Fitting & Machining N2 Nodrm-1

N2 Fitting and Machining
N2
Gateways to Engineering Studies - Chris Brink

Gateways to
Engineering
Studies
Fitting and Machining

N2
Chris Brink
Published by
Hybrid Learning Solutions (Pty) Ltd
Email: urania@hybridlearning.co.za
© 2014 Chris Brink
ISBN: 978-0-9921713-5-3
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior written permission
of the publisher author.
Editor: Urania Bellos

Proofreader: Urania Bellos
Book design: Sarah Buchanan
Cover design: Sarah Buchanan
Artwork: Wendi Wise / Sarah Buchanan
Printed and bound by: Formsxpress
Acknowledgements
Every effort is being made to trace the copyright holders. In the event of
unintentional omissions or errors, any information that would enable the
publisher to make the proper arrangements will be appreciated.
It is illegal to photocopy any part of this book without the prior written
permission of the copyright holder. Apply in writing to the publisher.
Fitting and Machining Theory N2
................................................................................................................. 21
..
........................................................................................ 21
..
1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................22

1.2 The importance of machine safety ................................................................................. 22
1.3 Machine safety regulations must be identified and applied whilst working ....... 22
1.3.1 Dangerous places within the workplace environment ...................................... 23

1.3.2 Power-driven machines ............................................................................................... 24
1.3.3 Projected shafts .............................................................................................................. 26
1.3.4 Transmission belts ........................................................................................................... 26
1.4 Know the safety precautions, relevant safety functions and basic machine
safety requirements..................................................................................................................... 27
1.4.1 Emergency stops............................................................................................................ 27
1.4.2 Mechanical and electrical machine guards ........................................................ 28
1.4.3 Characteristics of effective guards .......................................................................... 31
1.4.4 Safety application when using electrical appliances ........................................ 31
1.5.1 Ventilation and temperature control....................................................................... 33
1.5.2 Lighting and Illumination.............................................................................................. 33
1.5.3 Hazardous chemicals ................................................................................................... 33
1.5.4 Material handling hazards .......................................................................................... 33
1.5.5 Basic rules for preventing mechanical handling accidents.............................. 34

1.5.6 Machine hazards ........................................................................................................... 35
1.5.7 Demarcation lines.......................................................................................................... 35
1.5.8 Apply housekeeping to demarcated areas .......................................................... 36
1.5.8 Safety signs ...................................................................................................................... 36
1.5.9 The value and purpose of safety signs .................................................................... 38
1.5.10 Training............................................................................................................................ 41
1.5.11 Safe use of ladders ...................................................................................................... 41

1.6 Information required on manufacturer’s plate and safety devices ...................... 43
1.6.1 Standard colour codes for oxygen and acetylene cylinders ........................... 44
3
1.6.2 Safety regulations for safe handling and storage of gas cylinders ................. 44
1.6.4 Storage of compressed gas cylinders...................................................................... 45
1.7 Safety measures for hydraulic and pneumatic environment .................................. 46
1.7.1 Pneumatic Tool Safety.................................................................................................. 46
1.7.2 Hydraulic Powered Tool Safety .................................................................................. 46

1.7.3 Hydraulic and pneumatic tools and equipment safety measures ................. 46
1.7.4 Safety checks before operating pneumatic tools ............................................... 47
1.8 Producing an accident or incident report .................................................................... 48

1.8.1 Identifying hazards ........................................................................................................ 48
1.9 Performing a basic machine hazard analysis and a machine risk assessment .. 49
1.9.1 Rating scale ..................................................................................................................... 51
1.10 The fundamental safety requirements in machine control and related safety
regulations from the OHS Act 85 of 1993 (Machine Safety) ............................................ 52
1.10.1 Responsibility of the employer ................................................................................. 52
1.11.2 Responsibility of the employee ................................................................................ 53
1.11.3 Regulations .................................................................................................................... 53

1.12 Regulations that apply to the Minerals Act (Act No. 50 of 1991).......................... 54
1.12.1 First-aid certificate ....................................................................................................... 54
1.12.2 Accidents and enquiries............................................................................................ 55

1.12.3 Special preventative measures relating to machinery .................................... 55
1.12.4 Fire prevention .............................................................................................................. 55
1.12.5 Electrical installations .................................................................................................. 56

1.12.6 Lighting and safety lamps ......................................................................................... 56
1.12. 7 Contraband ................................................................................................................. 56
1.12.8 Use of propelled and self-propelled vehicles ...................................................... 56
1.12. 9 Inspection and testing of boilers ............................................................................ 57
................................................................................................................. 59
..
............................................................................................................. 59
..
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 59

2.2 The difference between a coupling and a clutch ..................................................... 59
2.3 Features of couplings ........................................................................................................... 60
4
2.4 Classification of couplings .................................................................................................. 61

2.5 Fast (rigid) couplings ............................................................................................................ 61
2.5.3 Marine couplings ........................................................................................................... 63
2.5.4 Ribbed (Muff) couplings .............................................................................................. 63
2.6 Flexible couplings .................................................................................................................. 64

2.6.1 Mechanical flexible couplings ................................................................................... 65
2.6.2 Material flexible couplings .......................................................................................... 72
2.7 Self-aligning couplings ......................................................................................................... 76
2.8 Soft-start couplings ............................................................................................................... 78
................................................................................................................. 82
..
....................................................................................................... 82
..
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 82

3.2 Terminology............................................................................................................................. 82
3.2.1 Interchangeability of parts .......................................................................................... 84
3.3 Types of fit................................................................................................................................ 84
3.3.1 Clearance fits.................................................................................................................. 84
3.3.2 Transition fits ..................................................................................................................... 85
3.3.3 Interference fits ............................................................................................................... 86

3.4 Fit systems ................................................................................................................................ 86
3.4.1 The hole-basis system of fits......................................................................................... 86
3.4.2 The shaft-basis system of fits ........................................................................................ 87

3.5 The ISO system........................................................................................................................ 87
3.5.1 ISO tolerances................................................................................................................. 87

3.5.2 ISO fundamental deviations ....................................................................................... 88
3.5.3 Association of fundamental deviations and tolerances .................................... 88

3.5.4 Unilateral and bilateral limits....................................................................................... 88
3.5.5 Bilateral tolerance ......................................................................................................... 88
3.5.6 Unilateral tolerance....................................................................................................... 89
3.6 Symbols .................................................................................................................................... 89

3.7 Selected ISO fits ..................................................................................................................... 89
3.7.1 Selected tables for selected ISO fits ......................................................................... 90
5
3.7.2 Units used in tables ........................................................................................................ 90

3.8 Examples of types of fits ...................................................................................................... 91
3.8 Calculating limits of sizes ..................................................................................................... 92
................................................................................................................. 95
..
................................................................................................................ 95
..
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 96
4.2 Plain bearings and bushes.................................................................................................. 97

4.2.1 Classification of plain bearings .................................................................................. 97
4.2.2 Direct lined housings ..................................................................................................... 98
4.2.3 Insert liners ........................................................................................................................ 98

4.2.4 Wrapped bushes............................................................................................................ 99
4.3 Types of plain bearings ........................................................................................................ 99
4.3.1 Solid bearings ................................................................................................................ 100

4.3.2 Slit bearings .................................................................................................................... 100
4.3.3 Part bearings ................................................................................................................. 101
4.3.4 Thrust bearings .............................................................................................................. 102

4.3.5 Guide bearings ............................................................................................................. 103
4.3.6 Taper bearings .............................................................................................................. 104
4.3.7 Hanger bearings .......................................................................................................... 104

4.3.8 Mitchell thrust bearings .............................................................................................. 105
4.4 Advantages and disadvantages of plain bearings.................................................. 106

4.4.1 Advantages of plain bearings ................................................................................. 106
4.4.2 Disadvantages of plain bearings ............................................................................ 107

4.5 Plain bearing lubrication ................................................................................................... 107
4.6 Material properties.............................................................................................................. 107
4.7 Plain bearing materials ...................................................................................................... 108

4.7.1 White-metals ................................................................................................................. 108
4.7.2 Other bearing materials............................................................................................. 108
4.8 Bearing maintenance........................................................................................................ 109
4.8.1 Plain bearing failures ................................................................................................... 110

4.8.2 Overheating of plain bearings ................................................................................. 110
6
4.9 Lubrication of plain bearings ........................................................................................... 111

4.9.1 Lubrication holes .......................................................................................................... 111
4.10 Remetalling a bearing..................................................................................................... 114
4.11 Taking up wear in bearings and slides ........................................................................ 115
4.12 Fitting and removing a solid bearing .......................................................................... 117

4.13 Anti-friction Bearings ........................................................................................................ 118
4.14 Bearing loads on anti-friction bearings ....................................................................... 119
4.15 Bearing selection .............................................................................................................. 120

4.16 Available space ................................................................................................................ 121
4.17 Angular misalignment...................................................................................................... 121
4.18 Limiting speeds .................................................................................................................. 121
4.19 Precision ............................................................................................................................... 121

4.20 Rigidity .................................................................................................................................. 122
4.21 Axial displacement ........................................................................................................... 122

4.22 Advantages and disadvantages of ball and roller bearings............................... 122
4.23 Types of anti-friction bearings ....................................................................................... 123
4.23.1 Bearing Terminology ................................................................................................. 123
4.24 Selection of anti-friction bearing .................................................................................. 128
4.25 Lubrication and sealing devices for bearings .......................................................... 129
4.26 Installation of anti-friction bearings.............................................................................. 129
4.26.1 Mounting and dismounting of bearings ................................................................. 129
4.26.2 Removing of bearings .............................................................................................. 130
4.26.3 Using bearing pullers ................................................................................................. 131
4.26.4 Using presses ............................................................................................................... 133

4.26.5 Performing hydraulic removal method ............................................................... 134
4.26.6 Performing temperature removal method ........................................................ 135

4.26.7 Using cutting torch to remove bearings ............................................................. 136
4.27 Installing bearings ............................................................................................................. 137
4.27.1 Installing tapered roller bearings ........................................................................... 138

4.27.2 Installing thrust bearings ........................................................................................... 142
4.27.3 Installing spherical roller bearings ......................................................................... 143
7
4.27.4 Installing pillow block bearings .............................................................................. 145

4.26.5 Installing One-Piece Housing Pillow Block Bearings ......................................... 147
4.26.6 Installing angular-contact ball bearings ............................................................. 147
4.27 Troubleshooting antifriction bearings .......................................................................... 149
4.28 Bearing failure and how to prevent it ......................................................................... 150
............................................................................................................... 155
..
......................................................................................................... 155
...
5.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 155
5.2 The theory of lubrication ................................................................................................... 156

5.2.1 Efficient lubricant ......................................................................................................... 157
5.3 Properties of lubricants ...................................................................................................... 157
5.4 Choice of a lubricant ......................................................................................................... 157
5.5 Functions of lubricants ....................................................................................................... 158
5.6 Lubrication terms ................................................................................................................. 158
5.7 Classification of lubricants ................................................................................................ 159

5.7.1 Solid.................................................................................................................................. 159
5.7.2 Semi-solid (Grease) ..................................................................................................... 159
5.7.3 Liquid (Oil) ...................................................................................................................... 159

5.8 Other purposes of lubricants ............................................................................................ 159
5.9 Lubricating devices ............................................................................................................ 160
5.10 Applications of lubrication ............................................................................................. 166
5.11 Using cutting fluids and coolants ................................................................................. 168
............................................................................................................... 171
..
....................................................................................................... 171
..
6.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 171
6.2 Safety precautions to be taken when working with V-belts and transmission
belts ............................................................................................................................................... 172
6.3 Applications of V-belts....................................................................................................... 172
6.4 Advantages and disadvantages of V-belt drives ..................................................... 172

6.4.1 Advantages of V-belts over chain drives ............................................................. 172
6.4.2 Disadvantages of V-belts over chain drives ........................................................ 173
8
6.5 V-belt drive terms and functions of components ...................................................... 173

6.7 Common and special V-belt types ............................................................................... 174
6.7.1 Fractional Horsepower Belts...................................................................................... 175
6.7.2 Standard Multiple Belts ............................................................................................... 175
6.7.3 Wedge Belts .................................................................................................................. 176

6.7.4 Double-Angle Belts ...................................................................................................... 176
6.7.5 Joined Belts .................................................................................................................... 177
6.7.6 Notched Belts................................................................................................................ 177

6.8 Standard size of belts ......................................................................................................... 177
6.9 Composition of a V-belt .................................................................................................... 178
6.9.1 V-Belts .............................................................................................................................. 178
6.8.2 Wedge belts .................................................................................................................. 178

6.8.3 Differences between the construction of a V-belt and a wedge belt........ 179
6.9 V-belt pulleys for single and multi-belt drives .............................................................. 179
6.9.1 Advantages of V-belt and/or wedge belt drives ............................................... 180
6.10 Checking of V-belt sizes and lengths .......................................................................... 180
6.11 Maintenance, fault-finding and diagnosis ................................................................ 181
6.12 Installation of V-belt drives ............................................................................................. 181
6.12.1 Centre distances........................................................................................................ 182
6.12.2 Alignment and tensioning ....................................................................................... 182
6.12.3 Taking-up allowance, tension and slip on V- belts or wedge belts ................ 184
6.12.4 The use of idlers on V-belts or wedge belts ........................................................ 185
............................................................................................................... 188
..
......................................................................................................... 188
..
7.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 188
7.1 Safety precautions associated with gear drives ........................................................ 189

7.2 Application of gear drives ................................................................................................ 189
7.2.1 Types of gear drives .................................................................................................... 189

7.3 Advantages and disadvantages of gear drives........................................................ 194
7.4 Cycloid-and involute-generated gear teeth profiles ............................................... 195
7.4.1 Cycloid tooth profile ................................................................................................... 195
9
7.4.2 Involute tooth profile ................................................................................................... 195

7.5 Principle of velocity ratio and mechanical advantage in gear assemblies...... 197
7.5.1 Velocity ratio ................................................................................................................. 197
7.5.2 Mechanical advantage ............................................................................................ 197
7.6 Purpose of intermediate gears........................................................................................ 197

7.7 Factors that determine the correct mesh of gear teeth ......................................... 199
7.8 Simple and compound gear trains ................................................................................ 199
7.8.1 Simple gear drives ....................................................................................................... 199

7.8.2 Compound gear drives.............................................................................................. 200
............................................................................................................... 203
..
....................................................................................................... 203
..
8.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 203

8.1 Safety precautions associated with chain drives ...................................................... 203
8.2 Advantages and disadvantages of chain drives ...................................................... 204

8.2.1 Advantages over belt drives .................................................................................... 205
8.2.2 Advantages over gear drives .................................................................................. 205
8.2.3 Disadvantages of chain drives ................................................................................ 205
8.3 Chain drive components and related terminology .................................................. 205

8.3.1 Roller Chain Sizing ........................................................................................................ 207
8.4 Chain drive terms ................................................................................................................ 207
8.5 Common types of chains used in chain drives .......................................................... 208
8.5.1 Roller chain .................................................................................................................... 208

8.5.2 Silent chains ................................................................................................................... 209
8.6 Construction of the roller chain ...................................................................................... 210
8.7 Different types of sprockets .............................................................................................. 211
8.7.1 Solid sprocket ................................................................................................................ 211
8.7.2 Sprocket with hub ........................................................................................................ 211
8.7.3 Solid sprocket with spokes ......................................................................................... 212
8.7.4 Sprocket wheels on chain drives ............................................................................. 212

8.8 Chain maintenance, fault finding and diagnosis ...................................................... 213
8.9 Alignment and tensioning, including chain deflection............................................ 214
10
8.9.1 Installation and maintenance on chain drives ................................................... 214

8.9.2 Centre distance on chain drives ............................................................................. 217
8.10 Lubrication on chain drives ............................................................................................ 217
8.10.1 Methods of lubrication of a chain drive ............................................................. 218
8.11 Factors to consider when using chain drives ............................................................ 219

8.11.1 Slip on chain drives.................................................................................................... 220
............................................................................................................... 222
..
...................................................................................... 222
..
9.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 222

9.2 List the safety precautions associated with gear drives .......................................... 222
9.3 Application of reduction gearboxes ............................................................................. 223
9.4 Types of reduction gearboxes......................................................................................... 223
9.4.1 Single and double reduction gearboxes .............................................................. 223

9.4.2 Double reduction gearboxes ................................................................................... 224
9.4.2 Worm and worm-wheel reduction gearboxes .................................................... 224
.............................................................................................................. 226
..
.................................................................................................................. 226
..
10.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 226

10.2 Explain the function of a valve and how it works .................................................... 226
10.2.1 Classification of valves ............................................................................................. 228
10.3 Types of valves ................................................................................................................... 228
10.3.1 Gate valve................................................................................................................... 229
10.3.2 Diaphragm valve ....................................................................................................... 230

10.3.3 Safety valves for gas and steam pipelines ......................................................... 231
10.3.4 Relief valves for liquids.............................................................................................. 232

10.3.5 Non-return valve ........................................................................................................ 233
10.3.6 Butterfly valve ............................................................................................................. 234
10.3.7 Ball valve ...................................................................................................................... 234

10.3.8 Foot valve .................................................................................................................... 235
11
............................................................................................................. 237
..
........................................................... 237
..
11.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 237

11.2 Function of packing and seals ...................................................................................... 238
11.2.1 Types of packing............................................................................................................ 238
11.3 Materials used as packing and seals for water, air and steam........................... 238
11.3.1 Soft packing .................................................................................................................... 238
11.3.2 Using jointing materials................................................................................................ 239

11.3.3 Reasons for the failure of flanged joints .................................................................. 240
11.4 Installation of seals and O-rings in hydraulic and pneumatic assemblies ........ 241
11.4.1 Seals................................................................................................................................... 241

11.4.2 Types of seals .................................................................................................................. 241
11.4.3 O-rings ............................................................................................................................... 241
............................................................................................................. 256
..
.............................................................................................. 256
..
12.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 256

12.2 Terminology associated with pipe size ....................................................................... 256
12.3 Various pipe fittings .......................................................................................................... 259
12.4 Various joining methods for Steel pipes...................................................................... 261
12.4.1 Threaded connections............................................................................................. 261
12.4.2 Welded connections ................................................................................................ 261
12.4.3 Soldered connections .............................................................................................. 262
12.4.4 Compressed joining .................................................................................................. 263

12.4.5 Crimped or Grooved joining .................................................................................. 263
12.4.6 Plastic pipe joining..................................................................................................... 263
12.5 Types of plastic piping ..................................................................................................... 264

12.5.1 Thermoplastic piping .................................................................................................... 264
12.5.2 Thermosetting plastic piping .................................................................................. 264

12.6 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of plastic piping ........................... 264
12.6.1 Advantages of plastic pipes .................................................................................. 264
12.6.2 Disadvantages of plastic pipes ............................................................................. 265
12
12.7 Describe briefly how cutters and reamers are used ............................................... 265
12.8 Describe the materials used to seal threaded pipes ............................................. 266
12.8.1 Pipe assembly materials .......................................................................................... 266
............................................................................................................. 269
..
.................................................................................................................... 269
..
13.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 269

13.2 Function of pumps ............................................................................................................ 270
13.3 Centrifugal pumps, both single and multi-stage ..................................................... 270
13.3.1 Working principle and operation .......................................................................... 271

13.2.2 Parts of a centrifugal pump .................................................................................... 271
13.3.3 Pumps with volute casing........................................................................................ 272
13.3.4 Double-suction centrifugal pumps ....................................................................... 273

13.3.3 Multi-stage pumps ..................................................................................................... 274
13.4 Rotary pumps ..................................................................................................................... 275
13.4.1 Gear pump.................................................................................................................. 275

13.4.2 Helical screw gear pump ........................................................................................ 277
13.4.3 Blade pumps ............................................................................................................... 277
13.4.4 Vane pump ................................................................................................................. 278
13.4.5 Flexible impeller pump ............................................................................................. 279
13.5 Reciprocating pumps ...................................................................................................... 279
13.5.1 Piston pump .................................................................................................................... 281
13.5.2 Plunger pump ............................................................................................................. 282

13.5.3 Externally-packed plunger pump (Cameron type) ........................................ 282
13.5.4 Internally-packed pump.......................................................................................... 283
13.6 Advantages of centrifugal pumps over reciprocating pumps ........................... 283
.............................................................................................................. 285
..
...................................................................................................... 285
...
14.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 285
14.2 Reciprocating compressors ........................................................................................... 286

14.2.1 Two-stage compressor ............................................................................................. 286
14.2.2 Advantages of two-stage compressors .............................................................. 287
13
14.2.3 Components of two-stage compressors............................................................. 287

14.3 Rotary compressors .......................................................................................................... 290
14.3.1 Multi-stage, radial-type turbo-compressor ......................................................... 290
14.3.2 Roots compressor ...................................................................................................... 290
14.3.3 Rotary vane compressor ......................................................................................... 291

14.3.4 Rotary screw compressor ........................................................................................ 291
14.3.5 Centrifugal compressor ........................................................................................... 292
............................................................................................................. 294
..
.......................................................................................................... 294
..
15.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 294
15.2 Units of measurement in hydraulic systems ............................................................... 295

15.2.1 Pressure ......................................................................................................................... 295
15.2.2 Flow rate ....................................................................................................................... 297
15.2 Factors determining the choice between hydraulics and pneumatics ........... 298
15.3 Function of the basic components in a hydraulic system .................................... 299
15.4 Main functions of hydraulic fluid or oil ........................................................................ 301
15.5 Valves used in hydraulic systems .................................................................................. 301

15.6 Function of different valves used in hydraulic systems .......................................... 301
15.6.1 Control valves ............................................................................................................. 301
15.6.2 Ball valves..................................................................................................................... 302

15.6.3 Rotary valves ............................................................................................................... 302
15.6.4 Spool valves ................................................................................................................ 302

15.7 Hydraulic symbols ............................................................................................................. 303
15.8 Simple hydraulic circuit design ..................................................................................... 303
............................................................................................................. 307
..
......................................................................................................... 307
..
16.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 307

16.2 Functions of the basic components in a Pneumatic system................................ 308
16.2.1 Functions of the components on the air production side of the system ... 308
16.3 Pressure, flow rate and area .......................................................................................... 310
16.3.1 Pressure ......................................................................................................................... 310
14
16.3.2 Flow rate ....................................................................................................................... 310

16.3.3 Area ............................................................................................................................... 310
16.4 Symbols used for basic pneumatic systems .............................................................. 311
16.5 Functions of the basic components of a pneumatic system............................... 311
16.5.1 The control valve ....................................................................................................... 311

16.5.2 The actuator (cylinder) ............................................................................................ 312
16.5.3 The compressor .......................................................................................................... 313
16.5.4 Air receiver (tank) ...................................................................................................... 313

16.5.5 Piping............................................................................................................................. 313
16.5.6 Valves............................................................................................................................ 313
16.5.7 Service unit .................................................................................................................. 313
16.6 Pneumatically controlled valves .................................................................................. 314

16.6.1 Directional control valves........................................................................................ 314
16.7 Maintenance of a pneumatic system ........................................................................ 315
16.8 Typical design of a simple pneumatic circuit ........................................................... 316
............................................................................................................. 318
..
.............................................................................................. 318
..
17.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 319

17.2 Dividing head..................................................................................................................... 320
17.2.1 Dividing head and rotary table ............................................................................. 320
17.2.2 Parts of the dividing head ....................................................................................... 320

17.2.3 Worm and worm-wheel ........................................................................................... 320
17.2.4 Index plate .................................................................................................................. 322

17.2.5 The Brown and Sharpe index plates..................................................................... 322
17.2.6 Cincinnati indexing plate ........................................................................................ 323
17.2.7 Crank and index pin ................................................................................................. 323

17.2.8 Sector arms .................................................................................................................. 323
17.2.9 Footstock ...................................................................................................................... 324
17.2.10 Clamping workpieces ............................................................................................ 325

17.2.11 Direct indexing plate .............................................................................................. 325
17.2.12 Checking the dividing head ................................................................................ 325
15
17.2.13 Adjusting the horizontal height of the dividing head.................................... 325

17.2.14 Adjusting the footstock .......................................................................................... 326
17.2.15 Rotary table .............................................................................................................. 327
17.2.16 Centering a workpiece to the rotary table ..................................................... 328
17.2.17 Centering positioning the workpiece to the machine spindle .................. 329
17.2.18 Squaring the workpiece parallel to the table movement........................... 331
17.3 indexing methods ............................................................................................................. 333
17 3.1 Rapid indexing ........................................................................................................... 333

17.3.2 Simple indexing .......................................................................................................... 333
17.3.4 Differential indexing .................................................................................................. 336
17.4 Milling cutters ..................................................................................................................... 339
17.4.1 Types of milling cutters ............................................................................................. 339

17.4.2 Teeth and flutes on cutters ..................................................................................... 341
17.4.3 Advantages of using cutters with small diameters .......................................... 342

17.4.4 Advantages of using milling cutters with coarse teeth .................................. 342
17.5 Angles on milling cutters ................................................................................................. 342
17.6 Cutting speed and feed calculations ........................................................................ 342
17.6.1 Cutting speed ............................................................................................................. 342
17.6.2 Feed on a milling machine ..................................................................................... 344
17.7 Milling processes................................................................................................................ 345
17.7.1 Advantages of down-cutting ................................................................................ 347
17.7.2 Disadvantages of up-cutting ..................................................................................... 347
............................................................................................................. 349
..
....................................................................................................... 349
..
18.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 350
18.2 Turning operations ............................................................................................................ 350

18.2.1 Parallel turning ............................................................................................................ 350
18.2.2 Facing ........................................................................................................................... 351

18.2.3 Taper turning ............................................................................................................... 351
18.2.4 Screw cutting .............................................................................................................. 351
18.2.5 Parting off..................................................................................................................... 352
16
18.2.6 Profile turning .............................................................................................................. 352

18.2.7 Drilling ............................................................................................................................ 352
18.2.8 Boring ............................................................................................................................ 352
18.2.9 Chamfering ................................................................................................................. 353
18.2.10 Knurling ....................................................................................................................... 353

18.3 Fit the cutter in the tool post and adjust its height .................................................. 353
18.4 Mount and clamp the work piece in a chuck ......................................................... 356
18.5 Lathe steadies .................................................................................................................... 356

18.5.1 The fixed steady ......................................................................................................... 357
18.5.2 Supporting long workpieces with fixed steady ..................................................... 358
18.5.3 Using and setting the travelling steady ............................................................... 359
18.5.4 Turning a long small-diameter shaft ..................................................................... 359

18.5.5 Mounting the steady on the lathe ........................................................................ 360
18.5.6 Supporting a square shaft with a fixed steady ..................................................... 361

18.6 Mandrels .............................................................................................................................. 362
18.6.1 Advantages of using mandrels.............................................................................. 363
18.6.2 Types of mandrels ...................................................................................................... 363

18.6.3 Plain or solid mandrels .............................................................................................. 364
18.6.4 Expanding mandrel .................................................................................................. 365
18.2.6 Double-cone mandrel ............................................................................................. 365

18.6.7 Gang mandrel ............................................................................................................ 365
18.7 Taper turning on a centre lathe ................................................................................... 365
18.7.1 Set-over of compound slide ................................................................................... 365
18.7.2 Cutting an internal taper with a compound slide ........................................... 367

18.8 Set-over of tailstock .......................................................................................................... 367
18.8.1 Method 1: Set-over with dial test indicator ........................................................ 367

18.8.2 Method 2: Set-over by means of graduated sleeve ....................................... 369
18.8.3 Taper-turning attachment ...................................................................................... 372
18.9 Tailstock set-over calculations....................................................................................... 374

18.9.1 Calculations for taper turning ................................................................................ 374
18.9.2 Calculate the taper if the ratio of diameter to length is given .................... 375
18.9.3 Tapers are machined to match each other ..................................................... 378
17
18.10 Cutting square threads ................................................................................................. 379

18.10.1 Left- hand and right- hand screw -threads ...................................................... 380
18.10.2 Multiple- start threads ............................................................................................. 380
18.10.1 Gear selection and setting for a specific thread cutting operation ........ 380
18.10.2 Square thread cutting tool angles ..................................................................... 382

18.10.3 To calculate the helix angle of a square thread ........................................... 383
18.10.4 Leading and trailing angles of the tool ............................................................. 385
18.10.5 Multiple start threads are machined and matched ..................................... 386
18.10.6 Machining multi start square threads ................................................................ 387
18.10.7 Procedure to cut a multi start square thread.................................................. 388
18.11 Calculations of cutting speed, spindle speed and cutting feed ..................... 389
18.11.1 Determine the work piece diameter and calculate the spindle speed . 389
18.11.2 Calculating cutting speeds .................................................................................. 389
18.11.3 Determine the feed rate and cutting depth................................................... 392

18.12 Computer numerical control (CNC) lathes ............................................................ 393
18.12.1 Basic instructional formats for CNC lathes ....................................................... 394
18.12.2 Programming systems ............................................................................................ 398
18.12.3 Basic aspects of CNC programming ................................................................. 399
............................................................................................................. 402
..
............................................................................................. 402
..
19.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 403

19.2 Surface grinding ................................................................................................................ 403
19.2.1 Reasons for surface grinding ...................................................................................... 403
19.3 Types of surface grinding machines ............................................................................ 404
19.3.1 Horizontal spindle reciprocating table ................................................................ 404
19.3.2 Vertical spindle reciprocating table .................................................................... 405

19.3.3 Vertical spindle rotary table ................................................................................... 405
19.3.4 Working principle of the vertical spindle reciprocating table grinder ....... 406
19.3.5 Working principle for the horizontal spindle rotary table grinder................. 406
19.3.6 Working principle for the vertical spindle rotary table grinder ..................... 407
19.4 Types of grinding ............................................................................................................... 409
18
19.4.1 Off-hand grinding ...................................................................................................... 409

19.4.2 Precision grinding....................................................................................................... 409
19.5 Select grinding wheels for specific materials ............................................................ 409
19.5.1 Select the correct grinding wheel ........................................................................ 409

19.5.2 Classification of grinding wheels ........................................................................... 410
19.6 Bonding types and wheel markings ............................................................................ 411
19.6.1 Type of bond............................................................................................................... 411

19.6.2 Type of grade ............................................................................................................. 412
19.6.3 The structure of a grinding wheel ......................................................................... 412
19.6.4 Determine the type of material ............................................................................. 414

19.6.5 Check the wheel RPM specification .................................................................... 414
19.7 Types of grinding wheel profiles.................................................................................... 415

19.7.1 Grinding wheel applications .................................................................................. 415
19.8 Grinding faults .................................................................................................................... 416
19.8.1 Assess the condition of the grinding wheel........................................................ 416
19.8.2 Check the wheel for cracks ................................................................................... 416
19.8.3 Chattering.................................................................................................................... 417
19.8.4 Burning .......................................................................................................................... 417
19.8.5 Glazing .......................................................................................................................... 417
19.8.6 Scratching.................................................................................................................... 418
19.8.7 Loading......................................................................................................................... 418
19
We use different icons to help you work with this book; these are shown in the table
below.
Icon Description Icon Description
Assessment Multimedia
Checklist Practical
Demonstration/ observation Presentation/ Lecture
Did you know? Read
Example Safety
Experiment Site visit
Group work/ discussions, role-

Take note of
play, etc.
Theoretical – questions,
In the workplace
reports, case studies, etc.
Keywords Think about it
20
Learning Outcomes
By the end of the module you will have completed the following learning
outcomes:
x Describe and explain the regulations that apply to the Occupational

Health and Safety Act of 1993 (Act No.85) and that relate to
dangerous places, projecting shaft ends; transmission belts; condition
of safety appliances and machinery and grinding wheels.
x Explain the importance of guarding, discuss its characteristics and
name the different classes and types.
x Explain the precautions to be taken to protect workers and
maintenance crews when working on electrical equipment.
x Discuss the basic rules for preventing mechanical handling accidents.
x Discuss the rules of safety when working with ladders.
x State and list the information to be found on the manufacturing’s plate
and safety devices when working with pressure vessels or air receivers.
x Discuss the rules for preventing accidents.
x State and list the standard colour codes of oxygen and acetylene
cylinders and hoses.
x Discuss and explain the rules for safe handling and storage of
compressed gas cylinders.
x Explain the basic safety requirements when using pneumatic and
hydraulic tools, equipment and machinery.
x Explain and describe the safety checks to be carried out before using
pneumatic tools.
x Explain the safety checks to be carried out before using portable
electrical equipment, including extension cords.
x Describe and explain the regulations that apply to the Minerals Act
(Act No. 50 of 1991) which relates to: Fire prevention; Lighting and
safety lamps; Contraband; Traction and machinery; Electrical
installations; Boilers; Accidents and queries
21
1.1 Introduction
A workshop can be a hazardous place to work in or it can be
relatively safe. However, it can never be a 100% safe environment
because of the human factor.
Accidents do not just happen- they are usually caused by something, and
the human factor is normally at fault in causing accidents. Each place of
work has its own type of dangers and hazards but they all can be reduced
by instituting and adhering to simple precautions.
Safety precautions in a workplace are based on experience and arc

designed to safeguard the activities of everyone in the workshop, from the
person using a machine to a person walking past the same machine.
1.2 The importance of machine safety

Accidents can ruin lives. In addition, expensive machinery will be damaged
which may affect production. Even though Workmen's Compensation covers
every worker against accidents, it is better to prevent an accident or
drastically reduce the possibility of it happening at all. Machinery, especially
fast moving, powerful machines such as lathes and milling machines, are very
dangerous and can cause fatal injuries.
One of the best methods of preventing accidents is to make users of

machinery fully aware of all the dangers. However, this is not enough to
prevent injuries as a sudden lapse in concentration can lead to a nasty
accident.
Therefore other measures have to be taken, such as placing guards and

other safety equipment appropriately and to make sure that everybody uses
them correctly.
A worker drawn into a machine by a fast moving chucks often results in

death, or severe injury.
Some 350,000 South African are injured at work every year and the economy
must compensate for the costs. A major portion of these accidents are
preventable.
1.3 Machine safety regulations must be identified and applied

whilst working
A machine shop is, by nature, a dangerous place. All machinery (and
equipment) has the potential to cause injury if it is not used correctly or not
inspected periodically. Remember that it is a bad idea to run dangerous
equipment if you are tired or not feeling well. Never operate the equipment if
you are under the influence of alcohol or flu medication that makes you
drowsy. Focus is very important.
22
There are numerous potential hazards around machinery and equipment.
Safety hazards Health hazards

Contact with electricity, heat, fire Contact with excessive noise,
radiation or vibration
Contact with pressurised gas or liquid Contact with harmful chemicals
Contact with moving parts Harmful actions to the environment
Accidents can be prevented by following a few simple rules:
• There must only be one operator on a machine at a time.

• Never use a machine without permission or correct training.
• Use all the guards and safety equipment provided.
• Never reach across or into a machine.
• Never clean or adjust a machine without switching it off first and waiting
until it comes to a complete standstill.
• Report any malfunction of machinery to the supervisor.
• Never leave a machine unattended while it is in motion. Switch it off.
• Know where the power supply can be switched off in case of an
emergency.
• Never touch rotating shafts, cullers or blades.
• When using any machine be extremely careful that clothes do not get
caught in the machine.
• Never lean or sit on a machine.
• Do not play the fool when operating any machine.
• Make sure the floor around the machine is free from oil, grease, water or
any obstacle that may cause an operator to fall into the machine.
• Never attempt to operate any machine unless you are fully trained to use
it and fully aware of the means of stopping the machine immediately
should an emergency arise.
• Never engage any operating lever or control unless you know in advance
its direction or what its effect will be.
• Never play idly with controls, handles, etc. on any machine, whether it is
running or not.
• No person should work alone.
1.3.1 Dangerous places within the workplace environment

The regulation relating to dangerous places lists dangerous places such as:
• Elevated platforms
• Openings in floors
• Pits
• Trap holes
• Other dangerous places where machinery is used.
23
All dangerous places are to be securely fenced or adequately protected to

prevent accident or injury to persons.
1.3.2 Power-driven machines

• Apply safety when using grinding machines
The regulation relating to using power driven machines: grinding machines
are listed below:
1. Never use the machine without safety goggles.

2. Never use the machine unless the guards are correctly fitted.
3. See that there is no oil or grease which can cause slipping on the floor
around the machine.
4. Check that the tool rest is not more than 3 mm from the grinding wheel.
5. When setting the machine in motion, never stand in front of the wheel.
Before the grinding operation takes place let the wheel idle for a few
seconds.
6. When the wheel is running out of balance, trim it with an emery-wheel
dresser.
7. Never jab grinding matter on the wheel; approach it with care for best
results.
8. Never force grind so that it stops the motor or slows it-down excessively.
9. Never adjust the tool rest while the machine is running.
10. Workpieces and holding devices must always be clamped on safely
and firmly.
11. Never let the wheel stand in cutting fluid, as this will cause it to move
out of balance, with disastrous results when setting the machine in
motion again.
12. Never grind on the side of a straight wheel, use only the face. Use
various wheels only for the purpose for which they are made. Do not
grind soft materials such as lead, copper, aluminium, etc. on wheels
which are not made for such work.
• Apply safety when mounting of grinding wheels

The regulation relating to mounting grinding wheels are listed below:
1. Select the correct type of wheel for the job.

2. 2. Inspect the wheel very carefully for cracks, and apply the ringing test
by means of tapping.
3. Make sure, that the wheel does not exceed the speed recommended
by the manufacturer.
4. Never force the wheel onto the spindle.
5. Use only one smooth paper spacer on each side of the wheel.
6. Use true and correctly recessed flanges of the same size: at least one-
third the diameter of the wheel.
7. Tighten the wheel gently without tapping the spanner and only enough
to hold it firmly.
24
8. Replace the guards correctly.

9. Stand aside and set the machine in motion. Let the machine idle for at
least a minute and then trim up the wheel by means of an emery-
wheel dresser.
10. Finally, stop the machine and reset the tool rest to within 3 mm of the
wheel and parallel to it.
• Apply safety when using a drilling machine

The regulation relating to using drilling machines are listed below:
1. Always use drills that have been correctly sharpened for the kind of
work you are doing and for the material to be drilled.
2. Do not leave the chuck key in the chuck when absent from the
machine.
3. Never leave the machine running. If there is occasion to leave it,
always switch it off.
4. The drill should rotate at the correct speed for the job, and care must
be taken not to force the drill into the workpiece, as this may result in
broken or splintered drills and injuries.
5. When removing cuttings from the drill, always use a brush or a wooden
rod- never use your finger, waste or rags.
6. When reaching around the revolving drill, be extremely careful that
your clothes do not get caught in the drill or drill chuck. Torn sleeves
can be particularly dangerous in this respect.
7. Clamp the workpiece securely to the table in the machine vice and do
not attempt to hold it by hand.
8. Never attempt to stop the workpiece by hand if it should slip from the
clamp, as this action will cause serious injury.
• Apply safety when using milling machine and lathe

The regulation relating to using milling machine and lathe are listed below:
1. Make sure that all guards are in place.

2. Do not use a machine or come close to its moving parts while
wearing loose clothing such as ties, torn sleeves, etc. and keep any
cleaning material such as waste, rags, etc. away from rotating
parts.
3. See that there is no oil or grease which can cause slipping on the
floor around the machine.
4. Spanners or keys must never be left on rotating parts. Always
disconnect, remove or stand clear of hand wheels, levers or chuck
keys before setting machine or feeds in motion. Never apply a
wrench to revolving work or parts.
5. Select the correct tool for the job.
6. Workpieces and holding devices must always be clamped safely
and firmly. Special attention must be paid to the correct fitting of
25
spanners and keys, as a loose fit may cause slips resulting in injury to
hand or arm.
7. Hands must never be used to remove cuttings while the machine is
in motion. Use a wire hook or a brush.
8. Never adjust or attempt to adjust the cutting tool while the machine
is running.
9. When filing close to a chuck or lathe carrier, use your left hand.
Never use a file with an unprotected tang.
10. Give your eyes adequate protection.
11. Do not lean on the machine at any time. This is a very dangerous
habit which can result in serious injury.
12. Do not attempt to stop the machine by placing your hand on the
chuck while the machine is slowing down.
13. Give attention to cutting-fluid control before switching the machine
on.
1.3.3 Projected shafts

The regulation relating to projected shafts are listed below:
• All square projecting shaft or spindle ends and all other shaft or spindle
ends within reach which project for more than a quarter of the diameter,
to be encased by a cap or shroud or to be otherwise completely
enclosed.
1.3.4 Transmission belts

The regulation relating to transmission belts are listed below:
1. All driving belts, ropes, chains or sprockets within normal reach to be

guarded.
2. The underside of every overhead driving belt, rope or chain above
passages or work places to be so guarded as to prevent a broken belt,
rope or chain falling.
3. The guards or fences of belt, rope or chain drives over-or adjacent-to
passages-or-work places to be so constructed as to rest the force of a
broken belt, rope or chain.
4. No user shall require or permit any person to and no person shall ship or
unship driving belts whilst the machinery is in motion, provided that light
belts may be shifted on the conned pulleys of machine tools for the
purpose of alteration in the working speed, and provided further than in
the case of continuous processes and inspector may approve of an
apparatus for shipping and unshipping belts in motion.
5. The user shall provide and cause to be used, efficient appliances such as
belt perches or safety sleeves to prevent any driving belt thrown off or
removed from a wheel, drum, or pulley, coming into contact with any
shaft in motion and no person shall cause any driving belt to so rest or ride
upon a shaft in motion.
26
1.4 Know the safety precautions, relevant safety functions and

basic machine safety requirements
Using machines safely moving machine parts have the potential to cause
severe workplace injuries, such as crushed fingers or hands, amputations,
burns, or blindness. Safeguards are essential for protecting workers from these
preventable injuries. Any machine part, function, or process that may cause
injury must be safeguarded.
When the operation of a machine or accidental contact with it can injure
the operator or others in the vicinity, the hazards must be either eliminated or
controlled.
Make sure machine guards are in place. All guards should be correctly and
securely fitted BEFORE operating a machine. Machine guarding is vital to
every workshop using machinery it is an essential protection that must be
provided for workers. Guards must be reliable and cost effective. They must
also require low maintenance.
1.4.1 Emergency stops

Every machine must have an efficient starting and stopping mechanism in
such a position that it is easily accessible, quick to operate and immediately
effective.
As shown in Figure 1.1, the green "ON" button needs to be pushed by the
pointing finger of the user to switch the machine on.
Figure 1.1 Mushroom head off switch
To switch the machine off is much easier. The red "OFF" button has a
mushroomed head which is Green coloured ON button easily activated by
any part of the hand or arm - switching the machine off in case of an
emergency. Only the person in charge of a machine may switch it on.
Additional emergency stops must also be situated where any person faced
with an emergency can easily switch a machine off, without having to do it
at the machine itself.
27
Where a machine is very long or more than one operator is required per
machine then a few emergency stop switches can be installed in series, as in
Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2 Emergency switches for long machines
1.4.2 Mechanical and electrical machine guards

Injuries caused by machines are often severe and permanent, but such
accidents generally can be prevented. Machine guards are most important
because:
• The danger posed by machines can often be reduced or removed

altogether by mechanical safeguards.
• They promote safe working habits in the workshop which can also
contribute towards eliminating injuries caused by machines.
Machine guards are classified into two groups:
• Transmission guards for pulleys, gears and shafts; and

• Point-of-operation guards around circular saw blades, guillotine knives,
punch presses and dies.
The basic types of guards are:
• fixed
• interlocking
• automatic
• distance guards
• trip guards.
Fixed guards have no moving parts and prevent contact between moving
machinery parts and any part of the body, as shown in Figure 1.3. They offer
protection only when properly fixed in position. Fixed guards should be easy
28
to remove and replace, but should only be able to be opened or removed

with a tool.
Figure 1.3 Wire mesh machine guards
Interlocking guards are moveable, with the moving part interconnected with
the control system. Interconnections are usually electrical, mechanical,
hydraulic or pneumatic. The interlock prevents the machinery from operating
unless the guard is closed. Such guards are illustrated in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4 Lathe and CNC interlock guards
Automatic guards automatically move into position as the machine, or cycle,

is started. They are also known as push away guards. These are only suitable
on slow machines.
Distance guards prevent access to a dangerous area through a barrier or
fence. Trip guards (or presence sensing devices) stop the machine when a
29
person gets into a position where they are liable to be injured. A photo-
electric curtain is an example of this type of guard.
Figure 1.5 Various machine guards
Hand wheels of milling machines can be particularly dangerous. When using

the rapid traverse on the milling machine, there is the danger that if the
graduated hand wheel is engaged it will spin rapidly. This poses a hazard to
anybody including the user, standing close by.
In Figure 1. 6 are two ways of preventing anyone from being injured. In the
first method the claw coupling is spring loaded, therefore the handle must first
be pushed in and then it can be rotated. In the second method a clutch
mechanism controls the engagement.
The handle is first rotated, which engages the mechanism, and then the
hand wheel can be turned to obtain motion. In both instances, if the rapid
feed is used, the hand wheels do not rotate. A rapidly rotating hand wheel
can easily grab an overall and draw the wearer into the machine.
Figure 1.6 Milling machine hand wheel safety mechanisms
30
1.4.3 Characteristics of effective guards

• It should be strong and long lasting.
• It should not interfere with the operation of the machine.
• All guards should be manufactured according to the requirements of
the OHS Act and the Department of Labour.
• The guard should be free of rust, easy to repair and should not be a fire
hazard.
• It must give the operator of the machine, and those working close by,
maximum protection.
• It must not block access to other areas.
1.4.4 Safety application when using electrical appliances

Before work is started on a machine, it is important to make sure that the
machine cannot be started accidentally while the mechanical fitter or
electrician busy with repairs.
• Disconnect the power supply in such a way that special action is

required for its reconnection.
• Lock the switch in the 'Off' position either with its own key or by means
of a padlock guard over the switch.
• Or, remove the fuses and take precautions to prevent them from being
replaced.
• Place warning signs that indicate the supply voltage on the electrical
switch distribution boards.
• Mark the power supply AC or DC.
• Put 'Danger' or 'Do not switch on' sign boards In place at the
disconnection of power supply, as well as at the machine you are
working on.
• Label circuit breaker switches to indicate which machines they serve.
• Label the main switch in such a way that it stands out from the rest of
the switches on the distribution board.
• Faulty portable electrical equipment must never be used. Always
check its condition before use.
• Ideally, a record of regular monthly checks, listing appropriate action
to rectify faulty equipment, should be kept.
Other electrical faults and dangers are:
1. Defective electrical equipment should never be used.

