Mechanics of Materials 147 (2020) 103410

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Mechanics of Materials
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mechmat

Three-dimensional fractographic analysis of total fracture areas in 6082 T

aluminium alloy specimens under fatigue bending with controlled damage
degree
Wojciech Maceka,⁎, Robert Owsińskib, Jarosław Trembaczc, Ricardo Brancod
a
Opole University of Technology, Prószkowska 76, 45-758 Opole, Poland
b
Opole University of Technology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Mechanics and Machine Design, Mikołajczyka 5, 45-271 Opole, Poland
c
Opole University of Technology, Faculty of Production Engineering and Logistics, Department of Engineering and Work Safety, 31 Sosnkowskiego Street, 45-272 Opole,
Poland
d
University of Coimbra, CEMMPRE, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rua Luís Reis Santos, Pinhal de Marrocos, 3030-788 Coimbra, Portugal

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Non-destructive methods are powerful tools in modern industry to assess the structural integrity of engineering
Surface texture critical parts subjected to fatigue loading. This paper proposes a mixed mechanical-metrological approach able
Fractography to account for the three-dimensional fractographic damage in samples subjected to fatigue bending loading
Fatigue bending histories based on the system dynamics. The system records the changes in the dynamic response, using uniaxial
Acceleration measurement
acceleration sensors, enabling the correlation of the stiffness variations with the crack length and the residual
loading capacity. Fracture topologies are analysed via standard surface texture parameters, namely height,
material volume and void volume parameters, for different degrees of fatigue damage. The results show a clear
relationship between the changes in the recorded accelerations, which are associated with the degree of fatigue
damage, and the values of the above-mentioned surface texture parameters.

1. Introduction
Structural health monitoring is a powerful tool of modern industry
able to continuously evaluate the fatigue damage of engineering parts.
Currently, different non-destructive methods are used for fatigue crack
detection and fatigue crack monitoring, namely extensometry, acoustic
emission, ultrasonic scanning, electric potential drop, digital image
correlation, among others (De Cola et al., 2019; He et al., 2016;
Macek and Macha, 2015; Muhlstein et al., 2004; Ogrinec et al., 2019;
Paunović et al., 2019). More recently, a new approach based on the
dynamic response variation at critical points by means of acceleration
sensors (Nieslony et al., 2016) has been successfully used to account for
the degree of damage induced by fatigue loads (Owsiński and
Niesłony, 2017).
Fatigue damage is generally assessed via stress-based, strain-based,
and energy-based parameters (Niesłony et al., 2020; Lesiuk et al., 2019;
Zhu et al., 2019). These parameters, particularly in the case of complex
geometries, are determined through local approaches (Rozumek and
Macha, 2006; Carpinteri et al., 2008; Macek et al., 2017a; Branco et al.,
2019; Liao et al., 2019). Despite the success of modern design models,
the random nature of fatigue phenomenon as well as the complex sy-
nergistic effects of the numerous variables involved, make critical en-
gineering parts susceptible to fatigue failure (Ebara, 2006;
Floweday et al., 2011; Gürer and Gür, 2018). In this context, post-
failure analyses, namely those based on entire fracture surfaces, can
provide valuable information on the failure mechanisms
(Macek, 2019a, 2019b) and their relationships with the loading his-
tories and the environmental conditions.
Although there are numerous studies in the open literature devoted
to the description of fracture surface (Henry et al., 2019; Szala and
Kot, 2017; Westermann et al., 2016), most of them are focused on in-
dividual fragments of fracture zones (Jamali et al., 2019; Kelly et al.,
1989; Luo et al., 2018). Particularly for aluminium alloys under
bending fatigue, there remains a need for a systematic topographic
characterisation of both propagation and rupture areas. Nevertheless,
so far, little work has tackled this subject with quantitative fracto-
graphic parameters. Research has mainly been conducted in a qualita-
tive manner on the basis of macro (Sai Srikanth et al., 2020), micro
(Bello et al., 2017) or nano (Rowthu et al., 2018) scales.
Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to study the fracture

