Respiratory System

CHAPTER 7
 Respiratory System

 2 divisions:
 Upper respiratory tract
 Nasal cavity, pharynx
 Lower respiratory tract
 Larynx, trachea, bronchi,
lungs
 Functions:
 Exchanges oxygen and
carbon dioxide between the
air and blood
 Regulates blood pH
 Produces sounds
 Moves air over sensory
receptors that detect smell
 Protects against some
microorganisms
 Nose & Nasal Cavity
NASAL CAVITY
 Structure
 A double cavity formed by
 The frontal, sphenoid, and ethmoid
bones of the cranium
 The nasal, maxilla, vomer, and
palatine bones of the face
 Divided by a septum
 From the anterior nares to the
posterior nares
 Opens into the pharynx
 Lined with ciliated columnar epithelium
 Contain goblet cells
 Functions
 Provide a passageway to the lungs
 Warms, moistens, & filters air
 Cilia sweeps mucus toward the throat
 Nose and Nasal Cavity
NASAL CONCHAE
 Structure
 3 protruding folds on the outer walls of the nasal cavity
 Superior concha
 Middle concha
 Inferior concha
 Made of cartilaginous tissue covered with ciliated columnar
epithelium
 Nose and Nasal Cavity
NASAL CONCHAE

 Function
 Provide greater surface area and air turbulence for
improved warming of air
 Nose and Nasal Cavity
SINUSES

 Structure
 Air cavities within the bones
around the nasal cavity
 Have small openings into
the nasal cavity
 Maxillary sinuses
 Frontal sinuses
 Ethmoidal sinuses
 Lined with mucous
epithelium
 Function
 Provide resonance to the
voice
Nose and Nasal Cavity
NASOLACRIMAL DUCTS

 Small ducts from the

conjunctival sacs of the
eye to the nasal cavity
 Drain tears
 Nose and Nasal Cavity
OLFACTORY NERVE ENDS

 Sensory nerve
endings located in the
roof of the nasal cavity
 Respond to odorous
chemical stimuli
 Pharynx

 A 12-14 cm long tube with

openings from the nose
and mouth that extends to
the larynx and oesophagus
 3 divisions:
 Nasopharynx
 Oropharynx
 Laryngopharynx
 Involved in respiration,
speech, taste, and eating
 Pharynx

 3 layers of tissue in the wall

of the pharynx
 Mucous membrane
(inner)
 Part ciliated columnar
 Part stratified
squamous epithelium
 Fibrous tissue
 Constrictor muscle
tissue
 Impt for swallowing
 Pharynx
NASOPHARYNX

 Upper part of the pharynx

 Lies behind the nasal cavity
 Contains
 Auditory tube openings
 Leads to the middle ear
 Provide pressure
equalization
 Olfactory sensors
 For smell
 Pharyngeal tonsils
(adenoids)
 Defensive lymphatic
tissues
 Larger in children
 Pharynx
OROPHARYNX

 The mid part of the pharynx

 Lies behind the oral cavity
 Contains the following:
 Palatine tonsils
 Defensive lymphatic
tissue
 Located between the
two folds (pillars) of
tissue on each side wall
 Uvula
 Hangs from the soft
palate
 Taste sensors
 Pharynx
LARYNGOPHARYNX

 Lower part of the

pharynx
 Lies behind the
larynx
 Contains openings
into the
oesophagus and
larynx
 Larynx
VOICE BOX

 Location:
 In front of the
laryngopharynx
 Below the hyoid
bone and root of the
tongue
 Larger in males
 Giving a deeper
voice and “Adam’s
apple” prominence
 Larynx
CARTILAGES

 Thyroid cartilage
 2 laminae fused at the
front
 Form the laryngeal
prominence
 Cricoid cartilage
 Lies posterior to and
below thyroid cartilage
 Shape of signet ring
 Wider part to the back
 Connected to the thyroid
& arytenoid cartilages
 By ligaments and
tissues
 Larynx
CARTILAGES

 Arytenoid cartilages
 Two small pieces
 Attached to the top
of the posterior part
of the cricoid
cartilage
 Provide attachment
for the vocal cords
and muscles
 Larynx
CARTILAGES

 Epiglottis
 Leaf-shaped
 Attached to the
thyroid cartilage
 Runs obliquely up,
back, and behind the
hyoid bone
 Closes over larynx
when larynx moves
up when swallowing
 Prevents food
entering the
respiratory system
 Larynx
VOCAL CORDS