2. Any faulty electrical equipment should be reported immediately.
3. Electrical equipment must never be touched with wet hands.
4. Frayed wires are dangerous and must be reported.
5. Faulty connections between the power cable and plug.
6. Bad earthing
7. Cracked or broken insulation
Figure 1.7 shows some of the electrical danger points

31
Figure 1.7 Electrical danger points
Activity 1.1 Machine safety
1. Safeguarding is divided into three important areas, Name them.

2. Give three reasons why machine guards are so important.
3. Name the three basic types of guards.
4. Describe six characteristics of an effective guard.
5. List six safety requirements when using a milling machine and lathe.
6. Name five safety requirements to adhere to when using a drilling
machine.
7. Explain six safety requirements when mounting a grinding wheel.
8. Record five general electrical faults that you must be aware of.
9. Explain six safety applications when using electrical appliances.
1.5 Improving machine safety within regulations

Safely is an important aspect of any company but often it is overlooked. It
can be expensive and time consuming to introduce and maintain properly,
so it is sometimes considered a necessary evil. Some of the important factors
to consider when making machinery safer to operate are described below.
32
1.5.1 Ventilation and temperature control

Working in very hot or cold conditions should be avoided as your
concentration may drop. This can cause accidents. Proper cooling and
healing should be provided for extreme conditions. When an operation
generates smoke, dust or fumes then proper ventilation must be provided.
When grinding, suction can be used to extract grit. The same applies when
milling and turning certain materials such as graphite.
1.5.2 Lighting and Illumination

The lighting provided must be sufficient and of good quality. Some machines
may require special lighting at certain places. Extra lighting is normally
provided by means of lamps placed close to the work.
1.5.3 Hazardous chemicals

Exposure to hazardous chemicals such as oils and cooling fluids, radiation,
hot or cold objects, wet or slippery floors, and sharp objects must be kept as
low as possible. If exposure is inevitable then proper protection such as
special overalls and gloves must be made available.
1.5.4 Material handling hazards

The size and weight of equipment that fits onto machinery, such as dividing
heads, must be considered and if it is very heavy then lifting equipment
should be used.
When lifting objects that are not too heavy the buddy system should be used.
ASK FOR HELP. The spine is not efficient when lifting heavy objects and can
easily be damaged when lilting incorrectly.
When lifting light objects the knees should always be bent slightly. Before
lifting, make sure that the path where the load is to be carried is clear and
that it is not slippery. The three steps to correct lifting are illustrated in Figure
1.8.
Figure 1.8 Correct lifting techniques
33
Step 1
Start the lift in a well-balanced squalling position. Your feet should be hip
width apart and one foot slightly ahead of the other. Squat close to the load
and make sure that you can get a good grip on it. Keep your back as straight
and vertical as possible before the weight is taken up. To assist in keeping
your spine 1igid, tighten your stomach muscles, look straight ahead and not
down at the load.
Step 2
To raise the load, straighten your legs but keep the knees bent slightly. This
does not put your spine under stress and the load is transmitted to the
powerful thigh muscles.
Step 3
To complete a successful lift raise the upper part of your body to the vertical
position. Keep the knees slightly bent and never locked.
Figure 1.9 Guidelines on lifting a load
1.5.5 Basic rules for preventing mechanical handling accidents

Many of the incidents reported each year involve injuries caused by lifting
and carrying loads. When lifting a load, if not done correctly can lead to
serious back injury. Always keep your knees bent when lifting and your back
straight. Never bend your waist and straighten up with a load. Use your
knees to push yourself up.
The risk of an accident will be greatly reduced if proper thought is given to

the method of lifting, and to the possible hazards incurred during such lifting.
When lifting and moving loads manually, the following safety rules should be
observed:
• The correct lifting technique must always be used.

34
• Keep your arms straight and close to your body.

• Balance your load using both hands.
• Wear appropriate clothing and safety shoes with strong caps at all times.
• If the size and weight of the load to be moved requires more than one
person to move it, one person should take charge of the operation. That
person should not take part in the lifting or moving.
• The area through which the load is to be moved must be clear and
provide adequate space.
• Plan all stages of the move to avoid unnecessary lifting.
• Tale care when moving materials which are wrapped and greased, they
may slip through your grasp. Wear safety shoes.
Activity 1.2 Lifting
Demonstrate to a fellow student or your trainer how to lift a load properly. First
study the above instructions carefully and then by using a load such as an
empty cardboard box practise the correct lifting technique. Do not use a
heavy load.
1.5.6 Machine hazards

The position of machines relative to one another is an important factor.
Machines such as milling machines and lathes produce chips which are hot
and tend to fly in all directions. If machines are placed too close together or
too close to walkways then there is the risk of injury to others.
Machines must be placed so that it is easy to manoeuvre between them and

the space should allow access for a forklif1. Screens should be placed
between machines to prevent flying chips, coolant and sprays.
1.5.7 Demarcation lines

Demarcation lines are painted on the floor of a workshop indicating that
certain actions, such as placing machines, or stacking materials, may not
occur in those lines. The distance between machines can be indicated by
means of lines.
Every machine should have enough free area around it so that it is

comfortable for the user and not a danger to others. Demarcation lines can
also indicate the following:
• a safe route through a workshop

• the easiest direction to an e1nergency exit
• position of fire equipment
• position of first aid equipment.
35
1.5.8 Apply housekeeping to demarcated areas

Enough space that is clean and clear is required in any factory. In addition
unobstructed walkways are OHS requirement. Equipment and materials must
be stacked in an orderly manner and in specially marked out (demarcated)
areas. All exits must always be kept clear in case that a rapid evacuation is
needed. The best way to achieve some order in a factory is by means of
colour coding the floor and everybody obeys the rules.
Examples of colour coding follows:
Colour Description What it means

Yellow Lines Used to mark walkways, working areas and
storage spaces.
Blue Painted Stacking space
floor
Grey Painted Working space
floor
Brown Painted Walkways
floor
Yellow and Stripes Entrances and obstructions
black
Red and white Stripes Fire fighting equipment
Yellow Circles Refuse bins
1.5.8 Safety signs

Safety signs must be placed where they can be seen easily. This will warn
workers of possible hazards as well as ways in which these can be avoided.
For example, next to a grinding machine you might find a safety sign
indicating that eye protection must be worn. Posters reminding people about
safety and health are available and should be placed in appropriate
positions.
The best way to achieve some order in a factory is by means of colour

coding the floor. Use of colour helps to identify different working areas and
conditions.
Colour assists the employee by providing warnings of danger or hazards. By

doing so, it helps reduce accidents and injury.
The colour coding is standardised across all workshops and engineering

industry businesses. This is useful, because then everybody knows what the
colours mean and obeys the rules.
36
• Red
Red is the basic colour used to indicate danger, fire fighting equipment, and
emergency stop controls. It is either used alone as a solid colour, or, in some
cases, with white stripes. Red is used to mark:
o electrical stop buttons

o emergency stop buttons
o storage areas for explosives
o barricades prohibiting passage of people
o fire alarms
o sprinkler systems
o as the background colour, alone or with white stripes, to indicate fire
equipment locations.
• Yellow
Yellow is used as a stand-alone colour or in conjunction with black. It is used
to indicate places where caution should be exercised. It is used to:
o indicate low headroom because of overhead structures

o mark areas on the floor for stacking
o mark barricades
o mark fire extinguisher storage locations
o indicate changes in floor level and other hazards that may cause you
to trip
o warn about the presence of radio-active materials.
• Green
Green is generally used in conjunction with white lettering. It is used on safety
signs and:
o to indicate the location of first aid facilities

o safety information signs
o safety areas
o for start buttons on machines.
• Light orange
This colour is used on:
o the inside surface of machine guards

o any exposed rotating part of a machine
o surfaces of protruding shafts
o surfaces of exposed gear wheels
o dangerous parts of a machine capable of cutting, shearing or
crushing.
37
1.5.9 The value and purpose of safety signs

Safety signs used in industry are classified into different groups or
designations. They are compulsory and are manufactured to SABS
specifications. When you buy safety signs, make sure the signs you buy are
SABS certified. These signs are displayed in the workplace, whether it is an
administration building or a workshop.
The discussion on safety signs, for the purposes of this book, is limited to the
most common signs only. They are classified as follows:
• WW – warning signs
• FB – fire equipment warning signs
• GA – informative signs
• PV – prohibitive signs
• MV – safety clothes and equipment to be worn.
Table 1.1 shows common mandatory signs, which means they must be
obeyed. They are generally a white picture on a blue background.
DESIGNATION DESIGNATION
SIGN SIGN
AND MEANING AND MEANING
MV1 MV4
Eye protection Hearing

shall be worn protection shall
be worn
MV2 MV5
Respiratory Hand protection

protection shall be worn
shall be worn
MV3 MV6
Head Foot and leg

protection protection
shall be worn against liquids
shall be worn
MV7 MV11
Foot Air supplied

protection hood shall be
against worn
crushing shall
be worn
38
MV8 MV12
Safety harness Dust mask shall

and lifelines be worn
shall be worn
MV10 MV14
Face Keep area clean

protection
shall be worn
Table 1.1 Mandatory signs regarding safety clothes and equipment to be

worn
Table 1.2 shows common prohibitive signs. These depict things you are not
allowed to do. They are on a white background inside a red circle with a red
line through the picture.
DESIGNATION DESIGNATION AND

SIGN SIGN
AND MEANING MEANING
PV1 PV5
Smoking Drinking of this

prohibited water prohibited
PV2 PV6
Fire and open Proceeding

flames beyond this point is
prohibited prohibited
PV3 PV4
Thoroughfare Water as
for pedestrians extinguishing
prohibited agent prohibited
PV9 PV16
Hand No entry for

tramming vehicles
prohibited
39
PV18 PV22
Wearing of Alcohol prohibited

safety helmets
prohibited
Table 1.2 Prohibitive signs – things you must not do
Table 1.3 shows the common warning signs. Their purpose is to alert you to
potentially dangerous situations. Be warned! Warning signs are symbols on a
yellow background inside a black triangle.
DESIGNATION
DESIGNATION
AND SIGN SIGN
AND MEANING
MEANING
WW1 WW7
General
General warning of
warning electric shock
hazard hazard
WW2 WW8
Warning of
fire hazard Warning of
suspended
loads hazard
WW3 WW9
Warning of Warning of
explosion methane
M
hazard hazard
WW4 WW13
a
Warning of
Warning of asbestos
corrosion hazard
hazard
40
WW5 WW14
poisonous workers
substances overhead
hazard
WW6 WW15
Warning of
Warning of carbon
ionizing dioxide hazard
radiation
hazard
WW16 WW20
Warning of Beware of
slippery forklifts
walking
surface
hazard
WW17 WW22
moving hazard of
machinery slippery steps
hazard
WW19 WW23
Beware of Warning of
dogs hazard of
exposed live
high-voltage
equipment
Table 1.3 Warning signs regarding potentially hazardous situations
1.5.10 Training
One of the main causes of accidents is the lack of sufficient knowledge or
skills when performing a task. No person should be allowed to work on a
machine without proper training or experience.
1.5.11 Safe use of ladders

Many fall-from-height incidents involve the use of ladders. To prevent injuries
arising from such incidents, this article aims to provide some guidance on the
correct and appropriate use of ladders.
41
Figure 1.10 Safety guidelines using ladders
• When to use a ladder?

As a first step, consider if working at height is necessary. If so, decide whether
a ladder is the most appropriate access equipment compared to other
options.
In general, ladders should only be used as a means of access to or egress

from a work area, or for light work of short duration. If a task involves
extended periods of working at height or with restricted movement and vision
(e.g. welding), a step platform is a safer alternative as it is more stable and
provides a much larger work surface than a step ladder.
• Is the ladder safe to use?

Before using a ladder, check that it is safe to use. This would include ensuring
that the ladder:
1. Has no visible defects

2. Is clean from oil, grease, wet paint and other slipping hazards
3. Has been maintained and stored in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions
4. Is suitable for the activity (e.g. in terms of load)
42
• How to use the ladder safely?

The following provides some recommendations on the safe use of ladders:
1. Conduct a risk assessment before starting work to identify the hazards.
For example, appropriate actions should be taken to prevent falls from
height, as well as reduce the consequences of a fall.
2. Control measures and safe work procedures must be established,
communicated and implemented to ensure the safety and health of
the workers involved.
3. Ensure that users are competent and trained to use the ladders safely.
Workers should be provided with the appropriate personal protective
equipment (e.g. helmet and proper footwear).
4. In some situations, a safety harness, lanyard or lifeline may be
necessary. When using such equipment, a proper anchorage point
must be available for its proper use.
5. Ensure that the ladder is secured firmly in place.
6. Do not site the ladder on loose material or slippery surfaces.
7. Ensure that the ladder is secured at the top using rope or footed at the
bottom before usage. An alternative is for another worker to hold the
ladder firmly in place while another is climbing.
8. The ladder should not be moved while a worker is standing on it.
9. Do not carry tools in hand when climbing a ladder. Use a tool belt
instead. Maintain three points of contact when climbing a ladder (two
hands and one foot or one hand and two feet).
10. Cordon off the work area to prevent the ladders from being struck by
vehicles, workers or pedestrians.
11. Check that the ladders will not be pushed over by other hazards such
as doors and windows.
12. Check the weather and avoid outdoor work in rain or in strong winds.
1.6 Information required on manufacturer’s plate and safety

devices
According the OHSA (safety regulations) the following information is to be
found on the manufacturing’s plate and safety devices when working with
pressure vessels or air receivers:
• Manufacturer's name
• Country of origin
• Registration number of manufacturer
• Year of manufacture
• Maximum working pressure in Pascal (Pa)
• Volumetric capacity (m3)
• Initial factory test of pressure of the vessel
• Date of inspection
43
Figure 1.11 shows a typical manufacturer’s plate for a bolier (pressure

vessel).
Figure 1.11 typical manufacturer’s plate for a bolier
1.6.1 Standard colour codes for oxygen and acetylene cylinders

In accordance with the OHSA the following colour codes must be applied:
• Oxygen – BLACK
• Acetylene – RED
This applies to the cylinders and hoses.
1.6.2 Safety regulations for safe handling and storage of gas cylinders
In accordance with the OHSA the following rules must be applied:
DO NOT
• Allow cylinders to slide or come into contact with sharp edges. They may
be rolled but not dragged or dropped.
• Drop cylinders or allow them to come into violent contact with each other
or other hard objects.
• Load or offload cylinders by means of electromagnetic cranes or chain-
slings.
• A cage or lifting basket, made especially for the task, should be used.
• Use cylinders as roller beds for moving heavy articles.
DO
• Use a special cylinder trolley or hand truck, where possible.
44
• Mark empty cylinders by using chalk or other marking material to

distinguish between them and others which are full.
• Always handle cylinders as if they are full.
• Remove pressure regulators and equipment and replace valve guards
before transporting cylinders.
• Use warm, not boiling water, to free frozen valves as the fusible plug on
acetylene cylinders melts at boiling point.
1.6.4 Storage of compressed gas cylinders

In accordance with the OHSA the following rules must be applied:
• Storerooms should be well ventilated and should never be below ground

level.
• Store cylinders in an upright position, taking care to prevent them from
falling by providing racks or chains to secure them in position.
• Flammable gases must be separated from non-flammable gases.
• Full or empty combustible cylinders should be kept apart. Use 'Full' and
'Empty' notices to prevent confusion and mistakes.
• 'No Smoking' and 'No Naked Lights' signs, in all applicable languages,
should be posted in the area of the store.
Activity 1.3 Safety hazards
In the figure shown, identify at least 10 hazards.
45
1.7 Safety measures for hydraulic and pneumatic environment

In the hydraulic and pneumatic environment, it is important always to be
aware that you are working with equipment that is under working pressure. It
is therefore essential to ensure that all pressure is released before attempting
to start any maintenance procedures.
1.7.1 Pneumatic Tool Safety

Pneumatic tools are powered by compressed air and include chippers, drills,
hammers, sanders, spray guns, air ratchets, grinders, nibblers, needle scalers
and many more.
There are several dangers associated with the use of pneumatic tools. First
and foremost is the danger of getting hit by one of the tool’s attachments or
by some kind of fastener that you are using with the tool.
Pneumatic tools must be checked to see that the tools are fastened securely
to the air hose to prevent them from becoming disconnected. A short wire or
positive locking device attaching the air hose to the tool may also be used
and will serve as an added safeguard.
1.7.2 Hydraulic Powered Tool Safety

The fluid used in hydraulic power tools must be an approved fire-resistant fluid
and must retain its operating characteristics at the most extreme
temperatures to which it will be exposed. The exception to fire-resistant fluid
involves all hydraulic fluids used for the insulated sections of derrick trucks,
aerial lifts, and hydraulic tools that are used on or around energized lines. This
hydraulic fluid shall be of the insulating type.
The manufacturer’s recommended safe operating pressure for hoses, valves,

pipes, filters, and other fittings must not be exceeded.
1.7.3 Hydraulic and pneumatic tools and equipment safety measures

Hydraulic and pneumatic tools and equipment require clean and dust-free
surroundings, as components are extremely sensitive to foreign materials.
• Ensure that hose fittings, pipes and unions are not loose. Correct the
situation by tightening all connections.
• Ensure that oil and air filters are clean.
• Before use, blow air and oil hoses clean with compressed air.
• All fittings must seat correctly and be checked for proper connections.
• In the case of pneumatic tools, it is important to ensure that the tool
retainer holds the tool effectively. The tool, e.g. a chisel, may eject,
causing injury to workers nearby.
• Ensure that all persons are clear when starting up a hydraulic machine
and that the control valve is in the neutral or shut position prior to start up.
• Ensure that all system pressure is released from the tool before
disconnection.
46
• Remember that all guards must be in place before the start-up of

machinery.
1.7.4 Safety checks before operating pneumatic tools

• Ensure that all air lines are in good condition and that there are no cuts,
splits or chafing in the cables.
• End fittings are to be secure in the airline.
• Ensure that exhaust ducts are free of any blockage.
• Always be aware that air pressure can be dangerous if directed at the
body.
• Check the air pressure at the air receiver regularly.
• Ensure that the regulator pressure at the compressor reaches the correct
gauge reading before cut-out. This can be checked by observing the red
line on the pressure gauge. The compressor should switch off when the
pressure reaches this red line.
• Drain water or condensate from the air receiver daily to prevent corrosion.
• Do not clean compressor parts with paraffin. Paraffin mixed with dirt forms
a highly combustible compound that could cause an explosion.
• Ensure that the air filter is changed regularly. Dirt entering the intake when
compressed could cause explosions.
• Ensure that the coolers are serviced regularly to maintain efficiency in the
cooling stages. Hot air reduces the effective operation of the compressor
and could increase the risk of explosion.
Activity 1.3 Machine safety features
Carefully study the lathe shown in Figure 1.12 Identify each of the safety
features and state what each is for.
Figure 1.12 Centre lathe
47
1.8 Producing an accident or incident report

The reporting and recording of incidents is one effective method to help
prevent a recurrence, and to determine if hazards have been identified and
controls are effective. In addition, the reporting of incidents (including near
misses) leads to the elimination or control of many situations or activities that
affect production and quality of work.
An employer must record each and every incident that occurs in the
workplace whether it is minor or major. Records must be kept in an incident
book and must be kept for a period of three years. Whenever an incident
occurs, whether minor or major, the employer must give notice within seven
days to the Provincial Director in the form of WCL1 or WCL2. The following
information is required:
1. Name of the injured person

2. Address of the injured person
3. Name of the user, employer or self-employed person
4. Address of the user, employer or self-employed person
5. Telephone number of the user; employer or self-employed person
6. Name of contact person
7. Details of incident:
• what happened
• where it happened (place)
• when it happened (date and time)
• how it happened
• why it happened
• names of witnesses.
1.8.1 Identifying hazards

A hazard is anything that can cause damage or injury to people or to
property in the work place. Therefore, a hazard is a source of danger- that is,
anything that might be dangerous, such as slippery floors.
The identification and control of hazards is not a simple matter. As the depth
of technology has increased it has become more difficult to identify hazards.
Therefore, employees are always responsible for taking note of and reporting
any incident or anything they see which may pose a danger to themselves,
colleagues or to any visitors to the workshop. This means being observant at
all times, and reporting situations which may be hazardous to guests, staff
and visitors.
For example:
wet floors; maintenance workers; electrical wiring that is not
secured out of the way; people loitering on or around the property
who do not seem to have any particular business there.
48
If an employee notices any of the above situations, it is their responsibility to

act, by first informing management and bringing the potential hazard to their
attention, and then taking the necessary action by either placing signage or
contacting security and maintenance.
Activity 1.4 Identifying hazards
In pairs, walk around your workplace, not only the workshop but the whole
college or place of employment, and be on the lookout for what may cause
harm to yourselves or any other persons. Ask other people, especially
employees, as they may have noticed things that are not obvious. Make a list
of all the hazards that you have noticed. Compare your list with those of
other students.
1.9 Performing a basic machine hazard analysis and a machine

risk assessment
The Regulations of the Occupational Health and Safety Act (Act 85 of 1993)
require that all employers conduct a risk analysis of any worker or other
person whose health may be affected by their work.
The findings with recommendations for the minimising of hazards must be

recorded and measures taken to comply with the Regulations carried out.
A risk assessment is a careful assessment of all the hazards in the workplace,

or of an individual machine, that could cause harm to people. The risk
assessment should inform the employer whether enough precautions have
been taken or if more should be carried out.
A hazard is anything that can cause harm, such as moving machinery,

slippery floors, chemicals, electricity, working at a height, and so on. A list is
the probability, high or low, that a worker could be injured by the hazards.
Injuries are defined according to their severity. If the injury is treated at the site
where it happened or in the first aid station and the person immediately
returns to work it is termed as a minor injury. If the injury has to be attended to
by paramedics, doctors or at hospitals then it is a major injury.
An example would be a severe cut that requires stitches or an object in the

eye which has to be removed by a specialist but does not cause blindness.
Very serious injury results in loss of limbs, or permanent disability, or death; or if

the injured person is off work as the result of the injury for more than two
weeks. Multiple injuries can also be in this category.
A risk assessment is carried out in five simple stages.

49
Stage 1: Identify the hazards

Keep in mind secondary incidents that may occur as the result of the first
incident. For example, switching off the power because someone is trapped
in a machine may result in someone else being affected. Consult staff,
especially those that are working on the machines. Hazards can be spotted
by:
• walking around the workplace

• asking employees what they think
• checking manufacturers' instructions
• contacting the labour department.
Stage 2: Decide who might be harmed and how

For each hazard it must be identified who is at risk. It is not necessary to name
the persons but by categorising groups of people for example, maintenance
personnel, electricians, passers-by, operators, etc. Also identify how they may
be harmed by the type of injury.
For example, an operator of a forklift may be exposed to excessive fumes or

a person lifting heavy objects may suffer from back injury.
Stage 3: Evaluate the risks and decide on precautions

For each hazard identified, an evaluation needs to be made about the
probability of the hazard resulting in an emergency event and the severity of
the consequences if the situation did happen.
Stage 4: Record your findings and implement them

All the findings must be recorded and the results implemented. The results
can be shared with the staff. The implementation must be prioritised and high
risk hazards are dealt with first. The recording must indicate who is responsible
to carry out the actions and by when.
Stage 5: Review your assessment and update it if necessary

Review the assessment regularly, as not everything that was implemented
may work the first time round. Consult staff as they are constantly involved
and may have good ideas.
Look at your risk assessment again. Ask the following questions:
• Have there been any changes?

• Are there improvements you still need to make?
• Have your workers spotted a problem?
• Have you learnt anything from accidents or near misses?
Make sure your risk assessment stays up to date.
50
1.9.1 Rating scale

It is normal practice to evaluate the risk by means of a number. For example,
to assess the probability it can have a scale of 1 to 3:
1. = low (unlikely to happen)

2. = medium (likely to happen)
3. = high (very likely to happen).
The scve1ity of the injury can also be given a scale of 1 to 3:
1. = minor injury
2. = major injury
3. = very serious injury.
To evaluate the rating the following formula is used:
Risk = Probability rating x Severity rating
Worked example
A machine, because of the way it is set up, constantly sprays cooling fluid
onto the floor.
Hazard Wet Floor Rating
Who may be harmed? All person including
operator of machine
Probability of accident? High probability 3
Severity of accident? Major injury 2
Result of risk assessment Maximum score 3 x 3 = 9
Actual score 3 x 2 = 6
Precautions to be taken:
• Place warning signs around the area.

• Demarcate the area and place fencing around the machine covering
the wet spots.
• Increase the cleaning of the floors and make sure that drying also takes
place.
• Consider modification of the machine set-up, to minimise coolant loss.
Activity 1.5 Risk assessment
Using the above rating scales, carry out a risk assessment on the following
machine operations:
51
1. Setting up a milling machine vice.

2. Sharpening a drill on a pedestal grinder.
3. Turning a workpiece in the lathe.
·
1.10 The fundamental safety requirements in machine control and

related safety regulations from the OHS Act 85 of 1993 (Machine
Safety)
The Government, through the Department of Labour, has a role to play to
ensure that the accidents in the South African workplace are kept to a
minimum. The rights of employers and employees must be maintained. The
employer and employee are both bound by the Occupational Health and
Safety Act of 1993.
The Occupational Health and Safety Act of 1993 reformed the legislation
relating to the prevention of harm lo employees while al work. It also
strengthened the provisions for ensuring that actions at work do not result in
harm to other people, including members of the public. The Act promotes
excellence in the management of health and safety and clearly defines the
duties of employers, principals of a contract, the self-employed, and
employees.
Another significant development is that it clearly sets out a procedure that

must be followed in all places of work to identify, assess and control hazards.
1.10.1 Responsibility of the employer

Every employer has a duty to provide a reasonably safe place to work, with
well-maintained machines and equipment. In addition, a sufficient and
competent workforce must carry out their duties. An employer cannot ask an
employee to carry out a task that is dangerous.
Every employer must:
• Within reason provide and maintain a working environment that is safe

and without risk to the health of employees, visitors and others. This duty
also applies to contractors.
• Identify risks and hazards and take appropriate steps to eliminate them.
• Provide employees with health and safety equipment.
• Provide a safety policy and bring it to the attention of employees.
• Provide information, instructions, training and supervision.
Should an employee be injured at work whilst doing his or her job, “Workers'
Compensation” covers that employee. If it can be proved that the employer
was negligent the employee can claim damages from the employer if the
employee feels that compensation was not sufficient.
52
1.11.2 Responsibility of the employee

Employees must look after their own health and safety, as well as the health
and safety of other people in the workplace and not put them at risk. All
employees need to be completely familiar with the safety procedures within
their organisation and for their particular area of work. Generally, employees
need to take the necessary preventative 1neasures to avoid accidents from
occurring in the workplace.
Every employee must:
• Take care with the health and safety of him or herself and of other persons
who may be affected by his acts.
• Carry out any lawful order given to him or her in the interest of health and
safety.
• Obey the health and safety rules and procedures as given to him or her.
• Immediately report to the employer or Health and Safety Representative
any unsafe or unhealthy situation that he or she is aware of.
• Report an incident which has occurred and may affect his or her health to
the supervisor, the company's Health and Safety Officer or the Health and
Safety Representative. The report must be made as soon as possible but
no later than the end of the shift in which the incident occurred.
• Not damage or misuse any equipment that is provided in the use of health
or safety.
• Keep the workplace and change rooms clean and tidy at all times.
1.11.3 Regulations
• Regulations are a set of rules used to define an Act of Parliament. They
clarify and expand the Act.
• The Occupational Health and Safety Act of 1993 covers virtually everyone
employed in all different kinds of work. There are also regulations relating
to all kinds of specific engineering processes dealing with safety issues. The
following are some examples of regulations:
o Environmental Regulations for Workplaces, 1987

o General Machinery Regulations, 1988
o Driven Machinery Regulations, 1988
o Electrical Installation Regulations, 1992
o Asbestos Regulations, 2001
o Minerals Act, No. 50 of 1991
The Occupational Health and Safety Act of 1993 have some regulations
which cover the operation of machinery. These are briefly discussed.
1. An employer or user of machinery must ensure that every person

authorised to operate machinery is fully aware of the dangers of that
machinery. This means that they must know about the safety measures to
be observed and how to avoid the dangers of operating such machines.
53
2. If a person operates any machinery which requires constant attention in

order to avoid accidents, that person shall not leave their post while the
machine is in operation. The only time they may leave the machine
running is if they are relieved by a person who is both authorised and
competent to operate the machine.
3. An employer or user of machinery shall ensure that any machinery which

requires constant attention in order to avoid accidents is under the
supervision of a shift supervisor. The supervisor must, at all times, be present
on the premises while such machinery is in operation. No person shall work
on or operate such machinery, except under the general supervision of a
shift supervisor.
4. No person supervising machinery and no person operating machinery
shall, without the permission of their superior; authorise any other person to
do their work.
5. If machinery is likely to threaten the safety of people when it is

unexpectedly set in motion, the employer or user of the machinery
concerned must take all reasonable precautions to ensure that such
machinery cannot unexpectedly be set in motion. Any person intending
to set such machinery in motion shall take all reasonable precautions to
ensure that the safety of any person is not threatened or likely to be
threatened.
6. If machinery in operation is likely to threaten the safety of any person, the

person supervising or operating the machinery, or the employer, shall stop
the machinery or cause it to be stopped.
1.12 Regulations that apply to the Minerals Act (Act No. 50 of 1991)
The Minerals Act, No. 50 of 1991 includes the safety regulations applicable to
those employees working in the mining industry.
1.12.1 First-aid certificate

(a) Underground work
• Every person in charge of more than 300 workmen and any person
under the age of 50 years must be in possession of a first-aid certificate.
(b) Workers employed on the surface

• All workers working near machinery on the surface must be in
possession of a valid first-aid certificate.
• In all cases the person or persons have a period of one year within
which to obtain first-aid certification and this must be renewed every
three years.
54
1.12.2 Accidents and enquiries

The scene of a fatal accident is not to be disturbed for three days until
inspected by the investigating committee or safety officer assigned by the
director general, unless:
• it is done to prevent further danger to the safety of others.

• it is done to rescue or treat other workers involved in the same incident.
• it is necessary for the mining works to continue in the interests of safety
and of the mining company.
1.12.3 Special preventative measures relating to machinery

Such measures involve:
• Loose outer clothing: No person working in the vicinity of machinery

may wear loose outer clothing, jewellery, a wrist-watch or any other
article which could pose a hazard to personal safety.
• Dangerous places: All dangerous places, e.g. pits, manholes, elevated
platforms, should be fenced off or guarded to prevent danger to
others.
• Reporting of dangerous situations: All employees must report unsafe
situations where they may arise. They are further prohibited from
entering areas deemed to be out of bounds and which have been
securely fenced or guarded to prevent entry.
• Revolving machinery: The lubrication as well as repair and adjustment
of revolving machinery is prohibited while it is in motion, unless it is done
by a person who is authorised to do so. In this special case, it must still
be safe enough or necessary.
• Driving belts: Shipping or unshipping of driving belts while a machine is
in motion is not allowed, unless the machine is designed for this
purpose.
• Safety precautions: All safety precautions are to be taken before
starting any machine or machinery.
• Safety appliances: All safety appliances must be properly maintained
and used in the correct manner to ensure the safety of those operating
them.
• Disconnection of power supply: Before work on the machinery
commences, the person in charge must ensure that the power supply
has been disconnected, and that it is not possible for anyone to switch
it back on inadvertently while work is still being done on it.
1.12.4 Fire prevention

• Naked lights are forbidden and may not be left near combustible or
flammable material that may cause a fire or an explosion.
• Caustic soda or calcium carbide is not to be taken underground,
unless it is in an approved sealed container and the regional manager
has authorised that it may be taken underground. No person may store
55
or leave calcium carbide underground at all. When a shift has been

completed, the calcium carbide must be brought to the surface.
• The installation, construction or operation of a machine must not cause
dangerous heat. Every effort should be made to prevent this where
practical.
• Smoking and naked lights in cages, lifts, skips and elevator cars are not
permitted.
• No welding, flame cutting or flame heating is to take place unless
preventative measures, such as fire extinguishers, have been provided.
At the completion of the heating task, a competent person must
inspect the area to ensure that there is no possibility of a fire breaking
out.
• No waste material, which might be a potential fire hazard, may be
stored underground, or close to electrical equipment such as
transformers, switchgear or heating apparatus.
1.12.5 Electrical installations

• No cables are to be placed or suspended in an unprotected manner.
They should be laid in such a way that damage is avoided.
1.12.6 Lighting and safety lamps

• No persons are permitted to work or travel in an unlighted mine or part
of a mine, unless they carry a light.
• In a working environment in which there is moving machinery, where
natural light does not penetrate, the area must be sufficiently
illuminated so that the moving parts can be seen clearly. Moving
machinery includes winding, driving and pumping machinery.
• No light or lamp is allowed into a mine, unless it is approved by the
director general of mines. This light or lamp must be enclosed, locked
or sealed. Stationary lights or lamps are permitted, if permission has
been granted in writing by the regional director of mines.
1.12. 7 Contraband
• Contraband refers to matches or any device used to strike or cause a
flaming light. They are not permitted in a mine.
• The use of an approved lamp re-lighting device is excluded from this
regulation.
• No smoking is allowed in a mine and persons are not allowed to have
cigarettes, a pipe, tobacco, or any similar substance in their possession.
However, chewing tobacco or snuff is allowed.
1.12.8 Use of propelled and self-propelled vehicles

• No person is allowed to drive any vehicle, unless authorised in writing
by the manager of the mine, or appointed in the position to drive a
specific vehicle.
• Persons are prohibited from travelling on or in self-propelled vehicles
that are attached to haulage equipment unless authorised to do so.
56
1.12. 9 Inspection and testing of boilers

• Safety valves associated with boilers are to be guarded in such a way
as to prevent any undue external force from affecting their effective
operation.
• Safety valves are to be tested regularly in order to ensure that they
open at the authorised gauge pressure.
Activity 1.6
1. Name the five steps that are normally carried out for a risk assessment.
2. Name five responsibilities that an employer must provide for.
3. Name five responsibilities that an employee must abide by.
4. State the formula that can be used to carry out a risk assessment.
5. Define a hazard.
6. Define a probability with respect to injuries that may occur in the
workplace.
7. What are the differences between minor, major and very serious
accidents? Give an example of each one.
8. Why do the emergency switches of some machines have a mushroom
head?
9. Why is the ‘ON’ switch of a machine normally recessed?
10. Draw up a manufacturer’s plate that must be fixed to a pressure vessel.
List the information that is printed onto the plate.
11. List the storage requirements for the storage of compressed gas cylinders.
12. What are the standard colour codes for oxygen and acetylene cylinders
and hoses.
13. Name five safety rules for handling and storing compressed gas cylinders.
14. Pneumatic and hydraulic equipment must be used correctly. List five
safety checks before operating pneumatic tools.
15. According to the Minerals Act, No.50 of 1991, explain the following
regulations applicable to employees working in the mining industry:
• First-aid certificate
• Accidents and enquiries
• Special preventative measures
• Fire protection
• Electrical installations
• Contraband
• Use of propelled and self- propelled vehicles
• Inspection and testing of boilers
57
Self-Assessment
I am able to: Yes No

x Describe and explain the regulations that apply to the
Occupational Health and Safety Act of 1993 (Act No.85) and
that relate to dangerous places, projecting shaft ends;
transmission belts; condition of safety appliances and
machinery and grinding wheels.
x Explain the importance of guarding, discuss its characteristics
and name the different classes and types.
x Explain the precautions to be taken to protect workers and
maintenance crews when working on electrical equipment
x Discuss the basic rules for preventing mechanical handling
accidents.
x Discuss the rules of safety when working with ladders.
x State and list the information to be found on the
manufacturing’s plate and safety devices when working with
pressure vessels or air receivers.
x Discuss the rules for preventing accidents.
x State and list the standard colour codes of oxygen and
acetylene cylinders and hoses.
x Discuss and explain the rules for safe handling and storage of
compressed gas cylinders.
x Explain the basic safety requirements when using pneumatic
and hydraulic tools, equipment and machinery.
x Explain and describe the safety checks to be carried out
before using pneumatic tools.
x Explain the safety checks to be carried out before using
portable electrical equipment, including extension cords
x Describe and explain the regulations that apply to the Minerals
Act (Act No. 50 of 1991) which relates to: Fire prevention;
Lighting and safety lamps; Contraband; Traction and
machinery; Electrical installations; Boilers; Accidents and
queries.
If you have answered ‘no’ to any of the outcomes listed above, then speak
to your facilitator for guidance and further development.
58
Learning Outcomes
outcomes:
• Explain the difference in operation between a coupling and a clutch.

• Classification of the different couplings into the three main groups:
Rigid or permanent, self-aligning and flexible couplings.
• Describe the following couplings with aid id of given drawings and explain
uses and applications in industry:
Flange; chain; raffard; rubber belt; nylon sleeve; universal or Hooke’s;
marine; gear; pin and rubber bush; spider; metal disc; and fluid.
• Identify the various components and describe the main functions of each.
2.1 Introduction
Couplings are used to connect the shaft of a driver, such as a
motor, to the shaft of a driven, such as a pump. Couplings are
manufactured in many types and sizes. Some coupling types allow
for slight misalignment and end play, or shaft float, between the
rotating shafts.
Some couplings reduce, or dampen, or absorb vibrations or torque. Other

couplings insulate the coupling halves from any electrical current transfer,
which is common in some motor generator sets.
In order for equipment to operate properly and efficiently, the proper

coupling must be used to connect the driver to the driven. It is also very
important that the equipment be properly aligned and the coupling properly
installed. This module explains some common types of couplings and explains
how to install and remove couplings.
2.2 The difference between a coupling and a clutch

A coupling is a device for connecting the ends of adjacent shafts. In
machine construction, couplings are used to be a semi-permanent
connection between two rotary shafts. A clutch is a device used to connect
59
and disconnect two collinear shafts. It must be disassembled for

disengagement.
With respect to controllability, the couplings and clutches can be classified
into the following groups:
1. Permanent couplings and clutches which are continually engaged:

rigid and flexible couplings.
2. Controllable couplings and clutches which can be manually engaged
and disengaged.
3. Self-acting (automatic) couplings and clutches
A coupling is a device used to connect a drive shaft to a driven shaft to form

a permanent connection. The drive source would have to be stopped
completely in order to stop the driven unit or machine. As in the case of
couplings, a clutch is also a device that connects a drive shaft and a driven
shaft.
What then is the difference between a coupling and a clutch? A typical

example of the operation of a clutch is found in the motor vehicle. We
engage and disengage the connection between the engine and the
transmission at will by means of a foot-control pedal. The engine or drive unit
does not stop rotating, but the transmission or drive unit stops. It can therefore
be said that a clutch is a coupling that can be engaged or disengaged by
the operator.
The main criteria that affects the choice of coupling in a specific machinery
situation is whether perfect alignment or rectilinearity is required. As perfect
rectilinearity is extremely difficult to achieve because of the need for time
consuming installation procedures, a variety of couplings exists, making
allowance for alignment error.
2.3 Features of couplings

The most important features of couplings are:
• Couplings provide a semi-permanent connection between two shafts. This

means that the construction of couplings is such that we can easily
disassemble them.
• In most cases, drive and rotation of the shafts can take place in both
directions.
• Shafts are only uncoupled for repair work or routine maintenance. In
special cases, shafts can be uncoupled when an overload occurs.
• Other specific features will be dealt with when the different couplings in
this module are discussed.
60
2.4 Classification of couplings

An important factor which determines the type of coupling we use to join
shafts is the rectilinearity of the shafts. By rectilinearity we mean the extent to
which the two mounted shafts are in line or aligned with each other. If the
centre lines of the two shafts form a straight line, we say that they are
perfectly rectilinear.
Couplings can be classified into three groups:
• Fast (rigid) couplings.