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: wojciech.macek@yahoo.com (W. Macek).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mechmat.2020.103410
Received 3 March 2020; Received in revised form 28 March 2020; Accepted 29 March 2020
Available online 07 May 2020
0167-6636/ © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
W. Macek, et al. Mechanics of Materials 147 (2020) 103410

Figure 2. Specimen geometry used in the experimental campaign (dimensions

in milimetres).

m y¨ + c y + k y = k (t ) + c (t ) (2)
Figure 1. Mass-spring-damper system dynamics (Owsiński and
NiesŁony, 2017). where y(t) is the general displacement at time t, and ξ(t) is the kine-
matic excitation at time t. Let us define that

deformation behaviour of aluminium alloy samples subjected to k 2

=
bending fatigue loading histories, in a fractographical approach m (3a)
(Macek et al., 2020, 2019a), using a mixed mechanical-metrological and
approach. The degradation mechanisms, which are correlated with the
c
degree of fatigue damage, are identified from the changes in the dy- =2
(3b)
m
namic response. These changes, recorded during the tests by means of
acceleration sensors, are accounted for using standard surface texture then, Eq. (1) can be rewritten as follows,
parameters, namely height, material volume and void volume para-
y¨ + 2 y+ 2 y= 2 (t ) + 2 (t ) (4)
meters, determined for both parts of the fracture surfaces after fatigue
damage, and with the force needed for complete failure. This multi- where ω is the natural frequency of the undamped system and ρ is the
disciplinary approach, connecting the mechanical system dynamics system damping factor. Assuming that the kinematic excitation is de-
with the fatigue fracture mechanics and the surface metrology, has a fined in the form
practical application, since it provides a more precise fitness-for-service (t ) = a sin( t ) (5)
assessment.
where ξa is the excitation amplitude, then

2. Background (t ) = a cos( t ) (6)

and the equation of motion leads to
The methods to determine the stress amplitude caused by bending
moments were discussed in previous papers of the authors 2
a cos( t ) + 2 a cos( t ) = a
4 +4 2 2 sin( t + ) (7)
(Macek et al., 2017a; Owsiński and NiesŁony, 2017). Here, the key
where φ is the phase shift. Replacing Eq. (7) into Eq. (4), we obtain
parameter is the degree of fatigue damage, which can be defined in the
Eq. (8).
form,
am y¨ + 2 y+ 2 y= a
4 +4 2 2 sin( t + ) (8)
=
au (1) After making the necessary transformations, the frequency for
which the system corresponds to the eigen frequency (νr) is defined by
where am is the acceleration amplitude measured on additional mass
applied for load inducement in the test system, and au is the accelera- u (t ) = a sin( r t) (9a)
tion amplitude measured on grip in test system. Based on the char-
¨ (t ) = 2
sin( t) (9b)
acteristics of the frequency response of the mechanical system forced u a r r

from the equilibrium position, the changes in the system during the test and
can be determined. These changes in the response of the mechanical
system are generally associated with changes in the observed system y (t ) = Ar sin( r t+ r r) (10a)
and lead to changes in stiffness, which are likely to cause fatigue da-
y¨ (t ) = Ar 2
sin( t+ r) (10b)
mage. r r r

Let us consider the mass-spring-damper system dynamics with mass where ¨u (t ) is the acceleration of grip movement, and y¨ (t ) is the mass
m, spring constant k, and damper coefficient c, as represented in acceleration. If we assume the following relationships for acceleration
Figure 1. The following differential equation can be established, amplitudes:

Table 1
Chemical composition (wt%) of the 6082 aluminium alloy (Niesłony et al., 2016)
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Zn Ti Al

0.70-1.30 0.45-0.55 0.08-0.12 0.40-1.00 0.60-1.20 0.23-0.27 0.18-0.22 0.08-0.12 Bal.