 Two pale folds of mucous

membrane
 Stretch between the
thyroid prominence and
the arytenoid cartilages
 Movement of the arytenoid
cartilages
 Tensions the vocal
cords
 Draws them closer
together
 Forms a narrow slit
 Larynx
VOCAL CORDS

 When air passes through the

slit, the vocal cords vibrate,
making sound
 Pitch
 Controlled by length &
tightness of vocal cords
 Loudness
 By the force of air
 Resonance
 Developed in the
mouth, pharynx, &
nasal cavities, including
the sinuses
 Speech
 Manipulation of sound
by the mouth, tongue,
and lips
 Trachea

 About 10-11 cm long windpipe

 From the larynx to its division into
2 bronchi
 Kept open at all times by 16-20 C-
shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
 3 layers:
 Outer
 Fibrous and elastic tissue
 Middle
 Cartilages, bands of smooth
muscle and areolar tissue
supporting blood and nerve
supply
 Inner
 Ciliated columnar
epithelium with goblet cells
 Cilia sweep mucus toward
the throat
 Bronchial Tree
BRONCHI

 Branch from the trachea

 Enter lungs at the hilum
 2 branches
 R bronchus
 3 branches go to 3 lobes
of the R lung
 L bronchus
 2 branches go to 2 lobes
of the L lung
 Tissue structure
 Similar to the trachea
 With increasingly less
defined cartilages toward
the distal ends
 Cilia sweep mucus toward the
throat
Bronchial Tree
BRONCHIOLES
 Multiple branches that become smaller until they merge with
alveolar ducts
 No cartilages
 Inner lining changes from ciliated columnar to cuboidal then to
simple squamous epithelium
 Bronchial Tree
BRONCHIOLES

 Alveolar
 Branched alveolar ducts
 Open into alveolar
sacs
 Have several
openings into alveoli
pouches
 Surrounded by a
network of capillaries
 Blood supply
 Via the R and L
bronchial arteries and
veins
 Lymphatic vessels drain
lymph into the thoracic
duct and R lymphatic
duct
 Lungs
STRUCTURE

 L lung
 Has superior and
inferior lobes
 R lung
 Has superior,
middle, and inferior
lobes
 Lungs
STRUCTURE
 Features
 Apex
 Enters the root of the neck

 Base
 Follows contour of the diaphragm

 Costal surface
 Convex

 Follows line of rib cage

 Medial surface
 Concave

 Contains the hilum, which contains

the structures of the root of the

lung including:
 1 bronchus
 1 pulmonary artery & 2 pulmonary
veins
 Lymph vessels
 Nerves
 Lungs
FEATURES

 Pleura
 Closed sac of serous
membrane, providing 2
layers:
 Parietal pleura (lining
the chest wall and
diaphragm)
 Visceral pleura
(covers lung)
 Pleural cavity
 A potential space
between the pleura
 Containing pleural fluid
to prevent friction
 External Respiration
INSPIRATION

 When breathing in
 The intercostal muscles contract
 Lifts the rib cage up and out
 Diaphragm contracts and
flattens
 Combined action results in the
 Increase in size of the
pulmonary cavity
 Decrease in pressure within
the lungs/alveoli
 Air in the atmosphere moves
into the lungs to equalize the
pressure difference
 Lungs inflate with air
 External Respiration
EXPIRATION

 When breathing out

 Intercostal muscles &
diaphragm relax
 Elastic recoil takes over
 Leads to increase in
pressure within the
lungs/alveoli
 Air within lungs flows
back into the atmosphere
 Lungs deflate
 Pause
 A rest period between
expiration & inspiration
 External Respiration
INTERCHANGE OF GASES