• Flexible couplings.
• Self-aligning couplings.
We will now discuss each of these categories in more detail.
2.5 Fast (rigid) couplings

As the name implies, rigid couplings rigidly connect the driver and driven
shafts. Fast (rigid) couplings do not compensate for misalignment and require
precise alignment during installation. If a rigid coupling is misaligned and
forced together, the drive will be damaged.
Fast couplings are also known as permanent couplings. We use these

couplings where accurate rectilinearity of the shafts is required. In other
words, the shafts to be joined must be perfectly in line with each other.
Examples of fast couplings are the muff and flange couplings.
Even slight misalignment can cause vibration and operating problems. Rigid
couplings are manufactured in several styles. The following are the three most
common rigid couplings:
• Flanged;
• Sleeved; and
• Muff (ribbed).
2.5.1 Flanged couplings

Flanged couplings join the driver and driven shafts, using two mating flanges.
One coupling flange fits on the driver shaft, and the other fits on the driven
shaft. The connection between the two halves is made by bolting the flanges
together. Flanged couplings require keys to prevent them from rotating on
the shafts and require precise alignment. Figure 2.1(a) shows a flanged
coupling.
Flange couplings consist of two flanges as shown in Figure 2.1 (b). Each
flange is secured to the end of each shaft either by using a key or by
shrinkage. Special machined bolts join the two flanges together. This ensures
that each bolts carries its share of the load. The inner faces of the two
61
matching flanges are located by means of a machined spigot and recess

combination. We machine a spigot on flange A which fits into a recess
machined into flange B in order to ensure perfect rectilinearity. The recesses
on the outside of the flanges prevent the bolt heads and nuts from sticking
out above the surface of the flange. This is a safety measure to prevent the
bolts and nuts from catching onto the clothes and tools of workers. We use
flange couplings for shafts which have a diameter of 75 mm or more.
Figure 2.1(a) and (b) Flanged Couplings
2.5.2 Sleeved couplings

Sleeved couplings, also called compression couplings, are very similar to
flanged couplings, except that they are taper-bored and have tapered
sleeves that fit on the shafts. The wedge principle is used to tighten the
coupling on the shafts. As the two halves of the coupling are pulled together
over the tapered sleeve by the flange bolts, the couplings halves are
tightened on the shafts. Sleeved couplings do not require keys, are normally
used on small-diameter shafts, and are not suitable for transmitting heavy
loads. Figure 2.2 shows a sleeved coupling.
Figure 2.2 Sleeved coupling
62
2.5.3 Marine couplings

These are similar to the flange couplings, except that the flange is not fitted
to the shaft, but forged in one piece. Conical bolts are generally used to bolt
the flanges together. The bolt holes are accurately bored and eased to the
correct taper only when the flanges are together. (See Figure 2.3)
Figure 2.3 Marine coupling
2.5.4 Ribbed (Muff) couplings

Ribbed couplings, also called clamp couplings, are made in two pieces. They
are used when sleeved couplings are difficult to install. The advantage of a
ribbed coupling is that it can be installed on shafts that are already in place
without moving one of the shafts.
Ribbed couplings are used when the shafts are the same size and are also
used for low-speed drives because of their unbalanced design and weight
distribution. Figure 2.4(a) shows a ribbed coupling.
The first and simplest design for connecting two shafts, the axes of which are
in perfect alignment, is by use of the sleeve, or muff, coupling also known as
a ribbed coupling.
The design consists of a cast iron cylinder fitting neatly over the end of the
shafts and keyed in place by a long sunken key. In some cases the ends of
the shaft are enlarged so as to allow the keyway to be cut without
weakening the shaft.
A split-muff coupling has a split sleeve consisting of two halves that are fitted
over the ends of the two shafts A and B. The split sleeve is made firm by the
tightening of the nuts and bolts as shown in Figure 2.4 (b). If we use a split-
muff coupling, we can avoid problems with the coupling and uncoupling of
the two shafts during installation or maintenance. It is not necessary to
63
disconnect the electric motor or the driven machine during installation or

maintenance as is the case with a solid-muff coupling.
(a) (b)
Figure 2.4 Ribbed (muff or split sleeve) coupling
Activity 2.1
1. What is the function of shaft couplings?

2. Explain the reason for using shaft couplings.
3. Couplings are divided into three main groups. Name them.
4. What is the different between a clutch and a coupling?
5. What are the three most common types of rigid couplings?
6. Which coupling is also called a compression coupling?
7. Which coupling is also called a clamp coupling?
8. Explain with aid of a freehand drawing the muff coupling and name the
parts.
9. Make a freehand drawing in good proportion of a flanged coupling. Insert
all the parts.
10. Sleeved couplings, also known as what type of couplings?
2.6 Flexible couplings

Flexible couplings are much more commonly used than rigid couplings
because they are usually easier to install and maintain and do not require
precise alignment. Some flexible couplings allow for more severe
misalignment than others.
Although flexible couplings allow for some misalignment, they should be

aligned as close as possible using the methods available for maximum
coupling life. For instance, a coupling may have a maximum tolerance of
0,010 mm but it cannot be used at that amount of misalignment without
shortening the life of the coupling.
When selecting a coupling for a particular application, it is important that it

meets the necessary speed, horsepower, and other requirements. The
following considerations are made when a coupling is selected:
64
• Will the coupling be simple to install and remove?

• Can the parts be easily replaced after normal service wear?
• Can the alignment be done using simple tools, such as a straightedge and
feeler gauge, or will special tools, such as a dial indicator, be needed?
Flexible couplings should not be used when major angular misalignment is

known to exist.
Deliberate misalignment requires the use of universal joints. Flexible couplings

can be divided into the following two main categories:
• Mechanical
• Material
2.6.1 Mechanical flexible couplings

Mechanical flexible couplings have metal components that may or may not
need lubrication. They use the play, or clearance, in a mechanical device,
such as chains or gears, to compensate for misalignment. The four major
types of mechanical flexible couplings are the following:
o Slider
o Gear
o Chain
o Bibby (Grid)
o Raffard
o Pin-type
• Slider (jaw)Couplings
Slider couplings allow for angular and parallel misalignment. They are
designed for low-speed and high-torque applications and are rated up to a
maximum speed of 100 rpm. Slider couplings have three pieces: a slider and
a two-jawed coupling
half for each shaft. The
slider is driven by one of
the two-jawed coupling
halves, which in turn
drives the other
coupling half.
Some types have

replaceable wear faces
on the jaws. Figure 2.5
shows a slider coupling.
Figure 2.5 Slider coupling
65
They are best adapted to slow speeds and positions where slip cannot take
place, and are ideal for transmitting heavy loads. The machinery should
always be stopped to make engagement, otherwise broken or badly worn
dogs will result.
x Spiral jaw couplings

This type of coupling can be driven in one direction only and immediately
disengages when the direction of rotation is reversed (see Figure 2.6).
Figure 2.5 Claw coupling (square jaw)
• Gear Couplings
A gear coupling consists of two coupling halves with external teeth and a
mating flange, or sleeve, with internal teeth. The mating flange may be one
piece or two, depending on the application. The flange or sleeve may be
made of steel or nylon. The advantage of the nylon is that it does not require
lubrication.
Gear couplings use keys to prevent them from slipping on the shafts. In
perfectly aligned applications, the load is evenly distributed between all the
teeth of the coupling.
Where misalignment occurs, the load is not evenly distributed. This is why the
load rating, or the amount of load that the coupling can carry, drops when
misalignment increases.
Gear couplings that are used in high-speed applications are usually

balanced and match marked when manufactured. These match marks must
be perfectly aligned during assembly.
The match-marking process reduces the chance of vibration and alignment

problems. Figure 2.7 shows gear couplings.
66
Figure 2.7 Gear Couplings
• Chain Couplings
Chain couplings consist of three main parts: two hardened sprockets and a
chain. The sprockets fit on the driver and driven shafts; the chain is placed
around the sprockets, and the ends are fastened together.
The clearances between the sprockets, the chain, and in the chain itself
compensate for misalignment.
Chain couplings have hardened sprockets for longer wear and are usually
enclosed in a sealed cover to keep lubrication on the chain and to keep
contaminants out.
The chain is usually double-stranded and may be made of case-hardened

steel or nylon. If nylon chain is used, the coupling needs no lubrication. Similar
designs, such as the chain coupling in Figure 2.8, the internal gear coupling in
Figure 2.9, the Raffard coupling in Figures 2.10 and the laced belt coupling in
Figures 2.11 are also available. However, these couplings are not part of the
present syllabus and will not be discussed in detail.
Figure 2.8 Chain Coupling
• Bibby (grid) Couplings

Grid couplings, also called Bibby couplings, consist of three basic parts: two
slotted hubs and one spring grid. The slotted hubs fit on the driver and driven
67
shafts. The grid spring fits in the slots of the hubs, and the grid encircles the
hubs.
The flex of the grid and the play between the grid and the slotted hubs
compensate for any misalignment. Grid couplings are enclosed in a cover to
keep lubrication in and contamination out of the grid and hubs. Figure 2.9
shows two types of Bibby flexible (grid) couplings.
Figure 2.9 Bibby flexible couplings
Bibby flexible couplings are also called steel-grid couplings. Bibby flexible
couplings are designed for heavy loads, for high and low speeds, and for
drive in both directions.
The coupling consists of two flanges which are secured to the ends of the two
shafts to be joined. These flanges have grooves which are cut at right angles
to the circumference.
If you study Figure 2.9, you will see that the grooves on the one flange are cut
parallel, but the grooves on the other flange curve inward. The grooves that
curve inward give the elasticity that is needed. We correct the two flanges A
and B by a grid spring which is laced through the grooves. This forms a flexible
and spring-loaded bridge between the two shafts to be joined.
x Raffard coupling
The Raffard coupling, shown in Figure 2.10, is flexible in alignment. Rubber or
leather bands hold pins spaced evenly on different pitch circles on each
flange together. These bands change position in order to take up the
misalignment error.
This is a link type of coupling, which allows both axial and lateral flexibility.
Leather or rubber bands are usually used for coupling each pair of pins
together. The Raffard coupling also insulates the motor electrically from the
68
engine or machine. The position of the inclined band (shown by the dotted
line) is adopted as soon as driving takes place (See Figure 2.11).
Figure 2.10 Raffard coupling
Figure 2.11 Laced belt coupling
x Pin-type flexible couplings

It is possible to have a situation in which the centre lines of the two shafts are
slightly out of line with each other. The highly flexible rubber components in
the pin-type flexible coupling make the coupling supple or flexible. The
flanges are secured on to the ends of the shafts.
There are corresponding holes with alternative spacing in the flanges which
are directly opposite each other. Bolts that house a number of leather
washers as shown in Figure 2.12 (a), or rubber bushes or bands as shown in
Figure 2.12 (b), are bolted to flange A.
These leather washers or rubber bands fit tightly into the holes in the opposite
flange B. To use pin-type flexible couplings for heavy loads you simply need
to increase the number of pins on the coupling. These couplings also allow
69
axial movement of the shafts. Figure 2.12 (c) clearly shows the flange fitted
with the pins which fits into the holes of the opposite flange.
Figure 2.12 (a) Pin-type flexible coupling with leather washers
Figure 2.12 (b) Pin-type flexible coupling with rubber band
Figure 2.12 (c) Pin-type flexible coupling

70
x Flexible tyre coupling

These couplings are also known as rubber type or rubber-belt couplings.
This coupling provides all the necessary features of an ideal flexible
coupling. Because of its flexibility, it deals with the misalignment of the
shafts to be coupled. In other words, we can couple shafts that are not in
a perfectly straight line using the flexible lyre coupling. The flexible tyre
coupling can handle the following misalignments or displacements, singly
or in combination:
• Parallel misalignment up to 6 mm as shown in Figure 2.13 (a).

• Angular misalignment up to 4 degrees as shown in Figure 2.13 (b).
• Axial displacements or sideways movement also called end float, of the
shafts up to 8 mm as shown in Figure 2.13 (c).
Figure 2.13 Misalignments
Design engineers find the elastic nature of flexible tyre couplings extremely
versatile. Flexible tyre couplings are suitable for connecting or coupling shafts
between electric motors and driven units or machines.
They also accommodate or provide for misalignment or displacements in all

planes without causing unnecessary loads on the bearings next to the
coupling. Figure 2.12 shows how the elastic compound, the flexible tyre and
the cross-plied synthetic tension members give excellent shock-absorbing
properties to a flexible tyre coupling and also reduce vibration and
movement from side to side. A flexible tyre coupling therefore prevents
expensive breakdowns and ensures a longer machine life.
Flexible tyre couplings are available in combinations of different substances

or compounds, such as:
Natural rubber compound for use in surrounding temperatures between -50

°C and +50 °C.
Chloroprene rubber compounds for use in working conditions where there is
oil or grease contamination, known as pollution, and when fire-resistant and
71
anti-static properties are required, in temperatures between -15 °C and + 70

°C. This compound allows the free flow of electrical current between the two
shafts.
Flexible tyre couplings are very reliable and versatile. Figure 2.14 shows the
following parts of a flexible tyre coupling:
• A ring keeping the tyre tight and in position.

• A taper lock bush that makes it possible to use the flexible tyre coupling on
a variety of shaft diameters.
• Taper lock flanges to make the positioning of the shafts easy.
Figure 2.14 Flexible tyre coupling
2.6.2 Material flexible couplings

Material flexible couplings are designed to allow parts of the couplings to flex
to compensate for misalignment. These flexing elements can be made of
various materials, such as metal, rubber, or plastic.
The life of the coupling depends on the life of the flexible material. As the
materials flex, they begin to wear. The more the couplings are misaligned, the
more the material is flexed and the faster it wears.
Material flexible couplings with metal flexible members have predictable life
expectancies. Those with plastic or other elastomers have poorly defined
fatigue limits. Their life expectancy is determined by the amount of
misalignment and the operating conditions.
72
There are many types of material flexible couplings. Some of the most
common are the following:
o Spider
o Spring
o Rubber tire
o Flexible disc
o Pin and bushing
o Pin and disc
o Spacer
o Universal joint
x Spider Couplings
Spider couplings have two coupling halves and a flexible insert. One
coupling half drives the insert, which in turn drives the other coupling half. The
flexible insert absorbs the
misalignment between the
two coupling halves.
One advantage of the

spider coupling is that the
halves are interchangeable
with other halves and inserts.
Figure 2.15 shows a typical
spider coupling.
Figure 2.15 Spider Coupling
x Spring Couplings
A spring coupling consists of two coupling hubs and a spring. The hubs fit on
the driver and the driven shafts, and the spring is fastened between the hubs.
As the coupling rotates, the misalignment is compensated for by the flex in
the spring.
A spring coupling will compensate for a great deal of misalignment, but the
greater the misalignment, the more the spring must flex, which reduces
coupling life. One advantage of the spring coupling is that the spring can be
replaced without moving the
hubs on the shafts. Figure 2.16
shows a typical spring coupling.
Figure 2.16 Spring Coupling
73
x Rubber Tire Couplings

A rubber tire coupling resembles an
automobile tire. It consists of two hubs and a
flexible rubber member. The flexible member
is attached to both hubs. The rubber tire
coupling is a very durable coupling capable
of transmitting high horsepower and high
speeds. It absorbs misalignment and shock
and prevents the passage of electrical
current. The flexible member can usually be
replaced without moving the coupling on
the shafts. Figure 2.17 shows a typical rubber
tire coupling
Figure 2.17 Rubber Tire Coupling
x Flexible Disc Couplings
A flexible disc coupling has laminated metal discs that absorb misalignment.
The discs are bolted to
each flange and are
connected to each other
by flexible spacers
supported by a laminated
steel center disc. The spring
action gives torsional
flexibility, and the two side
discs compensate for
angular and offset
misalignment. This type of
coupling provides a
positive drive in either
direction without backlash.
Figure 2.18 shows a flexible
disc coupling. Figure 2.18 Flexible Disc Coupling
x Pin and Bushing Couplings

A pin and bushing coupling consists of
two coupling halves and a number of
rubber-bushed pins.
When the coupling is assembled, the

rubber-bushed pins are tightly bolted to
one coupling half and fit into holes in
the second coupling half. The flex in the
pins absorbs misalignment. Figure 2.19
shows a pin and bushing coupling.
Figure 2.19 Pin and Bushing Coupling
74
x Pin and Disc Couplings

A pin and disc coupling consists of two coupling halves, pins, and a disc. Pins
are tightly bolted to both coupling halves. The disc fits between the halves,
and the pins fit through the holes in the disc to transmit power. The flexing of
the pins and the disc
absorbs the misalignment.
The disc of the coupling is
available in various widths
for different applications of
horsepower and speed.
As a general rule: the

wider the disc; the longer
the service life, because
the force is spread over a
larger area. Figure 2.20
shows a pin and disc
coupling.
Figure 2.20 Pin and Disc Coupling
x Spacer Couplings
A spacer coupling is a small spacer that is placed between two flexible
couplings. Spacer couplings are commonly used on centrifugal pumps where
the spacer can be removed so that the flexible couplings can be
disassembled without moving the pump or motor on the base.
This eliminates the need to realign the couplings after reassembly. Figure 2.21
shows a spacer coupling.
Figure 2.21 Spacer Coupling
75
x Universal Joint Couplings

A universal joint coupling is used to transmit high torque under conditions of
severe misalignment. Universal joint couplings come in two basic styles: single
joint and double joint.
A special splined sleeve can be used if movement of the driver or the driven
is expected to occur. Universal joints are used extensively in vehicles. Figure
2.22 shows typical single and double universal joint couplings.
Figure 2.22 Single and Double Universal Joint Coupling
Activity 2.2
1. Why are flexible couplings more commonly used than rigid couplings?
2. What are the two main categories of flexible couplings?
3. In which category does a chain coupling belong?
4. What is the advantage of using a nylon sleeve in a gear coupling?
5. Why are couplings match marked?
6. Which coupling is also called a Grid coupling?
7. Which coupling has laminated metal discs that absorb misalignment?
8. Which type of coupling is used extensively on vehicles?
Activity 2.3 – Workshop

Visit a workshop and practice identifying types of couplings.
2.7 Self-aligning couplings

Universal coupling
Universal coupling is also known as Hooke's coupling. The construction of this
coupling is shown in Figure 2.23 (a). It connects shafts whose axes are at an
angle other than 180°, i.e. whose axes would intersect if produced. The angle
between the shafts may be varied while the shafts are in motion.
76
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 2.23 (a) to (c) Universal shaft couplings
x Oldham Couplings
Neither of the above-mentioned couplings can be used when the axes of the
pieces of shafting to be joined are not in a straight line. Where the axes of the
shafts are parallel, the Oldham coupling illustrated in Figure 2.24 has given
good results.
It consists of three pieces. Parts A and B are attached to the ends of the
shafts, while part C is provided with tongues, one on each side, fitting into the
corresponding grooves in the flanges of the parts attached to the shafts.
77
These tongues are at right angles to each other. Part C can slide in the
direction of either of these tongues and so compensates for the lack of
alignment between the two connected shafts.
Figure 2.24 Oldham coupling
2.8 Soft-start couplings

Soft-start couplings are used in applications where smooth, even starts are
needed. Soft-start couplings allow the driving motor to pick up speed before
the load is engaged and allow the driven to start slowly and smoothly. They
also prevent stalls during overload conditions. The three most common soft-
start couplings are the following:
o Fluid
o Shot
o Clutch-style
x Fluid couplings
A fluid coupling consists of two members: an impeller or pump (the driving
member) and a runner or turbine (the driven member). A fluid coupling
transmits power through kinetic energy, or the mass and volume of moving
oil.
The impeller has fins that extend from the center of the coupling. When in
motion, a continuous oil stream is forced outward between the impeller fins
and around the circumference of the coupling and is then thrown against
the blades of the runner. The centrifugal action of the coupling transmits
velocity to the mass of oil.
The oil stream striking against the runner transmits energy to the runner. The oil
stream flows through the runner fins, leaves the inner row of fins, and re-enters
the inner row of impeller fins. The impeller fins again pick up the oil and restore
78
velocity lost in the runner fins. The process is repeated, continuously providing
energy to the runner.
During operation, the driver member and the driven member of the coupling
rotate at different speeds, and it is impossible for the fluid to return to the
same impeller fins from which it left. The shape and rotation of the impeller
and the runner produce a flow path called a vortex.
At start-up, when the impeller is rotating and the runner is not, high vortex
occurs. The vortex action decreases as the speed of the runner nears the
speed of the impeller, and low vortex exists when the impeller and the runner
are rotating at nearly equal speeds.
The higher the vortex, the greater the driving power as the oil streams from
the impeller strike the runner fins at an angle of almost 90°. When the impeller
and runner are rotating at the same speeds, there is zero vortex, and the
runner is carried in the current of oil. Fluid couplings do not allow for
misalignment.
When they are used as a coupling between a driver and a driven machine, a
flexible coupling should be used with the fluid coupling to allow for
misalignment and shaft float. Figure 2.24 shows the vortex action of a fluid
coupling.
Figure 2.25 Vortex Action of Fluid Coupling
x Shot couplings
A shot coupling is a centrifugal coupling. It depends on centrifugal force to
provide its turning power. A shot coupling consists of a housing, or the driver,
a rotor, or the driven, and a quantity of steel shot. The rotor fits inside the
housing that contains the steel shot. When the housing starts to turn,
79
centrifugal force throws the steel shot to

the perimeter of the housing, where it
packs between the housing and the rotor,
which transmits power.
When speed is established, there is

normally no slippage between the housing
and the rotor.
The amount of power that shot couplings

produce can be varied by changing the
amount of shot in the coupling.
Figure 2.26 Shot Coupling
Shot couplings provide protection against overloading the drive motor,

because as the speed drops, the centrifugal force decreases, thereby
relieving the load on the motor. Continued overloading and slippage in the
coupling generate heat, which shortens coupling life expectancy. Shot
couplings do not allow for misalignment and should be used with a flexible
coupling. Figure 2.26 shows a shot coupling.
x Clutch-style couplings
Clutch-style couplings consist of a drum, brake linings, and weights. They
allow the driver to come up to partial speed before the load is engaged.
When the drive motor is started, centrifugal force causes the weights of the
coupling to press against the brake linings, which engage the drum,
transmitting force to the driven. The weights may be spring-loaded in some
couplings. Spring-loaded weights exert force on the linings only after a
certain speed is reached.
Clutch-style couplings allow for

minor misalignment, but they will
slip when overloaded. Slippage
must be controlled, since a
slipping coupling generates a
great deal of heat. The excessive
heat will damage the coupling,
so heat-sensing devices are
commonly installed on clutch-
style couplings. The heat-sensing
device shuts off power if the
clutch is slipping. Figure 2.27
shows a clutch-style coupling.
Figure 2.27 Clutch-style coupling
80
Activity 2.4
1. Which coupling consists of an impeller and a runner?

2. Which coupling depends on centrifugal force to provide its turning
power?
3. Which coupling has brake linings?
Self-Assessment

• Explain the difference in operation between a coupling and a
clutch.
• Classification of the different couplings into the three main
groups:
Rigid or permanent, self-aligning and flexible couplings.
• Describe the following couplings with aid id of given drawings
and explain uses and applications in industry:
Flange; chain; raffard; rubber belt; nylon sleeve; universal or
Hooke’s; marine; gear; pin and rubber bush; spider; metal disc;
and fluid.
• Identify the various components and describe the main
functions of each.
81
Learning Outcomes
outcomes:
x Explain and discuss the term ‘interchangeability of parts’

x Explain the principles, values and functions of the ISO system of limits and
fits, which include the symbols and classification of limits and fits.
x Define the following terms and represent them with the aid of a freehand
drawing:
o Basic size; nominal size; actual size; maximum and minimum limits of
size; unilateral tolerance; bilateral tolerance; maximum and minimum
allowance; shaft basis and hole basis systems.
x List examples of and name methods to obtain the following fits:
o Shrink; drive; running; press; push; sliding.
x Explain the following different classes of fit with the aid of suitable
drawings:
o Clearance; transitional; interference.
x Determine the sizes of the different fits as mentioned previously from given
measurements, drawings and tables.
3.1 Introduction
It is general practice to replace worn-out components (parts) with
new ones. Typical examples are the bushes of the self-starter and
generator of a motor car.
It would be difficult to replace these parts if there were no generally

accepted standards for the manufacture of parts.
The Standard Specification for ISO Limits and Fits is the system that is used in
South Africa. (ISO stands for International Organization for Standardization.)
3.2 Terminology
The conventional method used to illustrate the important terms for this section
is shown in Figure 3.1. Some of these terms may be defined as follows:
1. Basic size (of a part).The size, by reference, to which the limits of size
are fixed.
82
2. Basic size (of a fit).The common value of the basic size of the two parts
of a fit.
3. Actual size (of a part).The size as determined by measurement.
4. Limits of size. The two extreme permissible sizes of a part between which
the actual size should lie, the limits of size being included.
5. Maximum limit of size. The greater of the two-limits of size.
6. Minimum limit of size. The smaller of the two limits of size.
7. Zero line. The zero line is the line of zero deviation and represents the
basic size.
8. Deviation. The algebraic value of the amount by which a size (actual,
maximum, etc.) differs from the corresponding basic size that is the
actual (maximum, etc.) size minus the basic size.
9. Upper deviation. The algebraic value of ·the amount by which the
maximum limit of size differs from the corresponding basic size, that is
the maximum limit of size minus the basic size. This is designated ES in
the case of a hole and es in the case of a shaft.
10. Lower deviation. The algebraic value of the amount by which the
minimum limit of size differs from the corresponding basic size that is the
minimum limit of size minus the basic size. This is designated EI in the
case of a hole and ei in the case of a shaft.
11. Actual deviation. The algebraic value of the amount by which the
actual size differs from the corresponding basic size that is the actual
size minus the basic size.
12. Tolerance. The difference between the maximum limit of size and the
minimum limit of size that is the algebraic difference between the
upper deviation and the lower deviation. The tolerance is an absolute
value without a specific sign.
Figure 3.1 Diagram illustrating important fit terminology

83
Figure 3.2 Elements of interchangeable systems
3.2.1 Interchangeability of parts

The successful output of work from the modern engineering workshop
depends so much on the interchangeability of parts, that some system of
working to gauges is required. Speed of production, elimination of the human
factor in judging sizes, and the reduction of spoiled work, are all factors that
influence the importance of introducing some system of controlling the
different sizes during the manufacturing process.
An interchangeable part is one which can be substituted for a similar part
produced from the same drawing. Interchangeability of component parts is
based on two factors:
1. It is necessary for the relevant mating parts to be designed incorporating

specified limits of size.
2. The parts must be manufactured within the specified limits, which must be
controlled rigidly.
3.3 Types of fit

There are only three basic types of fit, namely a clearance fit, a transition fit
and an interference fit.
3.3.1 Clearance fits

A clearance fit is a fit that always provides a clearance, as illustrated in Figure
3.2. The terms used for a clearance fit are:
1. Clearance
Clearance is the difference between the sizes of the hole and the shaft. This is
the size of the hole minus the size of the shaft when this difference is positive.
84
2. Maximum clearance
This is the difference between the maximum size of the hole and the minimum
size of the shaft. It is applicable both to a clearance fit and to a transition fit.
3. Minimum clearance
This is the difference between the minimum size of the hole and the maximum
size of a shaft in a clearance fit.
Figure 3.2 Terms used for a clearance fit
3.3.2 Transition fits

A transition fit is a fit that may provide either a clearance or interference. (See
Figure 3.3) The meanings of the terms used for a transition fit are:
1. Interference
Interference is the difference between the sizes of the hole and the shaft
before assembly. This is the size of the hole minus the size of the shaft when
this difference is negative.
2. Maximum interference
This is the negative difference between the minimum size of the hole and the
maximum size of the shaft before assembly. Thus it is the minimum size of the
hole minus the maximum size of the shaft. It is applicable both to an
interference fit and to a transition fit.
Figure 3.3 Terms used for a transition fit

85
3.3.3 Interference fits

An interference fit is a fit that always provides interference, as shown in Figure
3.4. The only new term used is:
Minimum interference
This is the negative difference between the maximum size of a hole and the
minimum size of the shaft before assembly. This is the maximum size of the
hole minus the minimum size of a shaft in an interference fit.
Figure 3.4 Terms used for interference fit
3.4 Fit systems

In a general limit system, it is necessary to decide on what basis the limits are
to be fixed. The practice of working to limit gauges and so defining and
determining the amount of variation from gauge sizes, is now almost universal
in the engineering trade. The advantages are so great that, in spite of the
large cost, the economies produced by the system very soon compensate
for the capital outlay.
There are two systems of fits which are used in industry, namely the bole-basis
system of fits and the shaft-basis system of fits.
3.4.1 The hole-basis system of fits

In the hole-basis system, the hole is taken as a constant. The different fits are
obtained by varying the size of the shaft, as shown in the exaggerated
schematic representation of Figure 3.5. In this system of fits, you obtain the
different clearances and interferences by referring various shafts to a single
hole.
This system is generally preferred since it is easier to .machine a shaft to a

specific size than it is to machine a hole to a specific size. In the ISO system,
the basic hole is the hole which has a lower deviation of zero.
86
Figure 3.5 Different fits for the hole-basis system
3.4.2 The shaft-basis system of fits

In the shaft-basis system, the shaft is taken as a constant. The different fits are
obtained by varying the size of the hole, as illustrated in the exaggerated
schematic representation of Figure 3.6.
Therefore, in .the shaft-basis system of fits, you will obtain the different
clearances and interferences by referring various holes to a single shaft. In
the ISO system, the basic shaft has an upper deviation of zero.
Figure 3.6 Different fits for the shaft-basis system
3.5 The ISO system

The ISO system provides a comprehensive range of tolerances, limits and fits
for engineering purposes. You may use either the hole-basis, or the shaft-
basis, system of fits with the ISO system. Brief discussions of the basic principles
follow.
3.5.1 ISO tolerances

The ISO system provides a series of standard tolerances, called tolerance
grades that cater for different types of work. These tolerance grades are
designated as IT 01; IT 0; IT 1: IT 2; etc. ('IT' stands for ISO Tolerance series.)
There are 18 grades of tolerances and these are indicated by the letters IT
and numbered from 1 to 18.
87
3.5.2 ISO fundamental deviations

The ISO fundamental deviation is the specific deviation that is chosen to
define the position of the tolerance zone in relation to· the zero line. The ISO
system contains several chosen fundamental deviations. The fundamental
deviations 'h' and 'H' are zero and are usually used.
3.5.3 Association of fundamental deviations and tolerances

The nature of a fit is determined by the magnitude of the fundamental
deviation and the tolerances on the mating parts. The ISO system of limits and
fits provides a separate series of fundamental deviations and tolerances.
These can be combined in any way that appears necessary to give a
required fit.
3.5.4 Unilateral and bilateral limits

Figure 3.7 (a) shows an example of unilateral limits, where the maximum and
minimum limits of size are disposed on the same side of the basic size. This
system is preferred since the basic size is used for the GO limit gauge;
changes in the magnitude of the tolerance affect only the size of the other
gauge dimension, the NOT GO gauge size. Figure 3.7 (b) shows an example
of bilateral limits, where the limits are disposed above and below the basic
size.
Figure 3.7 (a) Unilateral limits (b) Bilateral limits
3.5.5 Bilateral tolerance

It is when the limits (not necessarily equal) are on each side of the basic size,
(see Figure 3.8 (a)) thus:
50 mm +0,015
- 0,010
88
Figure 3.8 (a) Bilateral tolerance (b) Unilateral tolerance
3.5.6 Unilateral tolerance

It is when the limits of the dimension are only on one side of the basic size (see
Figure 3.8 (b)) thus:
75 mm +0,025
-0,000
3.6 Symbols
The complete designation of the limits of size for a shaft or a hole consists of
the appropriate letter (to indicate the fundamental deviation) and a suffix
number (to indicate the tolerance grade).
For example, a hole with an 'H' deviation, and tolerance grade IT 7, is

designated 'H7'; a shaft with a 'p' deviation, and tolerance grade IT 6, is
designated 'p6'.
Thus, you can define the limits of size for a component by using its basic size,
for example 50 mm, followed by the appropriate fundamental deviation and
tolerance grade designations. The limits of size for the above examples would
therefore be 50 H7 and 50 p6.
You can indicate a fit by combining the basic size common to both
components with the designations relevant to each component. You should
always quote the symbol of the hole limits first, for example 50 H7-p6.
3.7 Selected ISO fits

The ISO system provides a large number of hole and shaft tolerance zones.
The basic holes and shafts are listed, in an ISO draft recommendation, as
recommended and preferred fit elements. From these lists, the following basic
holes and shafts have been selected:
x H7, H8, H9, HII; and

x ell, d9, e8, fI, g6, h6, js6, k6, n6, p6 and s6. (See Table 3.1.)
89
Table 3.1 gives the chosen fits for the hole-basis system of fits.
Basic ISO fits for the hole-basis system of fits

Type of fit Shaft Hole tolerance
tolerance H7 H8 H9 H11
Clearance c 11
fit d9
e8
f7
g6
h6
Transition fit js 6
k6
n6
Interference p6
fit s6
Table 3.1 Basic ISO fits for the hole-basis system of fits
3.7.1 Selected tables for selected ISO fits

The various fits, deviations and tolerance grades, etc., are listed in tables.
Tables 3.2 and 3.3 are extracts from the tables for the ISO series published by
the SANS (SABS) and do not give the full range of specifications for holes and
shafts as published by the SANS (SABS.)
3.7.2 Units used in tables

The nominal (basic) size of the hole or shaft is expressed in millimetres (mm) in
tables. The upper and lower deviations are expressed in micrometres (μm).
1 μm = 1 millionth of a metre (m)
= 1 thousandth of a millimetre (mm)
= 0,001 mm
You should express all deviations in millin1etres on your mechanical drawings.
Therefore, you will have to convert the deviations in Tables 3.2 and 3.3 to
millimetres:
Since 1 μm = 0,001 mm
we have 10 μm = 0,010 mm
108 μm = 0,108 mm
- 6 μm = - 0,006 mm
- 385 μm = - 0,385 mm, etc.
90
Specifications for selected holes

Nominal (basic) size, mm Upper deviation, ES, and lower deviation, EL, µm
Hole
H
Tolerance
7 8 9 11
From 1 +10 +14 +25 +60
to 3 0 0 0 0
Over 18 +21 +33 +52 +130
to 30 0 0 0 0
Over 30 +25 +39 +62 +160
to 50 0 0 0 0
Over 50 +30 +46 +74 +190
to 80 0 0 0 0
Over 315 +57 +89 +140 +360
to 400 0 0 0 0
Table 3.2 Specifications for selected holes
Specifications for selected shafts

Nominal Upper deviation, es, and lower deviation, ei, µ
(basic)
Shaft
size, mm
c d e f g h js k n p s
Tolerance grade
11 9 8 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
From 1 - 60 -20 -14 -6 -2 0 +3 +6 +10 +12 +20
To 3 -120 - 45 -28 -16 -8 -6 -3 0 +4 +6 +14
Over 18 -110 -65 -40 -20 -7 0 +6,5 +15 +28 +35 +48
To 30 -240 -117 -73 -41 -20 -13 -6,5 +2 +15 +22 +35
Over 30 - -80 -50 -25 -9 -0 +8 +18 +33 +42 +59
To 50 - -142 -89 -50 -50 -16 -8 +2 +17 +26 +43
Over 50 - -100 -60 -30 -10 0 +9,5 +21 +39 +51 -
To 80 - -174 -106 -60 -29 -19 -9,5 +2 +20 +32 -
Over 315 - -210 -125 -62 -18 0 +18 +40 +73 +98
To 400 - -350 -214 -119 -54 -36 -18 +4 +37 +62
Table 3.3 Specifications for selected shafts
3.8 Examples of types of fits

Table 3.4 shows the various classifications of fits and examples of different
applications of fits.
Classification Type of Fit Description Examples

Clearance Push Provides a snug fit; firm hand Used for locating stationary
pressure is required parts like dowels or locating
plugs keyed to shafts
Clearance Running Fit for running at moderate high Rotating shafts in bushes or
rotational speeds vice versa or journal bearings
91
Clearance Sliding Not made to turn freely, locates Slides of machines such as the
accurately in a linear direction cross slide of a lathe, the
breech
slide of semi-automatic pistols
Transition Push Fit for accurate location; a A key fitted at medium
compromise between clearance pressure to a shaft component
and interference
Interference Press A more rigid location and Journal bearings in housing
alignment without bore
pressure
Interference Shrink Requires heating of the hole; Ring gear on flywheel,
expansion allows for an easy fit locomotive tyre on wheel rim,
but, with cooling, the coupling heavy drives
contraction allows for a
permanent fit on the shalt
Transition Drive Medium pressure is applied by
using a mallet or similar tool
Table 3.4 Examples of types of fits
3.8 Calculating limits of sizes

The procedure which you should follow for calculating the limits of sizes will be
explained using worked examples.
Worked example 1
Calculate the limits of sizes for a shaft and a hole if the fit between the shaft
and the hole is to be 340 H8-e8.
Solution
Obtain the upper and lower deviations from the tables and apply as follows:
/LPLWVRIVL]HIRUKROH+ń+0,089
/LPLWVRIVL]HIRUVKDIWHń- 0,125
0,214
Worked example 2
Calculate the lin1itsof sizes for the fit 50 H7-n6.
Solution
Obtain the upper and lower deviations from the tables and apply as follows:
/LPLWVRIVL]HIRUKROH+ń+0,025
/LPLWVRIVL]HIRUVKDIWQń+0,033
+0,017
92
Worked example 3
A 25 mm diameter shaft has an upper deviation of - 7 μm and a lower

deviation of - 20 μm. Calculate the limits of size for the shaft.
Solution
Limits of size for shaft: Ø 25 -0,007

- 0,020
Alternatively, it can also be shown as follows:
Limits of size for shaft: Ø 24,993

Ø 24,980
Activity 3.1
1. Explain and discuss the term ‘interchangeability of parts’.

2. Explain the principles, values and functions of the ISO system of limits and
fits, which include the symbols and classification of limits and fits.
3. Define the following terms and represent them with the aid of a freehand
drawing:
x Basic size;
x Nominal size;
x Actual size;
x Maximum and minimum limits of size;
x Unilateral tolerance;
x Bilateral tolerance;
x Maximum and minimum allowance;
x Shaft basis and hole basis systems.
4. List examples of and name methods to obtain the following fits:

x Shrink;
x Drive;
x Running;
x Press;
x Push;
x Sliding.
5. Explain the following different classes of fit with the aid of suitable
drawings:
x Clearance;
x Transitional; and
x Interference.
93
Activity 3.2
1. Use Tables 3.5 and 3.6 to calculate the limits of sizes for the fit 35 H8-f7.
2. Use Tables 3.5 and 3.6 to calculate the limits of sizes for the fit 15 H7-h6.
3. Use Tables 3.5 and 3.6 to calculate the limits of sizes for the fit 318,5 H9-e8.
4. Use Tables 3.5 and 3.6 to calculate the limits of sizes for the fit 55 H8-f7.
5. Calculate the limits of size for a hole with a diameter of 65 mm, if the
upper deviation is +74 μm and the lower deviation is 0.
6. The upper deviation of a shaft is +9,5 μm and the lower deviation is -9,5
μm. The nominal (basic} size of the shaft is 50 mm. Calculate:
(a)the limits of size for the shaft; and

(b)the tolerance.
7. Calculate the maximum and minimum limits of size for the following:
(a)18,5 H8
(b)65 k6
Self-Assessment
x Explain and discuss the term ‘interchangeability of parts’

x Explain the principles, values and functions of the ISO system of
limits and fits, which include the symbols and classification of
limits and fits.
x Define the following terms and represent them with the aid of a
freehand drawing:
o Basic size; nominal size; actual size; maximum and minimum
limits of size; unilateral tolerance; bilateral tolerance;
maximum and minimum allowance; shaft basis and hole
basis systems.
x List examples of and name methods to obtain the following fits:
o Shrink; drive; running; press; push; sliding.
x Explain the following different classes of fit with the aid of
suitable drawings:
o Clearance; transitional; interference
x Determine the sizes of the different fits as mentioned previously
from given measurements, drawings and tables.
94
Learning Outcomes
outcomes:
x Explain the functions of bearings.

x Identify the following types of plain bearings and bushes:
Split or shell bearings; taper bearings; footstep bearings; machine slides;
plumber-block bearings; hanger bearings; and multi-thrust bearings
x Describe the main parts, practical uses, mounting procedures, adjustment
and operation of all plain bearings.
x State the advantages and disadvantages of plain bearings or sliding
bearings.
x Explain the maintenance of plain bearings by referring to:
o Causes of bearing failures and overheating
o Procedures for taking up wear.
x Categorise plain bearings according to their load carrying ability, namely,
cast iron, bronze, white metal,, nylon and Tufnell.
x Identify and name the following rolling bearings from a given drawing:
o Single and double row radial ball bearings.
o Single and double row radial cylindrical roller bearings.
o Single row angular contact ball bearings.
o Spherical or barrel roller bearings.
o Tapered roller bearings.
o Self-aligning or ball and roller bearings.
o Needle roller bearings.
x Discuss the different types of bearing seals, namely, rubber, metal and
pre-packed.
x Identify and name the main components of anti-friction bearings.
x Describe the installation of anti-friction bearings, namely fitting, mounting,
bearing failures and cleaning.
x Distinguish between the different types of bearings according to the load
they carry.
x Name the advantages and disadvantages of anti-friction bearings.
95
4.1 Introduction
When surfaces rotate or slide the rotational or sliding motion results
in friction and heat.
Energy is used, the surfaces wear, and this reduces component life and
product efficiency. Friction may be reduced by lubrication which keeps the
surfaces apart. At the same time, lubricants dissipate heat and maintain
clean contact surfaces.
Materials are carefully selected with appropriate mechanical and physical

properties for bearings and their housings, to minimize the effects of friction,
and particular care is taken with the accuracy of machining, surface finish
and maintenance of all component parts associated with bearings.
Important to note:
Bearings are important in power transmission. A bearing is a device especially

designed to reduce friction between two parts of a mechanism, one of
which is moving, the other stationary. A bearing is a support for a rotating
shaft. It reduces the friction between moving surfaces. Thus, it provides
smooth movement and reduces wear.
Bearings are available in many types and styles. We can divide bearings into
two categories, friction and anti-friction bearings. A bearing arrangement
does also include components associated with bearings.
The shaft and the housing as shown in Figures 4.1 and 4.2 are examples of
these components.
Figure 4.1 (a) Bearing fitted on a Figure 4.1 (b) Bearing fitted in a
shaft housing
96
To design a bearing arrangement it is necessary to select a suitable type and

size of bearing. It is also important to consider the type and quantity of
lubricant, appropriate fits and bearing clearance.
4.2 Plain bearings and bushes

Plain bearings or bushes are also known as friction bearings. Friction bearings
operate on the principle of sliding friction. This means that there is a relative
sliding movement between the shaft and the bearing.
Because of the friction between the two surfaces, we use a lubricant to

separate the surfaces and to overcome friction. Separating the surfaces in
this way by using a film of lubrication, results in a longer bearing life.
The bearing metal should have a low coefficient of sliding friction, be able to
conduct heat generated away from the bearing surfaces, resist wear in use
and be tough enough to withstand shock loading in service.
In the event of breakdown due to lack of lubrication, it may be desirable

when overheating occurs for the bearing material to run, preventing seizure
and possible severe damage to associated mechanical parts.
4.2.1 Classification of plain bearings

Plain bearings may be classified as follows (see Figure 4.2):
Plain Bearings
Lined inserts Direct lined bearings
wrapped
Solid inserts Lined inserts
bushes
(i) Thick walled (ii) Medium (iii) Thin walled

bearings walled insert liners insert liners
Figure 4.2 Classification of plain bearings
97
4.2.2 Direct lined housings

These housings are lined directly with bearing materials and the choice of
material is limited by the practicality of keying or bonding the bearing
material to the housing surface.
The dimensions of the housings, casting temperatures and bonding

characteristics of the bearing materials will determine whether metallurgical
bonding is possible without unacceptable distortion of the housing.
Generally this technique is limited to ferrous housings with low melting point
white-metal bearing surfaces. Light alloy and zinc base housings are difficult
to line directly with white-metal.
4.2.3 Insert liners

These are bearing elements which consist of a liner inserted into a previously
machined housing and they can be divided into separate classes:
(a)Solid insert liners.

(b)Lined inserts.
(c) Wrapped bushes.
x Solid insert liners Manufactured wholly from suitable bearing materials

such as aluminium alloy, copper alloy or white-metal, these liners consist of
machined bushes, half bearings and thrust washers.
The housings are machined to relatively close tolerances. An insert may be

finished machined after assembly or a prefinished standard precision liner
added as a final operation and this has the added advantage of spares
replacement.
Typical applications of insert liners are to be found in diesel engine small

bores, crank shaft main bearings, bushes for gearboxes, steering gear and
vehicle suspensions.
x Lined inserts These consist of a backing material such as cast iron, steel or
a copper alloy which has been lined with a suitable bearing surface of
aluminium or copper alloy, or of white-metal. This type can also be
supplied as a solid insert, a split bush, half bearing or thrust washer.
Insert bearing half liners are manufactured as;
1. Rigid or thick walled bearings.