Table 2
Mechanical properties of the 6082 aluminium alloy (Niesłony et al., 2016).
E (MPa) ν σYS (MPa) σUTS (MPa) (MPa) b c
f f

76998 0.3 250 290 650.6 1.2920 -0.0785 -1.0139

2
W. Macek, et al. Mechanics of Materials 147 (2020) 103410

Figure 3. Schematic representation of the mixed mechanical-metrological approach.

Figure 4. Overview of the fatigue testing system and schematic representation of the control system (au represents the acceleration measured on grip in test system
and am represents the acceleration measured on additional mass applied for load inducement in the test system).

Figure 5. Overview of the Alicona IF G4 measurement system used in the fractographic analysis.

Table 3 2
( 2 2 2 2 2
am r r) +4 r
Selected parameters for the fatigue fracture surface description. = a 2
=
au Ar r 4 +4 2
r
2
(13)
Height parameters, S- Material and void volume parameters, V-
which describes the mutual relationship between the acceleration am-
Root-mean-square height, Sq (µm) Material volume, Vm (mm3/mm2)
Maximum peak height, Sp (µm) Core material volume, Vmc (mm3/mm2) plitudes at the analysed measuring points of the vibrating system. As far
Maximum pit height, Sv (µm) Void volume, Vv (mm3/mm2) as can be seen from Eq. (13), the α ratio (α = am/au) is independent of
Maximum height, Sz (µm) Core void volume, Vvc (mm3/mm2) the amplitude of kinematic excitation. This fact demonstrates that, re-
Arithmetical mean height, Sa (µm) Pit void volume, Vvv (mm3/mm2) gardless of the loading level applied in the specimen, it is possible to
Skewness, Ssk (-)
Kurtosis, Sku (-)
determine the degree of fatigue damage introduced into the testing
system, which is directly related to the α ratio.

2
au = a r (11) 3. Materials and methods

and
The material utilised in this research was the 6082 aluminium alloy.
4 2 2
Its chemical composition and its main mechanical properties are sum-
2 2
+4 r marised in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. The specimen geometry (see
am = Ar r = a r
( 2 2 2
r) +4 2
r
2
(12) Figure 2) was defined in accordance with the specifications outlined in
ASTM E606M-12.
the following relationship can be obtained The mix mechanical-metrological approach proposed here, as
schematised in Figure 3, can be divided into three main steps, i.e.

