WEEK 6 – PREPARATION OF CONCRETE SPECIMEN

CEMENT
Cement, one of the most important building materials, is a binding agent that sets and hardens to adhere to building
units such as stones, bricks, tiles, etc. Cement generally refers to a very fine powdery substance chiefly made up of
limestone (calcium), sand or clay (silicon), bauxite (aluminum), and iron ore, and may include shells, chalk, marl,
shale, clay, blast furnace slag, slate. The raw ingredients are processed in cement manufacturing plants and heated to
form a rock-hard substance, which is then ground into a fine powder to be sold. Cement mixed with water causes a
chemical reaction and forms a paste that sets and hardens to bind individual structures of building materials.

Cement is an integral part of the urban infrastructure. It is used to make concrete as well as mortar and to secure the
infrastructure by binding the building blocks. Concrete is made of cement, water, sand, and gravel mixed in definite
proportions, whereas mortar consists of cement, water, and lime aggregate. These are both used to bind rocks, stones,
bricks, and other building units, fill, or seal any gaps, and make decorative patterns. Cement mixed with water
silicates and aluminates makes a water-repellant hardened mass that is used for waterproofing.

CONCRETE VS. CEMENT DEFINED

Contrary to popular belief, concrete and cement are not the same thing; cement is just a component of concrete.
Concrete comprises three basic components: water, aggregate (rock, sand, or gravel), and Portland Cement. Cement,
usually in powder form, acts as a binding agent when mixed with water and aggregates. This combination, or
concrete mix, will be poured and hardened into the durable material we are all familiar with.

Concrete is also an artificial stone due to mixing cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, and water. The
conglomeration of these materials producing a solid mass is called Plain Concrete. Concrete in which reinforcement
is embedded in a manner that two materials act together in resisting forces is called Reinforced Concrete.

PORTLAND CEMENT
The most used cement nowadays is hydraulic cement (i.e. hardened when water is added) known as Portland Cement.
These are usually the basic ingredient in making concrete, which is a construction material used as a load-bearing
element. Portland Cement is suitable for wet climates and can be used underwater.

A concrete mix is a combination of five major elements in various proportions: cement, water, coarse aggregates,
fine aggregates (i.e. sand), and air. Additional elements such as pozzolanic materials and chemical admixtures can
also be incorporated into the mix to give it certain desirable properties. A concrete mix design is a process of
selecting ingredients for a concrete mixture and deciding on their proportions. When designing a mix, you should
always consider the desired strength, durability, and workability of the concrete for the project in question.

PORTLAND CEMENT IS CATEGORIZED INTO FOUR TYPES:

Type I – is used in general construction where the special properties are specified.
Type II – for general concrete construction exposed to moderate sulfate action or where moderate of hydration is
required.
Type III – is used where high early strength is necessary.
Type IV – is specified when high sulfate resistance is required.

POZZOLAN CEMENT
It is an amorphous silica that hardens as a silica gel by reacting chemically with alkali in the presence of water. The
Pozzolan is derived from Pozzuoli, an Italian town where Pozzolana a composition of glassy tuff was found.

WATER
Any water that is acceptable for drinking purposes is also satisfactory for use in concrete mixing.

ADMIXTURE
As defined by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), admixture is a material other than water,
aggregates, or Portland cement, that is used as an ingredient in concrete added to the batch immediately before or
during its mixing.

The purposes of admixture in concrete are the following:

1. To improve the workability or consistency of concrete. This means the ability of the concrete mixture to fill all the
voids of aggregate, steel reinforcement, and other voids inside the forms. Concrete mixture, however, should not be
too thick or too fluid.
2. To improve the durability of concrete.
3. To increase strength.
4. To Accelerate strength development
5. To accelerate the initial setting.
6. To reduce the evolution of heat.
7. To control alkali-aggregate expansion.
8. To increase density and reduce permeability.

TYPES OF CEMENT
Cement is a binding material that makes a bond between aggregates and reinforcing materials together. With the
development of technology, the quality and types of cement have also developed. So there are different types of
cement for different construction works.