2. Medium walled bearings.
3. Thin walled bearings.
o Thick walled bearings These are backing shells of cast iron, steel pressings
and copper base alloys generally lined with white-metal and copper
98
alloys are used to produce bearings which are manufactured as pairs and
used in turbines, large diesel engines and heavy plant machinery. Usually
more economic than direct lined housings, these bearings may be
provided with a finishing allowance for the bore and length which is
adjusted during assembly.
o Medium walled insert liners Normally a steel backing is used with a wide
range of lining materials. Bearings are prefinished in bore and length and
manufactured as interchangeable halves.
o Thin walled insert liners These are high precision components with steel
backing and white-metal or copper and aluminium base alloy surfaces,
and are suitable for universal application in large production products
such as high speed diesel engines and compressors.
4.2.4 Wrapped bushes

These are pressed from flat strip of rolled bronze, or steel lined with white-
metal, lead bronze, copper-lead, or aluminium alloys. They are supplied as a
standard range of prefinished bushes or with a bore allowance for finishing in
situ by fine boring, reaming, broaching or burnishing.
These are suitable for all bushing applications in which the tolerable wear will
not exceed the thickness of the lining material.
4.3 Types of plain bearings

If you have a look at Figures 4.3 (a) and 4.3 (b) you will see the difference
between a radial load and an axial load.
If the forces acting on the shaft have a line of action in line with the shaft's
radius, we call it a radial load.
If the forces acting on the shaft have a line of action in the same line as the
axis of the shaft, we call it an axial load.
We also use friction bearings to guide a sliding movement in a specific

direction. We will discuss sliding movement later in this module.
Here are some examples shown in Figure 4.3 (a) and (b) below.
Figure 4.3 (a) Radial Load Figure 4.3 (b) Axial Load
99
4.3.1 Solid bearings

Solid bearings are also known as bushes or journals. Solid bearings cannot be
repaired but can easily be replaced. Figure 4.4 shows how these bearings
support radial loads. They are typically found in generators, starter motors
and idler pulley. These are also known as pedestal bearings.
Figure 4.4 Solid bearing or bush in housing
The solid bearing is used when speed and pressure are moderate and little
wear is anticipated. The hole is parallel-bored and the class of fit determined
by the nature of the work the machine is required to do. Provision is made for
a thin film of oil to separate the shaft from the bearing.
Furthermore, as holes will eventually wear oval, they are lined with thin
replaceable gun metal bushes, so that the bearing itself may thus be
corrected to its original condition. Bushes should be kept in place by means
of screws or dowels to prevent them turning with the moving journal.
4.3.2 Slit bearings

In many cases solid bearings are undesirable, and in others, it would be
impossible to use them.
Bearings are therefore divided or split.

This is a more satisfactory design for
coping with wear besides permitting
shafts to be fitted in place even though
permanent collars are at each end.
The drawing in Figure 4.5(a) illustrates a

type of split bearing which is made up of
the base and cap together with
fastening bolts. The holes are provided
for the foundation bolts.
Figure 4.5(a) Plain spilt bearing
100
Figure 4.5(b) shows a bearing that is divided or split. These bearings have the
appearance of a solid bearing cut axially in half to form a top and bottom
section. This allows the shaft to be removed easily. These bearings can be
adjusted to minimise wear by taking out the shim which are thin pieces of
metal plate inserted between the two
bearing halves.
Split bearings can also be re-metalled

and used again. These bearings
support radial loads. They are
typically used on big end bearings in
reciprocating engines and pinion
gear shafts.
Figure 4.5(b) Cross-section of a split bearing
An example is shown in Figure

4.5 (c) of a split plummer-block
bearing. Split bearings are used
in places where it is impossible to
use solid bearings such as:
x Connecting rod big end

bearings;
x Crank shaft main bearings;
x Line shaft bearings.
Figure 4.5 (c) Split plumber-block bearing
4.3.3 Part bearings

A part bearing looks like a curved piece of metal that has been cut from a
solid bearing. It is placed on the part of the shaft that carries the heaviest
load. A part bearing is used in heavy industrial mining equipment, to shorten
the amount of maintenance time. You can replace a part bearing easily and
cheaply due to its size.
If you have a look at Figure 4.6 (a) you will see that the part bearing is
positioned on that part of the shaft on which the main load is concentrated.
Figure 4.6 (b) shows that these bearings can be used in housing in the position
of that part of the housing on which the main load is concentrated.
Part bearings are low cost bearings because their size is small in relation to
solid bearings. These bearings can be replaced easily. Part bearings support
radial loads only.
101
(a) (b)
Figure 4.6(a) and (b) Part bearings
4.3.4 Thrust bearings

Thrust bearings are used to support axial loads, also
called thrust loads. If you look at Figure 4.7 (a) you
will see that the thrust bearing can only allow a thrust
load in one direction.
A pressure pad positioned in housing allows the

thrust collar to push against it to take up the friction
and wear between the pressure pad and the thrust
collar.
Figure 4.7 (a) Thrust bearing
Figure 4.7 (b) and (c) shows examples of a single collar and a multi-collar
thrust bearing.
Figure 4.7 (b) and (c) Examples of thrust bearings
Footstep bearings are often called pivot or vertical thrust bearings which
support shafting operating in a vertical position. The sketch in Figure 4.7 (d)
shows a sectional view of the shaft on the wearing disc.
102
Figure 4.7 (d) Footstep bearing
4.3.5 Guide bearings

Guide bearings are used to support and to align machine parts that have
sliding or reciprocating movement. Figure 4.8 (a) and (b) shows examples of
sliding motion as it is found on the cross-slide of a centre lathe and the
reciprocating movement of the cross-head of a pump assembly. These
bearings guide relative movement while carrying the load. The load usually
consists of the components or parts of the machine itself or the workpiece
attached to a machine tool component.
(a) Lathe cross-slide (b) Cross-head assembly
Figure 4.8 Guide bearings
103
Features of the friction bearings mentioned above are that they are quiet in
operation, low in cost and that they have great rigidity. We can repair these
bearings when they are worn and they are not limited by fatigue.
However, we must lubricate friction bearings according to very strict

requirements as they are easily damaged if the lubrication supply is irregular
or insufficient.
4.3.6 Taper bearings

Various types of' taper bearings are used, particularly on American and
Continental lathes, but they are all subject to the general problem of correct
adjustment of the two tapers.
The sketches in Figure 4.9 illustrate a design for a front and rear journal taper
in the same direction, with separate longitudinal adjustment on each
bearing.
The finely threaded lock nuts provide for easy and sensitive adjustment. The
different types of bearings have already been discussed.
Figure 4.9 Taper bearings
4.3.7 Hanger bearings

We use hanger bearings to support line shafts in factories and workshops, also
used on the underside of some overhead cranes. Figure 4.10 shows a typical
adjustable hanger bearing.
104
Figure 4.10 Adjustable hanger bearing
4.3.8 Mitchell thrust bearings

The Mitchell thrust bearing is designed to take axial thrust as is found in turbine
rotor shafts. The turbine shaft is equipped with a thrust collar. Mitchell thrust
bearings are used to eliminate end thrust, also known as axial thrust, which
develops in turbine shafts.
The white-metal faced, gun-metal tilting pads, mounted in steel carrier rings,
are shown in the sketches in Figure 4.11(a)
4.11(a) Mitchell thrust bearing
105
Each pad is an easy fit in the carrier ring and is prevented from rotating in the
thrust collar.
The action of the bearing is as follows:
x Each pad is free to take up a slight angle to the plane of rotation.

x The lubricant is drawn into the wedge-shaped space so formed and the
high-pressure oil film generated between the surfaces eliminates all
metallic contact, thus enabling the thrust to take place entirely on the oil.
Figure 4.11(b) Typical thrust block with the Mitchell thrust bearing in position
A thrust collar is fitted on the shafts. This collar holds gun-metal pads on its
circumference by means of a steel carrier ring. Figure 4.11 (b) shows a
Mitchell Thrust bearing in position.
The pads do not rotate with thrust collar. Oil is drawn into the wedge-shaped
space between the pads during rotation. End thrust is taken up by the high
pressure oil cushion created in this space.
4.4 Advantages and disadvantages of plain bearings

4.4.1 Advantages of plain bearings
The advantages of plain bearings are:
x Quiet operation.
x Low cost.
x Great rigidity.
x Can be repaired when worn.
x Life is not limited by fatigue.
106
4.4.2 Disadvantages of plain bearings

The disadvantages of plain bearings are:
x Higher frictional properties.

x Increased power consumption.
x Easily damaged by foreign material in lubricant.
x Stringent lubrication requirements.
x Easily damaged by interruption of the fabrication supply.
4.5 Plain bearing lubrication

The requirements of a lubricant can be summarized as follows:
1) To support the bearing when static and under all speed and load
conditions.
2) To have a low coefficient of friction.
3) To be non-corrosive to the materials used in the bearings.
4) To maintain viscosity over the operating range of temperature.
5) Able to provide an effective bearing seal.
6) Have the ability to adhere as a film to the bearing.
7) Be able to conduct heat rapidly.
No single lubricant can satisfy all of these properties and the design of the
equipment will determine which aspect needs priority before a choice from
available types can be made.
4.6 Material properties

The material used for plain bearings must possess the following specific
properties:
x Fatigue resistant: to withstand repeated stresses and strains without

cracking or flaking.
x Embeddability: to absorb or embed dirt particles present in the lubricating
medium.
x Compatibility (anti-scoring): to permit the shaft and bearing to resist
galling or seizing under conditions of metal-to-metal contact, such as
when starting up.
x Conformability: to flow slightly under load, as in the initial stages of running
in, permitting the shaft and bearing contours to conform to each other.
x Thermal conductivity: to absorb and carry away the heat generated by
the bearing.
x Corrosion resistant: to resist attack by organic acids which sometimes form
in oil.
x Load capacity: to withstand hydrodynamic pressures during operation.
107
4.7 Plain bearing materials

The application of the bearing, the bearing material and the lubricant used
are all interdependent, but four basic requirements are necessary for the
material:
1) Strong enough to resist failure by fatigue or overheating.

2) Good wear resistance and running properties.
3) Good lubricant retention.
4) High corrosion resistance which may arise due to temperature, the
environment and lubricants used.
A wide range of materials consists of metallic, metallic backings with various

bearing surfaces, reinforced synthetic resin, graphitic and sintered metallic.
Various surface treatments are also available to improve wear resistance and
reduce friction.
4.7.1 White-metals
These are a large range of either lead base or tin base alloys and are
covered by British Standards. Antimony is used as a hardening agent since tin
and lead are soft.
White-metal is a low melting point alloy which is compatible with virtually any
type of mating surface.
Bearing materials should not be subject to corrosion due to water or the

products of oil oxidation and the resistance of tin base white-metals is high
but lead base alloys are susceptible to acidic corrosion from oil oxidation
products.
White-metals are nearly always lubricated under pressure. Loss of lubricant for
a short period may cause the bearing to soften and ‘wipe’. It loses its
compressive strength at elevated temperatures.
4.7.2 Other bearing materials

Other materials for plain bearings include copper lead alloys, lead bronzes,
tin bronzes (phosphor bronze), gun metals and aluminium base alloys.
Before concluding this section it should be stated that metallic porous metal
bearings are widely used which are manufactured by powder metallurgy
where very fine metal powders are mixed and compressed in moulds to the
correct form and sintered at high temperature in a reducing atmosphere.
The product is in effect a metal sponge which can be impregnated with

lubricating oil. The porosity depends on the initial compression and these
products are designed for suitable applications where high volume is
108
required. Self- lubricating materials are also available in tube and bar form for
individual manufacture.
Figure 4.12 shows a selection of different types of bearings.
Figure 4.12 Different types of plain bearings
4.8 Bearing maintenance

Although machine designers and manufacturers supply good quality
bearings with their equipment there are instances where bearings may be
improperly designed, manufactured, or installed. It is difficult to determine the
exact cause of bearing failure, but usually the problem can be traced to one
or more of the following areas:
x Unsuitable material for shaft and/or bearing. With soft bearing materials
like white metal, soft steel journals may be used, but with harder bearing
materials the shaft or journal must be of sufficient hardness to operate
satisfactorily.
x Unsuitable surface finish. Rough surfaces usually cause scoring,
overheating and bearing failure. The smoother the finish the closer the
shaft can approach the bearing without metal contact. Surface finish is
important in any plain bearing but may become critical when a harder
material such as bronze is used.
x Insufficient clearance. An oil film may be prevented from forming
between bearing and journal, resulting in bearing failure.
x Incorrect grooving. Incorrectly made or located grooves will result in
bearing failure.
x High operating temperatures. The life of plain bearings is affected by high
operating temperatures. High temperatures reduce oil viscosity, affecting
oil film thickness, which in turn affects the load carrying capacity of the
109
bearing. Also, most lubricants oxidize more rapidly at high temperatures

resulting in unsatisfactory performance.
x Oil contamination. When the lubricant is exposed to abrasives, soft
materials such as babbitt are used. Babbitt has the ability to embed hard
particles completely, so protecting the shaft against abrasion. Hard
bearing materials are scored by abrasives caught between bearing and
shaft.
x Improper relining. Many bearing failures can be traced to faulty relining.
This is particularly true of babbitt bearings. The following are reasons for
faulty relining:
o Improper preparation of bonding surface.

o Wrong pouring technique.
o Contamination of babbitt.
o Overheating of babbitt.
o Bearing poured to size with journal in place.
4.8.1 Plain bearing failures

The following elements of neglect, or abnormal operating conditions, may
result in bearing failure:
o Excessive speed.
o Overloading.
o Excessive operating temperature.
o Foreign material in oil supply.
o Corrosion of bearing material.
o Fatigue of bearing material.
o Unsuitable lubricants.
o Lack of lubricant.
o Design faults.
o Oil deterioration.
o Water contamination.
o Incorrect assembly and maintenance.
4.8.2 Overheating of plain bearings

A bearing that runs hot may be caused by one or more of the following:
o No lubricating oil, or an inadequate supply.

o Dirty oil, causing undue friction.
o Wrong grade of oil, causing film to collapse.
o Bearing and shaft out of line.
o Shaft out of roundness.
o Bearing halves pulled up too tight.
o Excessive load on bearing.
o Bearing surfaces uneven.
o Bearing shell not seating properly.
110
To treat an overheated bearing the following steps can be taken:
o Flood the bearing with lubricating oil.

o Examine oil; if gritty, keep on flooding with oil to wash out grit.
o Pour oil on shaft, close to bearing, to carry away some of the heat from
the bearing.
o If bearing remains hot, slacken set-screws or bearing cap nuts, or ease
load on bearing.
o Flood with heavy cylinder oil.
o When temperature is normal slowly tighten nuts. If temperature remains
normal the load can be put back on.
Caution
Never pour cold water on an overheated bearing and shaft. The
bearing will contract and seize, or may even crack.
4.9 Lubrication of plain bearings

There is little purpose in supplying oil to a bearing if there is no distribution
within the bearing. The point of oil introduction and the distribution around
the bearing are important.
x Oil holes and grooves should be placed away from the loaded area, in
the area of low pressure.
x Oil should be supplied along the entire length of the bearing before being
allowed to the load or high pressure zone.
x Oil should not be allowed to escape from the bearing before accepting
its share of the load.
x Oil from the supply should flow into the groove to within 12 mm from the
bearing ends.
4.9.1 Lubrication holes

In horizontal journal bearings, the oil hole is nearly always situated at a point
opposite the load bearing area. In vertical bearings, the oil is fed in from the
top.
In multi-collar thrust a bearing, oil is fed in between the collars where

centrifugal force aids correct distribution.
4.9.2 Lubrication grooves
Oil grooves have the function of distributing the oil along the entire length of
the bearing (see Figure 4.13).
111
Figure 4.13 (a) No oil groove – poor oil distribution

(b) Oil groove – correct oil distribution
Points to be considered in positioning oil grooves are speed of rotation,

direction and possible reversal of rotation, bearing load and oil viscosity.
Oil grooves should never be cut over the entire length of a bearing as
lubricant will leak out at the ends. After oil grooves have been cut, all sharp
and raised edges must be cleaned up. Oil holes and grooves are usually cut
in the region of lowest pressure to allow lubricant to enter without difficulty.
The following are examples of oil grooves:
x Split bearings - see Figure 4.14 (a) and (b) have chamfered edges and
may also have a longitudinal groove in the top half to ensure an even
supply of oil.
(a) Oil grooves in split bearing (b) Extra oil groove in front of high
pressure area in heavy duty area
Figure 4.14 Split bearing
In heavy-duty bearings, where the shaft turns at slow speeds, an extra groove
can be cut in the lower half, just before the high pressure area. This provides
a heavy oil supply in the high pressure area where support is most needed
(Figure 4.14 (b)).
112
x Vertical bearings (Figure 4 .15) require grooves around the top and oil is
fed down by gravity.
Figure 4.15 Oil grooving in vertical bearing
Thrust bearings (Figure 4.16) require oil to be fed to the shaft and not to the
collars. Centrifugal force throws oil away from the shaft, lubricating collar
sides where hydrodynamic pressure is built up to assist in supporting axial
load.
Figure 4.16 Oil grooves in thrust bearing for lubrication
x Guide bearings (Figure 4 .17) can be lubricated by cutting a pattern of

grooves in the sliding members.
113
Figure 4.17 Oil grooves in guide bearing
4.10 Remetalling a bearing

Before a bearing shell is re-metalled it should be thoroughly cleansed of dirt,
grease, scale, or old white-metal. In all instances the surface should be
properly tinned to ensure that the new metal will adhere perfectly.
x Tinning of the shell.

Heat the back of the shell with a blowlamp or gas blowpipe and apply solder
with a flux.
Ensure the entire area, as well as the ends, is evenly coated. Alternatively, the
shell can be dipped in a flux and then in a pot of molten solder and
immediately thereafter, babbitted.
x Lining the bearing.

The new lining must as far as possible be cast with the bearing in a vertical
position. The steps required are as follows:
114
Step 1: Set up the bearing and a

half mandrel of suitable size as
shown in Figure 4 .18. Seal the
joint between the bearing and
plate with fire-clay.
Step 2: Heat the whole set-up

with a blow flame to ensure that
there will be complete fusion
between the white metal and
the tinned bearing surface.
Heating will ensure that the white

metal will not solidify
immediately as it contacts the
cold surfaces of an unheated
bearing.
Pre-heating also ensures that no

water vapour will form in the
bearing, which would probably
result in blow holes and spatter.
Step 3: Cast the metal slowly at

a constant rate to and fro Figure 4.18 Bearing set-up for remetalling
around the opening between
the bearing and the mandrel Step 4: When the bearing has cooled
until the metal rises above the down, remove it from the fixture and
top surface. remove excess metal on the butting faces
with a hot soldering bit.
The metal is cast slightly higher to
allow for shrinkage. Step 5: The bearing can now be sent for
machining.
4.11 Taking up wear in bearings and slides

To take up wear in a bronze bearing of the split type, proceed as follows:
x Remove top half of bearing.

x Place a small piece of lead wire on top of shaft.
x Replace top half and pull up tightly.
x Remove top half of bearing as well as the piece of lead which has been
flattened to the thickness of amount of play in bearing.
x Measure thickness of lead.
x If bearing is fitted with shims, remove to same thickness as lead. (If not
fitted with shims, material must he removed from both hutting faces of
both halves.)
115
x After removing sharp edges, shaft is put into lower half of bearing.
x Smear a thin layer of red-lead paste or mechanics' blue on the shaft.
x Turn shaft two or three revolutions.
x Remove shaft and bottom half.
x High spots on bearing will be marked and are then scraped off. (see
Figure 4.19)This procedure is repeated until the shaft beds properly in the
bearing.
Figure 4.19 Scraping the bearing to remove high spots
x With shaft well bedded in lower half, replace top half and pull down
gently.
x If bearing grips shaft and prevents rotation, loosen nuts slightly and turn
shaft.
x Remove and scrape top half as for bottom half until the shaft can be
revolved manually. This results in the best possible fit in the bearing.
x Wear in machine slides can be taken up as shown in Figure 4.20.
Figure 4.20 (a) Taking up wear in flat machine slide (b) and (c) Taking up
wear in dovetail slides
116
4.12 Fitting and removing a solid bearing

A solid bearing bush can be fitted by using a steel plate and draw bolt
(Figure 4.21 (a)). To remove the bearing bush a similar set-up is used as in
Figure 4.21 (b).
Figure 4.21 (a) Fitting a solid bearing (b) Removing a solid bearing
Activity 4.1
1. Plain bearings fall into three groups. Name them and give an example of
each.
2. Name four advantages of plain bearings.
3. Name four disadvantages of plain bearings.
4. Name any four properties that a bearing material used for plain bearings
should have and describe two of these properties.
5. Name three materials used for plain bearings and name one property for
each, which makes it suitable for this purpose.
6. Name three types of plain radial bearings.
7. Explain what guide bearings are used for.
8. Name four causes for plain bearing failure and explain each cause.
9. Explain why oil grooves are important in plain bearings.
10. Show with the aid of a sketch how a vertical bearing can be grooved to
counteract excessive oil leakage.
11. Show with the aid of a sketch how a multi-collar thrust bearing is grooved
and explain why grooves are not put on the side of the thrust blocks.
12. Explain in detail the re-metalling of a plain bearing.
13. Explain step by step how wear is taken up in a plain bearing.
14. Name eight causes for the overheating of plain bearings.
15. Explain how an overheated bearing can be cooled.
117
4.13 Anti-friction Bearings

Anti-friction bearings are a group name given to ball and roller bearings. They
work on a principle of changing sliding friction into rolling friction. To
demonstrate the difference between sliding and rolling friction, take a thick
book or block of wood and place it on a table.
Give the book a push. It will be observed that it requires some force to move
the book and that it stops as soon as the pushing force is removed. Now take
four round pencils and place them between the book and the table. Again
give the book a push.
Observe that it requires less force to move the book and that it continues to
move for a short distance after the pushing force has been removed.
Rolling bearings consist of rolling elements such as balls or rollers between an

outer and an inner ring. Cages, also called retainers, are used to space these
rolling elements from each other.
Figure 4.22 (a) shows two types of anti-friction bearings used on shafts.
Figure 4.22 (a) Ant-friction roller and ball bearings used on shafts
Figure 4.22 (b) shows the position of the outer ring, the inner ring, the riveted
cage and the rolling elements. The rolling elements can be shaped as balls,
cylindrical rollers, taper rollers or spherical rollers.
118
Figure 4.22(b) Anti-friction terminology
A feature of anti-friction bearings is that they can be pre-packed with

lubrication and sealed so that they require little maintenance. They alert you
by becoming noisy when they begin to fail. These bearings can also carry
high overloads for short periods. Anti-friction bearings cannot be repaired.
4.14 Bearing loads on anti-friction bearings

The size or magnitude of a load and the direction of the load are factors that
largely determine the type and size of the bearing to use. Bearings are
manufactured in different sizes and designs to provide for the variety of loads
and directions of the forces acting on the bearing. Let us discuss the two
areas that need to be considered:
x Magnitude of load – This is normally the most important factor in

determining the size of bearing. Generally, roller bearings can carry
greater loads than ball bearings of the same external dimensions. Ball
bearings are mostly used to carry light and medium loads, whilst roller
bearings are often the only choice for heavy loads and large diameter
shafts.
x Direction of load – Cylindrical roller bearings having one ring without

flanges and needle roller bearings can only carry radial loads. Other types
of radial bearing can carry both radial and axial loads.
x Thrust ball bearings are only suitable for axial loads. Spherical roller thrust
bearings, in addition to very heavy axial loads, can also carry a certain
amount of simultaneously acting radial load.
x A combined load comprises a radial and an axial load acting

simultaneously. The most important feature affecting the ability of a
bearing to carry an axial load is its angle of contact.
119
x The greater this angle the more suitable is the bearing for axial loading.
Refer to maker’s catalogue for individual values. Double and single row
angular contact ball bearings are mainly used for combined loads.
x Self- aligning ball bearings and cylindrical roller bearings can also be used
to a limited extent. Duplex bearings and spherical roller thrust bearings
should only be considered where axial loads predominate.
x Where the axial component constitutes a large proportion of the

combined load, a separate thrust bearing can be provided for carrying
the axial component independently of the radial load. In addition to thrust
bearings, suitable radial bearings may also be used to carry axial loads
only.
There are three types of loads that act on bearings, (see Table 4.1) these are:
Type of Load Description

Radial Load
This type of load is at right-angles to
the shaft, acting towards the shaft
centre.
Thrust Load (Axial load)

This type of load is in line parallel to
the shaft, also known as axial load.
Angular Load (Combined load)

This type of load a combination of
radial and thrust load.
Table 4.1 Types of loads on anti-frictional bearings
4.15 Bearing selection

Each type of bearing has characteristic features which make it particularly
suitable for certain applications. However, it is not possible to lay down hard
and fast rules for the selection of bearing types since several factors must be
considered and assessed relative to each other. The following
120
recommendations will, for a given application, serve to indicate those details

of greatest importance in deciding the type of bearing to be used.
4.16 Available space

In many instances at least one of the main dimensions of the bearing, usually
the bore, is predetermined by the machine design. Deep groove ball
bearings are normally selected for small diameter shafts whereas cylindrical
roller bearings, spherical roller bearings and deep groove ball bearings can
be considered for shafts of large diameter.
If radial space is limited then bearings with small sectional height must be
selected, e.g. needle roller assemblies, certain series of deep groove
bearings and spherical roller bearings.
Where axial space is limited and particularly narrow bearings are required
then some series of deep groove ball bearings and cylindrical roller bearings
can be used.
4.17 Angular misalignment

Where a shaft can be misaligned relative to the housing, bearings capable of
accommodating such misalignment are required, namely self-aligning ball
bearings, spherical roller bearings, spherical roller thrust bearings or spherical
plain bearings.
Misalignments can, for example, be caused by shaft deflection under load,

when the bearings are fitted in housings positioned on separate bases and
large distances from one another or, when it is impossible to machine the
housing seatings at one setting.
4.18 Limiting speeds

The speed of rotation of a rolling bearing is limited by the permissible
operating temperature. Bearings with low frictional resistance and
correspondingly little internal heat generation are most suitable for high
rotational speeds.
For radial loads, the highest bearing speeds are obtainable with deep groove
ball bearings or cylindrical roller bearings and for combined loads the highest
bearing speeds are obtainable with angular contact ball bearings.
4.19 Precision
Rolling bearings with a high degree of precision are required for shafts where
stringent demands are made on running accuracy, e.g. machine tool
spindles and usually for shafts rotating at very high speeds.
Deep groove ball bearings, single row angular contact ball bearings, double
row cylindrical roller bearings and angular contact thrust ball bearings are
manufactured to high degrees of precision both as regards running
121
accuracy and dimensions. When using high precision rolling bearings, shaft
and housings must be machined with corresponding accuracy and be of
rigid construction.
4.20 Rigidity
Elastic deformation in a loaded rolling bearing is very small and in most
instances can be ignored. However the bearing rigidity is of importance in
some cases, for example for machine tool spindles.
Due to the greater area of contact between the rolling elements and
raceways, roller bearings, for example cylindrical roller bearings or taper roller
bearings, deflect less under load than ball bearings. The rigidity of the
bearings can be increased by suitable preloading.
4.21 Axial displacement

The normal bearing arrangement consists of a locating (fixed) bearing and a
non-locating (free) bearing. The non-locating bearing can be displaced
axially thus preventing cross location, e.g. by shaft expansion or contraction.
Cylindrical roller bearings having one ring without flanges or needle roller
bearings are particularly suitable for use as free bearings. Their internal design
permits axial displacement of the inner and outer rings in both directions. The
inner and outer rings can therefore be mounted with interference fits.
4.22 Advantages and disadvantages of ball and roller bearings
Advantages Disadvantages
x Generate very little friction compared to x Not as silent as plain
plain bearings bearings
x Can support radial and axial loads x Cannot be repaired
x Very low starting friction. x Higher initial costs
x Require less axial space. x Cannot be used in halves
x Accurate shaft alignment can be
maintained.
x Except for parallel roller bearings, they
can support both radial and axial loads.
x Relatively easy replacement.
x Heavy overloads can be carried for short
periods.
x Warning of failure by becoming noisy.
x Require very little maintenance.
x They can be pre-packed with lubricant
and sealed.
x Lubrication is simple.
122
4.23 Types of anti-friction bearings

The specific type of anti-friction bearing we choose to use will depend on the
following basic factors:
x Magnitude of the load.

x Acting direction of the load.
x Available space around the bearing.
x Any misalignment between the shaft and the housing.
x The speed at which the bearing must operate.
There are four different types of rolling elements, these are:
• Ball
• Cylindrical
• Spherical roller
• Needle roller
4.23.1 Bearing Terminology

Figure 4.23 shows the various terms applied to anti-friction bearings.
Figure 4.23 Anti-friction bearing Terminology
There are various types of anti-friction bearings. The basic types of antifriction
bearings are discussed in on the next page.
123
Type of anti-friction bearing Description

x Single and double row radial ball bearings Single and double row radial ball
bearings are especially designed for
radial loads, but are also able to carry
relatively small axial loads in one or
both directions.
It is also possible to have a
combination of the two loads within
the capacity of the bearing.
Axial loads on these bearings should
not be more than 25% of the radial
loads. The reason for this is that this
type of bearing is simply not designed
to carry a heavy axial load. Figure
4.24 shows an example of these
Figure 4.24 bearings.
x Single and double row radial cylindrical Figure 4.24 shows examples of these
roller bearings bearings. These bearings can carry
heavier loads than ball bearings of
the same external dimensions.
Cylindrical roller bearings are
particularly suitable for heavy loads.
The reason for this is the larger
contact area, called line contact; the
roller element in the cylindrical roller
bearing has in comparison with the
contact area of the ball element,
called point contact, in the ball
bearing.
Figure 4.25
Figures 4.25 (a) and (b) show the
difference between line contact
point contact. These bearings are
able to carry heavy radial loads, but
cannot carry any axial loads due to
the lack of roller retaining flanges on
Figure 4.26 (a) Line contact in a the inner or outer rings. In some cases
cylindrical roller bearing they can accommodate relatively
small axial loads. However, this can
result in a sliding contact or friction
between the roller side face and the
retaining flange rather than a
preferable roller motion.
Figure 4.26 (b) Point contact in a ball
bearing
124
x Thrust ball and roller bearings
Examples of these bearings are the thrust ball bearing and the cylindrical roller thrust
bearing.
These bearings are frequently found on machine tools such as lead-screws, turn tables
and crane hooks. These bearings can be either single direction or double direction.
By single direction thrust bearings we mean that the thrust bearings are used to
accommodate axial loads, also called thrust loads, in one direction only.
They may not be subjected to any radial loads.
Double direction thrust bearings are used to accommodate axial loads which act in
both directions.
They should also not be subjected to any radial loads. If you look at Figure 4.27 (a)
you will see that the single direction thrust bearing carries the row of balls or rollers
between two rings, the shaft ring and the housing ring.
Figure 4.27 (b) shows the double direction thrust bearing consisting of two housing
rings with a centre ring, also called a shaft washer that has a groove on each side.
Apart from the construction, the thrust ball bearing and the cylindrical roller thrust
bearing differ from each other in that the cylindrical roller bearing can carry heavier
axial loads than the thrust ball bearing.
(a) Single direction thrust ball bearing (b) Double direction thrust ball bearing
Figure 4.27
125
x Single row angular contact

bearings
If you compare these bearings
with single row deep groove ball
bearings you will see that one
shoulder on both the inner and
outer ring is machined off.
Figure 4.28 shows one high and
one low shoulder on each ring.
This allows a large number of balls
to be incorporated, and the
bearing can thus carry relatively
Figure 4.28 Angular contact ball bearing heavy loads.
An example of this type of bearing
is the single row angular contact
ball bearing. This bearing can
accommodate axial loads which
act in one direction only.
Figure 4.29 shows paired mounting

in tandem which is used when the
load carrying capacity of a single
bearing is inadequate. It also
shows back-to-back and face-to-
Figure 4.29 Paired mounting of a single row
face arrangements when the
angular contact ball bearing
bearing arrangement must carry
axial loads in both directions.
x Taper roller bearings
Taper roller bearings have tapered inner and outer ring raceways between which
tapered rollers are arranged as shown in Figure 4.30(a).
The design of the tapered rollers makes taper roller bearings particularly suitable for
carrying combined loads, that is, a combination of radial and axial loads. They can
accommodate axial loads in one direction when used singly. If the load is directed
from the opposite direction, the inner and outer rings of the bearing will be pushed
apart. However, when they are used in pairs as shown in the assembly in Figure 4.30
(b), they can accommodate axial loads in both directions.
With two of these bearings next to each other these bearings can carry pure radial
loads. Figure 4.30(c) shows paired mounting that is used to obtain high radial and
axial carrying capacities on these bearings. The face-to-face, back-to-back and
tandem arrangements are clearly shown. Taper roller bearings are designed in such a
way that the inner and outer ring can be separated from each other. In other words,
the inner ring with the roller and cage assembly forms a unit which we can mount
separately from the outer ring. We use these bearings widely in the motorcar industry,
particularly for front hubs, rear-axle, pinion shafts and differential gears.
126
Figure 4.30 (a)Tapper roller bearing Figure 4.30 (b) Taper roller bearing assembly
Figure 4.30 (c) Paired mounting on taper roller bearings
x Needle roller bearings

Needle roller bearings are roller bearings with cylindrical rollers which are thin and
long in relation to their diameter as shown in Figure 4.31.
They are referred to as needle rollers. These bearings can carry heavy loads. They are
therefore highly suitable for bearing arrangements where radial space is limited.
Radial space refers to the space around the cir cumference of the bearing. These
bearings are capable of carrying radial loads. They are unable to carry axial loads.
The needle roller has a profile which is slightly relieved towards the roller ends.
The consequence of this is a modified line contact between the needle rollers and
the raceways. This means that damaging edge stresses because of heavy loads are
avoided.
127
Figure 4.31 Different needle roller bearings
x Spherical roller bearing

If you study Figure 4.32 you will see that
spherical roller bearings have two rows of
rollers with a common sphered raceway
in the outer ring.
The two inner ring raceways are inclined

at an angle to the bearing axis. Spherical
roller bearings have many long,
symmetrical rollers of large diameter.
This feature gives spherical roller bearings

a very high load carrying capacity. These
bearings are self-aligning. They are thus
insensitive to errors of alignment of the
shaft relative to the housing and to shaft
bending.
In addition to radial loads, the bearings

can also accommodate axial loads Figure 4.32 Spherical roller bearing
acting in both directions. They are found
in applications such as gearboxes, steel
rolling mills and paper machines.
4.24 Selection of anti-friction bearing

For small high-speed machines, ball bearings are usually most suitable. For
large and heavily loaded machines, roller bearings are the only satisfactory
bearings.
For machines with relatively heavy thrust loads at very high speeds, deep-
groove ball bearings often give the best results. Tapered roller bearings are
used to advantage in some special cases, such as in motor engineering, on
account of their high capacity under combined load and their adjustability.
128
4.25 Lubrication and sealing devices for bearings

Grease contributes considerably to the efficiency of a seal. It traps any dust
particles which may have penetrated the sealing device.
For oil lubrication, the sealing device has a double function. It must exclude
dust and dirt from the housing and, at the same time, prevent leakage of oil.
Felt rings are generally used for sealing. Trapezoidal grooves are out in the
housing or in the housing covers to accommodate them. A single felt ring is
normally sufficient in a dry, protected location with only slight dust formation,
and in smaller grease-lubricated housings.
About once a year, however, the bearing housing must be opened and the
old grease removed. If new grease is added frequently without removing the
old grease, the bearing housing can be kept entirely filled with grease.
New grease should be pressed in every few weeks until it starts to ooze out
through the seal.
Water turbines and centrifugal pumps frequently require a similar seal, since
water seeps through the stuffing boxes and follows the shaft to the bearing.
The sealing of bearings operating in rooms filled with dust, dirt or dampness, is
improved by occasionally pressing grease directly into the labyrinth.
4.26 Installation of anti-friction bearings

4.26.1 Mounting and dismounting of bearings
Bearings must be removed and installed from time to time either because
they wear out or because they must be removed to disassemble a piece of
equipment for repair or maintenance.
Bearings are designed to give the longest and best possible service life for a
particular application. The service life of a bearing depends on the proper
installation and maintenance of the bearing.
Bearings are used to reduce friction between the moving parts of pieces of
equipment that have rotating shafts. There are many types of bearings in use,
and there are different methods for removing and installing them. Removing
and installing bearings are major parts of a fitter's job.
This module explains some of the most common methods for removing and
installing bearings.
Important Safety Warning

When removing, installing, and heating bearings, always wear the
proper personal safety equipment, including safety glasses and
heat-resistant gloves.
129
When the bearings are small, it is frequently possible to press in the removable
sleeve with the aid of the shaft nut. In this case no particular mounting sleeve
is required.
In most cases, especially when large

quantities of small bearings with
cylindrical bores are to be mounted,
arbor presses may be used, by means of
which the mounting is done much
quicker.
The sketch in Figure 4.33 shows a pulling

device which is often used for bearings
with cylindrical bores. A steady force
from a press or screw arrangement has
proved to be less dangerous than
hammer blows.
Figure 4.33 Typical bearing pulling device
4.26.2 Removing of bearings

When removing a bearing, it is very important to follow the proper
procedures to prevent damaging the bearing or the shaft. Sometimes a
bearing is removed for maintenance or inspection and is reused on the
equipment.
In this case, improper removal techniques can damage the shaft and make it
unusable. When a bearing is removed because it is worn out or has failed, it is
replaced with a new one. In this case, the old bearing should be kept so that
it can be inspected to determine why it failed.
The information can be used for predictive and preventive maintenance

purposes and to retain historical data of the equipment. The most common
methods and tools for removing bearings are the following:
x Bearing pullers
x Presses
x Hydraulic removal method
x Temperature removal method
x Cutting torch
Important Safety Warning

When removing bearings, always shield the bearing with a material
that is capable of withstanding the force of flying objects caused
by the possible disintegration of the bearing.
130
4.26.3 Using bearing pullers

Using bearing pullers is the most common way to remove bearings. One
advantage of a puller is that it can be taken in the field to remove the
bearing from the shaft while the bearing is still in the machine. Pullers come in
various styles and sizes. Most pullers come with different attachments for
different applications.
Both manual and hydraulic pullers are available. The manual puller has a bolt
that is turned using a wrench to provide the pressure to pull the bearing. The
hydraulic puller has a hydraulic cylinder and pump that provide the pulling
pressure. Both types have the same attachments. Figure 4.34 shows manual
bearing pullers.
Figure 4.34 Manual bearing pullers use for removing bearings
Follow these steps to remove a bearing using a manual bearing puller:
Step 1: Ensure that the puller is clean.
Step 2: Position the puller jaws behind the bearing so that they press against
only the inner race of the bearing.
CAUTION: The puller jaws must apply pressure only to the inner race
of the bearing. If pressure is applied to the outer race, the bearing
will be damaged and may come apart.
131
Step 3: Hold the jaws in place, and screw in the bolt manually until it touches
the end of the shaft.
Step 4: Check the alignment of the puller to ensure that it will pull evenly on
the bearing.
CAUTION: If the puller is misaligned and not pulling straight, the

bearing will become cocked and may damage the shaft.
Step 5: Apply a light coat of oil to the shaft to make the bearing slide off the
shaft easily.
Step 6: Turning the bolt slowly, using a wrench, to apply pressure. Figure 4.35
shows removing a bearing using a manual bearing puller.
Figure 4.35 Removing Bearing, Using Manual Bearing Puller
Step 7: Continue to turn the bolt until the bearing comes off the shaft.
CAUTION: Do not let the bearing fall on the floor when it comes off
the shaft because it could be damaged and get dirty.
132
4.26.4 Using presses

There are two types of presses that are used for removing bearings:
• the hydraulic press; and

• the manual, or arbor, press.
The hydraulic press can generate a great amount of force and is used on
large and small bearings. The arbor press generates much less force and is
used on small bearings. When using presses, the shaft usually must be
removed from the equipment and brought to the press. Figure 4.37 shows an
arbor press and a hydraulic press.
Figure 4.37 Arbor Press and Hydraulic Press
Follow these steps to remove a bearing using a press:
Step 1: Place the shaft and bearing in the press so that the inner race of the
bearing is supported by two blocks of the same size.
CAUTION: When removing a bearing from a shaft, position the

bearing so that pressure will be exerted only on the inner ring.
Pressure applied to the outer ring will damage the bearing. When
removing a bearing from a housing, position the bearing so that
pressure will be exerted only on the outer race.
133
Step 2: Lower the ram of the press so that it touches the end of the shaft.
Step 3: Ensure that the shaft is in the fully vertical position to prevent the
bearing from cocking when the shaft is pressed out of the bearing.
Step 4: Apply a light coat of oil to the shaft to help the bearing slide off easily.
Step 5: Apply pressure slowly to press the shaft out of the bearing.
CAUTION: Keep the shaft vertical to prevent the bearing from

cocking and gouging the shaft. Do not let the shaft fall to the floor
when it is released from the bearing.
4.26.5 Performing hydraulic removal method

Hydraulic bearing removal is possible only if the shaft has been prepared in
advance of the bearing installation. A hole is drilled in the shaft so that
pressurized hydraulic fluid can be applied to the inner race of the bearing.
The fluid is pumped into the hole through a hydraulic fitting where the fluid
expands the inner race of the bearing. This expansion allows the bearing to
slip off the shaft. Hydraulic bearing removal can be done while the shaft is in
the machine. Figure 4.38 shows a hydraulic removal setup.
Figure 4.38 Hydraulic Removal Setup
Follow these steps to remove a bearing using the hydraulic removal method:
Step 1: Clean the shaft, including the hole for the hydraulic fluid.
134
Step 2: Install a hydraulic fitting in the hole.
Step 3: Connect the hydraulic pump hose to the fitting.
Step 4: Pump the hydraulic pump to apply pressure to the bearing inner race
until the bearing slips off the shaft.
WARNING! Some bearings, especially tapered seat bearings, will

pop off the shaft with considerable force and can cause personal
injury. Do not stand in front of the bearing while applying pressure.
Leave the locking nut on the end of the shaft to prevent the
bearing from flying off.
4.26.6 Performing temperature removal method

Bearings that are shrink-fitted to the shaft sometimes require the use of heat
to expand the bearings so that they will slip off the shaft. Timing is the most
important factor when removing a bearing, using heat. The bearing must be
slipped off the shaft as soon as the bearing has sufficiently expanded and
before the shaft expands. The most common heating tool used for bearing
removal is a torch. Another method used for heating bearings is the
aluminum heating ring. Figure 4.39 shows an aluminum heating ring.
Figure 4.39 Aluminum Heating Ring
CAUTION: If the bearing is going to be re-used, do not heat the

bearing with a torch. The direct heat from the torch heats the
bearing unevenly and tends to overheat the bearing. This will ruin
the bearing.
Follow these steps to remove a bearing using the aluminum heating ring:
135
Step 1: Clean the shaft to remove any dirt or grit.
Step 2: Dress down any burrs or nicks from the shaft.
Step 3: Disassemble the bearing, leaving only the inner ring on the shaft.
Step 4: Select an aluminum heating ring that fits the bearing ring.
Step 5: Heat the aluminum heating ring to approximately 250 degrees C,

using a bearing heater or a similar method.
Step 6: Slip the heating ring over the bearing ring, and squeeze the two
handles on one side together to clamp the bearing ring.
SAFETY WARNING! Wear protective gloves when handling the

heating ring to avoid getting burned.
Step 7: Grip the handles on both sides of the heating ring, and apply force
back and forth to turn the bearing ring.
TAKE NOTE:
When the bearing ring has sufficiently expanded, it will turn on the
shaft.
Step 8: Slip the ring off the shaft.
4.26.7 Using cutting torch to remove bearings

Sometimes an inner bearing ring will become seized on the shaft, and
common bearing removal methods will not work. In this situation, the bearing
must be cut off the shaft, using a cutting torch. This will destroy the bearing,
but if done correctly, the shaft will not be damaged. Using the cutting torch
to remove bearings is a last resort. Follow these steps to remove a bearing,
using a cutting torch.
SAFETY WARNING!
Follow all fire safety guidelines to ensure that the cutting operation
will not present a fire hazard.
Step 1: Disassemble the bearing, leaving only the inner ring on the shaft.
Step 2: Clean the shaft and ring to remove any oil or grease that may catch
fire during the cutting operation.
Step 3: Determine the best place to cut the ring.
136
TAKE NOTE:
If the equipment has a key, cut the ring on top of the key. This will
reduce the risk of the shaft being damaged by the heat.
Step 4: Cut the ring.
CAUTION: Direct the heat across the face of the ring instead of
directing it toward the shaft, and cut the ring from side to side.
Make the cut as quickly as possible to keep residual heat to a
minimum. Use a bent cutting tip to reduce the likelihood of
damaging the shaft. Make the cut without depressing the oxygen
lever.
Step 5: Drive a chisel into the cut to pry the ring open.
Step 6: Slip the ring off the shaft.
TAKE NOTE:
If the ring will not come off the shaft, make a second cut 180° from
the first, and remove the ring in two pieces.
Step 7: Clean and dress the shaft to remove any slag, burrs, or scratches.
Activity 4.2
1. What are anti-friction bearings used for?