3
W. Macek, et al.
Figure 6. Evolution of acceleration amplitude ratio (α = am/au) with the number of cycles (N) obtained in the tests with the proposed approach for different loading
histories.
Figure 8. Relationship between the uniaxial tensile static force (F) and the α(t)/
α0 ratio.
bending fatigue test; static tensile test; and topography analysis. Re-
garding the bending fatigue tests, the modus operandi consists of four
main actions: (1) definition of an adequate system resonant frequency;
(2) identification of the strain values at the critical region of the spe-
cimen for the intended loading levels; (3) establishment of the condi-
tions for completion of the fatigue test on the basis of the recorded
4
Mechanics of Materials 147 (2020) 103410
Figure 7. Typical location of fatigue crack in-
itiation in the tested specimens and numerical
von Mises equivalent stress distribution ob-
tained via linear-elastic finite-element simula-
tion. A50 refers to the fracture surface of the
grip side for the specimen with α(t)/α0= 50%,
and M80 refers to the fracture surface of the
mass side for the specimen with α(t)/
α0= 80%).
acceleration amplitudes; and (4) analysis of the results collected in the
test.
The fatigue testing system developed in this research is exhibited in
Figure 4. Among other features, the control system has the ability to
determine, a priori, the conditions for the completion of the test from
the measured changes in the dynamic response. In addition, as referred
to above, the correlation between the changes in the stiffness, the crack
length, and the residual loading capacity of the specimen can be also
determined.
The fatigue testing campaign was performed under fully-reversed
conditions with a nominal bending stress amplitude (σa) equal to 170
MPa and a frequency of loading changes equal to 78 Hz. In a first stage,
a series of tests was done to determine the correlation between the
measurable changes in the dynamic response of the testing system and
the fatigue damage introduced into the specimen. After that, in a
second stage, a series of tests was conducted to obtain specific degrees
of fatigue damage (α(t)/α0). This ratio accounts for the variation of the
current acceleration amplitude ratio (α(t)) with respect to the initial
steady state (α0). The values of α(t)/α0 considered in the tests were in
the range 50-90% with steps of 5%. Higher values of α(t)/α0 are as-
sociated with lower degrees of fatigue damage (i.e. α(t)/α0 =1 means
no fatigue damage) and vice-versa (Owsiński and NiesŁony, 2017).
After conducting the fatigue tests, specimens were tested under
uniaxial quasi-static tensile conditions, in a computer-controlled
W. Macek, et al.
Figure 9. Example of a fracture surface obtained in the experimental tests.
electromechanical tension-compression universal testing machine,
under position control, at a displacement rate of 1 mm/min, until se-
paration of the specimen into two pieces. A multi-channel data acqui-
sition system, able to record the applied strain, the applied load, and
the breaking load, was used.
The next step was the analysis of fracture surfaces which was con-
ducted on both broken pieces of the specimens. Fracture surfaces of the
grip and mass sides were labelled as A and M, respectively (see
Figure 4). The fractographic measurements were carried out using an
optical three-dimensional non-contact focus-variation microscope
(Alicona IF G4 profilometer), whose working principle is schematised in
Figure 5 (Macek et al., 2019; Macek and Wołczański, 2017b;
Nieslony et al., 2016). Fracture surface dependency on fatigue loading
history was evaluated using different surface texture parameters de-
fined in accordance with the ISO 25178 standard. Briefly defined in
Table 3, the selected parameters are: (1) height parameters, termed
here S- parameters; and (2) material volume and void volume para-
meters, termed here V- parameters. The former quantifies the Z-axis
perpendicular to the surface assuming that the reference plane for
calculations is the mean plane of the measured surface, while the latter
evaluates the sum of the volumes above the reference plane (Vv) or the
voids below the reference plane (Vm). An in-depth description can be
found in ISO 25178 standard.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Bending fatigue damage and monotonic breaking load
Figure 6 plots the acceleration amplitude ratio (α) evaluated in the
fatigue tests against the number of cycles (N) at different loading his-
tories. The trends observed in the figure are relatively similar, i.e. at the
first stage of the tests, regardless of the loading history, this ratio is
constant. After that, in a second stage, we can observe an abrupt de-
crease in the acceleration amplitude ratio until the total failure. This
fact, as stated in Section 2, clearly shows that the proposed approach
has the ability to account for the degree of fatigue damage existing in
the structural member.
Fatigue crack initiation, as exhibited in Figure 7, has occurred near
the grip side at the transition from the cylindrical body to the specimen
ends. At this region, there is a stress concentration phenomenon, caused
by the geometric discontinuity, which eases the fatigue crack nuclea-
tion. Indeed, as can be seen in Figure 7, a multi-crack initiation phe-
nomenon has been observed in the experiments; two cracks in radially
opposite locations have nucleated as surface cracks with par-elliptical
fronts and then have evolved to straighter fronts (see fracture surfaces