Two main types of cement

Cement is mainly classified into two categories depending on the hardening and setting mechanism. These are:
1. Hydraulic Cement
As the name indicates, hydraulic cement hardens by hydration in the presence of water. Limestone, clay, and
gypsum are the main raw material to produce non-hydraulic cement. This raw material is burned at a very
high temperature to manufacture Hydraulic Cement. Hydraulic cement (cement that not only hardens by
reacting with water but also forms a water-resistant product) is produced by pulverizing clinkers which
consist essentially of hydraulic calcium silicates, usually containing one or more of the forms of calcium
sulfate as an inter-ground addition.

2. Non-Hydraulic Cement
The non-hydraulic cement does not require water to harden. It gets with the help of carbon dioxide (CO2)
from the air. This type of cement needs dry conditions to harden. Lime, gypsum plasters, and oxychloride are
the required raw materials to produce non-hydraulic cement. Example: slaked lime is a non-hydraulic cement.

Along with these main types, depending on the composition and characteristics there are many types of cement. The
following are the other types of cement and their brief descriptions:
1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
In usual construction work, Ordinary Portland Cement is widely used. It is a hydraulic material that
shall consist of at least two-thirds by mass of calcium silicates, the remainder consisting of aluminum- and
iron-containing clinker phases and other compounds.
The composition of Ordinary Portland Cement:
- Argillaceous or silicates of alumina (clay and shale)
- Calcareous or calcium carbonate (limestone, chalk, and marl)

Uses of Ordinary Portland Cement:

a. It is used for general construction purposes.
b. It is also used in most of the masonry works.

2. Pozzolana Cement (PPC)

Pozzolans are natural or synthetic materials that contain silica in reactive forms. It reacts with
calcium hydroxide generated by hydrating cement to form additional cementation materials when it is finely
divided. The composition of Portland Pozzolana Cement: OPC clinker, Gypsum, Pozzolanic Materials (Fly
ash, volcanic ash, and Calcined clay or silica fumes.)

Uses of Portland Pozzolana Cement:

a. PPC is usually used in hydraulic structures, marine structures, construction near the seashore, dam
construction, etc.
b. It is also used in pre-stressed and post-tensioned concrete members.
c. As it gives a better surface finish, it is used in decorative and art structures.
d. It is also used in the manufacture of precast sewage pipes.

3. Rapid Hardening Cement

When finely grounded Tri-calcium silicate is present in OPC with higher content, it gains strength
more quickly than OPC. This type of OPC is called Rapid Hardening Cement. Its initial setting time is 30
minutes, and the final setting time is 60 minutes.

Uses of Rapid Hardening Cement:

a. Rapid hardening cement is mostly used where rapid construction is needed like the construction of
pavement.
b. It also gives high strength.
4. Quick-Setting Cement
Quick-setting cement is set in a very short time. The initial setting time is 5 minutes, and the final
setting time is 30 minutes. The composition of Quick Setting Cement: Clinker, Aluminum sulfate (1% to 3%
by weight of clinker), and aluminum sulfate increases the hydration rate of silicate.

Uses of Quick Setting Cement:

a. It is used in underwater construction.
b. It is also used in rainy & cold weather conditions.
c. It is used at a higher temperature where water evaporates easily.
d. Used for anchoring or rock bolt mining and tunneling.

5. Low Heat Cement

It is a spatial type of cement that produces low heat of hydration during the setting. Some chemical
composition of Ordinary Portland Cement is modified to reduce the heat of hydration. The chemical
composition of low-heat cement: a low percentage (5%) of tricalcium aluminate and a higher percentage
(46%) of declaiming silicate.

Uses of Low Heat Cement:

a. It is used for the construction of a dam’s large footing, large raft slabs, and wind turbine plinths.
b. It is also used for the construction of chemical plants.

6. Sulfate Resisting Cement

Sulfate-resisting cement is used to resist sulfate attacks in concrete. Due to the lower percentage of
Tricalcium aluminate, the production of calcium sulpho-aluminates gets reduced.