 Interchange is by diffusion
down the concentration
gradient
 Gases always exert pressure
on the walls of their
container
 Lung Volumes & Capacities
 Anatomical dead space
 The air capacity remaining
in the respiratory passages
after completely exhaling
 About 150 ml dead space
(DSV)
 Tidal volume (TV)
 Amount of air passing in
and out with quiet breathing
 About 500 ml
 Lung Volumes & Capacities
 Inspiratory capacity
 Amount of air inhaled/exhaled
with maximum effort
 = TV + inspiratory reserve
volume
 Functional residual volume
 The amount of air in the air
passages and alveoli after
quiet respiration
 2300 ml
 A mixture of this and the tidal
air maintains a fairly stable
mixture of air in the alveoli
 Provides a steady transfer

of oxygen to the blood

 Prevents collapse of the

alveoli
 Lung Volumes & Capacities
 Vital capacity
 TV + Inspiratory & Expiratory
reserve volumes
 4000 ml
 Respiratory rate (RR)
 Number of breaths per minute
 Infants = 28-40; children = 20-
28; adults = 16-20
 Alveolar ventilation (AV)
 The amount of air moving in
and out of the alveoli per
minute
 AV = RR X (TV - DSV)
= 15 X (500 - 150) ml
= 5.25 L/min
 Internal Respiration

 Exchange of gases mainly occur at

the arterial end of a capillary
 Oxygen
 Is dissolved in plasma

 Or carried in oxyhaemoglobin

 Diffuses down the

concentration gradient
 From blood through capillary
wall to the tissues
 Carbon dioxide
 Diffuses down the

concentration gradient
 From the tissues through the
capillary wall to the blood
 Higher carbon dioxide levels
assist the release of oxygen
from oxyhaemoglobin
 Internal Respiration

 At the venous end of a

capillary
 Pressures of oxygen and
carbon dioxide in
equilibrium between the
capillary & interstitial fluid.
 Infectious Diseases of the Respiratory
System
 Respiratory infections
 The most common types of
infections
 Most are mild, but some are
among the most damaging
types of infection
 Many are spread by:
 Direct contact with droplets
produced by sneezing and
coughing
 Contact of contaminated
objects with hands and
fingers, which then come into
contact with the mouth and
nasal passages
 Infectious Diseases of the Respiratory
System
INFECTIONS OF THE UPPER
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 Strep throat
 Caused by streptococcal
bacteria
 Characterized by
inflammation of the
pharynx and fever
 Frequently inflammation
of the tonsils and middle
ear are involved
 Treated with antibiotics
 Infectious Diseases of the Respiratory
System
INFECTIONS OF THE UPPER
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 Diphtheria
 Caused by a bacterium
 Grayish membrane forms
in the throat
 Can block the
respiratory passages
totally
 Can be prevented by
immunization
 Infectious Diseases of the Respiratory
System
INFECTIONS OF THE UPPER
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 Common cold
 Result of a viral infection
 Symptoms include: sneezing,
excessive nasal secretions,
and congestion
 Can easily spread to sinus
cavities, lower respiratory
passages, and the middle ear
 Common complications
include laryngitis and otitis
media
 Usually runs its course to
recovery in about 1 week
 Infectious Diseases of the Respiratory
System
INFECTIONS OF THE LOWER
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 Laryngitis & bronchitis
 Also caused by many of the
same infections that mainly
affect the upper respiratory
system
 Infectious Diseases of the Respiratory
System
INFECTIONS OF THE LOWER
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 Whooping cough or pertussis

 Bacterial infection
 Causes a loss of cilia in the respiratory epithelium
 Mucus accumulates & cause severe coughing
 Can be prevented by vaccination
 Infectious Diseases of the Respiratory
System
INFECTIONS OF THE LOWER
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 Tuberculosis (TB)
 Caused by a tuberculosis bacterium
 Form small lumplike lesions called
tubercles
 Contain degenerating macrophages
and tuberculosis bacteria
 An immune reaction is directed
against the bacteria
 Causes the formation of larger
lesions and inflammation
 Tubercles can rupture, releasing
additional bacteria, which infect
other parts of the lung or body
 Treated with antibiotics
 NB: a strain of TB that is resistant
to antibiotics is increasing in
frequency
 Infectious Diseases of the Respiratory
System
INFECTIONS OF THE LOWER
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 Pneumonia
 Refers to many infections of the
lung
 Most are bacterial, but some
are viral
 Symptoms include fever,
difficulty in breathing, & chest
pain
 Inflammation of the lungs
results in
 Pulmonary edema
 Poor inflation of the lungs
with air
Infectious Diseases of the Respiratory
System
INFECTIONS OF THE LOWER
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 Flu or influenza
 Viral infection of the respiratory system
 Characterized by chills, fever, headache, & muscular
aches in addition to respiratory symptoms
 Fungal diseases
 Many affect the respiratory system
 Fungal spores usually enter the respiratory system
attached to dust particles
 Infections result in minor respiratory infections, but in
some cases they can spread to other parts of the body