A50 or M80). This behaviour has already been reported in the literature
5
Mechanics of Materials 147 (2020) 103410
for round bars subjected to bending loads (Branco et al., 2012). In
addition, it is clear that the extent of both crack propagation regions
changes from case to case, due to the degree of fatigue damage in-
troduced into the specimen. In fact, fatigue zones of M80 specimen (i.e.
α(t)/α0= 80%) are much lower than those of A50 specimen (i.e. α(t)/
α0= 50%) which is, naturally, associated with the lower degree of fa-
tigue damage introduced in the former case.
Finite-element simulations, performed with ANSYS (R18 version)
assuming an homogenouos and isotropic material with linear-elastic
behaviour, also suggest that such a region is the most likely initiation
site. The maximum values of first principal stresses occur at the root of
the geometrical transition (see the black arrow in Figure 7). This cri-
terion has been already successfully applied by Branco et al.
(Branco et al., 2019) to identify, a priori, the crack initiation sites in
notched circular cross-section bars undergoing bending, torsion, and
combined bending-torsion loading. Although not completely visible in
Figure 7, at a radially opposite direction, other critical region appears in
the numerical model, which agrees with the experimental findings.
Specimens for fracture surface measurements (see Section 3) were
subjected to the same bending load conditions. However, fatigue tests
were interrupted for different degrees of fatigue damage, which was
controlled by different by values of the α(t)/α0) ratio. As referred to
above, higher α(t)/α0 ratios correspond to lower degrees of fatigue
damage and vice-versa. After the fatigue tests, specimens were sub-
jected to uniaxial tensile static breaking. The variation of the maximum
applied force (F) with the α(t)/α0 ratio is presented in Figure 8. Overall,
we can establish a strong relationship between the two above-men-
tioned variables. Although there are a few exceptions, as the α(t)/α0
ratio decreases (i.e. as the fatigue damage increases), the applied force
for static breaking reduces. This is consistent with the expectations,
since a higher degree of fatigue damage is associated with higher crack
lengths and, consequently, lower areas of the uncracked cross-section,
which require smaller loads.
4.2. Surface fracture parameters for the total area
Surface topography measurements were carried out for both sides of
the broken specimens at the total areas. The fracture surfaces of the grip
side are identified by A and the fracture surfaces of the mass side are
identified by M. For the sake of clarity, the degree of fatigue damage, in
percentage, is added after the capital letter. Figure 9 shows a typical
example of the experimental fracture surfaces obtained in the experi-
mental tests for specimen A80 (i.e. fracture surface of the grip side with
a α(t)/α0 ratio equal to 80%). We can distinguish a central region (Z3),
whose damage was caused by the monotonic tensile load, and two
neighbouring regions (Z1 and Z2), whose damage was caused by fatigue
crack propagation, as a result of the applied bending loads. These re-
gions and the main surface parameters are shown in Figure 10, also for
the same specimen. Overall, fractographic measurements are sig-
nificantly greater for rupture area that that for propagation area, which
can be explained by the higher plastic strain levels induced into the
specimen during the fracture breaking stage. Appendix A and B compile
the isometric views of the grip (A) and mass (M) sides for the tested
specimens.
The evolution of the fracture surface parameters of the both sides of
the broken specimens for different values of acceleration amplitude
ratio is plotted in Figure 11. Overall, for a fixed α(t)/α0 ratio, we can see
significant differences in the measured values for the grip and mass
sides. On the other hand, in most of cases, it is also clear the influence of
the degree of fatigue damage, on the surface topography parameters,
since we can identify decreasing trends for lower values of the α(t)/α0
ratio.
With regard to the S- parameters, as exhibited in Figure 11(a), the
values determined for the samples tend to reduce with decreasing α(t)/
α0 ratios. This fact can be attributed to the extent of fatigue propagation
areas, which is greater for higher degrees of fatigue damage (i.e. lower
W. Macek, et al.
Figure 10. Area view and main surface parameters for the A80 specimen (grip side with α(t)/α0 ratio equal to 80%): (a) initiation site; (b) propagation area; and (c)
rupture area.
α(t)/α0 ratios). Those areas, as observed in Figure 10, have lower sur-
face texture variations, which is likely to affect the surface topography
results evaluated for the total area. In other words, as the α(t)/α0 ratio
increases, rupture areas become larger (see fracture surfaces A80 and
A50 of Figure 7), and the greater coarseness associated with these areas
is captured by the S- parameters.
6
Mechanics of Materials 147 (2020) 103410
Regarding the so-called Skewness (Ssk) and Kurtosis (Sku) para-
meters, displayed in Figure 11(b), as is well-known, the former ac-
counts for the absence of symmetry distribution, while the latter eval-
uates how the results are arranged in relation to the normal
distribution. It can be concluded that Ssk is negative for the mass side
and positive for the grip side (see the dashed-dot-dot line). This means,
W. Macek, et al. Mechanics of Materials 147 (2020) 103410

