can solve logical problems but
only in the here and now. He or she is unable to use logical symbols, such as those
used in algebra, to solve problems, including conservation problems. begin develop
many concepts and show they can manipulate concepts
o Conservation develops
o Begin operate - use and manipulate - on concepts and ideas
*Formal operational stage ( over 15 years). Older children, adolescents, and adults
gradually become able to solve problems using abstract, symbolic reasoning, and ability
deal with hypothetical problems develop.
Kohlberg's Stage Theory Moral Development . Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning:

Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on Piaget’s cognitive development theory by
proposing that children’s cognitive abilities influence the growth of their ability to make
moral judgments. Also, both argue that moral reasoning develops mainly through
interactions with slightly more morally advanced peers. As their cognitive abilities mature,
children are able to see the relative (abstract) pros and cons of different moral positions
after they pass the stage of concrete operations. Compared to Piaget’s theory, Kohlberg
developed these ideas in much more detail, and, although there are controversies associated
with both the theory and the research on which it is based, Kohlberg’s theory provides a
comprehensive framework for understanding how we develop our sense of right and
wrong. There are six stages in Kohlberg’s theory, but they are more easily taught in terms
of the three categories into which they fall. Although each stage is identified with an age
period, it’s possible for adults to operate at lower levels of reasoning, and according to
Kohlberg, many do.
1. Preconventional (young children): At this level children are very rule focused Right
and wrong are thought of in terms of their immediate effects of pleasure versus pain. No
moral principles are invoked.
2. Conventional (middle school children): At this stage there is blind acceptance social
convention and need for social approval. Moral decisions are made in terms of laws or
general rules about what is right and what is wrong. In this law and order stage, for
example, people base their judgments on whether a law is broken or not.
3. Postconventional (adolescents and adults): This stage reflects complex, internalized
standards. Decisions about right and wrong are based on the notion of moral relativity. A
law should be violated if that law violates basic principles of valuing human life above all
else. :
Consider the “Heinz dilemma” and answer the question of whether it is right for a
man to steal an expensive drug to save his dying wife.
Erik Erikson - Psychosocial, stage theory of development According to Danish
psychologist Erik Erikson, development occurs through a series of changes in the abilities
of the ego (rational component of personality). Like Piaget, Erikson proposed a set of
stages, but he did not intend that the stages be understood as steps in a ladder. Instead, he
maintained that people can grapple with any psychosocial issue at any age.
The eight stages follow; you can either present all of them at once or break them into age
periods along with subsequent lessons.
1. Basic trust versus basic mistrust (0 –18 months): Children must establish a sense of
being able to rely on the environment (and caregivers) to take care of them.
2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt (18 months –3 years): Children learn ways to be able
to act independently from their parents without feeling afraid they will venture too far off
on their own.
3. Initiative versus guilt (3 –5 years): This is the play stage in which children learn to
express themselves creatively without fear they will engage in activities that will get them
in trouble.
4. Industry versus inferiority (5 –12 years): During this stage, children learn to identify
with the world of work and develop a work ethic.
5. Identity versus identity diffusion (12 –21 years): Adolescents establish a sense of who
they are and develop commitments in the areas of work and values.
6. Intimacy versus isolation (21 –30/40 years): Young adults are able to experience
psychologically close relationships with others and develop long-term commitments.
7. Generativity versus stagnation (40–65 years): Middle-age adults feel a sense of caring
and concern for the younger generation and determine what their legacy will be after they
are gone.
8. Ego integrity versus despair (65 years till death): In later adulthood, individuals come to
grips with mortality and with achieving a sense of acceptance about the life they have
lived.
ERIK ERIKSON ORIGINAL MATRIX OF AGE AND STAGES
Ages Stage #1 Stage #2 Stage #3 Stage #4 Stage #5 Stage #6 Stage #7 Stage #8
(approx.)
65+ Ego
Integrity
vs. Despair
30-65 Generativity
vs.
Stagnation
21-30 Intimacy
vs.
Isolation
12-21 Identity
vs. Role
Diffusion
6-12 Industry
vs.
Inferiority
3-6 Autonomy
vs. Shame
& Doubt
1½-3 Autonomy
vs. Shame
& Doubt
0-1½ Trust vs.