2. Why would you keep a bearing that is being replaced with a new one?
3. Which bearing removal method is the most commonly used?
4. Which part of the bearing should pressure be applied to when pullers are
used?
5. Why should you not stand in front of a bearing during hydraulic removal?
6. Why should you not use a torch to heat a bearing?

Practice removing bearings, using each of the bearing removal
methods and tools.
4.27 Installing bearings

The method used to install a bearing depends on the type of bearing being
installed and on its application. Bearings are mounted in a variety of ways.
Some bearings are installed on a shaft and then mounted in a specially
made bore in a machine.
Shaft bearings in a transmission or gear reducer are mounted in bores in the

housing. Some bearings are mounted in pillow block housings or flanged
137
housings and support the shaft of a piece of equipment. Bearings are

precision parts that must be installed as precisely as possible.
Two kinds of fits for bearings are the slip fit and press fit. The slip fit is the
simplest to install because it fits fairly loosely and can usually be pushed into
place by hand.
The press fit is much tighter and requires more effort to press the bearing into
place. Bearings usually have a slip fit on one ring and a press fit on the other.
The ring that rotates is usually press-fitted.
In most applications, the inner ring of the bearing rotates. However, in some
applications the outer ring rotates and, therefore, gets the press fit. Proper
bearing fit is very important because a bad fit can result in premature
bearing failure.
A fit that is too loose causes the bearing and the shaft to wear rapidly due to
the shaft sliding in the ring. A fit that is too tight can cause increased friction
due to decreased clearances in the bearing.
This friction results in high operating temperatures. A bearing with a fit that is
too tight will fail early.
Properly sizing bearings is a major part of bearing installation. Installation

methods are the same for different types of bearings. Once you have
learned the proper installation procedures for a few types, you should be
able to install most types of bearings.
The following sections explain how to install the following types of bearings,
using various methods:
x Tapered roller
x Thrust
x Spherical roller
x Pillow block
x Angular-contact ball
4.27.1 Installing tapered roller bearings

USING TEMPERATURE MOUNTING METHOD
Tapered roller bearings and angular-contact ball bearings are always
mounted in pairs in opposition to each other. The clearances are adjusted at
mounting.
Tapered roller bearings and angular-contact ball bearings are installed in

basically the same way. They can be mounted by press mounting or
temperature mounting.
138
This section describes installing a tapered roller bearing by the temperature

mounting method. Temperature mounting can be performed in the shop or
in the field while the shaft is still in the equipment.
Follow these steps to install a tapered roller bearing, using the temperature
mounting method:
Step 1: Clean the shaft thoroughly.
IMPORTANT SAFETY WARNING!

Do not use carcinogenic solvents, such as methylene chloride and
carbon tetrachloride.
Keep the bearing in its protective wrapping until you are ready to
install it to prevent contamination from dirt, dust, and grit.
For the same reason, handle the bearing only with clean gloves,
and keep the work area and all tools clean.
Step 2: Inspect the shaft, and dress any burrs or nicks that would interfere with
the bearing installation.
Step 3: Polish the shaft lightly, using an emery cloth.
Step 4: Measure the shaft and housing in several places, using a micrometer,
to ensure that the diameter of the shaft and other parts are within
specifications for the bearing being installed and to ensure that the shaft is
not out of round.
TAKE NOTE:
The shaft size and all other critical dimensions can be found in the
manufacturer's specifications that come with the bearing. Follow
the manufacturer's specifications and instructions when installing
any bearing.
Step 5: Remove the new bearing from its protective wrapping.
Step 6: Place the bearing on a bearing heater. Figure 4.40 shows a bearing
heater
139
Figure 4.40 Bearing Heater
Step 7: Set the bearing heater to the temperature required by the

manufacturer.
CAUTION:
The maximum temperature to which a bearing should be heated is
100° C. Overheating a bearing can adversely affect the hardness
of the bearing steel.
Step 8: Check the bearing bore size periodically, using an inside micrometer
or similar method, as the bearing is being heated until it has expanded to the
proper size to slip onto the shaft.
IMPORTANT NOTE:
There may be no need to heat the bearing to the maximum
temperature. Heat it only until it has expanded enough to slip onto
the shaft. Install the backing plate and other parts at this point if
necessary.
Step 9: Remove the bearing from the heater, and slip it onto the shaft.
140
CAUTION:
The bearing must be slipped onto the shaft, quickly moved to its
proper position, and held there to prevent it from moving off the
shoulder. When the bearing cools, it shrinks to fit the shaft. If it shrinks
in the wrong position on the shaft, the bearing will have to be
reheated, removed, and remounted.
Figure 4.41(a) shows a bearing in the installed position.
(a) Bearing in the installed position (b) Bearing locked in position
Figure 4.41
Step 10: Lock the bearing in place using a locknut.
TAKE NOTE:
The bearing should be locked in position with the locknut to prevent
it from moving as it shrinks. Figure 4.41(b) shows the bearing locked
in position with a locknut.
Step 11: Allow the bearing to cool to ambient temperature.
Step 12: Loosen the locknut.
Step 13: Turn the bearing with an un-gloved hand, and feel for rough spots.
IMPORTANT SAFETY WARNING!

Wait until the bearing has cooled before touching it with your hand
to avoid being burned.
Step 14: Tighten the locknut according to the manufacturer's specifications to

load the bearing.
141
4.27.2 Installing thrust bearings

INSTALLING THRUST BEARINGS USING PRESS MOUNTING METHOD
Thrust bearings support only axial, or thrust, loads. They may be mounted
vertically or horizontally. Thrust bearings may be roller, ball, or plain.
To mount a thrust bearing, one race is fitted to the shaft, and the other race is
fitted to the housing. The shaft race is usually press-fitted, and the housing
race is slip-fitted.
The thrust bearing is usually pressed on the shaft in an arbor press or a

hydraulic press; then the shaft is installed in the equipment, fitting the bearing
into the housing.
Follow these steps to install a thrust bearing using the press mounting method:
Step 2: Inspect the shaft, and remove any burrs or nicks.
Step 3: Polish the shaft lightly, using an emery cloth.
Step 4: Determine which race will be fitted to the shaft and which race will be
fitted to the housing.
TAKE NOTE:
Refer to the manufacturer's installation procedures and
specifications to find any critical measurements and specifications.
Step 5: Measure the shaft and housing in several places, using a micrometer,
to ensure that the diameter of the shaft and other parts are within
specifications for the bearing being installed and to ensure that the shaft is
not out of round.
Step 6: Remove the bearing from its protective wrapping.
CAUTION:
The bearing must be slipped onto the shaft and quickly moved to its
proper position.
Step 7: Ensure that the press is clean.
Step 8: Place the bearing on the press so that the shaft race is well-supported.
Step 9: Position the shaft in the bearing.
142
Step 10: Lower the press ram so that it touches the shaft.
Step 11: Apply pressure to slip the shaft into the bearing.
CAUTION:
Keep the shaft square with the bearing at all times. If the shaft is
cocked during the pressing operation, the bearing will gouge the
shaft.
Step 12: Release pressure once the bearing is in the proper position on the
shaft.
Step 13: Install the shaft in the equipment, pushing the bearing into the
housing.
Step 14: Install the housing covers.
4.27.3 Installing spherical roller bearings

USING HYDRAULIC NUT OR LOCKNUT
Spherical roller bearings are a type of taper-bored bearing. A taper-bored
bearing is either mounted on a tapered shaft or on a tapered sleeve. As the
bearing is forced onto the shaft or sleeve, the clearance between the races
and the rolling elements is reduced.
The bearing clearance must be controlled when forcing the bearing onto the
shaft. To control the clearance, measure it before installation and during the
tightening process.
The amount of initial clearance is reduced according to the tables supplied

by the bearing manufacturer. The bearing is tightened until the proper
clearance differential is achieved.
Follow these steps to install a spherical roller bearing on a tapered shaft using
a hydraulic nut or a locknut:
Step 2: Inspect the shaft, and remove any burrs or nicks.
Step 3: Measure the shaft in several places, using a micrometer, to ensure

that it is the proper size and that it is not out of round.
Step 4: Oil the shaft lightly.
Step 5: Remove the bearing from its protective wrapping.
Step 6: Set the bearing on a clean, level surface.

143
Step 7: Measure the bearing clearance, using a feeler gage, and record the
reading.
TAKE NOTE:
Clearance should be checked by starting with the thinnest feeler
blade and using progressively thicker blades until one will not go.
The last blade before the "no go" is the measurement of the
clearance. Figure 4.42 shows measuring bearing clearance.
Figure 4.42 Measuring Bearing Clearance
Step 8: Slip the bearing onto the shaft, and push it as far as possible by hand.
Step 9: Screw a hydraulic nut or locknut onto the shaft against the bearing
inner race.
Figure 4.43 shows a hydraulic nut in place.
Figure 4.43 Hydraulic Nut In Place

144
Step 10: Tighten the nut.
TAKE NOTE:
Note: If using a hydraulic pump, turn the hydraulic nut and tighten
the bearing; if installing a locknut, use a spanner wrench.
Step 11: Tighten the bearing and measure the clearance alternately until the
proper clearance is obtained.
TAKE NOTE:
Note: Determine the proper clearance from the manufacturer's
tables included in the bearing installation instructions
Step 12: Release the pressure, and remove the nut.
Step 13: Install the bearing locknut and washer.
Step 14: Tighten the bearing locknut to the proper bearing clearance.
CAUTION:
Do not over-tighten the locknut because this may change the
bearing clearance.
4.27.4 Installing pillow block bearings

Pillow blocks bearings are used for independent mounting of antifriction
bearings. The bearing is contained in the pillow block housing. The bearing is
fitted on the shaft, and the housing is mounted on the equipment. Pillow
block bearings can be divided into the following two groups:
• Split housing
• One-piece housing
INSTALLING SPLIT HOUSING PILLOW BLOCK BEARINGS

The split housing pillow block bearing consists of a base and a cap with a
horizontal split.
The housing may be plain split or split with gibs or dowels. Housings with gibs
or dowels eliminate the possibility of mismatching the cap to the base. Plain
split housings should be match-marked before disassembly to ensure that the
parts are not mismatched when reassembled.
Figure 4.44 shows a split housing pillow block bearing.
145
Figure 4.44 Split housing pillow block bearing
When using several pillow blocks of the same size, individually mark each
bearing to prevent mixing the parts. Figure 4.45 shows a match-marked split
housing pillow block bearing.
Figure 4.45 Match-Marked Pillow Block Bearing
When the pillow block bearing is assembled for installation, it must be

determined if the bearing is to be an expansion bearing or a non-expansion
bearing. An expansion bearing is used when the bearing will be subjected to
high temperatures. In an expansion bearing, the stabilizing ring is left out and
the bearing is installed so that the bearing will be centered in the housing to
146
allow for thermal expansion. In a non-expansion bearing, the stabilizing ring is

installed to hold the bearing in position in the housing and to prevent axial
movement.
4.26.5 Installing One-Piece Housing Pillow Block Bearings

Pillow block bearings that have a one-piece housing are completely
assembled units. They are slipped over the shaft and bolted in position. They
have an extra-long inner race to distribute the load over a wide area on the
shaft. Some common designs used in one-piece pillow block bearings are the
following:
• Single-groove ball bearings

• Double-taper roller bearings
• Spherical roller bearings
These bearings are self-aligning in the housing. A one-piece pillow block

bearing allows for more misalignment than a split housing bearing. The
bearings are usually held in place on the shaft with set screws threaded into a
collar and passed through matching holes in the inner ring to engage the
shaft or by a self-locking collar that is held in place by a set screw.
The bearing should be installed with the set screw on the inside, away from
the end of the shaft so that any scoring caused by the set screw contacting
the shaft will not hinder the removal of the bearing from the shaft.
4.26.6 Installing angular-contact ball bearings

An angular-contact ball bearing supports thrust load in one direction,
sometimes combined with moderate radial load. The bearing has a high
thrust-supporting shoulder on the inner ring and a similar high shoulder on the
opposite side outer ring.
These bearings can be mounted singly or in tandem for constant thrust load
in one direction. They can also be mounted in pairs (duplex mounting), either
face-to-face or back-to-hack, for combined loads.
When two or more bearings are mounted together on the shaft, you should
be able to turn the outer ring of each bearing individually.
Face-to-Face Mounting
Face-to-face mounting is used when the bearing takes both thrust and radial
loads. This mounting allows for small amounts of misalignment. When
mounted face-to-face, both the inner and outer rings are always clamped.
Figure 4.46 shows face-to-face mounting.
147
Figure 4.46 Face-to-face mounting
Back-to-Back Mounting
Angular-contact bearings can be mounted back-to-hack with the inner ring
clamped and the outer ring floating endwise or with both rings clamped.
When the outer ring is floating, the bearing handles radial loads only. When
both rings are clamped, the bearing handles both radial and thrust loads.
With both rings clamped, the back-to-hack mounted bearing has high
resistance to misalignment and shaft deflection. Figure 4.47 shows back-to-
hack mounting.
Figure 4.47 Back-To-Sack Mounting
148
Tandem Mounting
Bearings are mounted in tandem to support extremely heavy thrust loads.
Some applications require more than two bearings mounted in tandem.
Bearings mounted in tandem will take thrust in one direction only. For the
bearing to take thrust in both directions, one bearing must be mounted face
to face with the tandem bearings. This bearing will take the reverse thrust
load. Figure 4.48 shows tandem mounting.
Figure 4.48 Tandem mounting
Activity 4.4
1. What are the two types of fits for bearings?

2. Where do you find the critical dimensions for a new bearing?
3. What is the maximum temperature for heating a bearing?
4. Which bearing supports axial loads only?
5. What type of bearing is contained in its own housing?
6. What type of load can an angular-contact ball bearing mounted back to
back with the outer ring floating handle?

Practice installing each type bearings, using various methods.
4.27 Troubleshooting antifriction bearings

Troubleshooting bearings means identifying the causes of bearing failure.
149
We will now study factors that we must avoid because they have a harmful
effect on anti-friction bearings.
x Overheating of anti-frictional bearings

Overheating of anti-frictional bearings can be caused by:
o Insufficient lubrication.
o Excessive lubrication in the housing of the bearing.
o Poor properties of the lubricant.
o Foaming of oil.
o Grease liquefaction. This means that the grease loses the force that
holds the substance together. The result is that the grease starts to flow.
o Raceways turning in the housing or on the shaft.
o Corrosive or abrasive dirt in the bearing.
o Inadequate internal clearance of the bearing after its installation which
means it will fit too tightly in the housing or on the shaft. Its operating
temperatures will therefore be affected.
o An operating speed which is too high. This generates excessive
frictional heat.
o Insufficient cooling conditions.
x Vibration and noisy bearings

Vibration and noisy bearings can be the result of:
o Insufficient lubrication.
o A flattened roller or ball.
o Variation in the sizes of the rollers or balls.
o An indent in the raceways due to incorrect handling or assembly or
because of shock loads.
o Contamination or pollution.
o The bearing slipping on the shaft or in the housing.
o The shaft not being round.
o Races turning in the housing or on the shaft.
o Excessive clearance between the shaft and the bearing or between
the housing and the bearing.
4.28 Bearing failure and how to prevent it

Even when good quality bearings are supplied, it is still possible that bearings
may be poorly designed, manufactured, installed or maintained. One or
more of the following conditions can cause bearing failure:
x Relation between temperatures and clearance. There is a difference

between the internal clearance of a bearing before it is mounted and the
internal clearance in a mounted bearing which has reached its operating
temperature.
150
x Speed. There is a limit to the speed at which bearings can be operated.

The permissible speed at which bearing temperature is reached depends
on the following:
o Frictional heat generated in the bearing, including any externally

applied heat.
o The amount of heat which can be transported away from the bearing.
o Bearing type and size.
o Magnitude of the load.
o Lubrication and cooling conditions.
o Design of the cage.
o Internal clearance.
o Installation accuracy.
x Lubrication and maintenance. If rolling bearings are to operate reliably,

they have to be adequately lubricated to prevent or to be protected
from:
o Direct metallic contact between the rolling elements, raceways and

cages.
o Wear of any moving parts.
o Corrosion of the bearing surfaces.
The choice of a suitable lubricant and method of lubrication for each

individual bearing is therefore important.
x Bearing inspection and cleaning. Rolling bearings must be cleaned and

examined frequently. It is possible to determine the condition of the
bearing during service by:
o Listening to the sound of the bearing when it is running.

o Measuring the temperature.
o Examining the lubricant.
If this is done it is usually sufficient if the rings, cage and rolling elements are
thoroughly cleaned and inspected annually. Where the load is heavy, the
frequency of inspection must be increased. After the bearing components
have been cleaned with a suitable solvent, they should be oiled or greased
immediately to prevent corrosion.
Activity 4.6
1. Explain the working principle of a friction bearing.

2. List the different types of friction bearings and indicate what type of load
they are able to carry.
3. Explain the working principle of an anti-friction bearing.
151
4. Label the different parts or elements of an anti-friction bearing on the

figure below.
5. Describe the two main factors which will determine the type as well as the
size of bearing to be used.
6. Describe the three types of bearing loads. Make simple drawings to clarify
your explanation.
7. The way we use a specific type of anti-friction bearing will depend on
certain basic factors. List these factors.
Activity 4.7
Identify the following (a to j) basic anti-friction bearings from the
given drawings and indicate the type of load that each bearing
can carry.
(a) (b) ( c) (d) (e)
(f) (g) (h) (i) (j)
152
Activity 4.8
1. Explain the difference between line contact and point contact as it

applies to ball and roller bearings.
2. We must avoid certain factors that have a harmful effect on antifriction
bearings, such as overheating, vibration and noise. List the possible causes
of each of these factors.
3. Bearing failures can be linked to one or more possible conditions or areas.
Discuss these possible conditions or areas.
4. When selecting the correct type and size of bearing by using a
manufacturer's catalogue, we must take some important basic factors
into account. Name and explain these basic factors.
5. Use a simple sketch to explain why a grooved type of ball bearing can be
used to take radial as well as thrust roads.
6. Explain with the aid of a simple sketch the reason for employing cages in
roller bearings.
7. Lubrication and sealing devices play a major part in the efficient
operation of ball and roller bearings. Give reasons for this and add a
simple sketch to illustrate your answer.
8. Explain with the aid of a simple sketch how you would go about inserting a
roller bearing into its housing.
9. Explain with the assistance of a simple sketch how you would remove a
roller bearing from a bearing housing.
10. Give five advantages for the use of ball and roller bearings in preference
to ordinary journal bearings.
11. Ball and roller bearings sometimes become overheated during use. Give
reasons for this occurrence.
12. Name eight advantages of ball and roller bearings.
13. Explain the purpose of a double row self-aligning bearing. State what
types of load it can carry.
14. State an important feature of a tapered roller bearing and state what
types of load it can carry.
15. Explain how a rolling bearing is cleaned.
16. Name three causes of rolling bearing failure.
17. Name four causes of rolling bearing vibration.
18. Show with the aid of a sketch the types of loads the following bearings
can support: deep-groove ball bearing; parallel cylindrical roller bearing;
single-row angular-contact ball bearing.
19. Under what conditions will a self-aligning bearing are used?
20. Name three different types of self-aligning bearing.
21. Name six reasons for rolling bearings to overheat.
22. Name four causes for rolling bearings to vibrate.
23. Name eight factors, and give a short description of each, to be taken into
consideration when mounting rolling bearings.
24. Give a short description of the correct procedure for the mounting of
153
rolling bearings.
25. Describe a method for mounting a ball bearing on a shaft by heating.
26. Sketch and describe the mounting of a ball bearing on a shaft with the
aid of an arbour press.
Self-Assessment

x Explain the functions of bearings.
x Identify the following types of plain bearings and bushes;
Split or shell bearings; taper bearings; footstep bearings;
machine slides; plumber-block bearings; hanger bearings; and
multi-thrust bearings.
x Describe the main parts, practical uses, mounting procedures,
adjustment and operation of all plain bearings.
x State the advantages and disadvantages of plain bearings or
sliding bearings.
x Explain the maintenance of plain bearings by referring to:
o Causes of bearing failures and overheating
o Procedures for taking up wear.
x Categorise plain bearings according to their load carrying
ability, namely, cast iron, bronze, white metal,, nylon and
Tufnell.
x Identify and name the following rolling bearings from a given
drawing:
o Single and double row radial ball bearings.
o Single and double row radial cylindrical roller bearings.
o Single row angular contact ball bearings.
o Spherical or barrel roller bearings.
o Tapered roller bearings.
o Self-aligning or ball and roller bearings.
o Needle roller bearings.
x Discuss the different types of bearing seals, namely, rubber,
metal and pre-packed.
x Identify and name the main components of anti-friction
bearings.
x Describe the installation of anti-friction bearings, namely fitting,
mounting, bearing failures and cleaning.
x Distinguish between the different types of bearings according
to the load they carry.
Name the advantages and disadvantages of anti-friction bearings
154
Learning Outcomes
outcomes:
x Explain and describe the theory of lubrication.

x Discuss the following:
o Properties that lubricants should have
o Choice of lubricants
o Function of lubricants
x Explain the following lubrication terms:

o Rubbing speed
o Rubbing pressure
o Temperature, especially flash point, cold point, burning point, viscosity,
adhesion and cohesion.
x Classify lubricants into three main types: solid, semi-solid and liquid
x Discuss their application and conditions of use.
o Identify, name and categories the following lubrication devices:

o Force or pressure feed lubrication
o Gravity feed
o Grease lubrication
o Splash lubrication (oil bath)
o Full-pressure lubrication
o Explain the reasons for using cutting fluids and cutting oil.
5.1 Introduction
Friction, which is always present where any form of relative motion
occurs, has been defined as the resistance to motion between
two surfaces in contact. Friction in machinery is overcome by
separating the moving surfaces with a fluid film or lubricant, such
as oil (see Figure 5.l).
155
Figure 5.1 (a) Without oil film (b) with oil film
When examining a bearing surface with a microscope, minute peaks and

valleys are visible. Therefore, the smoother and more highly finished the
bearing surface, the thinner the oil film will have to be to keep them
separated.
The running in of a plain bearing is a process of wearing off the high peaks
and filling in the valleys so that the high points or peaks will not penetrate the
oil film.
5.2 The theory of lubrication

When two bearing surfaces are correctly lubricated, they are separated by a
thin film of oil, which is probably 0,025 mm thick. The object of lubricating
surfaces is to eliminate the friction between them and to introduce a fluid
whose reaction to friction is very small.
No matter how smooth the surfaces in contact are made, they always retain
a certain amount of roughness and unevenness, and when one surface slides
over the other, the roughness of the one interlocks with that of the other, and
a force is required to start and to keep up the movement.
Figure 5.2 Action of journal bearing
156
5.2.1 Efficient lubricant

An efficient lubricant is one which is able to hold its thickness of film, and not
be broken down under load or temperature. It must also not offer too much
resistance to motion. The thicker the oil, the greater the fluid friction. The oil
should therefore be "thick"' enough to stop the film being broken, but "thin"
enough not to induce excessive fluid friction.
A lubricant should also not gum up, as it then loses its fluidity and collects dust
and grit. This will then increase friction and wear. It should also be without any
acidity.
5.3 Properties of lubricants

The properties of cohesion and adhesion play an important part in fluid film
formation. Cohesion is the force that holds a substance together. For
example, grease is more strongly cohesive than oil, and oil is more strongly
cohesive than paraffin.
Adhesion is the ability of one substance to cling or stick to another material,

e.g. oil strongly adheres to steel, while water does not. It is worthwhile to
consider what occurs in the oil film between a journal and a bearing.
If it were possible to develop a film pressure with sufficient adhesive strength,

the journal and bearing surfaces would be separated, and the journal would
turn with no interlocking of the protruding parts.
Therefore, with the help of fluid motion, the journal would turn freely with a
minimum of friction. The high adhesive strength of the oil would cause layers
of molecules (very small oil particles) to cling to the two metal surfaces. The
low cohesive strength of the lubricant would allow the molecules in the
intermediate layers (2; 3; 4) to slide away from each other.
5.4 Choice of a lubricant

The following factors should be considered before deciding on a particular
lubricant for a particular application:
1. The price of the lubricant. The price is important as there may be a less
costly lubricant available that will also serve the same purpose.
2. Rubbing speed between the shaft and the bearing. This will affect fluidity
of the lubricant.
3. Rubbing pressure between the shaft and bearing. This will affect the
thickness or viscosity of the lubricant.
4. The temperature at which the lubricant will operate i.e. will the surrounding
temperature be very high or very low?
5. The clearance between the two parts in other words, large clearances
require thicker lubricants while small clearances require a thinner lubricant.
157
5.5 Functions of lubricants

Apart from reducing friction, lubricants also have the following functions:
x Control of wear.
x Control of temperature.
x Control of corrosion.
x Insulate (electric).
x Transmit power (hydraulic).
x Dampen shocks (dashpot).
x Remove contaminants.
x Form a seal (grease).
5.6 Lubrication terms

The following terms are associated with lubrication:
o Viscosity is the resistance to flow or "thickness" of a liquid. The viscosity of

oil decreases with an increase in temperature and increases with a
decrease in temperature.
o Dropping point (grease) is the temperature at which grease passes from a

semi-solid to a liquid state.
o Flash point is the temperature at which oil gives off sufficient vapour to
form a momentarily flammable mixture, with air, when a small flame is
applied.
o Fire point (burning point) is the temperature at which the oil will release
enough vapour to burn continuously when ignited.
o Pour point (cold point) is the lowest temperature at which a lubricant will
pour or flow.
o Grease is a lubricant which is composed of oil and thickened with soap or

some other thickener to a semi-solid or solid consistency.
o Lubricant is any substance that can be introduced between two surfaces

in motion for the purpose of reducing friction and/or wear between them.
o Cohesion is the force that holds a substance together.
o Adhesion is the ability of one substance to cling to another substance.
o Wetting ability is a function of adhesion. A surface which is covered with

suitable oil will retain a film when dipped in water, the water draining off
when removed.
158
o Rubbing speed, at high speeds the lubricant should have very good
fluidity while at low speeds less fluidity is required to prevent waste.
o Rubbing pressure, for heavy loads the lubricant should have a good body
or thickness while a lubricant with less body is required for lighter loads.
5.7 Classification of lubricants

Lubricants may be classified as follows:
o Solid;
o semi-solid; and
o liquid.
5.7.1 Solid
Several types are used, such as: graphite, white lead, talc or soapstone,
mica, etc.
Graphite is the most widely used, as it is not affected by acid or heat. Solid
lubricants are employed in bearings or such parts of machinery which are apt
to be neglected from a lubricating point of view and particularly those which
operate at low pressures and low speeds.
5.7.2 Semi-solid (Grease)

Grease should only be used in special conditions, e.g. in cement mills,
colleries, etc. where there is dust and dirt.
It is used where spattering or leakage is undesirable, such as in food or sweet

factories. It is used on slow running bearings under heavy loads. Rough,
heavy machinery is generally grease lubricated.
5.7.3 Liquid (Oil)

Oils may be classified as animal, vegetable or mineral.
o Animal oil
Lard, sperm oil, tallow, etc.
o Vegetable oil
Castor oil, palm oil, olive oil, linseed oil, etc.
o Mineral oil
It occurs under the surface of the earth in the form of crude petroleum.
Special methods are used to refine and grade the oil. Mineral oils retain their
properties well in air and, if pure do not gum or dry up. A thin light lubricant
such as oil is chiefly used for high speeds and light loads.
5.8 Other purposes of lubricants

Apart from reducing friction, lubricants also serve other purposes, such as:
l. The prevention of corrosion.

159
2. The washing away of particles of dirt or dust.

3. The cooling off of the bearing surface.
Ball and roller bearings do not usually require oil or grease for the purpose of
forming a film between the balls (or rollers) and the tracks. In fact the intensity
of pressure at the points of contact is so high that no film could be
maintained.
However, some lubricant is needed to prevent the highly.' polished surfaces

from rusting, and moreover the lubricant will help in preventing dirt entering
the housing.
5.9 Lubricating devices

These devices are used for supplying a controlled amount of oil or grease to
machine bearings, gears, engine parts, etc. Some of them are quite simple in
construction, whilst others, intended to give a more definite and better
regulated supply, are more complicated.
The five general methods of lubrication are as follows:
x Gravity feed
There are many examples of this method, but the siphon-wick and the sight-
feed lubricator are the most common.
o Siphon wick lubricator

This lubricator is filled with oil to within 10 mm of the top of the central tube;
the wick soaks up the oil by capillary action until it is saturated. The part of the
wick inside the tube is carried on a piece of twisted wire which compresses
the wick and reduces its capacity to retain the oil. Gravity and vibration
cause the oil to drip off the lower end of the wick within the tube. The amount
of lubricant may be adjusted by changing the size of the wick, or by
tightening the twisted wire which encloses it. More strands of the wick are
necessary in cold weather than in hot weather, as the oil is thicker when cold.
(see Figure 5.3)
Figure 5.3 Siphon-wick lubricator

160
o Sight-feed lubricators
This is a device which shows the lubricant passing through a glass tube drop
by drop. The oil flow is regulated by means of the screwed sleeve
immediately below the feed handle. In Figure 5.4 the handle and needle
valve are pulled into the closed position and the screwed sleeve is just clear
of the handle.
Figure 5.4 Sight-feed lubricator

The adjustment of the flow is made when the handle is vertical, and the
round knurled nut is then used to lock the sleeve in the desired position. A
filling hole is provided in the metal cap and dust is kept out by means of a
sliding cover.
o Mechanically-operated sight-feed lubricator

Figure 5.5 shows how the lubricant is forced to the bearing by an eccentric
shaft and plunger. The eccentric shaft is connected to some suitable part of
the machine. The lubricant is fed in as soon as the engine starts; and the oil is
fed in direct proportion to the speed of the engine. No lubricant is fed when
the machine is idle.
161
Figure 5.5 Mechanical operated sight-feed lubricator
o Needle-lubricator
It generally consists of an inverted globe shaped glass vessel, with a stopper
of wood or other suitable material inserted into its neck. The needle passes
through. The stopper is provided with a slight clearance in the hole.
The needle touches the shaft and is long enough to reach about two-thirds
the length of the vessel. (See Figure 5.6)
When the shaft is running, the needle vibrates, and this enables the oil to flow
down through the small annular space between the needle and the stopper.
When the shaft is stationary, the oil ceases to flow. The oil is retained by
capillary action and the flow can be increased by running a file across the
needle – a touch being enough to cause a considerable increase in flow.
Figure 5.6 Needle lubricator

162
x Grease lubrication
Only those plain bearings which move at slow speeds and do not carry
heavy loads should be lubricated with grease, and care should be taken not
to force grease into oil nipples or oil holes.
o Stauffer grease cup

The knurled or fluted cap is filled with grease and screwed down. This forces
grease to the bearing surface. It may be refilled by unscrewing the cap. (See
Figure 5.7)
o Tell-tale grease cup

The fluted upper cup carries a spring-loaded piston. It has a smaller diameter
than the cap, thus preventing the spring action from emptying the cap of its
grease.
Figure 5.7 Stauffer grease cup
The spring-loaded piston pushes the grease on to the part to be lubricated.

The height of the knob above the cap is a guide to when it is necessary to
refill the lubricator with grease. (See Figure 5.8)
Figure 5.8 Tell-tale grease cup
163
x Splash lubrication
With this form of lubrication a stream of oil is continually splashed around the
parts requiring it. Splash lubrication is generally used in the following ways:
ring oiling, oil bath with worm, splashing oil on to cylinders of petrol engines,
etc.
Figure 5.9 Oil “splash: system
x Oil ring lubricator

The rings are in rolling contact with the shaft and dip into the oil at their lowest
part. In operation, oil is brought up by the rings which revolve due to frictional
contact with the shaft.
In this manner the oil is brought up to the top of the bearing and distributed
along the shaft, and then gradually drips back into the oil sump. A drain cock
is provided in the sump to periodically drain the oil away to allow cleaning of
the sump and refilling with clean oil. It is quite clear that no oil will be supplied
to the shaft when it is stationary. (See Figure 5.10)
Figure 5.10 Oil ring lubricator

164
x Splashing oil on to cylinders of a petrol engine

The cylinders and many other parts of the 100 engine obtain their oil by the
"splash" system. Oil is scooped up by the connecting rods as they move
around and a mist of oil vapour fills the entire inside of the engine to lubricate
the various parts. (see Figure 5.11)
Figure 5.11 Oil bath
x Worm and worm-wheel lubrication

The worm is submerged in the oil bath and picks up some of the oil to
lubricate the bearings as well as the meshing faces of the drive (Figure 5.11).
x Forced or pressure-feed lubrication

An oil or grease gun can be used. The hole leading to the bearing surface is
fitted with a nipple on to which the oil gun is pressed and the lubricant forced
to the bearing.
1. A hand pump may be used to force the oil to the bearing surfaces at
intervals by the machine operator, say twice a day.
2. Oil can be delivered to all bearing surfaces by an oil pump, driven by the
machine.
x Full-pressure lubricating system

The full-pressure system (Figure 5.12) lubricates the vital parts of the engine
under full pressure from the oil pump. The parts include the main and
connecting rod bearings, camshaft bearing and piston pin bushings.
165
Figure 5.12 Full-pressure lubricating system
5.10 Applications of lubrication

x Lubrication of sliding surfaces
The lubrication of machine parts such as engine cross-heads, shaping-
machine tables and rams, where the motion is usually of a reciprocal nature,
is generally more difficult than that of journals. A method of fulfilling this task is
shown in Figure 5.13, where the oil is supplied from the sight-feed lubricator.
Figure 5.13 Lubricator for reciprocating motion
166
x Lubrication of reciprocating steam

o Steam cylinders
The function of a steam-cylinder lubricant is to form an oil film which will
reduce friction and wear of sliding surfaces and prevent leakage of
steam past valves, pistons and glades. The normal method of
introducing the oil is to feed it to an atomiser in the steam line where
the oil is broken up in a fine mist and deposited by the steam on to the
working surfaces. This is supplemented by direct feed to piston rod and
valve glands.
o Compressors
Cylinder and crankcase oil is generally the same. Oil of high oxidation
stability is required to prevent the formation of gummy deposits in
contact with air at high temperatures. Low-viscosity oils are preferred.
x Lubrication of steam turbines

Steam turbines are provided with pressure-circulating systems. The oil should
not only provide adequate and dependable lubrication, but should also
serve as a coolant and protect the turbine parts against rust.
x Lubrication of thrust bearings

The oil should be fed at the point of least
pressure, which is at the smaller diameter of
the thrust area.
Centrifugal force will then fling the oil

outwards, away from the shaft portion on to
the thrust collars where it is needed most.
Figure 5.14 Oil feed to thrust bearing
x Lubrication of ball and roller bearings

The main functions of lubricants for ball and roller bearings are:
1. To reduce friction between the various rolling parts of the bearing

2. To assist in dissipating the heat generated within the bearing
3. To protect the highly-polished working surfaces of the bearing from
corrosion and rusting
4. To assist in sealing the bearing against the entry of contaminants such as
dust and moisture.
x Oil lubrication of ball and roller bearings

Oil is generally more effective than grease, provided there are adequate
sealing arrangements. It is applied particularly for high temperatures and high
speed.
167
Viscosity depends on the design and function of the bearing. Oil bath and
splash systems of application are used for slow and medium speeds,
circulating systems 102 for medium speeds, and spray or mist application for
high speeds.
x Grease lubrication of ball and roller bearings

Grease is used as a lubricant where temperatures are not excessive and the
sealing arrangements do not allow for satisfactory oil lubrication.
Figure 5.15 Lubrication of ball and roller bearings
5.11 Using cutting fluids and coolants

Cutting fluids are used in metal machining for a variety of reasons such as
improving tool life, reducing workpiece thermal deformation, improving
surface finish and flushing away chips from the cutting zone. Practically all
cutting fluids presently in use fall into one of four categories:
x Straight oils
x Soluble oils
x Semisynthetic fluids
x Synthetic fluids
Straight oils are non-emulsifiable and are used in machining operations in an

undiluted form. They are composed of a base mineral or petroleum oil and
often contain polar lubricants such as fats, vegetable oils and esters as well
as extreme pressure additives such as Chlorine, Sulphur and Phosphorus.
168
Straight oils provide the best lubrication and the poorest cooling
characteristics among cutting fluids. Synthetic Fluids contain no petroleum or
mineral oil base and instead are formulated from alkaline inorganic and
organic compounds along with additives for corrosion inhibition. They are
generally used in a diluted form (usual consent ration = 3 to 10%). Synthetic
fluids often provide the best cooling performance among all cutting fluids.
Soluble Oil Fluids form an emulsion when mixed with water. The concentrate
consists of a base mineral oil and emulsifiers to help produce a stable
emulsion. They are used in a diluted form (usual concentration = 3 to 10%)
and provide good lubrication and heat transfer performance. They are
widely used in industry and are the least expensive among all cutting fluids.
Semi-synthetic fluids are essentially combination of synthetic and soluble oil

fluids and have characteristics common to both types. The cost and heat
transfer performance of semi-synthetic fluids lie between those of synthetic
and soluble oil fluids.
Cutting oil performs the following four important functions:
x It acts as a coolant for both the cutting tool and the workpiece so that
higher cutting speeds can be used.
x It also acts as a lubricant and reduces the rubbing action between too]
and workpiece.
x It helps to wash away the metal chips and keeps the cutting point dear.
x It helps to give a better finish or surface texture to the completed work.
Activity 5.1
1. Discuss the properties that lubricants should have.

2. Name three types of lubricants.
3. Name three types of solid lubricants.
4. Name three types of grease lubricators.
5. Name three types of oil lubricators.
6. Describe four conditions that should be considered before deciding upon
a suitable lubricant for the job.
7. There are certain requirements that a lubricant should fulfil to carry out its
function efficiently. Name four such requirements.
8. Explain with the aid of a simple sketch what is meant by the theory of
lubrication.
9. What is meant by the:
(i) flash point, (ii) cold point, and (iii)burning point of a lubricant?
10. Apart from reducing friction, lubricants serve other purposes as well. Name
three such purposes.
11. Explain clearly from what sources the various classes of lubricants are
obtained.
12. Explain with the aid of a simple sketch the difference between the
169
cohesive and adhesive properties of a lubricant.