Figure 11. Evolution of surface texture parameters for both sides of the broken specimens with different values of the acceleration amplitude ratio: (a) S- parameters;
(b) Sku and Ssk parameters; and (c) V- parameters.

therefore, that the former is concave, and the latter is convex. Rela- valleys. In the present study, a mix behaviour has been found, with Sku
tively to the Sku parameter, the normal distribution value is 3 (see the results either above or below this threshold. On the other hand, it seems
dashed-dot line); values higher than 3 denote excessively high peaks that there is no direct correlation between these two parameters and the
and deep valleys; and values lower than 3 suggest the lack of peaks and degree of fatigue damage.

7
W. Macek, et al. Mechanics of Materials 147 (2020) 103410

Figure 12. Reciprocal relationship of several surface topography parameters evaluated for fracture surfaces of the grip side and the mass side: (a) Sq; (b) Sz; (c) Sku;
(d) Ssk; (e) Vv; and (f) Vvc. A denotes grip side, and M denotes mass side.

In relation to the V- parameters plotted in Figure 11(c), as already
reported for the S- parameters, differences between the values for the
mass and the grip sides are also quite evident. In general, V- parameters
have took higher values on the grip side of the specimen. It is also
possible to observe a clear dependency of such parameters on the
degree of fatigue damage. Not surprisingly, the samples with lower
α(t)/α0 ratios tend to present smaller values of the fracture surface
parameters, which can be explained, as referred to above, by the larger
fatigue crack propagation areas, whose surfaces are smoother. In short,
the larger the rupture area, the higher the topography parameters of the

8
W. Macek, et al. Mechanics of Materials 147 (2020) 103410

Table 4
Square correlation coefficients of the selected fracture surface parameters.
Height parameters, S- R2 Material and void volume parameters, V- R2

Root-mean-square height, Sq (µm) 0.8509 Material volume, Vm (mm3/mm2) 0.3553

Maximum peak height, Sp (µm) 0.5453 Core material volume, Vmc (mm3/mm2) 0.6318
Maximum pit height, Sv (µm) 0.5913 Void volume, Vv (mm3/mm2) 0.8512
Maximum height, Sz (µm) 0.8551 Core void volume, Vvc (mm3/mm2) 0.7808
Arithmetical mean height, Sa (µm) 0.8532 Pit void volume, Vvv (mm3/mm2) 0.2543
Skewness, Ssk (-) 0.6333
Kurtosis, Sku (-) 0.3451

entire fracture surface.
Another interesting point that needs clarification is the reciprocity
of the measured values for both sides of the fracture surfaces. Figure 12
plots the values of several surface topography parameters for the grip
side against those for the mass side. As can be seen, there is a very good
correlation between the data. Except for the case of Figure 12(d), linear
relationships can satisfactorily capture the relationships of both vari-
ables, which is a positive aspect regarding the use of such parameters in
this context. Moreover, for the sake of completeness, we should men-
tion that several fracture surface parameters have led to low square
correlation factors (R2). The R2 values found in the present study for all
the parameters selected for fatigue fracture surface description are
summarised in Table 4. Based on the conclusions drawn above, Sa and
Vv were the S- and V- parameters selected for a further in-depth ana-
lysis. On the one hand, both parameters have been particularly sensitive
to the degree of fatigue damage and, therefore, are particularly suitable
to account for the contribution of fatigue phenomenon; on the other
hand, the square correlation coefficients have been the highest. Last,
but not least, Sa and Vv parameters, regardless of the measuring tech-
nique, are widespread used.

Figure 13. Fracture surface parameter at fatigue crack propagation zones (Z1 and Z2) and rupture zones (Z3): (a) arithmetical mean height (Sa); and (b) void volume
(Vv).