Uses of Sulfates Resisting Cement:

a. Construction in contact with soils or groundwater having more than 0.2% or 0.3 % g/l sulfate salts
respectively.
b. Concrete surfaces subjected to alternate wetting and drying such as bridge piers, concrete surfaces
in the tidal zone, aprons, and buildings near the seacoast.
c. Effluent treatment plans, chimneys, Chemical industries, water storage, sumps, drainage works,
Cooling towers, Coastal protective works such as sea walls, breakwaters, tetrapods, etc.

7. Blast Furnace Cement

Portland cement clinker and granulated blast furnace slag are integrated to make blast furnace
cement. A maximum of 65 percent of the mixture could be comprised of blast furnace slag.

Uses of Blast Furnace Cement:

a. It is highly sulfate resistant.
b. Frequently used in seawater construction.

8. High Alumina Cement

High Alumina cement is obtained by mixing calcining bauxite (it is an aluminum ore) and ordinary
lime with clinker during the manufacture of OPC. In which the total amount of alumina content should not
be less than 32% and it should maintain the ratio by weight of alumina to the lime between 0.85 to 1.30.

Uses of High Alumina Cement:

a. It is used where concrete structures are subjected to high temperatures like workshops, refractories,
foundries, etc.
b. It is also used where the concrete is subjected to frost and acidic action.

9. White Cement
White cement is quite like Ordinary Portland Cement except for color. Amounts of iron oxide and
manganese oxide are low in White Cement. It is more expensive than OPC so it is not economical for
ordinary work.

Uses of White Cement:

a. It is usually used in decorative work.
b. It can also be used for traffic barriers, tile grouts, swimming pools, roof tiles patching materials, and
terrazzo surfaces.

10. Colored Cement

To make 5 to 10 percent of suitable pigments are ground with OPC. Types of pigments are selected
according to the desired color.
 Uses of Colored Cement:
a. Colored cement is used for different decorative work.

11. Air Entraining Cement

It is seen that the entrainment of air or the formation of gas bubbles while applying cement increases
resistance to frost action, fire, scaling, and other similar defects. Air-entraining cement is a special type of
cement that entrains tinny air bubbles in concrete. It is produced by grinding minute air entertaining
materials with clinker by adding some resinous materials e.g. vinsol resin to ordinary Portland cement. When
the water in concrete gets frizzed due to low temperature, it expands. When air-entraining cement, the air
voids in the concrete provide space for water to expand without cracking concrete. However, this type of
cement does not provide high strength in concrete.

Uses of Air-Entraining Cement:

a. Especially it is used in areas where the temperature is very low.
b. It also resists the sulfate attack.
c. It is used where the de-icing chemical is used.

12. Expansive Cement

In the hydration process, the expansive cement expands its volume. It can be possible to overcome
shrinkage loss by using expansive cement.

There are three types of expansive cement:

1. K Type expansive cement
2. M Type expansive cement
3. S Type expansive cement

Uses of Expansive Cement:

a. It is used in the construction of the pre-stressed concrete component.
b. It is also used for sealing joints and grouting anchor bolts.
c. In the construction of different hydraulic structures, this type of cement is used.

13. Hydrophobic Cement

To resist the hydration process in the transportation or storage stage, clinkers are ground with water-
repellent film substances such as Oleic Acid or Stearic Acid. These chemicals form a layer on the cement
particle and do not allow water to mix and start the hydration process. When cement and aggregate are
thoroughly mixed in the mixer, protective layers break and start normal hydration with some air entrainment
which increases workability.

Uses of Hydrophobic Cement:

a. Usually, it is used in the construction of water structures such as dams, spillways, or other
submerged structures.
b. It is also used in the construction of underground structures like tunnels etc.

AGGREGATES
For a good concrete mix, aggregates need to be clean, hard, strong particles free of absorbed chemicals or coatings of
clay and other fine materials that could cause the deterioration of concrete. Aggregates, which account for 60 to 75
percent of the total volume of concrete, are divided into two distinct categories--fine and coarse.