13. Explain with the aid of a simple sketch gravity feed method of lubricating
a shaft bearing.
14. Explain with the aid of a simple sketch the working of any type of
mechanically- operated lubricator.
15. Explain with the aid of a simple sketch how an engine crosshead or a
shaping-machine table would be lubricated.
16. Explain with the aid of a simple sketch the correct way of feeding the oil
on to a multi-collar thrust bearing and explain the reason for this.
17. Name four of the main reasons for lubricating ball and roller bearings.
18. Name six functions of lubricants.
19. Name five factors to consider in the choice of a lubricant.
20. Describe the four important functions cutting oil performs.
Self-Assessment

x Explain and describe the theory of lubrication
x Discuss the following:
o Properties that lubricants should have
o Choice of lubricants
o Function of lubricants
x Explain the following lubrication terms:
o Rubbing speed
o Rubbing pressure
o Temperature, especially flash point, cold point, burning
point, viscosity, adhesion and cohesion.
x Classify lubricants into three main types: solid, semi-solid and
liquid.
x Discuss their application and conditions of use.
x Identify, name and categories the following lubrication
devices:
o Force or pressure feed lubrication
o Gravity feed
o Grease lubrication
o Splash lubrication (oil bath)
o Full-pressure lubrication
x Explain the reasons for using cutting fluids and cutting oil.
170
Learning Outcomes
outcomes:
x List the safety precautions to be taken when working with V-belts and
transmission belts.
x Explain the applications of V-belts.
x List the advantages and disadvantages of V-belt drives when compared
to chain drives and gear drives.
x Identify and indicate the V-belt drive terms and components from given
drawings.
x Explain V-belt drive terms and functions of components.
x Name the common and special V-belt types.
x Make a sectional drawing of the composition of a V-belt.
x Distinguish between V-belt pulleys for single and multi-belt drives using a
simple drawing.
x Describe the following procedures:
o Checking of V-belt sizes and lengths
o Maintenance, fault-finding and diagnosis
o Alignment and tensioning
o Installation of V-belt drives
x Describe the deflection of V-belts.
6.1 Introduction
We use drives to transmit mechanical power from one rotating
shaft to another. This is done by means of a belt, rope; gear or
roller-chain drive.
When you have to choose the best drive for a specific task, you must
consider its advantages, and disadvantages under specific working
conditions. You must also take into account economic factors such as the
following:
x The initial costs of installing a particular drive.

x The maintenance costs.
171
x The working life of a particular drive.
Belt drives are a quiet, smooth, and economical form of power transmission.
They are available in many forms and styles and are widely used in almost all
industries. Belts are made of a combination of fabric, cord, and/or metal
reinforcement vulcanized with natural rubber compounds.
6.2 Safety precautions to be taken when working with V-belts and

transmission belts
x Fit guards to ensure that foreign objects like rags, pieces of metal or wood
and tools do not make contact with the belt.
x Guards are also a safety feature to protect the operator's hands.
x Keep the mesh type of guard free from paper, rags, fluff or mud to allow
sufficient air flow to the drive if it is necessary.
x Do not operate standard belts dose to radiators, furnaces and steam
pipes or inside unventilated guards where they may become overheated.
x Never use lubrication or belt dressing on either V-belts or wedge belts.
x Always lock out and tag equipment according to safety plant policy
before any guard is removed or any work is performed. Ensure that all
safety policies and procedures are strictly followed.
6.3 Applications of V-belts

We use V-belts widely to transmit power from a motor or engine to a specific
machine or unit, such as a fan. We call the motor or engine the driver and
the machine or unit the driven. These endless belts have a trapezoidal cross
section and run in V-shaped grooves. An endless belt is a continuous belt or
conveyor travelling around a set of pulleys. A trapezoidal cross section means
that the cross section of the belt is a four-sided figure with only two parallel
sides.
Because V-belts are dependable on motors onto which pulleys are fitted,
they can be used on machines where the distance between pulleys are not
too far apart- but further apart than gears could handle. The main function of
belts is then also to transfer driving motion from one shaft to another.
V-belts are found on some of the following machines:
• milling machines
• compressors
• lathes
• drilling machines
• pumps
• motor cars (not for primary transmission to wheels anymore)
6.4 Advantages and disadvantages of V-belt drives

6.4.1 Advantages
g of V-belts over chain drives
x They are simple. They are economical.
172
x Parallel shafts are not required.

q
x Overload and jam j protection
p are provided.
p
x Operation
p is silent. Noise and vibration are damped p out. Machinery
y life is
prolonged
p g because load fluctuations are cushioned (shock-absorbed).
x No lubrication is required.
q They
y are lubrication-free.
x Theyy require
q only y low maintenance.
x Theyy are highly efficient (90–98%, usually 95%). Some misalignment is
tolerable.
x They are very economical when shafts are separated by large distances.
6.4.2 Disadvantages of V-belts over chain drives

x The angular-velocity ratio is not necessarily constant or equal to the ratio
of pulley diameters, because of belt slip and stretch.
x Heat buildup occurs. Speed is limited to usually 35 meters per second.
Power transmission is limited to 370 kilowatts (500 horsepower).
x Operating temperatures are usually restricted to -35 to 85°C.
x Some adjustment of center distance or use of an idler pulley is necessary
for wear and stretch compensation.
x V-belts have a shorter life span.
x V-belts cannot be lengthened.
x A means of disassembly must be provided to install endless belts.
6.5 V-belt drive terms and functions of components

Figure 6.1 shows the various components of a V-pulley drive.
Motor
Driver pulley
v Belt
Driven pulley
Figure 6.1 V-pulley drive components
• Drive pulley
It is the pulley that is fitted to the motor from where the driving motion of the
V-belt starts.
173
• Idler pulley
The idler or guide pulley is also a pulley, but its function is not to transfer
energy but to keep the tension of the V-belt constant, to keep it in place and
also increase the arc of contact.
• Driven pulley
This pulley is attached to the working part of a machine - for example: the
spindle of a drilling machine.
• Pulley pitch diameter (effective diameter)

The effective diameter of a pulley is where the velocity of the belt is
measured. It is roughly midway between the outside of the pulley and the
inside step of the pulley.
• Belt pitch length

This is the length of a belt, but measured along the effective pitch line of the
V-belt.
• Arc of contact
It is that portion of the pulley that is in contact with the belt along its
circumference. The larger the arc of contact (the longer the length of belt
that is in contact with the pulley), the higher the power output and the lesser
the likelihood of slip occurring.
• Centre distance
The distance between the centre of the driving pulley to the centre of the
driven pulley is termed the centre distance.
• Span length
This the distance of the belt along the length between the centre of the
driving pulley to the centre of the driven pulley is termed the span length.
Figure 6.2 V-belt terminology
6.7 Common and special V-belt types

The V -belt is the most common type of belt. It has a tapered shape that
causes it to wedge firmly into the groove of the sheave when it is under load.
174
A V-belt works through frictional contact between the sides of the belt and
the tapered sheave groove. Figure 2-1 shows the area of power transmission
of a V -belt.
Figure 6.2 Area of Power Transmission of V-Belt
The six main types of V -belts are the following:
1. Fractional horsepower belts

2. Standard multiple belts
3. Wedge belts
4. Double-angle belts
5. Joined belts
6. Notched belts
6.7.1 Fractional Horsepower Belts

Fractional horsepower (FHP) belts are light-duty belts that are used in
appliances and small machines in industry and in the home. They are usually
used singularly instead of in sets of two or more, as is the case with other types
of V -belts.
The size of FHP V -belts is indicated by a code printed on the outside of the
belt. The first number and letter in the code tell the width of the belt. The next
three numbers in the code tell the length of the belt. FHP belts are measured
on the outside surface of the belt.
6.7.2 Standard Multiple Belts

Standard multiple belts are designed for the continuous service that is
required in industrial applications. As the name implies, standard multiple
belts are used in sets of two or more.
They are used for industrial drives with normal loads, speeds, sheave
diameters, center distances, and operating conditions. A higher grade belt is
used for severe conditions.
The size of standard multiple belts is indicated by a code printed on the belt.
In the code for a standard belt, a letter indicates the width of the belt and a
number indicates the length of the belt.
175
The length of standard belts is measured on the inside surface of the belt. This
is called the standard length designation.
6.7.3 Wedge Belts

The wedge belt is an improved design V-belt that allows a reduction in size,
weight, and cost of V-belt drives.
It is a type of multiple belts but has a smaller cross section per horsepower
rating than standard multiple V-belts.
Also, it can be used on smaller diameter sheaves with shorter center

distances than the standard belt. Wedge belts are not interchangeable with
standard multiple belts and should not be run on sheaves for standard belts.
The code markings for wedge belts are similar to the markings for FHP belts.
The first number and letter of the code indicate the width and cross section
of the belt, and the last three numbers indicate the length of the belt.
A 3V500 belt is defined as a 3V cross section that is 1200 mm long. The length
of a wedge belt is measured along the pitch line, which runs along the
center of the belt thickness.
There is another code, called a match code that is separate from the regular
belt number and is used to match multiple belts. The match code includes
the belt codes and the manufacturer's name.
This code is used to ensure that replacement belts in a multiple belt

application are all the same length. When selecting belts for a multiple-belt
application, the belts must be made by the same manufacturer and have
the same match code.
6.7.4 Double-Angle Belts

Double-angle belts are used on multiple-sheave drives that cause the belt to
have reverse bends that would damage regular V-belts.
Double-angle belts are V-shaped on both sides and can handle reverse
bends and still transmit the required power. Figure 6.3 shows a double-angle
V -belt.
Figure 6.3 Double-Angle V-Belt
176
6.7.5 Joined Belts

Joined belts are standard or wedge V -belts that have a common back
which joins them. They are used to provide extra stability on applications that
experience severe shock loads by preventing the belts from turning over in
the sheaves. The extra support of the back also helps keep all the belts in the
multiple series the same length. Figure 6.4 shows joined belts.
Figure 6.4 Joined Belts
6.7.6 Notched Belts

Notched belts are V-belts that have notches along the inner surface. The
notches allow for more bend in the belt and relieve some of the bending
stress. Notched belts are used on applications where the sheaves are very
small. Figure 6.5 shows a notched belt.
Figure 6.5 Notched Belt

6.8 Standard size of belts
Standard sizes of belts for power transmission have been adopted and
designated by sizes A, B, C, D, and E (Table 6.1).
Designation A B C D E
Top width (W) mm 10 13 17 22 32
Depth (t) mm 6 8 11 14 20
Table 6.1 Standard size of belts
177
6.9 Composition of a V-belt

6.9.1 V-Belts
Belts are made of cord and fabric soaked with rubber. The cord material is
usually cotton, rayon or synthetic due to its strength, durability and flexibility.
Steel is used as cord material in certain timing and variable speed belts.
The cords carry the main tensile load (tension) in the belt, whilst the lower
portion undergoes compression as it supports the cords as the belt passes
over the pulley. The upper portion is in tension. V-belts are used in high speed
drivers operating at speeds so high that a flat belt would be in danger of
coming off the pulley.
The wedging action ensures that the V-belt stays firmly on the pulley.
Figure 6.6 shows the construction of a V-belt which consists of the following:
x An improved heat and oil resistant cover.

x A polyester, nylon or rayon cord.
x A cord support cushion, in which the cord is embedded.
x A fibre loaded base for greater power transmission.
Figure 6.6 Construction of a V-belt
6.8.2 Wedge belts

Another type of belt designed as an improvement on the traditional V-belt is
the wedge belt.
Figure 6.7 shows the construction of the wedge belt which consists of the
following:
• A double cover for extra service and improved heat and oil resistance.
• A polyester or nylon cord for extra strength.
• A cord support cushion, in which the cord is embedded.
• A fibre loaded base for greater power transmission.
178
Figure 6.7 Construction of a V-belt
6.8.3 Differences between the construction of a V-belt and a wedge belt

The wedge belt is an improvement on the V-belt because it has:
• Longer sides.
• More reinforcement.
• A slightly round top surface to improve its stretching ability.
• A double cover for improved heat and oil resistance.
The differences in construction between a V-belt and a wedge belt are:
• The sides or flanks of wedge belts are longer in order to transmit more
power.
• There is more reinforcement in a wedge belt in order to make it a stronger
drive.
• The top surface of a wedge belt is slightly round.
• A wedge belt has a double cover for improved service.
A V-belt drive and a wedge belt drive differ only slightly from each other in
that the groove in the pulley for the wedge belt is slightly deeper than for the
ordinary V-belt. Thus, V-belts and wedge belts can fit in the same groove.
6.9 V-belt pulleys for single and multi-belt drives

Multiple V-belts or wedge belts are usually used for the
transmission of power in heavy-duty loads. 'Multiple'
means that more than one belt is used in the drive.
The number of belts used is determined by the power

the drive has to transmit, because each belt size has a
limit to the amount of power it can transmit at a given
centre distance. Figure 6.8 shows a multi-groove pulley
with grooves for three belts.
Figure 6.8 Multiple wedge or V-belt drive

179
Figure 6.9 shows that a V-belt should run with the top surface approximately
in the same plane or level as the top of the pulley groove. The figure also
shows that there should be a
gap or clearance between
the bottom of the belt and the
base of the groove.
V-belts are used on blowers,

fans, compressors, pumps, belt
conveyors, presses, vibrating
screens and many other types
of machinery.
Figure 6.9 Multiple-groove pulley with belts
6.9.1 Advantages of V-belt and/or wedge belt drives

Advantages of V-belt and/ or wedge belt drives are:
• They can be used over short distances.
• You can buy V-belts in standard sizes and keep them ready for immediate
replacements.
• V-belt drives and wedge belt drives are silent in operation.
• They need very little maintenance.
• They are able to absorb shock-loads.
• They operate at low bearing pressures.
• A number of V-belts running in a multi-groove pulley is suitable for heavy
duty applications.
• If a V-belt breaks in a multiple V-belt drive, the machine can still run on the
remaining belts. However, the drive should receive immediate attention.
6.10 Checking of V-belt sizes and lengths

When checking of V-belt sizes and lengths you need to select a suitable
wedge belt drive, you must carefully consider the following important factors:
• The speed ratio.

• The service factor.
• The design power.
• The belt section.
• The minimum pulley diameter.
• The pulley pitch diameter.
• The centre distance
• The belt length.
• The correction factor.
• The basic power per belt.
• The additional power.
• The corrected power per belt.
• The number of belts required.
180
6.11 Maintenance, fault-finding and diagnosis

Adequate maintenance on V-belts and wedge belts is very important to
ensure optimal operation and a long trouble free belt life.
You must take the following factors for the maintenance of V-belts and
wedge belts into consideration:
• Check for damaged pulley contact surfaces that can cut or damage the
belt.
• Check the condition of the belt and replace it when it has deteriorated.
Belts can deteriorate as a result of the following:
o Small cracks due to excessive heat or chemical fumes.

o Heat caused by slippage.
o Incorrect tensioning of the belt.
o Worn pulleys.
o Fluid contamination that results in the swelling or softening of the belt.
x Follow the correct installation procedures. Avoid using a screwdriver or

steel bar to lever the belt onto the pulley.
x Check the belt deflection at regular intervals, because belts tend to
stretch.
x Check whipping of the belt during running. This can be the result of the
following:
o Incorrect tension, especially on long centre distances.

o Critical vibration frequencies in the system.
x Store replaced sets of belts kept as spares under cool, well ventilated
conditions to guard against over cure and resultant cracking and
premature failure.
x The dressing creates a pull on the driving face or side flanks of the belt as it
leaves the pulley. If you apply dressing to these belts, the jacket or cover
of the belt will be pulled off after a short operating time and cause slip.
Thus, slip must be overcome by:
o Replacing worn pulleys.

o Changing the belt tension.
o Getting rid of dust.
o Correcting the drive.
6.12 Installation of V-belt drives

If a belt is incorrectly installed it can cause excessive wear and uneven loads
on the drive.
181
6.12.1 Centre distances

The centre distance between the driver and driven pulleys for a V-belt or
wedge belt varies from approximately 200 mm to 4 800 mm depending on
the pulley sizes used. A suitable centre distance is determined by the use and
the physical requirements of the drive.
The centre distance can be read from centre distance tables in a catalogue
or manual provided by the manufacturers of the belts. If the centre distance
is not given in the tables, you can consider a drive with the smallest centre
distance approximately equal to D + d.
As indicated in Figure 6.10, D refers to the diameter of the bigger pulley while
d refers to the diameter of the smaller pulley.
Figure 6.10 Centre distance between pulleys
6.12.2 Alignment and tensioning

Aligning shafts and pulleys is crucial to guarantee a trouble free drive. To
check whether the pulleys and shafts are accurately set up and to align the
shafts and pulleys you can hold a steel straight edge against the sides or flat
surfaces of the pulleys.
Figures 6.11 and 6.12 show misalignment of shafts and pulleys. Misalignment
can result in the following:
x Quick wearing of the belt flanks.

x Wearing of the pulleys.
x Uneven loads on the bearings.
x Excessive friction and heat between the belt and the pulley.
The following misalignments occur generally and you must avoid these when
you install the shafts and pulleys:
• The shafts are not parallel to each other, as shown in Figure 6.11.
182
Figure 6.11 Shafts are not parallel
• The pulleys are not aligned as shown in Figure 1.12.
Figure 6.12 Pulleys are not aligned
Figure 6.13 shows the correct way of installation to ensure that the shafts and
the pulleys are parallel and aligned with one another.
Figure 6.13 Shaft and pulleys are parallel and aligned
183
6.12.3 Taking-up allowance, tension and slip on V- belts or wedge belts

Because V-belts and wedge belts are endless and have a fixed length, the
only way to adjust them is
to change the position of
the motor. In other words,
the centre distance
between the pulleys can
be changed.
Figure 6.14(a) Tension on

a V-belt or wedge belt
A common method of
doing this is to mount the
motor on an adjustable
base plate or slide rails.
Figure 6.14(a) shows a
motor that is mounted on
a base plate.
Figure 6.14(b) Base plate

with holes
Figure 6.14(c) shows a stud inserted into a threaded hole in the base plate.
We can move the base plate Stud backward or

forward to adjust the centre distance between the
drive and driven pulleys, or Base plate move the
base plate sideways to align the pulleys. This is done
by using the elongated holes or slots in the base
plate as shown in Figure 6.14(b). We then use studs
to fix the base plate in position.
Figure 6.14(c) A stud in position in
the base plate
By loosening the bolts we can move the driving pulley closer to or further
away from the driven pulley. In this way we adjust the tension on the belt,
either by pulling the belt tighter or allowing the belt to slacken.
The amount of tension in the belt must be sufficient to prevent slip between
the belt and the pulley and to ensure optimal operation. Slip means the
unintentional movement between the belt and the pulley. Slip results in a loss
of power and premature belt failure.
184
Belt deflection is the amount of movement or slackness in the belt. It must be

measured under stationary conditions. To improve tension accuracy the drive
should be run briefly to seat the belt before making the final measurement.
If you look at Figure 6.15, you will

see that a straight edge should
be put across the pulleys to act
as a datum for measuring the
amount of deflection.
Deflection of a belt is calculated

in millimetres on the basis of 16
mm per metre of the centre
distance.
Figure 6.15 Deflection or movement on
a V-belt or wedge belt drive
Deflection in mm = centre distance in mm x 16
V-belt tension gauges are also available.
6.12.4 The use of idlers on V-belts or wedge belts

An idler is a pulley installed between a driving pulley, or driver; and a driven
pulley in order to take up
slack in the belt and to
guide and support the belt.
You should never use idlers
on V-belts or wedge belts in
order to:
• Increase the arc of

contact on the small
pulley as shown in Figure
6.16.
• Increase the tension in
the belt by adding
pressure on the back of
the belt.
Figure 6.16 Position of the idler pulley
The arc of contact on the pulley must be compensated for by:
• Increasing the number of belts in the drive if there is no space to increase

the centre distance.
185
• Using an idler on the inside of the belt. An idler on the back of the belt will
cause cracks in the bottom or base section of the belt. The position of the
idler pulley is shown in Figure 6.16.
Activity 6.1
1. List five the safety precautions that must be considered when working with
belt drives.
2. Identify four uses for belts.
3. Name the types of belts available.
4. Describe the following V-belt terminology:
o Pulley pitch diameter
o Belt pitch length
o Arc of contact
o Centre distance
o Drive pulley
o Driver pulley
o Idler pulley
o Speed ratio
5. Describe the advantages of V-belt and wedge belt drives.
6. Describe the differences between the V-belt and wedge belt in terms of
construction and power transmission.
7. Make neat drawings to show the construction of a V-belt and a wedge
belt and name the materials that are used.
8. What is the purpose of a multiple wedge belt drive?
9. When you install a V-belt or a wedge belt drive, there are certain factors
that you have to take into consideration. List and discuss these factors.
10. Explain the results caused by the misalignment of shafts and pulleys.
11. Name two ways in which the centre distance between the pulleys can be
changed.
12. What is the result of slip on a V-belt or wedge belt drive?
13. Name the reasons why an idler should not be used on a V-belt or a
wedge belt.
14. Describe the factors that you have to take into consideration for the
maintenance of V-belts and wedge belts.
15. Explain the effect of belt dressing on V-belts or wedge belts.
16. During the selection procedure for a wedge belt drive, there are
important factors that you must carefully consider. List these factors.
17. List the five different sections of wedge belts.
186
Self-Assessment

x List the safety precautions to be taken when working with V-
belts and transmission belts.
x Explain the applications of V-belts.
x List the advantages and disadvantages of V-belt drives when
compared to chain drives and gear drives.
x Identify and indicate the V-belt drive terms and components
from given drawings.
x Explain V-belt drive terms and functions of components.
x Name the common and special V-belt types.
x Make a sectional drawing of the composition of a V-belt.
x Distinguish between V-belt pulleys for single and multi-belt
drives using a simple drawing.
x Describe the following procedures:
o Checking of V-belt sizes and lengths
o Maintenance, fault-finding and diagnosis
o Alignment and tensioning
o Installation of V-belt drives
x Describe the deflection of V-belts
187
Learning Outcomes
outcomes:
x List the safety precautions associated with gear drives.

x Explain the application of gear drives.
x List the advantages and disadvantages of gear drives, when compared
with V-belt and chain drives.
x Indicate by using line drawings, the difference between cycloid-and
involute-generated gear teeth profiles.
x Explain the principle of velocity ratio and mechanical advantage in gear
assemblies.
x Explain the purpose of intermediate gears.
x List the factors that determine the correct mesh of gear teeth.
x Distinguish between simple and compound gear trains.
7.1 Introduction
Gears are machine elements, which are used for power
transmission between shafts, separated by small distance.
Irrespective of the type, each gear is provided with projections
called teeth and intermediate depressions called tooth spaces.
Figure 7.1 Typical gear drive
While two gears are meshing, the teeth of one gear enter the spaces of the
other. Thus, the drive is positive and when one gear rotates, the other also
rotates; transmitting power from one shaft to the other.
188
7.1 Safety precautions associated with gear drives

The Occupational Health and Safety Act of 1993 (OHSA) has regulations
aimed specifically at preventing accidents in case of gear drives. The
following should be adhered to:
x All guards and fences provided must be constructed and fitted around
gear drives in accordance with the OSHA, to protect workers from injury.
x Always isolate the gear drive electrically before starting work on the drive
unit.
x Never lubricate machinery while it is in motion unless provision is made in
the design to do so.
x When working near gear drives, make sure that no loose clothing comes
into contact with rotating components.
7.2 Application of gear drives

Unlike belt drives, gears do not slip. A positive speed ratio is therefore
maintained. The speed of rotation of each gear wheel is proportional to the
number of teeth on that gear wheel. Gear drives are used particularly under
the following conditions:
• Where there is limited space.

• Where power must be transmitted.
• Where the direction of the power transmitted must be changed.
x Where varying rotational speeds are required. In other words, where we
want the axles that are driven to rotate at different speeds.
7.2.1 Types of gear drives

Gears can be divided into three main classes:
• Gears connecting parallel shafts.

• Gears connecting shafts with intersecting centre lines.
• Gears connecting shafts at an angle to each other.
Figure 7.2(a) to (h) shows some examples of the gears that fall into these
three categories.
Gears connecting parallel shafts

Gears connecting shafts that are parallel to each other are spur
gears, helical gears, double helical gears, internal tooth wheels
which are also known as internal ring gears, and the rack and
pinion.
x Spur gears
The teeth of spur gears are straight and are cut parallel to the shaft. In other
words, they are at right angles to the centre line of the shaft. Spur gears are
easy and relatively cheap to manufacture.
189
These gears tend to be noisy in operation. When a small gear is used to drive
a larger gear the smaller gear, which is the driver gear, is called the pinion.
The larger gear, which is the driven gear, is called the spur gear. Spur gears
are shown in Figure 7.2 (a)
Figure 7.2 (a)
x Helical gears
The teeth of helical gears are cut at an angle over the circumference of the
wheel. As you can see in the figures, these gears can be single or double
helical gears.
x Single helical gears
A single helical gear is shown in Figure 7.2 (b).
Figure 7.2 (b)
190
Advantages of single helical gears:

o The design of these gears ensures that there are no concentrated loads
on the ends of the teeth during the initial mesh of the teeth.
o Contact between the meshing teeth takes place gradually and smoothly.
o Single helical gears can carry heavier loads than normal spur gears.
o Compared with spur gears of the same width, single helical gears transmit
much more power,
o The drive is smoother and less noisy than the drive of spur gears.
Disadvantages of single helical gears:

o It is difficult and expensive to manufacture single helical gears.
o Thrust bearings have to be fitted to counteract the tendency of helical
gears to push each other axially outward. This is called side thrust.
o Single helical gears are less resistant to corrosion and wear than spur
gears.
x Double helical gears

Double helical gears are designed to overcome and neutralise the side thrust
that occurs when single helical gears are used.
Although double helical gears are expensive and difficult to manufacture,

they are used more frequently than single helical gears. This is because it is
unnecessary to use thrust bearings with double helical gears. A double helical
gear is shown in Figure 7.2(c).
Figure 7.2 (c) Double helical gears
x Internal tooth wheels

Internal tooth wheels as shown in Figure 7.2(d) are also known as internal ring
gears. They are used to transmit power between parallel shafts. The internal
gear and pinion rotate in the same direction. Internal tooth wheels are
particularly suitable for assembling planet gear systems.
191
Figure 7.2 (d) Internal tooth wheels
x Rack and pinion

We use a rack and pinion where rotational movement is converted into linear
movement. The combination consists of a pinion that meshes with the teeth
of a flat strip as shown in Figure 7.2(e). The strip can be seen as a wheel with
an infinite diameter. One example of this drive is the mechanism that lifts and
lowers the work table of a sensitive drilling machine.
Figure 7.2(e) Rack and pinion
Gears connecting shafts with intersecting centre lines

We call gears that connect shafts whose centre lines intersect at a
specific angle, bevel gears.
x Bevel gears
We use bevel gears to transmit movement or power between two shafts that
form an angle with each other. The two shafts are usually mounted at right
angles as shown in Figure 7.2 (f). However, the angle may be any size up to
180°. Bevel gears are used to change the direction of the drive.
192
When two bevel gears with identical dimensions are used and the drive shafts
are.at right angles to each other, it is called mitre gearing.
Figure 7.2 (f) Bevel gears
Gears connecting shafts at an angle to each other

We call gears connecting shafts that lie at an angle to each other
but that are not on the same level, worm and worm-wheel gears
and spiral gears.
x Worm and worm-wheel gears

This system consists of a worm which meshes with a worm-wheel gear as
shown in Figure 7.2 (g). The centre lines of the worm and the worm-wheel
gear are at right angles.
They are not on the same level. The worm-wheel gear is an ordinary helical
gear. The worm looks like an ordinary screw thread.
The teeth of the worm-wheel gear must be curved inward so that they
correspond with the toothed thread of the worm. To keep wear to a
minimum, the worm is made of brass or bronze. The worm-wheel gear is
made of hardened high-carbon steel.
Figure 7.2 (g) A worm and worm-wheel gear
193
Advantages of worm and worm-wheel gears:

o We can greatly reduce their speed. We can obtain a great reduction in
rotation frequency, for example, the 40: 1 ratio of the dividing head of a
milling machine with the system.
o We can change the direction of the drive or rotation.
o The drive is silent in operation.
o We can obtain an increase in drive.
Disadvantages of worm and worm-wheel gears:

o Friction causes a great deal of wear.
o Worm and worm-wheel gears use a lot of power due to the high friction
between them.
o Drive is not possible from the worm-wheel to the worm due to friction
x Spiral gears
Spiral gears are also known as hypoid gears. We use spiral gears to transmit
power between shafts that are not parallel or at right angles to each other as
shown in Figure 7.2 (h).They are used in the differential drives of motorcars.
Figure 7.2 (h) A spiral gear
7.3 Advantages and disadvantages of gear drives

Compared with belt, chain or other drives, gear drives have the following
advantages:
Advantages
x They can be used where space is limited as they are more compact.
x Lubrication is easy. The oil bath type is used most often.
x They require very little maintenance.
x There is a positive drive because there are no belts that can slip.
x Gear drives transmit power directly, without any additional means such as
belts, chains or ropes.
x Gear-wheel systems such as the gearbox of a lathe or a motorcar are
much more compact.
x Gear drives can transmit fairly large amounts of power.
x The radial loads on the bearings of the gear system are low.
194
Compared with belt, chain or other drives, gear drives have the following
disadvantages:
Disadvantages
x Gears are expensive to manufacture and require specialist expertise.
x Gears cannot be repaired.
x Where a continuous supply of lubricant cannot be guaranteed,
lubrication is a problem.
x Their compact nature restricts versatility
7.4 Cycloid-and involute-generated gear teeth profiles

The shape of a gear tooth is designed or generated by assimilating the path
the tooth will take, as 1t meshes with another gear along its circumference.
There are two methods of achieving a gear tooth profile, namely:
7.4.1 Cycloid tooth profile

A cycloid tooth profile is generated from the curve formed by the path of a
point on a circle, as it rolls along a straight line. When this circle rolls along the
outer side of another circle, the curve generated is called an epicycloid.
When it rolls along the inner side of another circle, it is called a hypocycloid.
7.4.2 Involute tooth profile

Involute teeth adhere to the ISO standard of gear tooth design, and are
generated from the curve that is formed by the path of a point on a straight
line, as it rolls along the circumference of a circle.
To understand gear drives, it is necessary to take note of the following terms

related to gear drives as shown in Figure 7.3(a).
Figure 7.3 (a) Gear terms
x Pitch circle diameter (PCD). The pitch circle diameter (PCD), also called
the effective diameter, is the diameter of an imaginary circle concentric
195
with the gear axis which passes through the thickest point on the teeth
and along which the tooth pitch is measured.
x Addendum. The addendum is the radial height of the tooth above the
pitch circle.
x Dedendum. The dedendum is the radial depth of the tooth below the
pitch circle.
x Tooth height. Addendum + dedendum ~tooth height.
x Module. The module m is the ratio between the pitch circle diameter and
the number of teeth on the gear.
M = PCD in mm
number of teeth
x Circular pitch. The circular pitch is the circumferential distance along

the pitch circle between a point on one tooth and a corresponding
point on an adjacent tooth.
x Circular tooth thickness. The circular tooth thickness is measured along
the arc of the pitch circle between the two sides of any gear tooth.
Figure 7.3 (b) Terms related to gear drives
196
7.5 Principle of velocity ratio and mechanical advantage in gear

assemblies
7.5.1 Velocity ratio
Velocity ratio describes the relationship with respect to rotational speed
between two intermeshing gears, or the diver gear at input shaft to the
driven gear at output shaft.
EXAMPLE
Driver gear A rotates at 770 revolutions per minute, and meshes
with driven gear B which rotates at 110 revolutions per minute.
Velocity ratio = speed of driver gear A (770)

speed of driven gear B (110)
= 7
1
Therefore, the velocity ratio (gear ratio) = 7: 1. This means that

the smaller gear makes seven revolutions to one revolution of
the larger gear.
7.5.2 Mechanical advantage

When calculating for velocity or speed, it is best to have a ratio in which the
driver gear is larger than the driven gear. For maximum speed you should
always have a larger driver gear/pulley paired with a smaller driven
gear/pulley.
7.6 Purpose of intermediate gears

Intermediate gears are used to:
x Change direction of the final drive at output, e.g. the reverse gear of a
motor car, as you can see in Figure 7.4.
x They also alter the centre distance between the driver and driven gears.
(a) (b)
Figure 7.4 Intermediate gears
197
An Intermediate gear is also known as an idler gear. An idler-wheel drive is a

system used to transmit the rotation of the main shaft of a motor to another
rotating device.
An idler gear is a gear wheel that is inserted between two or more other gear
wheels. The purpose of an idler gear can be two-fold:
1. Firstly, the idler gear will change the direction of rotation of the output
shaft.
2. Secondly, an idler gear can assist to reduce the size of the input/output
gears whilst maintaining the spacing of the shafts.
An idler gear does not affect the gear ratio between the input and output
shafts.
Take Note:
In the sequence of gears chained together, the ratio depends only
on the number of teeth on the first and last gear. The intermediate
gears, regardless of their size, do not alter the overall gear ratio of
the chain. But, of course, the addition of each intermediate gear
reverses the direction of rotation of the final gear.
x An intermediate gear which doesn't drive a shaft to perform any work is

called an idler gear.
x Sometimes, a single idler gear is used to reverse the direction, in which

case it may be referred to as a reverse idler. For instance, the typical
automobile manual transmission engages reverse gear by means of
inserting a reverse idler between two gears.
x Idler gears can also transmit rotation among distant shafts in situations
where it would be impractical to simply make the distant gears larger
to bring them together.
x Not only do larger gears occupy more space, but the mass and
rotational inertia (moment of inertia) of a gear is quadratic in the
length of its radius. Instead of idler gears, of course, a toothed belt or
chain can be used to transmit torque over distance.
x A gear wheel placed between two other gears to transmit motion from
one to the other. It does not alter the speed of the output, but it does
alter the direction it turns. It is used to ensure that the rotation of two
gears is the same.
x An idler gear is placed between two gears. The idler gear rotates in the
opposite direction as the driver gear, and the follower gear rotates in
198
the opposite direction of the idler, the same direction of the driver. It is
also used to change the spacing between the input and output axles.
x It does not change the gear ratio between the input and output gears.
All the gears and wheels that turn inside the treads of a battle tank are
all idler gears that transfer power from the input gear to the output
gear to move the tread and move the tank forward.
x The power take off mechanism includes a gear train with an input idler
gear, a first intermediate idler gear, a second intermediate idler gear
and an output gear.
x The input idler gear receives a rotary input and the first intermediate
idler gear meshes with the input gear and the second intermediate
idler gear. The output gears transmit rotary power to one of the first and
second axles.
7.7 Factors that determine the correct mesh of gear teeth

The following factors determine are:
x Pitch circle diameter can be determined directly from the centre

distance between meshing gears and the number of teeth.
x Circular pitch is the length of the arc of the pitch circle between
corresponding points from one gear tooth to the next.
x Module is the ratio of the pitch diameter to the number of teeth.
7.8 Simple and compound gear trains

A gear train is two or more gear working together by meshing their teeth and
turning each other in a system to generate power and speed.
It reduces speed and increases torque. Electric motors are used with the gear
systems to reduce the speed and increase the torque.
There are two main types of gear trains (drives):
7.8.1 Simple gear drives

Gears are used for several different purposes, one of the most
important being for the increase or reduction of speed. It is a
well-known fact that if two pulleys of the same diameter are
connected by a belt then they will both revolve at the same
speed.
All these speeds refer to the number of revolutions per minute
(r.p.m.) and not to the speed of the circumference (usually
given in metres per second).
Figure 7.5 Simple gear drive
199
If, however, one pulley is twice as large as the other the ratio of the r.p.m. is
2:1, which means that the smaller pulley will revolve twice as many times as
the larger pulley.
If the larger wheel B, is driving the smaller wheel A, the speed is stepped up or
increased to double the original amount.
However, if the smaller wheel is driving the larger wheel the speed is reduced
by half. This is known as reduction or stepping down.
Exactly the same theory is applied to gearing, as the number of teeth in a

gear varies according to the diameter. Thus if a 60 mm diameter gear has
twenty teeth, then a 120 mm diameter gear to run with it would have forty
teeth, and the speed ratio of the shafts would be 2 : 1. (Figure 7.5)
7.8.2 Compound gear drives

In the compound gear
drive we find the
difference not in the
amount of gears used,
but in the fact that on a
shaft one may find more
than one gear fitted. A
single shaft may serve as
a driver or as a driven
gear to the system.
In the Figure 7.6, the

velocity of gears 1 and 2
must be the same (they
are in mesh). The same
applies to gears 3 and 4.
Figure 7.6 Compound gear train
The rotational speed (revolutions) of gears 2 and 3 must be the same (they
are attached to the same shaft). The first reduction occurs between gears 1
and 2 whilst the second reduction occurs between gears 3 and 4.
A compound gear train can have at least one pair of gears on a common
shaft. Because these gears are mounted on the same shaft, the
circumferential or rotational speed is the same for both these gears. Study the
example of a compound gear train in Figure 7.7.
200
Figure 7.7
Activity 7.1
1. Give four advantages of gear drives in contrast with V-belts and chain
drives.
2. Name the three factors that would determine the use of gear drives in the
industry.
3. Give two reasons why an intermediate gear is used in a gear drive.
4. State two main factors that will determine the correct meshing of gears
when in operation.
5. Name three places where you would use gear drives in industry.
6. Make a neat line drawing of a:
x Simple gear drive

x Compound gear drive.
7. Explain the principle of velocity ratios and mechanical advantage using

different-sized gears in a gear assembly.
8. Make a drawing of at least two gear teeth and show the following on the
drawing:
x Pitch circle diameter.

x Addendum.
x Dedendum.
x Module
x Circular pitch.
x Circular tooth thickness.
9. Explain each of the above terms related to gear teeth.

10. Name the three main groups into which gears can be divided and give
one example of each.
11. Make simple drawings of the following gear drives and explain the
201
constructional features and applications of each:
x Spur
x Helical
x Double helical
12. The drawings below indicate different gear drives. Identify and name
each gear drive and explain the constructional features and applications
of each.
13. List the advantages of gear drives.
Self-Assessment

x List the safety precautions associated with gear drives.
x Explain the application of gear drives
x List the advantages and disadvantages of gear drives, when
compared with V-belt and chain drives.
x Indicate by using line drawings, the difference between
cycloid-and involute-generated gear teeth profiles.
x Indicate by using line drawings, the difference between
cycloid-and involute-generated gear teeth profiles.
x Explain the principle of velocity ratio and mechanical
advantage in gear assemblies.
x Explain the purpose of intermediate gears.
x List the factors that determine the correct mesh of gear teeth.
x Distinguish between simple and compound gear trains.
202
Learning Outcomes
outcomes:
x List the safety precautions associated with chain drives.

x List the advantages and disadvantages of chain drives over belt and gear
drives.
x Identify chain drive components and related terminology from suitable
drawings.
x Explain the various chain drive terms.
x Identify and name common types of chains used in chain drives.
x Identify and explain the construction of the roller chain.
x Distinguish between different types of sprockets.
x Describe under the following headings:
o Chain maintenance, fault finding and diagnosis.

o Alignment and tensioning, including chain deflection.
8.1 Introduction
Chain drive consists of an endless chain whose links mesh with
toothed wheels known as sprockets. Shafts centre distances for
chain drives are relatively un-restricted. Chains are easily installed.
Chain drives do not slip or creep.
As a result, chains maintain a positive speed ratio and are more efficient
because of no slippage. Chain drives are more compact than belt drives. For
a given capacity, a chain will be narrower and sprockets will be smaller in
diameter, thus occupying less overall space. Chains do not deteriorate with
age and can operate at higher temperatures. They are more practical for
low speeds.
8.1 Safety precautions associated with chain drives

aimed specifically at preventing accidents in case of chain breakage.
Important among them is the need to fit covers or guards to:
203
x Protect persons working in dose proximity to a chain drive, in case of chain

breakage.
x Protect machinery; in case of chain breakage o contain lubrication.
x Prevent dirt and moisture from entering the chain mechanism.
• No work is to be done on a chain while the drive is in motion.
8.2 Advantages and disadvantages of chain drives

It will be found that in many cases the roller chain drive can be used to better
advantage than any of the other drives.
• Efficiency. Roller chain drives have an efficiency of about 98 %. Since they

do not slip, they also maintain a positive speed ratio during the entire life
of the chain.
• Versatility. Roller chain drives are equally suitable for short and for long
centre distances, for high and for low speeds, for heavy and for light
loads. Since the chain is symmetrical it can be driven from either side and
also reversed.
• Durability. Since the joint surface pressure is relatively small in comparison

with the power transmitted, and the load is equally distributed over many
sprocket teeth, roller chain drives have a long life. They are robust and
little affected by heat, dust and dirt.
• Reliability. Roller chain drives are elastic because of the ductility of the
link-plates and the cushioning effect of the lubricant in the numerous
chain joints. A short overloading up to 60% of the tensile strength does not
result in plastic deformation. Roller chain drives therefore run satisfactorily
under shock loading conditions.
• Economy. Since a chain drive does not require tension on the slack side, it
imposes lower loads on the shaft bearings. Smaller and cheaper bearings
can therefore be used. A chain drive does not require much space either,
the assembly is simple, and design changes at a later date can be made
at low cost. Roller chain drives have long lives. Original costs and
maintenance costs are low.
• Chain take-ups. On drives where it is not practical to have adjustable

centres, or where longer centre distances might cause the slack side of
the chain to strike an obstruction or 'whip' too much, the installation of a
chain take-up is recommended. The sketches illustrate proper locations for
most efficient operation.
204
8.2.1 Advantages over belt drives

• Chain drives are positive drives. There is no slippage as in belt drives. This
means that chain drives can take up momentary overloads without being
damaged.
• Chain drives last longer than belt drives. They can take exposure to
adverse conditions w1thout much effect on life-span.
• Their conditions of lubrication ensure that no heat is generated by their
moving parts.
8.2.2 Advantages over gear drives

• Chain drives can transmit mechanical movement over long distances.
• They are capable of transmitting motion to more than one drive at a time.
• They are more easily maintained.
8.2.3 Disadvantages of chain drives

• Chains may break without warning.
• They can be noisy.
• When replacing a chain, you must pay attention to the condition of the
sprocket as well.
• They can only be used in one plane. They cannot transmit motion to
perpendicular shafts.
8.3 Chain drive components and related terminology

Chain drives are widely used for power transmission in industry. A chain drive
consists of a driving sprocket, one or more driven sprockets, and an endless
chain that runs around and meshes with the sprocket teeth.
Chain drives maintain a positive speed ratio between the driving and the
driven sprockets because they do not slip or creep. The biggest advantages
that chain drives have over belt drives are their simplicity, economy,
efficiency, and adaptability. The biggest disadvantage of chain drives is their
need for adequate lubrication.
A chain drive is made up of the following components:
x Chain: The chain itself is the biggest component of a drive chain. As its
name implies, the chain is a series of links connected to one another to
make one long cable. One end goes around the pinion gear, which is
attached to the power source while the other end goes around the ring
gear, which is attached to the wheels, thus transferring energy from one
gear to the other.
x Links: Chains tend to come in a variety of lengths; however, they do not

come closed. Unless the front end is attached to the rear end, the chain is
useless. It cannot transfer energy because it cannot pull on either end.
205
The connecting links are therefore a key part of the chain. These are the
links that connect the front of the chain to the rear; the standard links are
made so they can only connect on one end, so a connecting link that
works with both ends is key to holding the chain together.
x Sprockets: The sprockets are what the chain actually wraps around. There
are at least two of these, one connected to the source of the power and
one connected to the power's destination.
Many bikes and all motorcycles have multiple sprockets to compensate

for the different torque needs that the user encounters; a small sprocket
on the pedal and a large one on the rear wheel make it easier to cycle
up a hill as the hard movements on the pedal gear get translated into
speed on the other gear. The purpose of the chain drive is to connect
these sprockets without having them actually touch one another.
o Driver sprocket
This is usually the sprocket connected to the shaft of the drive motor,
either an electric motor or a heat engine.
o Driven sprocket
The driven sprocket is connected to the shaft of the machine to be
driven. It is connected to the driver unit only by means of the chain
that transmits movement to it.
x Idler sprocket
The function of the idler sprocket is to take up any slackness in the chain
that result from chain stretch, a large centre distance, or where the
possibility of adjustment is not practical, because of fixed centre
distances. It is also used to prevent the chain from jumping off a sprocket
because of slackness. Idler sprockets, like belts, are always fitted to the
slack side.
x Sprocket pitch diameter

Sprocket pitch diameter is the imaginary diameter described by the
diameter of the pitch circle that passes through the centres of the link pins
as the chain is wrapped on the sprocket.
x Centre distance
This is the distance between the driver and the drive sprockets.
Figure 8.1 shows the chain drive components and related terminology.
206
Figure 8.1 Chain drive components
8.3.1 Roller Chain Sizing

Roller chain sizing is also standardized. The three principle dimensions used to
size roller chains are pitch, chain width, and roller diameter. Pitch is the
center-to-center distance from one hinged point to the next. Figure 8.2 shows
chain pitch.
Figure 8.2 Roller chain pitch
8.4 Chain drive terms

A roller chain is made by alternately connecting roller links and pin links and
can be made to any length. Figure 8.3 shows the basic parts of a roller chain.
207
Figure 8.3 Terminology and dimensions of a roller chain
Figure 8.4 shows the terms used for a chain link.
Figure 8.4 Dimensions of a roller chain
8.5 Common types of chains used in chain drives

The two most common types of power transmission chains are the following:
• Roller
• Silent
8.5.1 Roller chain

Roller chains are the most commonly used type of power transmission chain.
A roller chain consists of a series of connected links that are an assembly of
pins, rollers, plates, and bushings.
Single or multiple strand rollers

Roller chains can either be single or multiple strands (Figure 8.5). Roller chains
are designated according to the pitch, which is the distance between
consecutive flexure joints. This leads to a further distinguishing factor as two
types exist namely, the single pitch and the double pitch roller chain.
208
Although a small pitch chain carries fewer loads, it is smoother and quieter
than a chain with a longer pitch. The double pitch roller chain is also lighter
and less expensive than the single pitch chain.
Roller chains can be assembled in single strands or multiple strands for

different applications. Multiple-strand chain assemblies are used on drives
that have multiple sprockets. Multiple-strand chains are used to increase the
horsepower of a drive. Figure 8.5 shows a single-strand and a multiple-strand
chain.
Figure 8.5 Single-strand and a multiple-strand chain
8.5.2 Silent chains

Silent chain, also called inverted-tooth chain, is constructed with inverted
teeth that are designed to engage cut-tooth sprockets. Silent chains have
the flexibility and quietness of a belt and the positive action and efficiency of
a chain. The links of silent chains are alternately assembled with either pins or
a combination of joint components. Figure 8.6 shows a silent chain drive.
The regular type of inverted tooth chains has links whose contact faces are
straight and these faces contact a straight tooth profile on the sprocket. The
contact face may also be curved.
Figure 8.6 Silent chain drive

209
There are two basic types of silent chains: the side-guide chain and the
center-guide chain. They are classified according to the position of the guide
plates. Silent chains smaller than 20 mm pitch have side-guide plates; chains
with 20 mm pitch and larger have center-guide plates. Figure 8.7 shows the
two types of silent chains.
Figure 8.7 Two types of silent chains
Activity 8.1
1. What are the two most common types of power transmission chains?
2. Which is the most commonly used type of power transmission chain?
3. Why are multiple-strand chains used on a chain drive?
4. What are the three dimensions used to size roller chain?
5. Which type of chain is also called inverted-tooth chain?
8.6 Construction of the roller chain

The chain consists of a series of roller links joined together by an equal
number of connecting links to obtain an endless drive chain. The pins of the
connecting links could be rivetted or fitted with cotters or springs.
Roller chains are made of case-hardened material. This means that they are
hard on the outside and soft on the inside. The chain operates properly until
the hardened outside material is worn away.
Once this happens, the softer material wears rapidly until the chain fails.
When a chain begins to wear, it stretches. When it has stretched to 2 % over
its original length, it is considered worn out and should be replaced.
Transmission Roller Chains and Sprocket Teeth, which standardizes the way
roller chains are made, no matter which manufacturer makes them. Because
of this standardization, chains and sprockets from different manufacturers are
interchangeable. Identification is also standardized, and replacements can
easily be selected from different manufacturer's stock.
210
Figure 8.8 Construction of a roller chain
8.7 Different types of sprockets

8.7.1 Solid sprocket
This type of sprocket is generally used where the use of spokes is impractical,
such as on the smaller sprockets and on larger sprockets where the chain pull
exceeds the strength of the sprocket with spokes (Figure 8.9).
Figure 8.9 Solid sprocket Figure 8.10 Sprocket with hub
Sprockets without hubs are held onto shafts by a flange. The flange has a
keyway (groove) that is cut into the bore. This keyway matches up to a similar
keyway cut into the shaft. A rectangular or square “Key” is inserted into the
two keyways and prevents unwanted rotation of the shaft.
8.7.2 Sprocket with hub

The hubs can be broached (with keyways), or plain bored, without a
broached keyway. The sprocket set screws are meant to keep the sprocket
from sliding off the hex adapters or the flat portion of the motor shaft.
211
8.7.3 Solid sprocket with spokes

This type of sprocket is generally used where larger sprockets are required
(Figure 8.11). The use of spokes is to reduce the weight of the sprocket, to
facilitate handling and lower manufacturing costs.
Figure 8.11 Solid sprockets with spokes
8.7.4 Sprocket wheels on chain drives