Mistrust
RESEARCH METHODS IN LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT
Main concepts/terminologies underlying research in development

Age: The chronological age of the individual
Cohort: The historical period in which the individual was born
Time of measurement: The historical period in which testing takes place
Reliability: The extent to which a measuring instrument yields consistent results, both
over time and across observers.
Validity: The extent to which a measuring instrument accurately reflects what the
researcher intends to measure.
Structured interview/questionnaire: This is a technique in which all participants are
asked the same questions in precisely the same order so that the responses of different
participants can be compared.
Structured observation: This is an observation method in which the investigator or
researcher cues/take note of the behavior of interest and observes the participants’
responses in a laboratory.
Clinical method: This is a type of interview in which a participant’s response to each
successive question or problem determines what the investigator will ask next.
Naturalistic observation: A method in which the scientist tests hypotheses by observing
people as they engage in everyday activities in their natural habitats (e.g. at home, at
school, or on the playground).
Observer influence: This means the tendency of participants to react to an observer’s
presence by behaving in unusual ways.
Time sampling: This is a procedure in which the investigator records the frequencies with
which individuals’ displays particular behaviors during the brief time intervals that each
participant is observed.
Case study: This is a research method in which the investigator gathers extensive
information about the life of an individual and then tests developmental hypotheses by
analyzing the events of the persons’ life history.
Ethnography: The method in which the researcher seeks to understand the unique values,
traditions and social processes of a culture or subculture by living with its members and
making extensive observations and notes.
Psycho physiological methods: This method measures the relationship between
physiological processes and aspects of children’s physical, social or emotional behavior
and development.
Research Designs
It is easy to confuse research methods and research design. Research design is the
strategy or blueprint for deciding how to collect and analyze information. Research design
dictates which methods are used and how.
Longitudinal research designs
This observe and test same individuals over long period of time i.e. Individuals from one
cohort are followed over several time periods. Longitudinal research designs are used to
examine behavior in the same infants and children over time. For example, when
considering our example of hide-and-seek behaviors in preschoolers, a researcher might
conduct a longitudinal study to examine whether 2-year-olds develop into better hiders
over time. To this end, a researcher might observe a group of 2-year-old children playing
hide-and-seek with plans to observe them again when they are 4 years old – and again
when they are 6 years old. This study is longitudinal in nature because the researcher plans
to study the same children as they age. Based on her data, the researcher might conclude
that 2-year-olds develop more mature hiding abilities with age. Remember, researchers
examine games such as hide-and-seek not because they are interested in the games
themselves, but because they offer clues to how children think, feel and behave at various
ages.
Example of longitudinal research design
Longitudinal studies may be conducted over the short term (over a span of months, as
in Wiebe, Lukowski, & Bauer, 2010) or over much longer durations (years or decades, as
in Lukowski et al., 2010). For these reasons, longitudinal research designs are optimal for
studying stability and change over time. Longitudinal research also has limitations,
however. For one, longitudinal studies are expensive: they require that researchers
maintain continued contact with participants over time, and they necessitate that scientists
have funding to conduct their work over extended durations (from infancy to when
participants were 19 years old in Lukowski et al., 2010). An additional risk is attrition.
Attrition occurs when participants fail to complete all portions of a study. Participants may
move, change their phone numbers, or simply become disinterested in participating over
time. Researchers should account for the possibility of attrition by enrolling a larger sample
into their study initially, as some participants will likely drop out over time.
The results from longitudinal studies may also be impacted by repeated assessments.
Consider how well you would do on a math test if you were given the exact same exam
every day for a week. Your performance would likely improve over time not necessarily
because you developed better math abilities, but because you were continuously practicing
the same math problems. This phenomenon is known as a practice effect. Practice effects
occur when participants become better at a task over time because they have done it again
and again; not due to natural psychological development. A final limitation of longitudinal
research is that the results may be impacted by cohort effects. Cohort effects occur when
the results of the study are affected by the particular point in historical time during which
participants are tested. As an example, think about how peer relationships in childhood
have likely changed since February 2004 – the month and year Facebook was founded.
Cohort effects can be problematic in longitudinal research because only one group of
participants are tested at one point in time – different findings might be expected if
participants of the same ages were tested at different points in historical time.
Cross-sectional research designs
Subject groups different ages observed and immediately compared to each other this means
Individuals from different cohorts are compared at one point in time. Cross-sectional
research designs are used to examine behavior in participants of different ages who are
tested at the same point in time. When considering our example of hide-and-seek behaviors
in children, for example, a researcher might want to examine whether older children more
often hide in novel locations (those in which another child in the same game has never
hidden before) when compared to younger children. In this case, the researcher might
observe 2-, 4-, and 6-year-old children as they play the game (the various age groups
represent the “cross sections”). This research is cross-sectional in nature because the
researcher plans to examine the behavior of children of different ages within the same
study at the same time. Based on her data, the researcher might conclude that 2-year-olds
more commonly hide in previously-searched locations relative to 6-year-olds.
Example of cross-sectional research design
Cross-sectional designs are useful for many reasons. Because participants of different ages
are tested at the same point in time, data collection can proceed at a rapid pace. In addition,
because participants are only tested at one point in time, practice effects are not an issue –
children do not have the opportunity to become better at the task over time. Cross-sectional
designs are also more cost-effective than longitudinal research designs because there is no
need to maintain contact with and follow-up on participants over time.
One of the primary limitations of cross-sectional research, however, is that the results yield
information on age-related change, not development per se. That is, although the study
described above can show that 6-year-olds are more advanced in their hiding behavior than
2-year-olds, the data used to come up with this conclusion were collected from different
children. It could be, for instance, that this specific sample of 6-year-olds just happened to
be particularly clever at hide-and-seek. As such, the researcher cannot conclude that 2-
year-olds develop into better hiders with age; she can only state that 6-year-olds, on
average, are more sophisticated hiders relative to children 4 years younger.
Sequential research designs