9
W. Macek, et al.
Figure 14. Relationship between: (a) arithmetical mean height (Sa) and
breaking stress (σ); (b) void volume (Vv) and breaking stress (σ). Breaking
stress is defined by dividing the breaking force by the area of rupture zone.
4.3. Surface fracture parameters for individual areas
It is clear from Figure 7 that fatigue propagation areas and rupture
areas change considerably with the degree of fatigue damage.
Figure 15. Relationship between the arithmetical mean height (Sa), void volume (Vv) and breaking stress (σ) on the basis of the total area.
10
Mechanics of Materials 147 (2020) 103410
Furthermore, the values of the fracture topography parameters are
predictably different for these regions, due to the nature of the loading
applied in each case (see, for example, Figures 7 and 9). The variation
of the Sa and Vv parameters for the three main zones (Z1 and Z2 refer to
the fatigue crack propagation areas, and Z3 refer to the rupture area) is
exhibited in Figure 13(a) and (b), respectively, for both sides of the
broken specimens tested at different degrees of fatigue damage. In fact,
as expected, S- and V- parameters are tendentially smaller for the fa-
tigue propagation regions than that for the rupture region, regardless of
the α(t)/α0 ratio. In addition, the fatigue propagation regions show, in
general, nearly similar values of Sa and Vv, which is an interesting
aspect. Moreover, we can identify a decrease in the S- and V- para-
meters with decreasingly lower values of the α(t)/α0 ratio. For higher
α(t)/α0 ratios, the areas of the uncracked sections are greater and,
therefore, higher values of the fractographic parameters are expected.
4.4. Breaking stress versus total and individual fracture surface parameters
Tensile static force, as shown in Figure 8, has changed with the
degree of fatigue damage. Nevertheless, at this stage, the relation be-
tween the breaking stress and the values of the fracture surface para-
meters is not clear. In order to investigate such a dependency, Sa and Vv
parameters evaluated for grip and mass sides were plotted against the
breaking stresses determined in the tests. Breaking stresses have been
calculated by dividing the breaking force by the area of rupture zone.
As can be seen in Figure 14, Sa-σ and Vv-σ functions are higher for the
grip side than those for the mass side. Moreover, there is a strong re-
lationship between the S- and V- parameters and the breaking stress.
Although there are some exceptions, in general, we can conclude that
the higher is the stress, the higher are the Sa and Vv parameters.
The interdependency between the breaking stress and the selected
fracture surface parameters has been investigated. The thin-plate spline
interpolant method (by Matlab) has been used to correlate Vv, σ and Sa
variables (Roussos and Baxter, 2005). Figure 15 plots graphically the
typical relationships found here. Stress has been normalised by mean
(450.7 MPa) and standard deviation (36.61 MPa) and Sa has been
normalised by mean (364 μm) and standard deviation (146.7 μm). As
can be seen, the fitted function is very well defined. The sum squared
error performance function has been 3.721 × 10−28, which shows a
high fitting accuracy.
The analysis of individual areas, as represented in Figure 16, shows
that Sa and Vv parameters are also higher for the grip side than for the
mass side, which is line with the conclusions drawn with respect to the
total areas. In addition, despite the differences in scale of both para-
meters, we can see that Sa and Vv have similar developments with the
breaking stress, regardless of the individual zone, which is an inter-
esting outcome. In Z1 zone, as exhibited in Figure 16(a), maximum
values have been found for the specimens subjected to breaking stresses
W. Macek, et al. Mechanics of Materials 147 (2020) 103410

Figure 16(b)). However, since Z1 and Z2 zones are symmetrical, at least

in a theoretical sense, Sa and Vv should be rather similar. Nevertheless,
this similarity between the values of surface fracture parameters for Z1
and Z2 zones has occurred in most of cases, which is rather interesting.
In Z3 zone, as shown in Figure 16(c), Sa and Vv parameters are de-
creasing functions of breaking stress, and the differences between the
measured values of the grip side and the mass side are quite small.