We use three different sprocket wheels on a chain drive:
• The driver or power sprocket that is attached on the motor shaft, also
called the pinion. It is normally the smaller sprocket.
• The driven sprocket that is attached to the driven shaft that receives the
driving motion from the chain. It is normally the bigger sprocket.
• The idler or jockey sprocket. This sprocket is used to take up slack in the
chain where there is a distance between the shafts or, when no
adjustments are possible, between the centres of the driver and pinion.
• When you position the idler sprocket, as seen in Figure 8.12, you must
consider the following important factors:
o Place the idler sprocket on the slack or unloaded side of the drive.
o Place the idler sprocket near the driven sprocket.
o If possible, place the idler sprocket on the outside of the chain.
o The idler sprocket must have a chain contact of at least three teeth.
o There must be at least four chain pitches between the idler sprocket
and the nearest sprocket.
o The number of teeth in an idler sprocket should not be less than that in
the smallest sprocket wheel.
212
Figure 8.12 Position of the idler sprocket
8.8 Chain maintenance, fault finding and diagnosis

To achieve long life and to reduce the periods of repair the roller chain drive
must be properly maintained like any other operating machine section.
Periodic inspections, possibly along with those for driven equipment, should
therefore be made.
Experience will show whether this is sufficient or whether another inspection

schedule will have to be followed.
As for all new equipment during the run-in period some adjustments may be
necessary for the roller chain drive. Therefore make more frequent inspections
during that time and check the following points:
• Alignment of shafts and sprockets. Do not depend on wear signs alone in

judging shaft and sprocket alignment, since poor alignment may be
detected before wear becomes apparent.
• Wear on sprocket teeth. The working faces of the sprocket teeth should
have a bright and polished appearance. Scratches, grooves or changes
in the tooth form indicate trouble, e.g. the rollers may not rotate properly
owing to inadequate lubrication.
• Elongation of chain. Gradual elongation is the result of normal wear. An

elongation of about 3% indicates that the chain will soon jump the
sprocket teeth. A certain increase in slack can be attributed to improper
lubrication, continuous overload, heavy loads, or axial displacement of
take-ups.
• Repairs. Normal repairs consist of taking out links to shorten the chain
which has been elongated.
o Never insert a new link in a chain which has already become

elongated by wear.
213
o Never use a new chain on a worn-out sprocket, since this reduces

chain life considerably.
• Cleanliness of chain. Even under the best operating conditions it may be

advisable to clean the chain from time to time, especially when it runs in a
dusty atmosphere. Put the chain in a diesel oil bath and subsequently dip
it into a lubricant until air bubbles cease to come up. Then it can be safely
assumed that the lubricant has penetrated into all clearances.
8.9 Alignment and tensioning, including chain deflection

8.9.1 Installation and maintenance on chain drives
Careful and accurate installation is essential for trouble-free operation and
long life. The following instructions should therefore be carefully observed.
When you install and maintain chain drives, you have to consider the
following factors:
• The alignment of the shafts

The shafts must be exactly parallel and level as shown in Figure 8.13.
Shafts that are not parallel will result in side loading. This will lead to chain and
sprocket wheel failure. Bearing foundations and bearings must be firm so that
the shafts stay rectilinear or in line with each other
Figure 8.13 Alignment of shafts Figure 8.14 Alignment of sprocket wheels
x The mounting of the sprocket wheels

The sprocket wheels must be exactly aligned on the shafts. As shown in Figure
8.14 we can use a straight edge against the sides of the sprocket wheel
faces to ensure accurate alignment.
After the sprocket wheels have been properly aligned they must be locked
into position to prevent axial movement or movement along the longitudinal
axis of the sprocket wheels and shafts.
x The mounting of the chain

The chain must be wrapped around the sprocket wheels and the two ends
brought together on one of the sprocket wheels. The two ends are now
214
connected by using a connecting link. Figure 8.15 shows the cotter, off-set
and spring types of connecting links. The tension on the chain must now be
checked and corrected if necessary.
Connect the ends of the chain, using a connecting link, which is also known
as a master link or a half link, to make it an endless chain.
Figure 8.15 Connecting links
Install the chain around the sprockets, with the ends coming together on the
larger sprocket. Figure 8.16 shows installing the chain.
Figure 8.16 Installing the chain
Adjust the chain drive so that all of the chain slack is on top of the drive.
Place a straightedge on the chain from one sprocket to the other, and
measure from the straightedge to the chain to check the chain tension.
Take Note
The sag should be measured midway between the sprockets.
Chain tension should be such that the chain sags approximately 2%
of the distance between the shaft centers. If the sprockets are too
far apart to use a straightedge, piano wire can be used instead.
Figure 8.17 shows measuring chain tension. The general rule about
chain wear is that a chain should be replaced when the
percentage extension reaches 2% of its length.
215
Figure 8.17 Measuring chain tension
x Tension in chain drives

There is no fixed rule with regard to the tension in chain drives. The following
factors largely determine the recommended tension:
o The position of the drive, that is, whether the drive is horizontal or vertical.
o The length of the chain.
o The type of work that the drive must perform.
o Whether it is a steady or shock drive.
The tension on the chain must be correct for the chain drive to function
effectively. As a guideline we use the constant factor K to determine the total
movement A on the slack side of the chain if the other side of the chain is
stretched tight. The constant factor K for a smooth drive is 25.
The constant factor K for a shock drive is 50.
We use Figure 8.18 and the following formula to calculate the distance of
travel of the chain on the slack side:
Total movement A in mm = horizontal centre distance B in mm

K
Where: K = 25 for smooth drives

K = 50 for shock drives
Figure 8.18 Adjustment of chain tension

216
This also means that the total movement, or slack, on the chain for a smooth
drive is 4% of the centre distance and 2% of the centre distance on shock
drives. This slack can be measured by a straight edge and a ruler as shown in
Figure 8.19.
Figure 8.19 Measuring chain slack
If the chain is stretched too tight, it will have the following negative effects:
o The loads on the moving parts will be greater.

o There will be more rapid wear on the chain and sprocket wheels.
o The nominal length of the chain will increase.
o With good lubrication the oil forms a buffer which prevents the metal
from making full contact. This prevents wear. If the chain is too tight,
however, the oil buffer is destroyed.
If the chain is too slack it causes vibration. This can also have a negative
effect on the drive.
8.9.2 Centre distance on chain drives

The centre distance between the sprocket wheels must be at least 30 to
50 times the distance of the chain pitch.
8.10 Lubrication on chain drives

Lubrication is a vital aspect of maintenance. The life of a chain depends
directly on how well it is lubricated. When you lubricate the chain properly,
the lubricant forms a wedge between the joints of the chain and metal
contact is kept to a minimum Viscosity is the resistance of a fluid to flow.
The viscosity of heavy oils and grease is generally so high that it prevents
them from penetrating the working surfaces of the chain. Use good
petroleum-based oil which penetrates to the chain joints to protect chain
drives against dust and moisture.
Where possible, apply the lubricant to the bottom part of the chain before
the chain engages the sprocket wheel. During motion, the centrifugal force
causes the lubricant to penetrate into clearances that must be lubricated. A
centrifugal force is a force that acts during rotation from the centre outwards.
217
The purpose of effective lubrication is as follows:
x It separates the pins and rollers from each other and thereby decreases
friction.
x It absorbs shocks by providing a cushion effect between the pins and
bushes, and between the chain and sprocket wheel.
x It cools the chain.
x It cleans the chain.
Figure 8.20 Lubrication of surfaces and clearances
8.10.1 Methods of lubrication of a chain drive

There are four basic methods of lubrication which are generally
recommended:
1. Manual lubrication: For speeds up to 30 metres per minute. Oil should be

applied periodically with a brush or spout can, preferably on every 8 hours
of operation
Figure 8.21 Manual lubrication Figure 8.22 Drip-feed lubrication
2. Drip-feed lubrication: For speeds up to 100 metres per minute. A drip

lubricator is required to direct 4 to 10 oil drops per minute between the link
218
plates of each chain strand. Depending on operating conditions this

method may also be employed periodically.
3. Oil-bath lubrication: For speeds up to 500 metres per minute. With oil-bath
lubrication the lower strand of the chain runs through an oil bath. The oil
level should only reach up to the pitch line of the chain at its lowest point.
Figure 8.23 Cover around chain drive (oil-bath lubrication)
4. Oil-stream lubrication: For speeds over 500 metres per minute. Oil-stream
lubrication is the most efficient lubricating method. The lubricant is
supplied by a circulating pump or a central lubricating system. The oil
should be directed at the lower strand.
Figure 8.24 Oil-stream lubrication

8.11 Factors to consider when using chain drives
The following factors are very important when you use a chain drive:
• The length of the chain link, which is called the chain pitch. Remember
that the smallest pitch possible gives the most economical drive.
• The speed at which the chain drive can operate. Each chain pitch has a
maximum pinion speed. These maximum speeds 'are set out in standard
tables in the manufacturers' catalogues.
• The number of teeth on the sprocket wheels. A sprocket wheel must not
have more than 150 teeth. A chain drive depends directly on the
minimum number of teeth in the pinion because it is directly related to a
smooth, uniform flow of power, the quietness of the operation and the
efficiency of the drive.
• The centre distance between the sprocket wheels must be at least 30 to
50 times the distance of the chain pitch.
219
• The position of the drive. The tight side of the belt can be at the top or at
the bottom of the drive. However, in the case of a vertical drive the pinion
should be at the top.
• The power or torque that must be transmitted.
• The type of unit that must be driven.
• The space that is available.
• The conditions under which the drive has to function, for instance clean,
dirty or wet conditions.
• The method of lubrication which depends on the load on the chain and
the operating duration.
• Whether the load is even or stopping and starting again.
• The ratio between the magnitude or size of the load and the size of the
chain.
8.11.1 Slip on chain drives

Roller-chain drives are used to transmit power from one shaft to another
when a positive transmission is desired. This means that no slip is allowed.
Roller chains are therefore 98 to 99% effective. A good example of where a
positive transmission is required is the timing chain on a motorcar engine.
Activity 8.2
1. Explain the principle on which roller chain drives operate.

2. State two uses of chain drives.
3. What is the main difference between a roller chain and leaf chain?
4. Make a sketch of a single link of a roller chain and name all the parts.
5. Why would spokes be used in sprockets?
6. What is the use of an idler sprocket?
7. List and discuss the factors to take into consideration when using chain
drives.
8. List the different sprocket wheels used on chain drives.
9. Explain the factors that must be considered when positioning the idler
sprocket.
10. Discuss 'slip' on chain drives.
11. List the factors that determine the recommended tension in chain drives.
12. Name the negative effects of a chain that is stretched too tight.
13. List and discuss the factors that you must take into account when you
install and maintain chain drives.
14. Explain the purpose of effective lubrication on chain drives.
15. Make a cross-sectional drawing showing the surfaces and spaces of a
chain that must be lubricated.
16. The figure below shows the different components of a roller chain. List
these components as indicated.
220
17. Make a neat sketch of a section of a single strand roller chain in position
on the sprocket. Indicate the names of the various parts.
18. Summarise the general advantages of roller chain drives over belt drives.
19. With the aid of simple sketches explain three methods that may be used
to lubricate roller chain drives.
20. With the aid of a simple sketch explain how a chain take-up is applied to
control the slackness of a roller chain.
Self-Assessment

x List the safety precautions associated with chain drives.
x List the advantages and disadvantages of chain drives over
belt and gear drives.
x Identify chain drive components and related terminology from
suitable drawings.
x Explain the various chain drive terms.
x Identify and name common types of chains used in chain
drives.
x Identify and explain the construction of the roller chain
x Distinguish between different types of sprockets
x Describe under the following headings:
o Chain maintenance, fault finding and diagnosis.
o Alignment and tensioning, including chain deflection.
221
Learning Outcomes
outcomes:
• List the safety precautions associated with gear drives.

• Explain the application of reduction gearboxes.
x Identify, name and label the main components of the following:
o Single and double reduction gearboxes.
o Worm and worm-wheel reduction gearboxes.
• Describe their operation using line drawings.
9.1 Introduction
The speed of an electric motor is frequently too great for direct
coupling to a pump, machine, conveyor belt, bucket elevator,
etc. To overcome this problem a reduction gearbox is fitted
between the electric motor and the machine to bring the speed
within the required limits.
9.2 List the safety precautions associated with gear drives

aimed specifically at preventing accidents in case of reduction gearboxes.
The following safety measures must be adhered to:
x Before commencing work on a gearbox, ensure that the drive is

electrically isolated.
x Once the gearbox is uncoupled from the drive, place it on a workbench
and, if possible, bolt it down for easy stripping and assembly.
x Drain the oil from the gearbox sump before dismantling.
x When dismantling, mark the gearbox covers according to the appropriate
position to the main casing. This can be done by letter stamping or by
using a centre punch.
x When removing shims, use string to tie them together, taking care to label
them according to location.
x Check gears and bearings for wear.
x Check grease nipples for blockage or damage, which may disrupt
effective lubrication.
222
x During routine maintenance, check the following:

o oil level of main sump
o lubricating nipples for efficiency
o bearing noise, an indication of bearing failure.
9.3 Application of reduction gearboxes

Why is a reduction gearboxes used?
To understand why a reduction gear is used in particular machinery we will
take an example of a ship using high speed turbines.
It is a basic requirement of a ship that in order to have high efficiency the

steam turbine should operate at a relatively high range of rpm.
However, the effective functioning of a propeller requires a relatively low rpm

range. For this reason, a reduction gear is used, which reduces the high
speed motion of the steam turbine into low rpm range required by the
propeller.
Reduction gearboxes are also used in:

x hoisting machinery
x food-processing machinery
x conveyor systems
x radar and telecommunications systems.
9.4 Types of reduction gearboxes

There are mainly two types of reduction gears:
x Single reduction gearboxes
x Double reduction gearboxes
9.4.1 Single and double reduction gearboxes

This arrangement consists of only one pair of gears. The reduction gear box
consists of ports through which the propeller shaft and engine shaft enters the
assembly.
A small gear known as a pinion is driven by the incoming engine shaft. The
pinion directly drives a large gear mounted on the propeller shaft.
The speed is adjusted by making the ratio of the speed reduction to the
diameter of pinion and gear proportional. Generally, a single gear assembly
has a gear double the size of a pinion. A reduction gear is an arrangement
by which an input speed can be lowered for a requirement of slower output
speed, with same or more output torque. Reduction gear assembly consists
of a set of rotating gears connected to a wheel work.
The high speed incoming motion from the wheel work is transmitted to the set
of rotating gears, wherein the motion or torque is changed. The number of
223
gears used in the reduction gear assembly depends on the output speed
requirement of the application. The reduction gear assembly is usually known
as reduction gear box.
Figure 9.1 Single reduction gearbox
9.4.2 Double reduction gearboxes

Double reduction gears are generally used in applications involving very high
speeds. In this arrangement the pinion is connected to the input shaft using a
flexible coupling. The pinion is connected to an intermediate gear known as
the first reduction gear. The first reduction gear is then connected to a low
speed pinion with the help of one more shaft. This pinion is connected to the
second reduction gear mounted directly on the propeller shaft. Such
arrangement facilitates the reduction of speed to a ratio as high as 20:1.
9.4.2 Worm and worm-wheel reduction gearboxes

The worm wheel is of phosphor bronze (Figure 9.2 (a) and (b)). The worm itself
is made from high tensile case-hardened alloy steel. The motor shaft can be
directly coupled to the worm shaft, thus giving a smooth trouble-free
reduction via the worm and worm wheel drive.
(a) (b)
Figure 9.2 Worm reduction units
224
x Advantages of worm reduction units

o They are easily mounted directly on the machine shaft and at any
angle.
o Couplings are limited to a minimum.
o Bed plates and foundations are eliminated.
o Automatic splash lubrication is provided to bearings.
Activity 9.1
1. During routine maintenance of a reduction gearbox, make a list of what

should be checked.
2. List FOUR safety precautions associated with gear drive.
3. Name the two main components of a reduction gearbox.
4. Reduction gearboxes are used in what applications?
5. Make a neat sketch of a worm and worm-wheel reduction gearbox,
indicating four main parts.
6. Why is a reduction gearbox used in an industrial plant?
7. Is it true that an increase in torque usually goes hand in hand with an
increase in speed?
Self-Assessment

• List the safety precautions when working with reduction
gearboxes.
• Explain the application of reduction gearboxes.
x Identify, name and label the main components of the
following:
o Single and double reduction gearboxes.
o Worm and worm-wheel reduction gearboxes.
• Describe their operation using line drawings.
225
Learning Outcomes
outcomes:
x Explain the function of a valve and how it works

x Identify, name and label the following valves used in water, gas, steam
and high air-pressure installations:
o Gate valve
o Diaphragm valve
o Safety valves for gas and steam pipelines
o Relief valves for liquids
o Non-return valve
o Butterfly valve
o Ball valve
o Foot valve.
x Describe how the above valves work.
10.1 Introduction
Fluids within a piping system need to be controlled, regulated, and
directed; hence the need for valves. A valve is a device that
regulates, directs or controls the flow of a fluid (gases, liquids,
fluidized solids, or slurries) by opening, closing, or partially
obstructing various passageways.
Valves are technically pipe fittings, but are usually discussed as a separate
category. In this module we will discuss various types of valves used in water,
gas, steam and high air-pressure installations. Also describe the functions and
how they work.
10.2 Explain the function of a valve and how it works

Valves are manufactured in numerous sizes, body styles, and pressure ratings
to meet a wide variety of application needs. Valves are also manufactured
226
with varying types of end preparations that allow them to be readily mated
to flanges or pipe of the same size and rating.
Valve end preparations can be screwed, socket-weld, beveled, or flanged.

Flanged valves are manufactured to have either raised, flat, or ring-type joint
faces.
Valves are used in piping systems to stop or regulate the flow of liquids and
gases. We will discuss a few that are commonly used in the piping industry.
Figure 10.1 Basic parts of a valve
A valve is a mechanical device that controls the flow of fluid and pressure
within a system or process. A valve controls system or process fluid flow and
pressure by performing any of the following functions:
x Stopping and starting fluid flow

x Varying (throttling) the amount of fluid flow
x Controlling the direction of fluid flow
x Regulating downstream system or process pressure
227
x Relieving component or piping over pressure
There are many valve designs and types that satisfy one or more of the
functions identified above. A multitude of valve types and designs safely
accommodate a wide variety of industrial applications.
Regardless of type, all valves have the following basic parts: the body,
bonnet, trim (internal elements), actuator, and packing. The basic parts of a
valve are illustrated in Figure 10.1
10.2.1 Classification of valves

The following are some of the commonly used valve classifications, based on
mechanical motion:
x Linear Motion Valves. The valves in which the closure member, as in gate,
globe, diaphragm, pinch, and lift check valves, moves in a straight line to
allow, stop, or throttle the flow.
x Rotary Motion Valves. When the valve-closure member travels along an
angular or circular path, as in butterfly, ball, plug, eccentric- and swing
check valves, the valves are called rotary motion valves.
x Quarter Turn Valves. Some rotary motion valves require approximately a
quarter turn, 0 through 90°, motion of the stem to go to fully open from a
fully closed position or vice versa.
Fluid power valves fall into three groups, they are:
x directional control
x pressure control
x flow control
10.3 Types of valves

Because of the diversity of the types of systems, fluids, and environments in
which valves must operate, a vast array of valve types have been
developed.
Examples of the common types are:
x Gate valve
x Diaphragm valve
x Safety valves for gas and steam pipelines
x Relief valves for liquids
x Non-return valve
x Butterfly valve
x Ball valve; and
x Foot valve Globe valve
228
Each type of valve has been designed to meet specific needs.
Some valves are capable of throttling flow, other valve types can only stop
flow, others work well in corrosive systems, and others handle high pressure
fluids.
Each valve type has certain inherent advantages and disadvantages.

Understanding these differences and how they affect the valve's application
or operation is necessary for the successful operation of a facility.
Although all valves have the same basic components and function to control
flow in some fashion, the method of controlling the flow can vary
dramatically. In general, there are four methods of controlling flow through a
valve.
1. Move a disc, or plug into or against an orifice (for example, globe or

needle type valve).
2. Slide a flat, cylindrical, or spherical surface across an orifice (for example,
gate and plug valves).
3. Rotate a disc or ellipse about a shaft extending across the diameter of an
orifice (for example, a butterfly or ball valve).
4. Move a flexible material into the flow passage (for example, diaphragm
and pinch valves).
Each method of controlling flow has a characteristic that makes it the best
choice for a given application of function
10.3.1 Gate valve

The gate valve is the most frequently used valve in piping systems. Gate
valves are used to control the flow of liquids. It is a general service valve that
is used primarily for on-off, non-throttling applications.
When fully opened, the gate valve creates minimal obstruction to the flow.
Gate valves control the commodity flowing through the pipe with a flat,
vertical wedge, or gate, that slides up or down as the valve's hand wheel is
turned.
As the hand wheel is rotated, the wedge will slide through the valve body to
block or release the flow. The wedge, or gate, lifts to allow full, unobstructed
flow and lowers to stop it completely (see Figure 10.2). These valves are
normally used where operation is infrequent and are not intended for
throttling or close control.
The construction of a gate valve is similar to that of a floodgate: flow is

controlled by raising or lowering the valving element, which is generally
available in three different types: solid (plain), flexible, and split. The latter
229
two types help prevent the valving element and body from being deformed
due to various operating conditions.
Like ball valves, gate valves are not usually used to regulate flow. One of the
reasons for this is because the valving element can be damaged when in the
partially open position.
Similarly, they also limit the pressure drop across the valve when fully open.
However, setting the valve to the fully open or closed position requires the
handle to be turned many times, which generally makes these valves have
the longest operating times among those valve types mentioned here.
Figure 10.2 Gate valve
10.3.2 Diaphragm valve

Diaphragm valves use a 'pinching' method to stop the valve flow using a
flexible diaphragm. They are available in two types: weir and straight-way.
The most commonly seen of the two is the weir-type. This is because the
straight-way type requires additional stretching of the diaphragm, which can
shorten the diaphragm’s life-span.
One of the major advantages of using diaphragm valves is that the valve
components can be isolated from the process fluid. Similarly, this construction
helps prevent leakage of the fluid without the use of a gland seal (packing)
as seen in other types of valves.
One the other hand, the diaphragm becomes worn more easily and regular
maintenance is necessary if the valve is used on a regular basis. These types
230
of valves are generally not suited for very high temperature fluids and are
mainly used on liquid systems.
Figure 10.3 Diaphragm valve
Take Note: There exists a valve for steam systems that goes by a
similar name. It is an automated valve with a diaphragm type
actuator. This is often shortened to just 'diaphragm valve', so when
a valve is referred to by this name, care must be taken to verify
which type of valve it is.
10.3.3 Safety valves for gas and steam pipelines

The function of a pressure relief valve is to protect pressure vessels, piping
systems, and other equipment from pressures exceeding their design pressure
by more than a fixed predetermined amount. The permissible amount of
overpressure is covered by various codes and is a function of the type of
equipment and the conditions causing the overpressure.
It is not the purpose of a pressure relief valve to control or regulate the

pressure in the vessel or system that the valve protects, and it does not take
the place of a control or regulating valve.
The aim of safety systems in processing plants is to prevent damage to

equipment, avoid injury to personnel and to eliminate any risks of
compromising the welfare of the community at large and the environment.
Proper sizing, selection, manufacture, assembly, test, installation, and
maintenance of a pressure relief valve are critical to obtaining maximum
protection.
231
Figure 10.4 Safety valve
10.3.4 Relief valves for liquids

Relief valves are typically used for incompressible fluids such as water or oil.
Safety valves are typically used for compressible fluids such as steam or other
gases. Safety valves can often be distinguished by the presence of an
external lever at the top of the valve body, which is used as an operational
check.
The function of relief valves is to relieve the pump and to protect it and the
system from becoming overloaded. When the in the pressure in the system
reaches a certain pressure, the relief valve spills oil back to the reservoir. An
example in the home is relief valve of the hot water cylinder, which acts as a
safety device to prevent over- pressurization.
232
Figure 10.5 Relief valves
10.3.5 Non-return valve

These valves serve one specific purpose which is to allow for fluid flow in one
direction only. Usually, a valving member that is under spring pressure
prevents the reversal of flow.
They are used in water pump systems and hydraulics. The check valves or
non-return valves are used for preventing flow reversal. Typical piping in the
plant requires that fluid should not flow in the backward direction, for e.g.
pumps discharge, wellhead piping, etc.
Figure 10.6 (a) and (b) shows applications of the non-return valve.
(a) Open position (b) Closed position
Figure 10.6 Non-return valve
233
10.3.6 Butterfly valve

In butterfly valves, the flow is regulated through a disc-type element held in
place in the center of the valve by a rod. Similar to ball valves, valve
operation time is short because the valving element is simply rotated a
quarter turn (90°) to open or close the passageway.
Figure 10.7 butterfly valve
Butterfly valves are characterized by their simple construction, lightness in

weight, and compact design. Their face-to-face dimension is often extremely
small, making the pressure drop across a butterfly valve much smaller than
globe valves (see below).
Materials used for the valving element and sealing can limit their applications
at higher temperatures or with certain types of fluids. Butterfly valves are
often used on applications for water and air, and in applications with large
pipe diameters.
10.3.7 Ball valve

The ball valve is an inexpensive alternative to other valves. Ball valves use a
metal ball with a hole bored through the center, sandwiched between two
seats to control flow.
Used in many hydrocarbon process applications, ball valves are capable of

throttling gases and vapors and are especially useful for low flow situations.
These valves are quick opening and provide a very tight closure on hard to
hold fluids (see Figure 10.8).
234
Ball valves do not use a hand wheel but instead use a wrench to control the
flow. A 90° turn of the wrench opens or closes the valve.
These valves, shown in Figure 10.8, open and dose in a quarter of a turn of
the handle, which may be either a hand wheel or straight handle. ln the case
of the straight handle, it is possible to know if the valve is open or closed by
the position of its handle. If it is open, the handle is in line with the flow. If it is
dosed, the handle will be at 90° to flow direction. The valves consist of a ball,
with a hole bored through its centre, that has a soft seal for leak-proof sealing
when closed. They allow for full-bore flow at medium to high pressure.
Figure 10.8 Ball valves
10.3.8 Foot valve

Fool valves prevent water from flowing out of a pump when the pump is
stopped, to prevent priming of the pump whenever it is restarted. They are
235
therefore non-return valves that are normally fitted with an integral strainer, as
you can see in Figure 10.9 (a) and (b).
Figure 10.9 (a) Foot valve and strainer Figure 10.9 (b) Foot valve in position
Activity 10.1
1. Explain and list FIVE functions of valves.

2. Make a freehand drawing in good proportion of a typical valve showing
the basic parts.
3. Valves are classified into THREE groups based on the mechanical motion.
Describe them.
4. List EIGHT types of valves.
5. Describe the uses and how they work of the above.
Self-Assessment

x Explain the function of a valve and how it works
x Identify, name and label the following valves used in water,
gas, steam and high air-pressure installations:
o Gate valve
o Diaphragm valve
o Safety valves for gas and steam pipelines
o Relief valves for liquids
o Non-return valve
o Butterfly valve
o Ball valve
o Foot valve.
x Describe how the above valves work.
236
Learning Outcomes
outcomes:
x Explain the function of packing and seals

x Name and give a brief description of the materials used as packing and
seals for water, air and steam.
x Describe the installation of seals and O-rings in hydraulic and pneumatic
assemblies.
x Describe the method of packing a stuffing box which includes packing
with and without a lantern ring, as well metallic packing for steam
assembly.
x Identify, name and label the main parts and state where the following
joints and bends are used in industry:
o Flange joints
o Expansion joints
o Continuous expansion bends
o Packed expansion joints
o Corrugated expansion joints
x State the reasons for:
o Furling of flange joints
o Using jointing materials
o Lagging of water and steam pipelines.
11.1 Introduction
A stuffing box serves to accommodate packing and prevent the
escape of liquid or gas past a rotating or reciprocating shaft or
rod. It also supports and guides the rod. The gland pushes the
packing together, holds it in position and prevents leakage
237
The fitter in the mechanical, engineering and related fields must be

acquainted with the various types of packing and seals required to complete
the overhauling of various types of machinery such as compressors, pumps,
pneumatic and hydraulic equipment, gearboxes and fluid pipelines.
However, when learning to work effectively with packing and seals, it is

important not only to know the many different types of materials available,
but also to know the appropriate conditions for which they must be selected.
11.2 Function of packing and seals

The function of packing and seals is to prevent or control leakage between
two surfaces.
11.2.1 Types of packing

It is very important to choose the correct type of packing for a particular
application. The incorrect type of packing can cause:
x Damage to equipment.
x Danger to people.
x Loss of time and production.
When selecting a packing for a particular application it is necessary to know:

x The nature of the gas or liquid, i.e. steam or air, water or oil, etc.
x The temperature of the gas or liquid.
There are two types of packings, they are:

x Soft packing.
x Metallic packing.
11.3 Materials used as packing and seals for water, air and steam
11.3.1 Soft packing
Soft packing can be defined as any pliable packing such as cotton, hemp,
asbestos, rubber and leather impregnated with graphite or tallow.
The stuffing box shown in Figure 11.2 is suitable for most applications when
packed with one of the following packings:
Water
Ungraphited, lubricated hemp or cotton packing dipped in tallow.
High grade lubricated and graphited jute packing for higher temperatures.
Steam
A high quality unlubricated but graphited fiber cement packing with each
strand reinforced by wire, used for medium steam pressure.
238
Air
Good quality, lubricated and graphited solid plait, cotton packing. (Solid plait
is made by plaiting thick strands or twists of yarn to the required size.)
Oil
A core of lubricated asbestos yarn covered with crinkled white metal or
aluminium foil.
11.3.2 Using jointing materials

The reasons for using jointing materials are to ensure that a good seal is
formed between flanges; compressible material must be inserted before
tightening.
Materials chosen must be such as will not be affected by the work conditions
of the pipeline. Factors to consider in the choice of jointing material are:
x Pressure in pipe.
x Type of liquid or gas.
x Temperature.
Jointing material can be selected from the following list:
x Rubber insertion (water)

x Cork (oil)
x "Valemoid" (oil)
x Clinkerite (air, steam)
Clinkerite impregnated with graphite and wire mesh (high temperature steam)
Lead (low pressure, deforms easily).Annealed copper (high pressure and high
temperature).
When choosing sealing material, you need to consider the following factors to
ensure that you make the correct choice:
x the nature of the fluid medium -the fluid in the system may be oil, water,
acids or a gas.
x the pressure within the system
x the environment
x the temperature at which the system may operate
x the temperature of the fluid medium.
Study Table 11.1 to find out what the various materials are.
239
Material Description Uses

Cotton This material, usually dipped in fat or Used for oil and water installations
tallow, was commonly used in the at cold to slightly warm
past, but has been replaced by temperature conditions, e.g.
more sophisticated materials. stuffing boxes on water pumps.
Nylon A tough, synthetic material or It is used in oil and water at high

resilient type of plastic. As a seal, it pressure and low temperatures.
deforms easily, but does not retain
its shape after even short periods of
use. It has to be replaced after
removal.
Rubber Commonly used, strong, deforms Used to seal installations
easily and retains its shape after containing air, water and oil.
repeated use. It is an efficient seal
because of its high degree of
elasticity.
Neoprene A synthetic rubber material that is Gasket covers for electrical switch
denser than rubber. It is chemical boxes, sealant solutions and
resistant, flame resistant and does rubber cements; ideal for oil, water
not age easily. and some acids.
Teflon Expansive plastic material. High Used for heat resistant and anti-
degree of heat resistance and has friction coatings on gasket
a low co-efficient of friction. materials.
Graphite Dark grey flaky form of carbon Lubricant coating for some gasket
which acts as a lubricating coat for materials, as well as graphite
gasket material or fibre packing. impregnated fibre packing in
steam packing
Aluminium A light grey non-ferrous metal which Used in high pressure and
is known for its softness, lightness temperature conditions
and corrosion resistance.
White metal A combination of copper, tin, lead Used in stuffing boxes of steam
and antimony makes it a soft metal. assemblies
Its outstanding features are low
melting point, acid resistance and
resistance to fatigue.
Cork A resilient organic material rolled, Engine sumps, gearbox covers
and pressed into sheets which are sealing conditions carrying oil,
then cut to shape for gaskets. water and air at very low
pressures.
Table 11.1 Sealing materials
11.3.3 Reasons for the failure of flanged joints

The following are reasons for flanged joints failing during operation:
x Bolts and nuts not tight enough.

x Flanges do not fit properly against each other.
x Damaged gasket.
x Cracks and corrosion on flange.
x Damaged by vibration, expansion and contraction.
240
x Flanges not pulled up parallel to each other.
11.4 Installation of seals and O-rings in hydraulic and pneumatic

assemblies
11.4.1 Seals
Seals are devices or materials used to prevent or control leakage between
two surfaces. They are used between moving and stationary parts or between
two stationary parts. Seals come in various types and sizes and are made of
various materials for different applications. Some seals require regular
replacement to ensure proper performance.
Selecting the proper type and size of seal and properly installing seals are
critical to the performance of the seal and the equipment.
Incorrect selection or installation of seals can result in premature failure of the

seals or can damage the equipment. Maintenance workers must be able to
identify the types of seals and seal materials and remove and replace seals.
11.4.2 Types of seals

When selecting a seal, you must determine whether the application is static or
dynamic. Static applications are those in which there is no movement
between the two joining parts or between the seal and the mating part. O-
rings are used for static applications. Dynamic seals are used where there is
movement between two mating parts or between one of the parts and the
seal.
The two types of dynamic applications are positive-contact and noncontact
seals. Seals used for dynamic applications include O-rings, lip seals, oil seals,
and labyrinth seals.
Positive-contact, or rubbing, seals are used where the seal area is continuously
flooded. If properly selected and installed, contact seals can prevent all
leakage of most fluids. However, because they are sensitive to temperature,
pressure, and speed, improper use can cause early failure. Positive-contact
seals can be used on both rotating and reciprocating shafts.
Noncontact, or controlled-clearance, seals are those that prevent rubbing

between rotating and stationary parts. They operate by controlling fluid
movement through narrow passages in the seal. Noncontact seals are
frictionless and are not sensitive to temperature and speed. They are most
effective for limiting leakage rather than stopping it. Noncontact seals have
limited uses when leakage rates are critical. These seals are frequently custom-
designed for a particular application and can be expensive.
11.4.3 O-rings
An O-ring is a seal commonly made as a ring. O-rings can be used as either
241
static or dynamic seals. In a dynamic application, an O-ring is usually placed

in a groove or joint that is 135 to 150 percent wider than the cross section of
the O-ring. In a static application, an O-ring is installed in a groove
approximately 25 percent wider than the cross section of the O-ring.
When the O-ring comes in contact with the areas to be sealed, it is slightly
distorted in a motion called mechanical squeeze. Figure 11.3 shows
mechanical squeeze.
Figure 11.3 Mechanical Squeeze

O-rings are rugged and extremely dependable. They are used to seal against
conditions from strong vacuum to high pressure. O-rings are made from a
variety of materials for different applications.
Like gaskets, O-rings are often used to seal a mechanical connection

between two parts of an instrument. O-rings that are used in instruments are
often made of rubber or of a synthetic material. Occasionally, high-
temperature or pressure applications may require the use of a metal O-ring.
A dynamic application requires a running fit; a static application needs a

complete seal and the O-ring should almost fill the O-ring groove. Figure 11.4
shows static and dynamic applications.
Figure 11.4 Static and Dynamic Applications

242
Take Note:
Do not over tighten O-ring face seals. This can distort the O-ring
and cause leaking.
The pressure caused by mechanical squeeze holds the 0-ring in contact with
the surfaces to be sealed. This pressure also causes the O-ring to roll and slide
to the side of the groove away from the pressure, lubricating the O-ring
surface and extending its life. Figure 11.5 shows an O-ring sealing a joint.
Figure 11.5 O-Ring Sealing Joint
Mechanical squeeze is necessary to maintain a seal. Too much squeeze wears

out the O-ring quickly; insufficient squeeze allows leaks to start. The correct
squeeze is usually equal to 10 percent of the O-ring diameter. General-
purpose O-rings are made with a cross section 10 percent larger than the
nominal size. This allows for the initial mechanical squeeze.
Figure 11.6 Housing Vent
243
11.4.4 Removing and installing seals

The working life of a seal depends on the type of seal used and the
application for which it is used. The most common indication of seal failure is
excessive leakage. When a seal fails, it must be removed and replaced.
Removing seals is a relatively simple procedure, but it is important that the

procedure be performed properly. The procedure for removing seals varies
slightly from one piece of equipment to another, but the steps are basically
the same. Refer to the equipment manufacturer's manual for particular
procedures.
Following proper installation procedures for a seal is critical to the life

expectancy and efficiency of the seal. Improperly installing a seal can result in
a loss of up to 75 percent of its working life and may cause excessive wear to
the equipment. The following sections explain how to remove a seal and how
to install 0-rings and lip and oil seals.
x Removing seals
Before a new seal can be installed, the old seal must be removed. Follow
these steps to remove a seal.
Step 1: Clean the shaft and exterior of the seal, using a clean, soft cloth.
Step 2: Remove any burrs or sharp edges from the shaft.
Step 3: Remove the old seal.
CAUTION: Take Note

To remove the old seal, tap it gently, using a flat hammer, or cut
into the seal, using a rounded, blunt chisel. Do not cut all the way
through the seal. Cutting through the seal can damage the seal
bore.
x Installing O-rings
Follow these steps to install an O-ring:
Step 1: Select the proper size O-ring for the application.

Step 2: Ensure that the O-ring is not damaged.
Step 3: Inspect and polish, de burr, and clean the shaft and housing in the seal
area.
Take Note
Repair any damaged areas of the housing shaft.
Step 4: Cover any threads with a cone made of brass shim stock, aluminum, or
stiff plastic sheeting.
Step 5: Lubricate the O-ring with the lubricant specified in the O-ring catalog.
244
Step 6: Place the 0-ring in the groove. Figure 11.7 shows 0-rings installed in
dynamic applications.
Figure 11.7 Installing O-Rings
11.5 Stuffing boxes and packing for steam assembly

The importance of packing glands correctly cannot be over-emphasised.
Many packing failures are due to incorrect installation of the packing. The
following steps have been devised to ensure effective installation of packings
on pumps and valves.
11.5.1Method of packing a stuffing box

Before fitting packing rings into a stuffing box ensure that the box is clean, the
shaft is not worn and running true and the working faces are free from burrs,
dents or scratches.
To cut and fit packing, proceed as follows:
x Cut packing rings to length, measured on the shaft or a rod of the same
diameter (cut edges of packing should butt when fitted and too short rings
be discarded).
x Cover shaft with film of grease or oil.
x Insert first ring in stuffing box with butting edges to the top and press to the
back face of stuffing box.
x Packing rings should be fitted one at a time with butting edges staggered
at 120° and carefully pressed to the previous ring (Figure 11.8).
245
Figure 11.8 Butting edges staggered at 120°
x Turn shaft as each ring is being compressed until the required number of
rings have been fitted.
x Pull up the gland until the shaft is gripped by the packing.
x Slacken the gland and pull up "finger tight" only.
11.5.2 Stuffing box with soft packing

The stuffing box shown in Figure 11.9 can be used for most purposes, as in
reciprocating engines and water pumps, or for the rotating shafts of
centrifugal water pumps.
The stuffing box is usually cast as an integral part of the steam cylinder cover
or centrifugal pump cover.
When a stuffing box needs adjustment, proceed as follows:
x Adjust the gland while the piston rod or pump shaft is in motion. Tighten
nuts so as to stop leakage. Excessive tightening will result in undue friction
and wear on the packing, rod or shaft.
x Nuts must be pulled up evenly to keep the gland square with the rod or
shaft.
x When excessive leaking takes place, repack the stuffing box with new
packing.
246
Figure 11.9 Stuffing box with soft packing
11.5.3 Stuffing box with liquid seal

The stuffing box with soft packing (Figure 11.10) incorporates a water seal or
lantern ring. The lantern ring shown in Figure 11.10 can be of the solid or split
type. The split type is more convenient as it is easy to replace. The lantern ring
as shown has an inner and outer groove and has a series of holes drilled
around its circumference.
The lantern ring is fitted in the middle of the stuffing box directly under the
water supply pipe.
The lantern ring allows clean water, under pressure, to enter the space
between the shaft and the ring. A water ring forms which creates a seal
around the shaft and prevents air from entering the suction side of a
centrifugal pump. If air should enter the pump through the stuffing box the
vacuum inside the pump will be destroyed and the pump will stop delivering
water.
247
Figure 11.10 Stuffing box with liquid seal
If the pump is delivering clean water then the water supply can be taken
directly from the high pressure side of the pump, otherwise it must be taken
from a water mains supply. The gland must be pulled up so as to allow a drip
of water to come from the stuffing box.
This further aids the water seal as the water that exits from the stuffing box is still
at a higher pressure than atmospheric pressure and no air can enter the
stuffing box. Because the gland is not pulled up so tightly there is less wear on
the shaft.
11.5.4 Stuffing box with metallic packing

The packing consisting of white metal and gun metal rings is suitable for the
highest pressures and temperatures. Figure 11.11 shows a stuffing box
consisting of a piston rod which is supported by the neck bush, and a cage
which houses the metallic packing.
The gland which is provided with a gun metal bush exerts pressure on the soft
packing which presses against the keep ring and the wedge-shaped metallic
packing.
Because of their shape the gun metal rings will slide outwards while the white
metal rings slide inwards to press lightly against the piston rod. The metallic
packing rings can withstand the high temperature of the steam and protect
the soft packing from the effects of the heat.
248
Figure 11.11 Stuffing box with metallic packing
11.6 Joining pipes and

pipelines
11.6.1 Flange joints
Pipelines are made up of
short lengths of straight
pipes, bends, T-pieces and
fittings like valves.
All these must in some

manner be joined together
to make up the pipeline. To
accomplish this, flanged
joints can be used (Figure
11.12).When the flange is
screwed or welded to the
pipe care must be taken to
ensure that the pipe does
not project beyond
Figure 11.12 flanged joint
249
the face of the flange as this will prevent a seal being made.
Figure 11.13 shows a straight-faced flange used for low to medium pressure
applications.
Figure 11.13 Low-to-medium pressure flange Figure 11.14 High pressure

flange
Figure 11.14 shows a flanged joint with a spigot and recess that is used for high
pressures and prevents the jointing material from being blown out.
11.6.2 Expansion joints

In order to compensate for contraction and expansion due to temperature
variations, use is made of expansion joints which must be strong and flexible.
Steel pipes and pipelines undergo expansion and contraction as the

temperature fluctuates in the pipeline.
At the same time, as the increases, a bend in the pipe tends to straighten. It is
therefore necessary to accommodate this expansion and contraction.
Table 11.2 shows some methods used to make for this:
250
Description Expansion joint

Expansion diaphragm
It is generally used only on very low-
pressure apparatus. With higher
pressures, it has a tendency to blow
apart. It is however cheap and very
simple.
Lyre loop and full loop expansion bends

These two expansion bends are often
used. They are strong and of continuous
structure. Pressure inside them cannot
blow them apart. When they expand or
contract, the flanges at each end can
stay parallel without undue strain.
Both these joints are excellent devices
which accommodate out-of-line
angular movement.
Creased bends
These are used on pipe lines with 90'
settings.
They are extremely pliant and can
move about in all directions and, of
course,. always have the tendency to
lengthen.
Pipework support and suspension
x The anchoring of steam pipes is most
important.
x Fixed definite anchorages must be
placed so as to compel the
movement to take place as desired.
x If bends are to take the movement,
the anchorage should if possible be
placed halfway between the bends.
x Hangers should always be provided
with some form of universal joint.
x Perhaps the best form of pipe
support between the anchorages is
the roller. It can be made to restrict
the movement in any direction.
x It is however not much good fitting
rollers if they are only used to support
the pipe. The part of the pipe near
251
the roller must have no lagging.
Table 11.2 Expansion joint methods

11.6.3 Continuous expansion bends
The full loop and horseshoe expansion bends are of a strong and continuous
structure that can withstand high pressure. When expansion or contraction
takes place the flanges at each end remain parallel with each other without
any undue strain on them. These bends have a disadvantage in that they
require considerable installation space, but when correctly installed they
require no further maintenance.
11.6.4 Packed expansion joints

The packed expansion joint can be used for low and medium pressures, and
consists of a sleeve which can slide inside a larger sleeve with packing to
prevent leakage (see Figure 11.15).
This type of joint requires very little space and can therefore be installed in
pipe tunnels. They can be made for a considerable amount of expansion with
stops provided to prevent over travel in both directions. The joints must be
inspected regularly and the packing tightened and replaced occasionally.
252
Figure 11.15 Packed expansion sliding joint
11.6.5 Corrugated expansion joints

This is also a very compact joint with circular corrugations providing a limited
amount of endwise movement of the pipe. The number of corrugations can
be varied to meet the maximum expansion requirements. The corrugations
may be distorted if the joint is allowed to move beyond the manufacturer's
specifications.(see Figure 11.16)
Figure 11.16 Corrugated expansion joint
11.7 Lagging of water and steam pipelines

When a steam pipeline is installed it should be lagged with a suitable material
to prevent the following:
x Heat loss due to radiation.

x Condensation.
253
x Water hammer.
x Incorrect readings on gauges.
x Water entering reciprocating machines.
The following are suitable lagging materials:
x Slag wool.
x Glass.
x Magnesium carbonate.
x Sisal.
Activity 11.1
1. Explain the purpose of a stuffing box.