The time-sequential design is one in which a longitudinal study is replicated on more than
one cohort. Essentially, this design attempts to replicate the findings of one longitudinal
study by repeating it on different samples born at different times.
Sequential research designs include elements of both longitudinal and cross-sectional
research designs. Similar to longitudinal designs, sequential research features participants
who are followed over time; similar to cross-sectional designs, sequential work includes
participants of different ages. This research design is also distinct from those that have
been discussed previously in that children of different ages are enrolled into a study at
various points in time to examine age-related changes, development within the same
individuals as they age, and account for the possibility of cohort effects.
Consider, once again, our example of hide-and-seek behaviors. In a study with a sequential
design, a researcher might enroll three separate groups of children (Groups A, B, and C).
Children in Group A would be enrolled when they are 2 years old and would be tested
again when they are 4 and 6 years old (similar in design to the longitudinal study described
previously). Children in Group B would be enrolled when they are 4 years old and would
be tested again when they are 6 and 8 years old. Finally, children in Group C would be
enrolled when they are 6 years old and would be tested again when they are 8 and 10 years
old.
Example of sequential research design
Studies with sequential designs are powerful because they allow for both longitudinal and
cross-sectional comparisons. This research design also allows for the examination of cohort
effects. For example, the researcher could examine the hide-and-seek behavior of 6-year-
olds in Groups A, B, and C to determine whether performance differed by group when
participants were the same age. If performance differences were found, there would be
evidence for a cohort effect. In the hide-and-seek example, this might mean that children
from different time periods varied in the amount they giggled or how patient they are when
waiting to be found. Sequential designs are also appealing because they allow researchers
to learn a lot about development in a relatively short amount of time. In the previous
example, a four-year research study would provide information about 8 years of
developmental time by enrolling children ranging in age from two to ten years old.
Because they include elements of longitudinal and cross-sectional designs, sequential

research has many of the same strengths and limitations as these other approaches. For
example, sequential work may require less time and effort than longitudinal research, but
more time and effort than cross-sectional research. Although practice effects may be an
issue if participants are asked to complete the same tasks or assessments over time, attrition
may be less problematic than what is commonly experienced in longitudinal research since
participants may not have to remain involved in the study for such a long period of time.
Advantages and Disadvantages of research designs

When considering the best research design to use in their research, scientists think about
their main research question and the best way to come up with an answer. A table of
advantages and disadvantages for each of the described research designs is provided here
to help you as you consider what sorts of studies would be best conducted using each of
these different approaches.
Research Methods
Developmental psychology employs many of the research methods used in other areas of
psychology; however, infants and children cannot be tested in the same ways as adults. To
study changes in individuals over time, developmental psychologists use systematic
observation, including naturalistic or structured observation; self-reports, which could be
clinical interviews or structured observation; clinical or case study methods; and
ethnography or participant observation. Three research methods used include
the experimental, correlational, and case study approach.
Experimental Research
The experimental method involves actual manipulation of treatments, circumstances, or
events to which the participant or subject is exposed. This design points to cause-and-effect
relationships and thus allows for strong inferences to be made about causal relationships
between the manipulation of one or more independent variables and subsequent
subject behavior. A limit to this method is that the artificial environment in which
the experiment is conducted may not be applicable to the general population.
Correlational Research
The correlational method explores the relationship between two or more events by
gathering information about these variables without researcher intervention. The advantage
of using a correlational design is that it estimates the strength of a relationship among
variables in the natural environment. However, the limitation is that it can only indicate
that a relationship exists between the variables; it cannot determine which one caused the
other.
Case Study
In a case study, developmental psychologists collect a great deal of information from one
individual in order to better understand physical and psychological changes over his or her
lifespan. Data can be collected through the use of interviews, structured questionnaires,
observation, and test scores. This particular approach is an excellent way to better
understand individuals who are exceptional in some way, but it is especially prone to
researcher bias in interpretation, and it is difficult to generalize conclusions to the larger
population.
Ethical concerns for infants and young children
Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) review and approve of all research projects that are
conducted at universities, hospitals, and other institutions. An IRB is typically a panel of
experts who read and evaluate proposals for research. IRB members want to ensure that the
proposed research will be carried out ethically and that the potential benefits of the
research outweigh the risks and harm for participants. What you may not know though, is
that the IRB considers some groups of participants to be more vulnerable or at-risk than
others. Whereas university students are generally not viewed as vulnerable or at-risk,
infants and young children commonly fall into this category. What makes infants and
young children more vulnerable during research than young adults? One reason infants and
young children are perceived as being at increased risk is due to their limited cognitive
capabilities, which makes them unable to state their willingness to participate in research or
tell researchers when they would like to drop out of a study. For these reasons, infants and
young children require special accommodations as they participate in the research process.
When thinking about special accommodations in developmental research, consider