5. Conclusions

This paper aimed to study the three-dimensional fractographic da-

mage in samples subjected to bending loading with controlled degree of
fatigue damage. Fatigue damage was introduced using a mixed me-
chanical-metrological approach with the ability to correlate the stiff-
ness variation with the residual loading capacity. Firstly, fatigue tests
were conducted to cause different damage levels and, then, specimens
were separated into two pieces by applying a uniaxial monotonic tensile
loading. Next, both sides of fracture surfaces were analysed using dif-
ferent fractographic parameters. The following conclusions can be
drawn:

• Fatigue crack initiation has occurred near the grip side at the
transition from the cylindrical body to the specimen ends. A multi-
crack initiation phenomenon, with two cracks at radially opposite
positions, has been observed. Finite element simulations have con-
firmed these locations as the most likely initiation sites.
• Fracture surfaces are characterised by a central rupture zone and
two neighbouring fatigue zones. The higher the degree of fatigue
damage introduced into the specimen, the greater the fatigue zones,
the lower the rupture zone, and the lower the breaking tensile
loading.
• S- and V- parameters evaluated for both sides of fracture surfaces
have led to different values. However, a very good correlation be-
tween the values of the grip side and the values of the mass side has
been found. In most of cases, linear relationships have reasonably
captured the trends.
• In general, S- and V- parameters have been sensitive to the degree of
fatigue damage; the arithmetical mean height (Sa) and the void
volume (Vv) have exhibited the highest correlation coefficients; in
the opposite direction, we have found the Skewness (Ssk) and the
Kurtosis (Sku) parameters.
• The analysis of individual areas (i.e. rupture and the fatigue zones)
have shown that the values of the Sa and Vv are smaller for the latter
zones. On the other hand, both fatigue zones of each fracture surface
have exhibited relatively similar values. The increase of fatigue
damage has resulted in smaller values of the Sa and Vv parameters.
• Strong relationships between Sa and σ, and between Vv versus σ,
have been found. Overall, although there have been some excep-
tions, as the breaking stress increases, Sa and Vv climb. On the other
hand, at a fixed breaking stress, Sa and Vv are higher for the grip
side than for the mass side.
• Sa and Vv parameters, either for total area or individual zones, have
been higher in the grip side than in the mass side. Despite some
Figure 16. Sa-σ and Vv-σ functions for individual zones: (a) Z1 zone; (b) Z2 exceptions, identical values of Sa and Vv have been found for Z1 and
zone; and (c) Z3 zone. Z2 zones, which are, in theory, symmetrical. At Z3 zone, fracture
surface parameters have been a decreasing function of breaking
stress.
close to 440 MPa. Nevertheless, measured quantities at both sides of the
sample have been significantly different, and the higher quantities have
Precise fitness-for-service assessment is a pivotal task in modern
been found at the mass side. Surprisingly in Z2 zone, both Sa and Vv
engineering design of critical components. The proposed multi-
parameters are relatively small at the above-mentioned stress level (see
disciplinary approach, connecting the mechanical system dynamics

11
W. Macek, et al. Mechanics of Materials 147 (2020) 103410

with the fatigue fracture mechanics and the surface metrology, fulfils
this goal and is of particular interest for industrial application.
Furthermore, this non-destructive technique is energy-saving and reli-
able to assess the degree of fatigue damage. Finally, as far as the authors
know, this paper is the first attempt to provide a systematic and ob-
jective analysis of surface metrology in fracture surfaces obtained with
controlled fatigue damage. The functional properties associated with
the different surface topographies is another important outcome.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Wojciech Macek: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation,
Supervision, Visualization, Writing - review & editing. Robert
Owsiński: Data curation, Investigation. Jarosław Trembacz: Data
curation, Investigation. Ricardo Branco: Supervision, Visualization,
Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing.

Appendix A. Isometric views of the fracture surfaces for the grip side

Figure A1.

Figure A1. Isometric views of the fracture surfaces for the grip side.

12
W. Macek, et al.
Appendix B. Isometric views of the fracture surfaces for the mass side
Figure B2.
Figure B2. Isometric views of the fracture surfaces for the mass side (contour lines).
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