Aggregates are classified into two categories:

1. Coarse Aggregate
The portion of an aggregate that is retained on the number 4 (4.75mm) sieve usually comes from natural
gravel deposits which are formed by water, wind, or glacial action. Manufactured by crushing rocks, stones,
boulders, and large cobblestones.
Conditions for the maximum size of coarse aggregate:
a. It shall easily fit into the forms and in between reinforcing bars.
b. It should not be larger than 1/5 of the narrowest dimension of the forms or 1/3 of the
depth of the slab nor ¾ of the minimum distance between the reinforcing bars.
2. Fine Aggregate
Generally, the product of the natural disintegration of silica-bearing or calcium-bearing rock. Fine aggregate
or sand are those that pass through the number 4 (4.75mm) sieve and are predominantly retained by a no.
200 (74micron) sieve. It is also manufactured from large pieces of aggregate by crushing, grinding, or rolling.
Natural gravel and sand are usually dug or dredged from a pit, river, lake, or seabed. Crushed aggregate is
 produced by crushing quarry rock, boulders, cobbles, or large-size gravel. Recycled concrete is a viable
source of aggregate and has been satisfactorily used in granular subbases, soil cement, and new concrete.
After harvesting, aggregate is processed: crushed, screened, and washed to obtain proper cleanliness and
gradation. If necessary, a benefaction process such as jigging or heavy media separation can be used to
upgrade the quality. Once processed, the aggregates are handled and stored to minimize segregation and
degradation and prevent contamination.
Aggregates strongly influence concrete's freshly mixed and hardened properties, mixture proportions, and
economy. Consequently, the selection of aggregates is an important process. Although some variation in
aggregate properties is expected, characteristics that are considered include: grading, durability, particle
shape and surface texture, abrasion and skid resistance, unit weights, and voids, and absorption and surface
moisture

THE ROLE OF AGGREGATE IN CONCRETE MIX DESIGNS

Aggregate in concrete is a structural filler, but its role is more important than what that simple statement implies.
Aggregate occupies most of the volume of the concrete. It is the stuff that the cement paste coats and binds together.
The composition, shape, and size of the aggregate all have significant impact on the workability, durability, strength,
weight, and shrinkage of the concrete. Aggregate can also influence the appearance of the cast surface, which is an
especially important consideration in concrete countertop mixes.

When selecting the most appropriate aggregate for a particular concrete mix, here are the key factors to consider:
1.) Material
Most natural stones and crushed rock are appropriate for use in concrete. Commonly used stones are quartz, basalt,
granite, marble, and limestone. If a concrete countertop is going to be ground with diamond tooling, the aggregate
will show, so aesthetics also affect the choice of aggregates. Problems arise with soft, reactive or weak stone or rock.
Lightweight aggregates, a topic for another discussion, are also used in concrete.

2.) Size
Aggregate size and gradation are the most important factors when selecting aggregate. Aggregate can be large or
small, from fist-sized rocks to fine sand. Aggregates larger than ¼ inch are classified as coarse aggregate, while
anything smaller than ¼ inch is termed fine aggregate. As a general rule, the largest aggregate should be no greater in
diameter than one-third the depth of the slab, or one-fifth the smallest dimension of the form. For example, the
largest piece of aggregate allowed for a 1 ½-inch-thick countertop slab is ½ inch. Generally coarse aggregate is
blended with finer aggregates (such as sand) to fill in the spaces left between the large pieces and to “lock” the larger
pieces together. This reduces the amount of cement paste required and decreases the amount of shrinkage that could
occur.

3.) Shape
Aggregate shape influences strength, but has more of an immediate impact on the workability of the plastic concrete.
Rough, angular particles pack tighter, have more surface area, and have greater interparticle friction than smooth,
rounded particles, which reduces workability. Angular particles also require a bit more cement paste to coat them
than rounded particles. Therefore, mixes containing them will require a slightly higher cementitious content.