the informed consent process. If you have ever participated in psychological research, you
may know through your own experience that adults commonly sign an informed consent
statement (a contract stating that they agree to participate in research) after learning about a
study. As part of this process, participants are informed of the procedures to be used in the
research, along with any expected risks or benefits. Infants and young children cannot
verbally indicate their willingness to participate, much less understand the balance of
potential risks and benefits. As such, researchers are oftentimes required to obtain written
informed consent from the parent or legal guardian of the child participant, an adult who is
almost always present as the study is conducted. In fact, children are not asked to indicate
whether they would like to be involved in a study at all (a process known as assent) until
they are approximately seven years old. Because infants and young children also cannot
easily indicate if they would like to discontinue their participation in a study, researchers
must be sensitive to changes in the state of the participant (determining whether a child is
too tired or upset to continue) as well as to parent desires (in some cases, parents might
want to discontinue their involvement in the research). As in adult studies, researchers
must always strive to protect the rights and well-being of the minor participants and their
parents when conducting developmental science.
Other references
Developmental Psychology by Shaffer
A Tropical Approach to Life Span Development by Santrock
Attachment Theory in Babies, Infants, and Early

Childhood Development
According to Bowlby and Ainsworth, attachments with the primary caregiver develop during the first 18 months or so of the child’s life,
starting with instinctual behaviors like crying and clinging (Kennedy & Kennedy, 2004). These behaviors are quickly directed at one or a
few caregivers in particular, and by 7 or 8 months old, children usually start protesting against the caregiver(s) leaving and grieve for
their absence.
Once children reach the toddler stage, they begin forming an internal working model of their attachment relationships. This internal
working model provides the framework for the child’s beliefs about their own self-worth and how much they can depend on others to
meet their needs.
In Bowlby and Ainsworth’s view, the attachment styles that children form based on their early interactions with caregivers form a
continuum of emotion regulation, with anxious-avoidant attachment at one end and anxious-resistant at the other.
Secure attachment falls at the midpoint of this spectrum, between overly organized strategies for controlling and minimizing emotions
and the uncontrolled, disorganized, and ineffectively managed emotions.
The most recently added classification, disorganized-disoriented, may display strategies and behaviors from all across the spectrum, but
generally, they are not effective in controlling their emotions and may have outbursts of anger or aggression (Kennedy & Kennedy,
2004).
Research has shown that there are many behaviors in addition to emotion regulation that relates to a child’s attachment style. Among
other findings, there is evidence of the following connections:
 Secure Attachment: These children are generally more likely to see others as supportive and helpful and themselves as
competent and worthy of respect. They relate positively to others and display resilience, engage in complex play and are
more successful in the classroom and in interactions with other children. They are better at taking the perspectives of
others and have more trust in others;
 Anxious-Avoidant Attachment: Children with an anxious-avoidant attachment style are generally less effective in managing
stressful situations. They are likely to withdraw and resist seeking help, which inhibits them from forming
satisfying relationships with others. They show more aggression and antisocial behavior, like lying and bullying, and they
tend to distance themselves from others to reduce emotional stress;
 Anxious-Resistant Attachment: These children are on the opposite end of the spectrum from anxious-avoidant children.
They likely lack self-confidence and stick close to their primary caregivers. They may display exaggerated emotional
reactions and keep their distance from their peers, leading to social isolation.
 Disorganized Attachment: Children with a disorganized attachment style usually fail to develop an organized strategy for
coping with separation distress, and tend to display aggression, disruptive behaviors, and social isolation. They are more
likely to see others as threats than sources of support, and thus may switch between social withdrawal and defensively
aggressive behavior (Kennedy & Kennedy, 2004).
It is easy to see from these descriptions of behaviors and emotion regulation how attachment style in childhood can lead to relationship
problems in adulthood.
RELATIONSHIP ATTACHMENT STYLES
Attachment styles are primarily discussed in the context of our childhood and upbringing.
In the early stages of development, children develop different attachment patterns to their
parents or caregiver. These attachment styles can be predictive of how children grow up.
For example, anxious or avoidant attachment styles are often powerful predictors for
psychopathology or maladjustment development in the later stages of life (Benoit, 2004).
On the contrary, children with secure attachment styles to their parents are also more likely
to have secure attachments to their romantic partners. This being said, attachment styles
from childhood play a significant role in all the relationships you will encounter.
From this image, you may notice that the secure attachment style is the only one with a
“positive” connotation, whereas the other attachment styles seem to have more unfavorable
consequences.
If you recognize yourself as displaying one of the more maladaptive attachment styles,
don’t fret because this is 1. very common and 2. not set in stone. For example, if you
identify with the fearful-avoidant attachment style, you may see that trust seems to be the
biggest issue.
The purpose of this image is not to make you feel ashamed about having a particular
attachment style, but the opposite. By accepting and embracing your weaknesses, you
allow yourself to grow.
Attachment Theory in Adults: Close Relationships,
Parenting, Love, and Divorce
Indeed, it is clear how these attachment styles in childhood lead to attachment types in adulthood. Below is an explanation of the four
attachment types in adult relationships.
Examples: The Types, Styles, and Stages (Secure, Avoidant,
Ambivalent, and Disorganized)
The adult attachment styles follow the same general pattern described above (Firestone, 2013):
Secure Attachment
These adults are more likely to be satisfied with their relationships, feeling secure and connected to their partners without feeling the
need to be together all the time. Their relationships are likely to feature honesty, support, independence, and deep emotional connections.
Dismissive-Avoidant (or Anxious-Avoidant) Attachment