4.) Gradation
Grading refers to the determination of the particle-size distribution for aggregate. Grading limits and maximum
aggregate size are specified because these properties affect the amount of aggregate used as well as cement and water
requirements, workability, pumpability, and durability of concrete. In general, coarse aggregates tend to be about 10
times larger than the fine aggregates in concrete, but the range of sizes could be greater than that in certain
circumstances. As shown in the figure, there are three typical range categories:
 Well-graded aggregate has a gradation of particle sizes that fairly evenly spans the size from the finest to the
coarsest. A slice of a core of well-graded aggregate concrete shows a packed field of many different particle
sizes.
 Poorly graded aggregate is characterized by small variations in size. This means that the particles pack together,
leaving relatively large voids in the concrete.
 Gap-graded aggregate consists of coarse aggregate particles that are similar in size but significantly different in
size from the fine aggregate. A core slice of gap-graded concrete shows a field of fine aggregate interspersed
with slightly isolated, large aggregate pieces embedded in the fine aggregate.
Typical aggregate gradations are shown in the drawing below:
Poorly graded concretes generally require excessive amounts of cement paste to fill the voids, making them
uneconomical. Gap-graded concretes fall in between well-graded and poorly graded in terms of performance and
economy. Gap-graded concrete is a viable gradation, but not optimal. Well-graded aggregates are tricky to
proportion. The goal of aggregate proportioning and sizing is to maximize the volume of aggregate in the concrete
(and thus minimize the volume of cement paste) while preserving strength, workability, and aesthetics. This balances
the proportions of each so there are just enough of each size to fill all the voids while preserving workability and
cast-surface quality.

WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE
Workability of concrete means the ability of fresh concrete to flow freely around the reinforcements and fill all the
voids inside the form. Concrete is said to be workable under the following conditions:
1. Properly proportioned for transport and placed without segregation. The aggregate particles must be uniformly
distributed.
2. Easily molded into desired shapes and fill the space it is to occupy.
3. Easily finished.
Workability is also described as:
Consistency – is the degree of wetness or slump of the concrete mixture. It varies directly with the amount of water
in the mixture.
Plasticity – is the ease with which fresh concrete can be molded or deformed without segregation.
Mobility – is the capacity of concrete to move or flow, particularly during vibration.
Concrete should be correctly proportioned to produce the workability required for a particular structure. For example,
a thick or stiff concrete mixture may be used for pavement where it can be tamped or vibrated. On the other hand,
concrete for thin walls and small column structures may be compacted with a minimum vibration. Thus, a semi-fluid
mixture is required for concrete in applications where it must flow to fill all the spaces inside the form.

STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

The compressive strength of concrete is the strength of hardened concrete measured by the compression test. The
compression strength of concrete is a measure of the concrete's ability to resist loads that tend to compress it. It is
measured by crushing cylindrical concrete specimens in a compression testing machine or universal testing machine.

The compressive strength of concrete can be calculated by the failure load divided by the cross-sectional area
resisting the load and reported in pounds per square inch in US customary units and Mega-Pascals (MPa) in SI units.
Concrete's compressive strength requirements can vary from 2500 psi (17 MPa) for residential concrete to 4000 psi
(28 MPa) and higher in commercial structures. Higher strengths up to and exceeding 10,000 psi (70 MPa) are
specified for certain applications.

Importance of Determining the Compressive Strength

Compressive strength results are primarily used to determine that the concrete mixture as delivered on site meets the
requirements of the specified strength, fc', in the job specification. Cylinders tested for acceptance and quality control
are made and cured by procedures described for standard-cured specimens in ASTM C-31 (which is the Standard
Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field). For estimating the in-place concrete strength,
ASTM C-31 provides procedures for field-cured specimens. Cylindrical specimens are tested by ASTM C-39 (which
is the standard test method for compressive strength of cylindrical concrete specimens).

A test result is the average of at least two to three standard-cured strength specimens made from the same concrete
batch and tested at the same age. In most cases, strength requirements for concrete are 28 days.

PROPORTIONING CONCRETE MIXTURE

Correct proportioning of the ingredients to produce concrete also provides a balance between the requirements of:
a. Economy
b. Workability
c. Strength
d. Durability
 e. Appearance

The right proportioning of all the ingredients for concrete is the most difficult manufacturing step to control,
although it is one of the most important aspects of producing high-quality economical concrete. In 1918, Duff A.
Abrams, an American scientist researcher, discovered the ratio of the amount of water to the amount of cement in the
concrete mixture (water-cement ratio) is related to the strength and quality of concrete. It has been proven that many
other variables contribute to the strength of concrete, but the water-cement ratio principle still provides the basis for
predicting strength to some extent other than the desirable properties of concrete.

The two methods adopted in the proportioning concrete mixture were either by the volume or by weight measure.
The Philosophy behind establishing the proportion of fine and coarse aggregate with cement and water is to create a
solid mass where cement paste enters the voids of the fine aggregate (sand) and then fills the voids of the coarse
aggregate (gravel) forming a solid mass called concrete.

Theoretically, concrete proportion showed that fine aggregates or sand is always one-half the volume of gravel. For
instance, the 1:2:4 proportion means one part cement, two parts fine aggregate and four parts coarse aggregate to
form class A mixture.

Class of Cement 40kg Sand Gravel

Mixture Cubic Cubic Cubic Cubic
ft. m. ft. m.
AA 1 1-1/2 0.043 3 0.085
A 1 2 0.057 4 0.113
B 1 2-1/2 0.071 5 0.142
C 1 3 0.085 6 0.170

MIXING OF CONCRETE
The process of mixing concrete for building construction is done in two ways. It is either mixed on the job site or by
ready-mixed concrete.

The ACI Building Code on mixing concrete states that:

“For a job-mixed concrete, mixing shall be done in a batch mixer of an approved type. The mixer shall be rotated at a
speed recommended by the manufacturer and mixing shall be continued for at least 1-1/2 minutes after all materials
are in the drum unless a shorter time is shown to be satisfactory by the criteria of specifications for Ready-mixed
concrete for central mixers.”

Mixing of concrete should be done only after a uniform distribution of the materials has been attained and that
mixture shall be discharged completely before recharging the mixer.

DEPOSITING OF CONCRETE
The ACI Building Code on depositing concrete provides that:
“Concrete shall be conveyed from the mixer to the place of final deposit by methods which will prevent the
separation or loss of materials. Conveying equipment shall be capable of supplying concrete at the site of placement
without separation of the ingredients and without interruptions sufficient to permit the loss of plasticity between
successive increments.”

CURING OF CONCRETE
The hardening of concrete depends upon the chemical reaction between the cement and water. The hardening of
concrete will continue if moisture is present under favorable temperature conditions. The initial setting of concrete
will start at about two or three hours after the concrete has been mixed.

At this stage, concrete should be properly protected to prevent craze due to the rapid evaporation of the moisture.
70% of concrete strength is reached at the end of the first week, while 30% could be lost through premature drying.
Thus, concrete must be always moistened within the curing period.

Protection of concrete from loss of surface moisture is 7 days when ordinary Portland cement is used and 3 days for
an early high-strength Portland cement.

Methods applied in curing surface concrete.

1. Covering the surface with burlap continuously wet for the period of curing as specified.
2. Covering the slab with a layer of wet sand or saw dusts one inch thick.
3. Wet straw or hay on top of the slab continuously watered.
4. Continuous sprinkling of water on the slab surface
5. Avoid early removal of forms. This will permit undue evaporation of moisture in the concrete.

The ACI Building Code on the curing of concrete provides that:

“Concrete shall be maintained above 10ºC temperature and in a moist condition for at least the first 7 days after
placing, except that early strength concrete shall be so maintained for at least 3 days. curing by high-pressure steam
at atmospheric pressure, heat and moisture or other accepted process, maybe employed to accelerate strength gain
and reduce the time of curing.”

11 FACTORS THAT CAN AFFECT THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

Factors that Affect the Strength of Concrete

1. Water/Cement Ratio
The ratio of the weight of water to the weight of cement is called Water/Cement ratio. It is the most
important factor for gaining the strength of concrete. The lower w/c ratio leads the higher strength of
concrete. Generally, the water/cement ratio of 0.45 to 0.60 is used. Too much water leads to segregation
and voids in concrete. Water/Cement ratio is inversely proportional to the strength of concrete. As shown
in the chart below when the w/c ratio is increased the strength of concrete gets decreased and when w/c
ratio is decreased then the strength of concrete increases.