One of the two types of adult avoidant attachments, people with this attachment style generally keep their distance from others. They
may feel that they don’t need human connection to survive or thrive, and insist on maintaining their independence and isolation from
others.
These individuals are often able to “shut down” emotionally when a potentially hurtful scenario arises, such as a serious argument with
their partner or a threat to the continuance of their relationship.
Anxious-Preoccupied (or Anxious-Resistant) Attachment

Those who form less secure bonds with their partners may feel desperate for love or affection and feel that their partner must “complete”
them or fix their problems.
While they long for safety and security in their romantic relationships, they may also be acting in ways that push their partner away
rather than invite them in. The behavioral manifestations of their fears can include being clingy, demanding, jealous, or easily upset by
small issues.
Fearful-Avoidant (or Disorganized) Attachment:

The second type of adult avoidant attachment manifests as ambivalence rather than isolation. People with this attachment style generally
try to avoid their feelings because it is easy to get overwhelmed by them. They may suffer from unpredictable or abrupt mood swings
and fear getting hurt by a romantic partner.
These individuals are simultaneously drawn to a partner or potential partner and fearful of getting to close. Unsurprisingly, this style
makes it difficult to form and maintain meaningful, healthy relationships with others.
Each of these styles should be thought of as a continuum of attachment behaviors, rather than a specific “type” of person. Someone with
a generally secure attachment style may on occasion display behaviors more suited to the other types, or someone with a dismissive-
avoidant style may form a secure bond with a particular person.
Therefore, these “types” should be considered a way to describe and understand an individual’s behavior rather than an exact description
of someone’s personality.
Based on a person’s attachment style, the way he or she approaches intimate relationships, marriage, and parenting can vary widely.
The number of ways in which this theory can be applied or used to explain behavior is compounded and expanded by the fact that
relationships require two (or more) people; any attachment behaviors that an individual displays will impact and be influenced by the
attachment behaviors of other people.
Given the huge variety of individuals, behaviors, and relationships, it is not surprising that there is so much conflict and confusion.
It is also not surprising, although no less unfortunate, that many relationships end up in divorce or dissolution, an event that may
continue an unhealthy cycle of attachment in the children of these unions.
Attachment Theory in Grief and Trauma

Speaking of unfortunate situations, attachment theory also has applications in the understanding of the grief and trauma associated with
loss.
Although you may be most familiar with Kübler-Ross’s Five Stages of Grief, they were preceded by Bowlby’s Four Stages. During
Bowlby’s work on attachment, he and his colleague Colin Murray Parkes noticed four stages of grief:
1. Shock and Numbness: In this initial phase, the bereaved may feel that the loss is not real, or that it is simply impossible to
accept. He or she may experience physical distress and will be unable to understand and communicate his or her emotions.
2. Yearning and Searching: In this phase, the bereaved is very aware of the void in his or her life and may try to fill that void
with something or someone else. He or she still identifies strongly and may be preoccupied with the deceased.
3. Despair and Disorganization: The bereaved now accepts that things have changed and cannot go back to the way they were
before. He or she may also experience despair, hopelessness, and anger, as well as questioning and an intense focus on
making sense of the situation. He or she might withdraw from others in this phase.
4. Reorganization and Recovery: In the final phase, the bereaved person’s faith in life may start to come back. He or she will
start to rebuild and establish new goals, new patterns, and new habits in life. The bereaved will begin to trust again, and
grief will recede to the back of his or her mind instead of staying front and center (Williams & Haley, 2017).
Of course, one’s attachment style will influence how grief is experienced as well. For example, someone who is secure may move
through the stages fairly quickly or skip some altogether, while someone who is anxious or avoidant may get stuck on one of the stages.
We all experience grief differently, but viewing these experiences through the lens of attachment theory can bring new perspective and
insight into our unique grieving processes and why some of us get “stuck” after a loss.
HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT

The basic sources of personality development are heredity and environment.
1. Heredity:
Heredity refers to the genetic inheritance received by every individual at the time of conception. The origin of
every human life can be traced to a single cell called zygote. It is formed by the union of sperm and ovum.
The sperm and ovum will contain 23 pairs of chromosomes out of which one will be sex determining
chromosome. Female will have 23 pairs of XX chromosomes. Male will have 22 pairs of XX and 2 single,
represented as XY. X chromosome from mother and Y chromosome from father will lead to male offspring, XX
from both parents give rise to female. In each chromosome there are innumerable genes.
These genes are the real determiners of hereditary characteristics—which pass on from one generation to the
other. At the time of conception, the genes from chromosomes of both the father and the mother fuse together
and determine the traits of the offspring to be born.
The physical characteristics such as height, weight, colour of eye and skin, social and intellectual behaviour are
determined by heredity. Differences in these characteristics are due to the change in the genes transmitted.
Fraternal twins also differ from each other, because they are born out of different genes. However, we find
more resemblances in identical twins because they are born out of monozygotic.
2. Environment:
In simple terms environment means the society, the fields of society and even the whole world. But here, the
word environment is restricted to mean the environment within mother’s womb and just born, as well as the
environment around the individual.
Like heredity, environment also has been found to play a very important role in determining the behaviour and
personality development of an individual. The environmental influences are those which act upon the
organism at the earlier stages of development, i.e., before and also after birth.
Environment includes all the extrinsic forces, influences and conditions which affect the life, nature,
behaviour, the growth, development and maturation of living organism (Douglass and Holland).
Hence, we can say that environment means all that is found around the individual. The zygote is surrounded
by a jelly like substance known as ‘cytoplasm’. The cytoplasm is an intracellular environment which influences
the development. Though the life begins with single cell, in the process of cell division several new cells are
formed and a new internal environment comes into existence.

As the fetus develops the endocrine glands are formed. The hormonal secretion by these glands gives rise to
another intracellular environment. Hormones are necessary for normal development, but defects in hormone
secretion like over or under secretion may lead to congenital deformities.
The growing embryo is surrounded by amniotic fluid in the uterus which creates another environment. This
fluid will provide the necessary warmth and protection against the dangers due to organisms and other
chemical effects on fetus.
The fetus is also connected to the mother by the umbilical cord, through which the nourishment is supplied.
Sufficient nourishment is necessary from the mother. Otherwise the child will suffer from malnutrition. The
defects in mother like drug or alcohol addiction, smoking, malnutrition, diabetes, endocrinal disturbances,
small uterus and such other problems cause many problems in child.
The psychological state of mother like over excitement, depression also may cause damaging effect on the
child.
After nine months, the child is born and enters a new environment which is entirely different. A new life begins
in a new environment. This new environment will have a different culture, ideology, values, etc.
The home atmosphere, parental love and affection, association with sibling, neighbours, peers, teachers, etc.
will create an entirely different and new atmosphere. This is called social environment. All the social factors
stated above shape the personality of the child.
There is a long standing controversy regarding the importance of heredity and environment. Supporters of
heredity say that the environment cannot change a dog into a goat. On the other hand, the environmentalists
are of the opinion that for the development of a plant only seed is not important but also environment like
sunlight, manure, water, etc.
Innumerable studies have been conducted on both sides. However, the results indicate that heredity and
environment are interdependent forces. Whatever the heredity supplies, the favourable environment brings it
out. Personality characteristics attained by heredity are shaped by environment.
The Meaning of Heredity:

Man’s behaviour is influenced by two forces: heredity and environment. The biological or psychological
characteristics which are transmitted by the parents to their off-springs are known by the name of heredity. Heredity
is, in other words, a biological process of transmission of certain traits of behaviour of the parents to their children, by
means of the fertilized egg. Heredity traits are innate; they are present at birth.
Each individual has a different pattern of behaviors and personality. This difference is seen due to the
influence of heredity and environment. Truly speaking heredity and environment play an important role in the
development of the personality and other qualities in the individual.
No person can be born without heredity and genes cannot develop without proper environment. An
individual’s heredity is present since the moment of conception, and some environmental conditions also start
influencing him from this very stage.
The human individual is the progeny of two parent cells that come together when a male sperm fertilizes a female
egg. In the nuclei of these parent cells are certain hair like substances called ‘chromosomes’. The chromosomes
contain chemical substances called genes. These basic substances, chromosomes and genes determine
characteristics of the individual. And this is what constitutes heredity.
The essential characteristics inherited by all human beings are physical structure, reflexes, innate drives,
intelligence, and temperament. There are some biologists who claim that the difference in the traits or qualities of
individuals or groups are due to the difference in their heredity. They are duly supported by some psychologists and
sociologists in their assertion, that like begets like.
But there are others who explain that the variations of human beings and the societies are due to differences in
environment. Thus a great controversy has been going on since long about the relative importance of heredity and
environment in determining the behaviour of individuals and groups.
Modern biology has long insisted that we are what our parents and grandparents have made us, that heredity counts
far more than social opportunity. Not only it is impossible for a man to change his skin, but he cannot change his
outlook, his mode of thinking or behaviour because these too are hereditary. Others, on the other hand, belittle the
importance of heredity.
Effects of Heredity:
The main supporters of the heredity theory have been authors like Galton, Karl Pearson, Mc Dougall, and others
while the champions of the environment have been G. B. Watson in the United States and other behaviourist
authors.
Among the arguments brought forward in support of the preeminence of heredity over environment
following are most important:
Galton’s studies:
Galton in his pioneer work on Hereditary Genius (1869) has sought to show that the probability of the occurrence of
greatly gifted children is vastly higher when the fathers are of a superior intelligence.
Karl Pearson’s researches:

Karl Pearson had also concluded that the influence of the environment is far less than that of heredity in
determination of importance of human differences. According to him, it was possible to measure the relative
efficiency of the two. He had given evidence to show that for people of the same race within a given community
heredity is more than seven times more important than environment.
Heredity and environment are not separable:
The problem of nature versus nurture defies satisfactory solution. As a matter of fact, it is futile to ask which of the
two factors, heredity or environment, is more important. According to MacIver, “Every phenomenon of life is the
product of both, each is as necessary to the result as the other, neither can ever be eliminated and neither can be
isolated.” No society is a product of environment alone for men inherit physical heritage.
The truth of the matter is that there is incessant interaction between the two. They are inseparable. One man is a
law-abiding citizen, another is a criminal; one a militarist and another pacifist. It is difficult to indicate any genetic
basis for these variations and in many cases it is almost impossible to assess properly the relative role of heredity
and environment in producing these differences.
Both have been operative to produce every particular situation since time immemorial. In no case of personality
development can we properly attribute any characteristic to heredity or to environment alone. A given result is always
produced by the interaction of gene substance, and their environment. We should not, therefore, be interested, in
asking about the absolute contribution of either factor as a whole.
In Altenberg’s words, “Each trait requires both heredity and environment for its development.” Lumley said, “It is not
heredity or environment, but heredity and environment.” We have no more justification for denying the importance of
heredity than some eugenists have for denying the importance of environment.
Heredity, no doubt has its influence on the physiological traits but environment is also the arbiter of our development.
What heredity can do environment can also do. Neither can ever be eliminated and neither can ever be isolated.
Both have been operative in determining human behaviour. An immigrant group, no matter what its heredity
antecedents, exhibits new characteristics when transplanted from its native land to the country of its adoption.
Heredity is of no avail if environment is not there to show it off. For instance, it is the industrial age which has made
possible for men of talent to rise to eminence that otherwise could have remained in obscurity. A new social situation
or a happy chance may thus give a genius the opportunity to reveal his power but no amount of favourable
conjuncture will turn a person of mediocre mentality into a genius. David Abrahamson has written that heredity
determines what a person can do, and environment what he will do.
The capabilities of man are hereditary, but their manifestation is the work of the environment. According to Landis
and Landis, “Heredity gives us the capacities to be developed but opportunity for the development of these
capacities must come from the environment.

Heredity gives us our working capital; environment gives us opportunity to invest it. Heredity explains man the
animal, environment man the human being.” In the words of Biesanz and Biesanz, “Personality is the organisation of
a person’s attitudes, habits and traits and arises from the interplay of biological, social and cultural factors.”
The conclusions that we can draw from the above discussion is that the question, “which is more important, heredity
or environment?” wrongly assumes that environment and heredity are opposed, so that if one is important the other
cannot be. All the qualities of life are in the heredity, all the evocations of qualities depend on the environment. In
other words, heredity has potentiality and environment offers it a chance of bringing them out.
It also follows from this principle that the higher the potentiality, the greater is the demand made on environment.
Thus more subtle differences in environment may have little effect on those of low potentiality while the same
differences may be vastly significant for those who have higher potentiality.
For instance, a seemingly minor change in a situation, say, a rebuff, may prove decisive to a sensitive nature while it
may not affect a thick skinned; man. Lastly, the more elastic the life the more is it at the mercy of environment. That is
why environment affects us most in the earlier years of our life when we are most impressionable.
We should thus conclude this controversy of nature versus nurture by accepting the unchallengeable truth that
heredity and environment—the two ultimate determinants of every living being- are of coequal importance and that
none is more potent than the other.
Mechanism of Heredity:
(i) Mating:
Mating is the 1st step for reproduction. The union of male sperm with female ovum the results is zygote.
(ii) Growth:
It involves repeated division of the fertilized cell or zygote.
(iii) Chromosomes:
Every woman and man receives 23 chromosomes from each parent or 46 in all.
(iv) Genes:
Each chromosomes consists of small particles numbering 40 to 100 which are called genes.
(v) Chance factor:
Both ovum and sperm before fertilization contains 23 pairs of chromosomes each. At the time of conception,
the genes in the chromosomes of the sperm, pair the genes of ovum and determines the potential
characteristics and qualities of the off spring.
The result of the union of the genes is called heredity.

Meaning of Environment:
Environment is nothing but the sum total of the surroundings in which an individual has to live.
Psychologically an individual’s environment is related to all those stimuli which he faces from the moment of
fertilization till death. Environment is generally divided into two categories-natural and social. Natural
environment refers to all those things and forces on and around the earth that influence a person.
Social environment we mean the environment which the person sees around himself on acquiring
consciousness in the society, i.e., language, religion, custom, tradition, means of communication, means of
luxury, family, school, social groups etc.
Educational Implications of Heredity and Environment:
The knowledge of heredity and environment has a great influence on human development. Human
development is the product of both heredity and environment. The development pattern of the children is
determined by both heredity and environment.
As per the developmental pattern of the children the educational pattern, methods and learning environment
should be made by the teacher in the teaching-learning situation. So the knowledge of heredity and
environment helps the teacher in various ways which are discussed hereunder.
i. Knowledge of heredity and environment helps the teacher to know the varying needs and abilities of the
children.
ii. It helps to provide proper guidance to his children in the field of educational, vocational and personal.
iii. It helps the teacher to classify the students as gifted, normal or slow learner and arrange different types of
education for them.
iv. It helps the teacher to provide better learning environment in the school.
v. It helps the teacher to know the principle of individual differences and arrange the educational experience
accordingly.
vi. It helps the teacher to study the behaviour of the children under different situations.
vii. It helps the teacher to organize various curricular and co- curricular programmes for the best benefit of the
children.
So the knowledge of both heredity and environment is of utmost value to the teachers, administrators and
educational planners. If it is realized, the system of education will be changed to a great extent.

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PSY 234

PART 1: Introduction to Developmental psychology

General overview of stages of development

(Thomas Armstrong 12 stages/ Havighurst’s 6 stages)

Introduction to Developmental Psychology

Basic process of growth and development

PART 2: Biological foundation in human development

Beginning of child development

Influences and hazard to prenatal development

The new born (Body growth and development of reflex behavior)

Knowing newborn temperament

Toddlerhood (Developmental milestone from 12months – 36month)

Attachment and its impact

PART 3: Theories of human development

Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory

Freud’s psychosexual development theory

Erik Erikson theory of development

Vygotksy theory of cognitive development

Bowlby attachment theory

PART 4: Research method in developmental psychology

Research design and methods

General overview of stages of development (Thomas Armstrong 12 stages)

Introduction to Developmental Psychology

What is Developmental Psychology?

Prebirth - This is a period of potentials.

Havighurst's Developmental Stages

Issues in life span development: Continuity and Discontinuity

It should be noted that no hereditary tendency can mature fully without

Conception, Pregnancy and Birth (Detailed prenatal stages month by month

Influences and hazard to prenatal development

The new born (Body growth and development of reflex behavior)

Toddlerhood (Developmental milestone from 12months – 36month)

Conception and Pregnancy

The three periods are:

CHILD DEVELOPMENT DURING THE PRENATAL PERIOD

During the first trimester, conception to three months, the baby

• Nervous system (brain, spinal cord, and nerves)

• Increased body size

During the third trimester, seven to nine months, the baby

DETAILED PRENATAL STAGES/MONTH BY MONTH CHANGES

FIRST MONTH Fertilization occurs

Zygote implants itself in the lining of the uterus ending the

Rapid cell division occurs

Embryonic stage lasts from end of the 2nd week to end of

Cells differentiate into three distinct layers: the ectoderm,

Nervous system begins to develop

Embryo is 1/2 inch long

Eyes begin to form detail Internal organs grow, especially

Sex organs develop rapidly and sex is distinguished

Arms and legs form and grow

Heart begins to beat faintly

Embryo is 1 inch long and weighs 1/10 ounce

THIRD MONTH Head growth occurs rapidly

Bones begin to form rapidly, which marks the transition to

The digestive organs begin to function

Arms, legs, and fingers make spontaneous movements

Fetus is 3 inches long and weighs 1 ounce

FOURTH MONTH Lower parts of the body show rapid growth