2. Describe how a stuffing box is packed.
3. Make a sketch of a stuffing box. Incorporate a lantern ring and explain
its purpose and how it operates.
4. Name a packing that can be used for water, steam and air.
5. Why are flanged joints used in pipelines?
6. Name three factors that affect the choice of jointing material.
7. Name three types of jointing materials.
8. What is the purpose of lagging a pipeline?
9. Why is expansion joints used? Make a neat sketch of an expansion joint.
10. Make a neat labelled sketch of a stuffing box suitable for a reciprocating
water pump and name the type of packing to be used.
11. Make a neat sectional sketch of a stuffing box with metallic packing.
Name all the parts.
12. Make neat sketches of pipe flanges suitable for:
(a)low pressure, and

(b)high pressure application.
13. What determines the amount of expansion that the corrugated joint can
take?
14. Make a neat sketch of a packed expansion sliding joint, name all the
important parts, and state one advantage of this joint.
15. State what maintenance must be done on the expansion sliding joint.
16. State one advantage and one disadvantage of the full loop expansion
bend.
254
Self-Assessment

x Explain the function of packing and seals
x Name and give a brief description of the materials used as
packing and seals for water, air and steam.
x Describe the installation of seals and O-rings in hydraulic and
pneumatic assemblies.
x Describe the method of packing a stuffing box which includes
packing with and without a lantern ring, as well metallic
packing for steam assembly.
x Identify, name and label the main parts and state where the
following joints and bends are used in industry:
o Flange joints
o Expansion joints
o Continuous expansion bends
o Packed expansion joints
o Corrugated expansion joints
x State the reasons for:
o Furling of flange joints
o Using jointing materials
o Lagging of water and steam pipelines.
255
Learning Outcomes
outcomes:
x Indicate the different terminology associated with pipe size.

x Identify various pipe fittings and explain where they are used.
x Explain the various joining methods for:
o Steel pipes
o Plastic pipes
x Distinguish between the two different types of plastic piping:
o Thermoplastic piping
o Thermosetting plastic piping
x Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of plastic piping.
x Describe briefly how cutters and reamers are used.
x Describe the materials used to seal threaded pipes.
12.1 Introduction
Pipes carry fluids within a system. So, we must design pipes so that
they can carry different types of fluids and different quantities of
fluids. Because pipes carry different types of fluids and different
quantities of fluids, we make pipes out of a large number of
different materials.
There are many types of fluids that have different properties or are in different
states, such as under pressure, high in acidity, at either hot or cold
temperatures, and so on.
So, there are different varieties of pipes designed to hold these different fluids.
Some of the materials that pipes are made of are: galvanised iron or steel,
copper, mild steel, cast iron, stainless steel, plastic, glass fibre, concrete and
clay.
12.2 Terminology associated with pipe size

Pipe sizes can be confusing because the terminology may relate to historical
dimensions. For example, a half-inch iron pipe does not have any dimension
256
that is a half inch. Initially, a half inch pipe did have an inner diameter of 0.5
inches (13 mm)—but it also had thick walls.
As technology improved, thinner walls became possible, but the outside

diameter stayed the same so it could mate with existing older pipe,
increasing the inner diameter beyond half an inch.
The history of copper pipe is similar. In the 1930s, the pipe was designated by
its internal diameter and a 1.6 mm wall thickness.
The pipe size is specified with two numbers: the nominal pipe diameter (or
bore) and the pipe schedule. This then sets the outside pipe diameter, the
wall thickness (and hence the internal diameter).
Depending on the applicable standard to which it is manufactured, pipe is

generally specified by a nominal diameter with a constant outside diameter
(OD) and a schedule that defines the thickness.
Tube is most often specified by the OD and wall thickness, but may be
specified by any two of OD, inside diameter (ID), and wall thickness. Pipe is
generally manufactured to one of several international and national
industrial standards.
While similar standards exist for specific industry application tubing, tube is
often made to custom sizes and a broader range of diameters and
tolerances.
Many industrial and government standards exist for the production of pipe
and tubing. The term "tube" is also commonly applied to non-cylindrical
sections, i.e., square or rectangular tubing. In general, "pipe" is the more
common term in most of the world, whereas "tube" is more widely used in the
United States.
Table 12.1 gives the pipe size terminology used in the engineering industry.
257
Pipe size terminology Description

Pipe length
This is refers to the standard length of
pipe.
Outside diameter - OD
A measurement of the outside circular
area of pipe or tubing (cylinder shape),
measured from the outermost
circumference across the center of the
round opening, to the opposite
outermost circumference.
Inside diameter – ID
A measurement of the inside circular
area of pipe or tubing (cylinder shape),
measured from the inside wall across the
center of the round opening, to the
opposite inside wall.
Wall thickness
A value that indicates the thickness of
the tubing wall. Wall thickness may
remain unchanged as the outside
diameter and inner diameter change.
Depth of thread
This refers to the measurement from the
outside to the bottom of the thread.
Effective wall thickness
This refers to the thickness of material of
the pipe after the screwed section.
Wall thickness of screwed pipe
This refers to the thickness of material of
the pipe over the screwed section.
Nominal Pipe Size
Nominal Pipe Size: refers to a names size
of pipe which is usually not the actual
dimensions of the product; this varies
according to the pressure rating of the
pipe.
Schedule
Designation of a standard series of pipe
wall thickness; used for various pressure
applications of the same size pipe
Ő6FKHGXOH
Ő $V WKH VFKHGXOH QXPEHU LQFUHDVHV VR
does the wall thickness
Table 12.1 Pipe size terminology used in the engineering industry
258
12.3 Various pipe fittings

Pipes can vary in size from as small as 12 mm in diameter to as large as 900
mm in diameter. In Some situations, you might need pipes that are smaller or
larger, or that are made of a special type of material.
Figure 12.1 shows a pipe work system which consists of various components
and fittings. The system or pipeline is usually supported by pipe supports,
hangers and brackets.
Figure 12.1 Pipe work system
The pipe work system in Figure 12.2 shows the various fittings and components
that we use m a pipe work system.
These fittings and components are:
x a cross valve;
x a globe valve;
x an angle valve;
x a gate valve;
x a globe valve;
x a check valve;
259
x a 90° elbow;
x a 45° elbow;
x a coupling;
x a reduce coupling;
x a straight tee;
x a union;
x a cap;
x a cross; and
x a plug.
Figure 12.2 Fittings and components used in pipe work
12.3 Pipe fittings
260
12.4 Various joining methods for Steel pipes

Pipe joints can be permanent or mechanically joined, allowing
disconnection. Permanent joints involve welding or crimping metal pipe and
cementing plastic pipe. Joints that can be taken apart include threaded,
flanged, and coupled designs. Flanges can be loose, threaded, or welded to
pipe ends and are used on metal and plastic pipe.
12.4.1 Threaded connections

Threading is one of the most popular and least expensive methods of joining
steel pipe. The tapered male fitting is forced into the tapered female fitting.
Yielding metal creates a seal.
Threads other than taper pipe threads can be used for piping connections
where tightness of the joint depends on a seal weld or seating surface other
than the threads. While threaded joints can be dismantled, it is preferable to
use unions.
There are various joining methods for joining steel pipes. Figure 12.4 shows
typical threaded applications.
Figure 12.4 Threaded and screwed applications for joining pipes
12.4.2 Welded connections

Welded joints are commonly used with steel pipe because these joints are
stronger and less prone to leakage than threaded and flanged joints. Also,
this method does not add weight to the piping system as flanges do or
require a pipe wall thick enough to be threaded.
Pipe up to 50mm size is generally socket-fitting, fillet welded. Larger pipe,

75mm to 900mm, is usually butt welded. The most common joint is the
261
circumferential butt joint. During the welding procedure, to avoid entrance of

welding material into the pipe, backing rings may be used. (see Figure 12.5)
Figure 12.5 Welded applications for joining pipes
12.4.3 Soldered connections

A soldered joint is a rigid, pressure-type joint made with filler metal that, when
heated to its melting point, is drawn into the annular space between pipes
and fitting by capillary action. This type of joint is generally limited to pipe up
to 200 mm because of the difficulty of applying heat evenly to the joint.
Brazing is similar to soldering except higher heat is required for the filler metal.
It is used where higher pressure ratings are required (see Figure 12.6).
Figure 12.6 Soldered joining method Figure 12.7 Compressed method

262
12.4.4 Compressed joining

Compression couplings usually can be used with all types of pipe and do not
require any pipe preparation. They consist of an inner elastomeric gasket and
an outer metallic sleeve with integral bolts for compressing the gasket. They
are available for pipe up to 350mm OD (see Figure 12.7)
12.4.5 Crimped or Grooved joining

The use of mechanical joints in piping systems is becoming popular. A
crimped joint is designed to join light-wall steel and copper pipe up to 50 mm
OD. The grooved joint is designed for joining any type of pipe, metallic or
nonmetallic, that is capable of being cut or roll grooved, up to 1000 mm OD.
(see Figure 12.8)
Figure 12.8 Grooved and Crimped joints
12.4.6 Plastic pipe joining

Solvent joining can be used on vinyl pipe, ABS, PVC, and CPVC, available up
to 300mm OD. Polyolefin, PE, PP, PB, and PVDF pipes require heat fusion and
are available up to 150 mm OD. Fiberglass pipe requires an adhesive, resin
impregnated fabric, or threads to make a joint. It is readily available in sizes
from 12mm to 3600 mm OD (see Figure 12.9)
263
Figure 12.9 Plastic pipe joining
12.5 Types of plastic piping

In the plastic piping industry there are two types of piping used:
• Thermoplastic piping
• Thermosetting plastic piping
12.5.1 Thermoplastic piping

Thermoplastic piping can be softened by heat applications. The two
commonly known and used is; PVC and polythene.
Thermoplastics are widely used, primarily because of their low cost and great
ease of fabrication (usually by extrusion).
The most common thermoplastics used in piping systems are poly(vinyl

chloride) (PVC), polyethylene (PE), acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) and
polybutylene (PB).
12.5.2 Thermosetting plastic piping

Thermoset piping systems are composed of plastic materials and are
identified by being permanently set, cured or hardened into shape during
the manufacturing process. Thermoset piping system materials are a
combination of resins and reinforcing. The four primary thermoset resins are
epoxies, vinyl esters, polyesters, and furans.
12.6 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of plastic piping

12.6.1 Advantages of plastic pipes
• Plastic pipes are light in weight, tough, resistant to chemical attack and
available in large lengths.
• They reduce the cost of handling, transportation and installation.
• Less number of joints facilitates the speed and reduces chances of
leakage.
• They are rust resistant.
264
• These pipes have good elastic properties.

• Their adaptability to earth movements is superior.
• Smooth internal surface of the pipes offer less friction.
• Due to less friction it saves the energy in the conveyance of water.
12.6.2 Disadvantages of plastic pipes

• Due to their non-decomposing property, plastic pipes are not installed in
high temperature.
• They are easily cracked.
• At higher temperatures, the strength of plastic pipes reduces.
12.7 Describe briefly how cutters and reamers are used

Use the following steps to prepare a galvanized steel pipe for a joint
connection:
1. Cutting the pipe

After determining the length of steel pipe required, the installer clamps the
length from which he will cut his desired section into a pipe vice. A tool called
a pipe cutter is used for this. It has two rollers and a cutting wheel that clamp
over the pipe. As the device is revolved around the pipe, the cutting wheel
cuts into the surface. After each revolution, the handle is tightened more,
causing the cutting wheel to dig even deeper, until the pipe is completely
severed.
2. Reaming the pipe

Cutting a section of pipe raises ridges of material at the end called "burrs."
These are always removed, since they could interfere with the thread cutting,
with the smooth flow of water, or possibly break loose later and cause
problems to some mechanical device in the plumbing system. Reaming is the
step used to remove burrs, and is accomplished by use of a special conical-
shaped tool.
265
3. Threading the pipe

The key tool components in this case are the die stock, and the specific dies
for the pipe size involved. (Think of this as a holder, and the cutters it holds.)
The installer must be certain that the dies mounted in the die stock are the
ones for the pipe size he is working on, since each size requires either a
different set of dies, or a different position of the dies in the die stock.
To cut the threads, the larger opening of the die cutters is placed over the
end of the pipe and slowly revolved (some manual units have rigid handles,
some have the ratcheting type).
The hard cutting teeth of the dies cut and remove material from the pipe,
leaving threads in their path. Oil is spread on the cutting surface to reduce
friction during the process.
12.8 Describe the materials used to seal threaded pipes

Thread sealants are materials or devices designed to create stronger, more
robust connections between threaded pipes and threaded pipe fittings.
Some sealants are used as lubricants to allow easier connections in certain

tapered pipe threads, while others bond to the pipe materials to strengthen
the connection. Thread sealants are available as tape or spreadable paste.
Pipe material and design considerations are important factors in choosing an

appropriate sealant, as are temperature and pipe contents. Installation
experience can also be important for sealant choice.
12.8.1 Pipe assembly materials

All joints must be watertight and gas tight. To do this, a specific material is
used with each kind of pipe. Refer to the following and to definitions in the
back of this manual:
1. Oakum. Oakum is hemp or jute fibers soaked with a bituminous

compound. It is loosely twisted or spun into a rope or yarn. It is used with
266
lead or other materials to make caulked joints in hub-and-spigot cast-iron

pipe and in vitrified-clay tile or concrete pipe.
2. Lead. Lead is melted and poured into the joint. Alternatively, lead, wool or
shredded lead, packed cold, may be used on top of the oakum in
caulked joints.
3. Pipe-Joint Compound Thread and pipe joints are made by using one of
several compounds, referred to as dope, for protecting the threads and
for easy maintenance.
4. Solder. Solder is used with solder fittings to join copper tubing and brass
and copper pipe. A nonacid flux (a substance, such as rosin, applied to
promote union of materials) must be used. A 50-50 solder (50 percent tin
and 50 percent lead) is used for copper tubing.
5. Solvent Cement. Solvent cement is used with plastic fittings to join rigid
plastic pipe. This cement comes in several types for each different plastic
pipe and fitting.
6. Bitumen. Bituminous compounds, such as asphalt and tar pitch, are used
to make joints in vitrified-clay tile and concrete pipe.
7. Gaskets. Flange joints need gaskets of rubber, cork, composition, sheet
metal, or other material.
Activity 12.1
1. By means of a freehand drawing indicate the different terminology

associated with pipe size.
2. Make a freehand drawing to identify various pipe fittings and explain
where they are used. Your drawing should include:
• Elbows
• Globe valves
• Plug
• Cross
• Cap
• Flange joint
• Check valve
• Tee
• Union
• Gate valve
• Transition piece
3. Explain the various joining methods for:
• Steel pipes
• Plastic pipes
4. Distinguish between the two different types of plastic piping:
• Thermoplastic piping
• Thermosetting plastic piping
5. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of plastic piping.
6. Describe briefly how cutters and reamers are used.
7. Describe the materials used to seal threaded pipes.
267
Self-Assessment

x Indicate the different terminology associated with pipe size.
x Identify various pipe fittings and explain where they are used.
x Explain the various joining methods for:
o Steel pipes
o Plastic pipes
x Distinguish between the two different types of plastic piping:
o Thermoplastic piping
o Thermosetting plastic piping
x Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of plastic piping.
x Describe briefly how cutters and reamers are used.
x Describe the materials used to seal threaded pipes.
268
Learning Outcomes
outcomes:
x Explain the function of pumps

x Identify, classify, name and explain the working principle of the following
pumps and explain the function of various components from given
drawings:
o Centrifugal pumps, both single and multi-stage
o Rotary pumps, including the gear pump, helical screw gear pump,
vane pump and flexible impeller pump
x Reciprocating pumps, including the piston pump, plunger pump and
steam and air-driven reciprocating pumps
x Explain the following reciprocating pump terminology:
o Simplex and duplex pumps
o Single and double acting pumps
x Differentiate clearly between positive and non-positive displacement
pumps and indicate where they are used.
13.1 Introduction
Generally speaking, pumps may be grouped into two main
classes, those with valves and those without. Thus piston, plunger
and bucket pumps require valves and give an intermittent flow,
while centrifugal, rotary and air-lift pumps do not require valves
and produce a continuous flow of the liquid.
In this module the following pumps will be discussed according to their

classification:
x Centrifugal pumps, both single and multi-stage.

x Rotary pumps, including the gear pump, helical screw gear pump, vane
pump and flexible impeller pump.
x Reciprocating pump terminology.
269
13.2 Function of pumps

In this module we will be looking at various pumps are machines for the
transport of fluids. The movement of the fluid may be effected in several
ways, such as:
x By means of a reciprocating piston or plunger, operating within a

cylindrical barrel.
x By an oscillating or rotating blade, or a pair of meshing gear wheels,
working inside a casing, as in semi-rotary pumps.
x By a rotating vaned wheel such as in a centrifugal pump, or
x By a current of air, as in air-lift pumps.
13.3 Centrifugal pumps, both single and multi-stage

A centrifugal pump operates by increasing the velocity of a liquid. Fluid
entering the pump is rotated by an impeller. This rotation creates centrifugal
force within a stationary casing.
The force raises the pressure and causes the fluid to be discharged at high
speed. Figure 13.1 shows a centrifugal pump.
Figure 13.1 Centrifugal pump

270
13.3.1 Working principle and operation

An open or closed wheel with curved blades or vanes, termed the impeller,
rotates at a high speed in a pump casing, as illustrated in Figure 13.2. The
casing is initially filled with the liquid to be pumped, and on setting the pump
in motion, the liquid is caught up by the blades.
Figure 13.2 Centrifugal pump
Because of the centrifugal force, the liquid is kept moving continuously from
the centre to the outside circumference.
Thus the liquid is delivered from the suction pipe into the delivery pipe while
further liquid is drawn into the suction so that the pump delivers continuously.
When large quantities of liquid have to be lifted against low heads, the pump
is fitted with impellers of relatively small diameter but greater lift to provide
larger passages for the liquid; small quantities pumped against high heads
require impellers with large diameters.
13.2.2 Parts of a centrifugal pump

The parts of centrifugal pumps may vary in size and shape, depending on the
manufacturer, but will have the same functions. Centrifugal pump parts
include the following:
x Pump casing- The part surrounding the shaft, bearings, packing gland,
and impeller.
x Pump casings can be of split or solid design.
x Suction port - The place where fluid enters the pump.
x Discharge port - The place where fluid is discharged into the piping
system.
x Pump shaft -A bearing-supported part that holds and turns the impeller
when the shaft is coupled to a motor.
x Bearings -The parts that support the shaft and impeller in the casing.
x Impeller- A rotating part that increases the speed of the fluid. There are
many different
271
x types of impellers used for different purposes.

x Impeller vanes or blades - The parts of the impeller that direct the flow of
fluid within the pump.
x Impeller shrouds -The parts that enclose the blades and keep the flow of
fluid in the impeller area.
x Wearing rings - Replaceable rings used in some pumps to allow some fluid
leakage between the impeller and the casing in the suction area. The
leakage makes a hydraulic seal and helps the pump operate more
efficiently.
x Packing gland - Contains an adjustable follower that exerts force upon
the packing to control fluid leakage around the shaft.
x Mechanical seal - Seals the fluid flow in the pump. Used instead of
packing in some pumps.
Figure 13.3 shows a centrifugal pump with a vertically split case.
Figure 13.3 Parts of a centrifugal pump
13.3.3 Pumps with volute casing

The impeller discharges directly into the spiral casing with varying cross-
sections.
Take Note
The casing gets larger on the way around. This is because each
successive vane adds liquid, so that additional space must be
provided. The main purpose of volute pumps is to pump large
quantities of liquid against comparatively low heads. They are
used for pumping sandy or gritty liquids. These pumps are normally
single-stage pumps with a maximum efficiency of 60-65%
272
Figure 13.2 Volute type pump
13.3.4 Double-suction centrifugal pumps

A double-section centrifugal pump is used to pump large volumes of fluid.
Fluid is drawn in through suction openings on both sides of the impeller and
passes out through a single discharge opening. Figure 13.3 shows a double-
suction centrifugal pump with a horizontally split case.
Figure 13.3 Double-suction centrifugal pump
273
13.3.3 Multi-stage pumps

Multistage centrifugal pumps contain two or more stages and can be either
single or double suction. Fluid is discharged from one stage to the next
through passages in the pump casing.
Each stage increases the speed of the fluid until the desired pressure is
reached. Figure 13.4 shows a multistage pump.
Figure 13.4 Multi-stage pump
These are a set of turbine pumps where the outlet of the first pump
discharges into the inlet of the next and so on. From the last stage it flows into
the main delivery column. (See Figure 13.5(a) and (b))
The main advantages of centrifugal pumps over reciprocating pumps are:

x Very small floor space required
x Low i low maintenance cost, since all motion is rotary
x No sensitive parts such as the moving valves of reciprocating pumps
(centrifugal pumps have no valves)
x High working speeds allow direct coupling to primary power sources
x Small and light foundations are required
x the ability to handle muddy and dirty, corrosive liquids, hot water up to
400°C and circulating oil at high temperatures, provided they reach the
pump at a high pressure
x the motor for centrifugal pumps is smaller than the motor for reciprocating
pumps because of the higher speed of the centrifugal pump
x There is little, if any, vibration
x Discharge of liquid is continuous and without shock
x No air vessels or alleviators are required
The flow of water can be controlled automatically from full flow to no flow,
without shutting down the pump or damaging the pump or pipes.
274
Figure 13.5(a) Multi-stage centrifugal pumps (b) Four-stage centrifugal pump
13.4 Rotary pumps

A rotary pump operates by a turning motion. Rotary pumps may be gear,
screw, vane, and flexible impeller types. Rotary pumps are used in hydraulic
systems. They are also used to transfer fluids such as oils, solvents, chemicals,
and paints.
13.4.1 Gear pump

The gear pump is the most common type of rotary pump. Gear pumps are
used mainly in hydraulic systems. They are also used for bearing lubrication in
industrial machines and automotive engines. Gear pumps may be either
external or internal design.
Gear pumps can generally be classified into three main groups: external
gear, internal gear and screw pumps. All gear pumps are basically duo
directional units and reversal of flow is simply obtained by changing the
direction of rotation of the driving motor.
Figure 13.6 (a) Rotary gear pump Figure 13.6 (b) Gear pump
External gear pumps can be subdivided into spur, helical and herringbone-
type gear pumps. Of these the straight spur gear is by far the most widely
275
used. One of the main reasons for using helical tooth pumps is that they are
quieter in operation at high rotational speeds.
Figure 13.6 (a) and (b) shows the cross-section through a typical gear pump
and illustrates the pumping action. If the pump driving shaft is rotated as
shown, the un-meshing of the gears will produce a partial vacuum so that the
liquid will be drawn into the pump.
This liquid is trapped between the gear teeth and carried round to the
opposite side of the pump by both gears before it is forced out of the
discharge port. It will also be readily seen that these pumps are most
compact and usually without valves.
Working principle - In gear pumps, the fluid being pumped is drawn into the
intake port by the gear teeth. The fluid is then forced through the space
between the pump casing and the impellers and out the discharge port. The
meshing of the gear teeth prevents the fluid from flowing back out the intake
port. Figure 13.7 shows the fluid flow in an external gear pump.
Figure 13.7 Working principle of an external gear pump
Spur gear impellers are the most common type used in gear pumps. They are
economical to manufacture and maintain. Where a smooth fluid flow and
transfer of power is needed, helical and herringbone gears are used. Helical
and herringbone gears are often used in pumps that handle larger
capacities and higher speeds than spur gear pumps.
276
13.4.2 Helical screw gear pump

Liquid enters in the direction shown and is carried round between the vanes
and the pump casing until it is pushed through the pump outlet.
Causes of rotary pumps jailing to delivery liquid:
x Suction head is too large

x Strainer is choked and therefore liquid cannot flow to pump casing
x Pump is not properly primed
x There are air leakages at inlet pipes and packed stuffing boxes
x Pump may be badly worn or have some or other mechanical fault
x Strainer not properly submerged under liquid thus permitting air to be
drawn in with water.
x Speed of pump too low to build up pressure
This pump is often used to transfer oil from one point to another. Screw pumps
are simple and capable of operating at high speeds.
For the operation of the pump, see Figure 13.8. The side screws (1) are driven
by the central screw (2) and the liquid is drawn in through the opening (3),
where it travels along grooves (4) to be pumped out through the delivery
hole (5).
Figure 13.8 Operation of the screw pump
13.4.3 Blade pumps

The rotor has slots into which the sliding blades or vanes fit. The pump
depends on centrifugal force to swing out the blades and cause them to ride
lightly against the cylinder walls during rotation. It should be noted that these
pumps will not operate unless properly primed.
Figure 13.8 Blade-type rotary pump

277
13.4.4 Vane pump

The operation of the vane-type pump is as follows:
It is based on the principle of increasing the size of the cavity to form a

vacuum, allowing the space to be filled with fluid, and then forcing the fluid
out of the pump under pressure diminishing the volume.
The rotor has slots into which the sliding blades or vanes fit. The pump
depends on centrifugal force to out the blades and cause them to ride lightly
against the cylinder walls during rotation. Liquid enters in the direction shown
in Figure 13.9 and is carried round between the vanes and the pump casing
and then pushed through the pump outlet.
Figure 13.9 (a) Spring-load impeller vane pump
Figure 13.9 (b) Vane-type pump
Advantages of vane pumps

x Handles thin liquids at relatively higher pressures
x Compensates for wear through vane extension
278
x Sometimes preferred for solvents, LPG

x Can run dry for short periods
x Can have one seal or stuffing box
x Develops good vacuum
Disadvantages of vane pumps

x Can have two stuffing boxes
x Complex housing and many parts
x Not suitable for high pressures
x Not suitable for high viscosity
x Not good with abrasives
13.4.5 Flexible impeller pump

Flexible impeller pumps are rotary pumps that are used to pump chemicals.
Each pump has a flexible impeller made from rubber or plastic compounds.
Figure 13.10 shows flexible impeller pump parts.
Figure 13.10 Flexible impeller pump
Pump principle - The flexible impeller vanes deform slightly to pump the liquid
inside the pump and move it to the discharge port at a steady flow rate. This
principle combines gentle pumping with a high self-priming action.
13.5 Reciprocating pumps

Reciprocating action is a backward and forward or up and down movement
developed from a circular movement. Figure 13.11 clearly shows the
reciprocating action of a pump. A connecting rod joined to a crank which
moves or rotates through a circular path drives a cross head forward and
backward in a straight line. The most important characteristic of
reciprocating pumps is that the moving portion inside the cylinder may
consist of a bucket, a plunger or a piston.
279
Figure 13.11 Reciprocating action of a pump
A reciprocating pump has three main moving elements. They are:
x An inlet valve, also called an admission valve.

x An outlet valve, also called a discharge valve.
x A plunger or a piston.
Reciprocating pumps operate by back-and-forth or up-and-down, straight-

line motion. Reciprocating pumps require a suction, or intake, stroke and a
discharge stroke to move the fluid.
During the suction stroke, a check valve in the suction line opens and a
check valve in the discharge line closes. During the discharge stroke, the
suction check valve closes and the discharge check valve opens. The action
of the check valves prevents the liquid from flowing back out the suction line
on the discharge stroke. Figure 13.12 shows check valves in the suction and
discharge lines.
Figure 13.12 Check valves in the suction and discharge lines
280
A plunger and a piston perform the same work. They differ from each other in
the following two ways:
x The length of a plunger is longer than its stroke. The stroke is the distance
the plunger or piston moves in one direction before returning back. The
length of a piston is shorter than its stroke.
x The packing of the plunger is housed in a stuffing box with soft packing at
the end of the cylinder. The piston has packing rings that are inserted on
the rim to prevent leakage. These differences are shown in Figures 13.13
(a) and (b).
Figure 13.13 (a)Piston Figure 13.13 (b) Plunger
13.5.1 Piston pump

The piston pump almost always has suction and delivery valves connected to
each end of the cylinder and are thus double-acting. This type of pump
operates most satisfactorily at medium pressures.
As the piston moves to the right, fluid is drawn through the left suction valve
and delivered through the right delivery valve. On moving to the left, fluid is
drawn through the right suction valve and delivered through the delivery
valve situated on the left side.
Figure 13.14 Double-acting piston pump

281
13.5.2 Plunger pump

The plunger pump is worked by compressed air. The air cylinder on the right-
hand side has a piston which is directly connected to the water plunger.
When the air piston operates with a reciprocating movement from left to
right, or from right to left, the water plunger follows similarly.
Figure 13.15 Plunger pump
13.5.3 Externally-packed plunger pump (Cameron type)

This plunger operates in two separate water boxes which are only connected
via the suction and delivery pipes. Each water box has two valves, i.e. an inlet
and an outlet valve for the water.
Figure 13.16 Externally packed plunger pump
When referring to Figure 13.16 it will be noticed that when the plunger moves
from the left-hand side to the right-hand side, the water in the box will be
compressed, therefore the upper valve will open, allowing water to flow out
282
into the delivery and the bottom valve will close, preventing water from
running back into the sump.
Simultaneously a vacuum is created in the left box, which will cause the top
valve to close and the bottom valve to open, "sucking in" more water.
13.5.4 Internally-packed pump

The plunger is reduced at the front to take up cup leathers or rings of square
hard rubber packing. Under compression the packing forms a tight seal
between the plunger and the inner wall of the cylinder. (See Figure 13.17)
The disadvantage of this type of pump is that one cannot ascertain if any
leakage occurs while the pump is in operation.
Figure 13.17 Internally packed plunger pump
13.6 Advantages of centrifugal pumps over reciprocating pumps

Centrifugal pumps have several advantages over reciprocating pumps.
Some of these advantages are:
x Centrifugal pumps are more compact, which means they need less floor
space.
x The initial cost is relatively low.
x Maintenance costs are low due to the rotating motion of the main parts.
x Centrifugal pumps are quite adaptable. They can pump sandy, muddy
and dirty fluids with ease.
x The construction of the pump is simple and reliable.
x The pump works at high speeds and it can therefore be connected
directly to the motor.
x Water hammer and shocks do not occur because the pump delivers a
regular and continuous stream of fluid. There is therefore no need for air
vessels.
x There are almost no vibrations, thus there is no need for sturdy and heavy
foundations.
283
x The delivery of fluid can be regulated from no flow to full flow without
switching off or damaging the pump.
x Centrifugal pumps have no moving valves or sensitive parts.
Activity 13.1
1. Explain the function of pumps.

2. Name the three categories into which pumps are classified.
3. Identify, classify, name and explain the working principle of the following
pumps and explain with the aid of a freehand drawing the function of
various components:
(a)Centrifugal pumps, both single and multi-stage
(b)Rotary pumps
(c) Gear pump
(d)Helical screw gear pump
(e) Vane pump
(f) Flexible impeller pump
4. Name the types of reciprocating pumps.
5. Make a freehand drawing to explain the working principle of
reciprocating pumps.
6. Explain the term water hammer and name two causes for this.
Self-Assessment

x Explain the function of pumps
x Identify, classify, name and explain the working principle of the
following pumps and explain the function of various
components from given drawings:
o Centrifugal pumps, both single and multi-stage
o Rotary pumps, including the gear pump, helical screw gear
pump, vane pump and flexible impeller pump
x Reciprocating pumps, including the piston pump, plunger
pump and steam and air-driven reciprocating pumps
x Explain the following reciprocating pump terminology:
o Simplex and duplex pumps
o Single and double acting pumps
x Differentiate clearly between positive and non-positive
displacement pumps and indicate where they are used.
284
Learning Outcomes
outcomes:
x Explain the working principles of compressors and their functions

x Identify, classify and name the following compressors:
o Reciprocating compressors that include single-stage and multi-
stage compressors, single-acting and double-acting compressors
o Rotary compressors that include the vane compressor, rotary screw
compressor, lobe compressor, and single-and multi-stage
centrifugal compressors.
x Describe and list the functions of the components of the above
mentioned compressors from given drawings
x Identify the components of a compressed air system.
14.1 Introduction
Reciprocating compressors can be either single-acting -single-
stage, or single-acting-two- or multistage, double-acting-single-
stage or double-acting two- or multistage.
Compressors may be connected directly to the prime mover, for instance a

steam engine, or may be power driven by a separate power source such as
an electric motor.
Air is the most common resource available to us. Like all gases, it can be
compressed. It is therefore obvious that if we are able to store air under
pressure and use the energy it possesses, we could make it drive machines
and machine tools in a most economical and safe manner. This is what
compressors do. There is a wide range of compressors, and they are classified
by their design and operating principles as follows:
x reciprocating compressors
x rotary compressors
x centrifugal compressors
285
14.2 Reciprocating compressors

14.2.1 Two-stage compressor
A diagram illustrating the flow of air from the air filter to the air receiver in a
two-stage compressor is shown in Figure 14.1. It operates as follows:
x Air, after passing through the air filter, enters the low-pressure cylinder
where it is compressed.
x It then passes to the intercooler where it is cooled before it flows to the
high-pressure cylinder.
x The air is compressed in the high-pressure cylinder to the final pressure
from where it is allowed to flow to the after cooler where it is again cooled
before it flows to the air receiver where it is stored until required.
Figure 14.1 (a) Single-acting compressor (b) Double-acting compressor
Figure 14.2 (a) Single-stage compressor (b) Two-stage compressor
286
14.2.2 Advantages of two-stage compressors

Because the air is cooled between the low- and high pressure cylinders the
temperature is also divided between the two cylinders. Air cooled by the
intercooler occupies a smaller volume, thus power consumption is reduced.
The reduced temperature in the high-pressure cylinder makes lubrication

easier and there is less chance of explosion.
Figure 14.3 Two-stage compressor layout
14.2.3 Components of two-stage compressors

x Air filter
It is essential that compressors be fitted with air filters as dust causes undue
wear and, when mixed with lubricating oil, forms an explosive mixture. Air
filters should be examined, cleaned and replaced at regular intervals.
x Drain valves
Drain valves must be fitted to cylinders, inter- and after coolers, as well as
receivers. Air which enters the compressor contains moisture which
condenses and may cause:
o Water hammer in pipes.

o Valves in air machines to freeze in cold weather.
o Corrosion of pipes and receivers.
o Lubricating oil to be washed into rubber hoses, causing them to perish.
o Gauges to give false readings.
287
x Intercooler
The purpose of the intercooler (see Figure 14.4), which is placed between the
two cylinders of a two-stage compressor, is to remove heat from the air
generated in the first stage on its way to the second stage.
An intercooler is constructed and functions as follows:
Inside a cylindrical steel shell are two tube end-plates to which the cooling
tubes are sealed. Water circulates through these tubes, entering and leaving
the intercooler as indicated. Hot air enters the intercooler, passes over the
tubes and is deflected repeatedly by baffle plates so that as much heat as
possible is extracted before the charge leaves the intercooler on its way to
the high-pressure cylinder.
Figure 14.4 Intercooler
When the compressor is operating, the intercooler pressure should remain

practically constant; wide fluctuations indicate that something is wrong. Note
the intercooler pressure when the compressor is first started.
Later, if the intercooler pressure goes higher, leakage in the high pressure
cylinder is indicated. An intercooler pressure that is too low indicates leakage
in the low pressure cylinder. Any marked deviation from a constant
intercooler pressure should be investigated at once by examining for leaky or
broken valves or piston rings.
x After-cooler
The construction of the after-cooler is similar to that of the intercooler and
heat reduction of high-pressure air takes place in the same way.
x Separator
Air, once cooled in the after-cooler, contains moisture which must be
removed before being allowed to pass to the air receiver. Figure 14.5 shows a
separator in which air direction is suddenly changed by 180°, causing
moisture, or water, which may be present in the air, to be hurled to the
288
bottom of the separator by centrifugal force, where it accumulates and can

be tapped off.
Figure 14.5 Separator
x Moisture Trap
A moisture trap is mounted on the crankcase below the intercooler.
Condensate from the intercooler drains into this trap and as the liquid
accumulates it automatically raises the float "A" (See Figure 14.6) and opens
the valve "B". The condensate then discharges before too much has
accumulated.
This trap should be connected to the main drain. A periodic cleaning to

remove sediment is the only attention this trap requires.
If excessive water is allowed to get into the high pressure cylinder, it will
damage the finish of the cylinder bore.
x Safety Valve
A safety valve connected to the intercooler pressure is mounted on top of
the moisture trap. This valve should be operated by hand at least once a day
in order to ensure it is in perfect working condition.
Should it be necessary to install a shut-off valve in the discharge line to the

receiver, a safety valve must be installed between it and the compressor.
289
Figure 14.6 Inter-cooler moisture trap and safety valve
14.3 Rotary compressors

These are made in several different designs which may be single-stage or
multi-stage, radial (centrifugal) or axial. They are capable of running at high
speeds and may be directly coupled to turbines or electric motors.
14.3.1 Multi-stage, radial-type turbo-compressor

This type of compressor delivers oil-free compressed air which enters the eye
of the first impeller from the atmosphere and then, at successively higher
pressures, enters the eyes of a series of impellers. With radial flow compressors,
air enters the impeller at the centre or eye and flows radially outwards
towards the circumference.
14.3.2 Roots compressor

The Roots compressor or blower consists of a housing that encloses two rotors
which turn in opposite directions. There is no contact between the rotors or
between the rotors and the housing, and thus, no lubrication is required,
delivering oil-free compressed air. (see Figure 14.7).
290
Figure 14.7 Roots rotary compressor
14.3.3 Rotary vane compressor

This type of compressor consists of housing and only one rotor which is placed
eccentrically in the housing. The vanes slide radially in slots in the rotor and
are pressed against the walls of the housing by springs or centrifugal force.
Valve action is provided by the vanes as they pass openings in the walls of
the housing. This type of compressor requires generous lubrication to reduce
wear (see Figure 14.8).
Figure 14.8 Rotary vane compressor
14.3.4 Rotary screw compressor

This type of compressor consists of a housing and two rotors, one a concave
and the other a convex rotor, which rotate in opposite directions. No contact
takes place between the rotors and the housing or the rotors themselves. No
lubrication is required for these parts and the compressor delivers oil-free air,
which is essential for spray-painting and cleaning purposes (see Figure 14.9).
291
Figure 14.9 Rotary screw compressor
14.3.5 Centrifugal compressor

Figure 14.10 shows a section through a centrifugal compressor in which air is
given velocity through the action of centrifugal force. This velocity is
converted into pressure by a simple static diffuser. Air is then cooled, drained
of moisture, and further compressed in successive stages until the desired
pressure is reached. This compressor has independently driven impellers, (see
Figure 14.11), each operating at their own optimum speed for best efficiency.
Each impeller is mounted on its own rotor shaft and is driven from a single bull
gear.
Figure 14.11 Centrifugal air compressor
292
Activity 14.1
1. Explain the working principles of two-stage compressors and their functions.

2. Identify the components of a compressed air system.
3. Name the three main groups into which compressors are classified.
4. Name three types of rotary compressors that are used in industry.
5. Make a neat labeled freehand drawing of an after cooler, showing clearly
the pathways of air and water.
6. Explain the main functions of an air compressor.
Self-Assessment

x Explain the working principles of compressors and their
functions.
x Identify, classify and name the following compressors:
o Reciprocating compressors that include single-stage and
multi-stage compressors, single-acting and double-acting
compressors.
o Rotary compressors that include the vane compressor, rotary
screw compressor, lobe compressor, and single-and multi-
stage centrifugal compressors.
x Describe and list the functions of the components of the above
mentioned compressors from given drawings.
x Identify the components of a compressed air system.
If you have answered ‘no’ to any of the outcomes listed above, then speak to
your facilitator for guidance and further development.
293
Learning Outcomes
outcomes:
x Explain what is meant by the following units of measurement in hydraulic

systems:
o Pressure
o Flow rate
o Area
x Name and describe the function of the five basic components of a
hydraulic system:
o Pump
o Piping
o Actuators
o Reservoir
o Values
x State the three main functions of hydraulic fluid or oil.
x Identify hydraulic symbols.
x Explain the function of the different valves used in hydraulic systems.
x Design a simple hydraulic circuit containing the five basic components.
15.1 Introduction
In modern machinery and equipment the engineering has
become very complex. It is often not possible to use only gears,
levers and other transmission equipment to transmit power.
Let us look at a common example. The brakes on a bicycle are applied by

means of hand pressure on the brake lever. This power is transmitted to the
brake by means of a simple cable. We could never hope to brake a
motorcar, or worse still a 20-ton truck, in this way.
Firstly, we would have to use a very complex system of levers to enable the
driver to apply enough power to stop the vehicle. Secondly, such a system of
levers would be very heavy and would take up a lot of space.
294
We have the same problems in other modern machinery such as automatic

milling machines, lathes and presses. In many of these machines power has
to be transmitted in very limited space and around tiny bends. This makes it
impossible to use gears and levers.
The answer is to transmit power by means of hydraulic systems. In a hydraulic

system power is transmitted along a system of pipes filled with hydraulic fluid.
You will understand how this is possible once you have studied the
characteristics of the fluid in a hydraulic system, understand how pressure is
transmitted and the role that flow rate and area fulfil.
15.2 Units of measurement in hydraulic systems

The three units of measurement in hydraulic systems are:
x Pressure
x Flow rate
x Area
15.2.1 Pressure
The effect that pressure has on a fluid depends on whether the fluid is open
to the atmosphere or in an airtight container.
(a) Types of pressure acting on fluids

There are two types of pressure which act on fluids. If the fluid is open to the
atmosphere, atmospheric pressure is acting on the fluid. If pressure is exerted
on a fluid in an airtight container we call it applied pressure.
Let us now discuss these two types of pressure which act on fluids.
x Atmospheric pressure
When a fluid is in an open container as shown in Figure 15.1, it is subject only
to the pressure of the atmosphere on its surface. Atmospheric pressure is
approximately 101,3 kPa. The pressure increases as the depth of the fluid
increases. Diving is an example of this principle.
Figure 15.1 Atmospheric pressure
295
A person can dive quite a few metres below the surface of the sea without
using any protection.
However, deep-sea divers who dive hundreds of metres below the surface
have to wear strong diving suits. This is because the pressure can be as much
as a few tons per square centimetre at great depths.
x Applied pressure
The situation is very different when the surface of a fluid is not free. This
happens when the fluid is completely enclosed and not open to atmospheric
pressure at all as shown in Figure 15.2. In this case the pressure in the fluid no
longer increases with depth. Any pressure that is applied is equally
transmitted in the fluid in every direction.
Figure 15.2 Applied pressure
(b) Pascal's law

The principles which apply to pressure in fluids were first defined by a scientist
by the name of Pascal. Let us look at Pascal's law in more detail.
Pascal's law states:

x The pressure exerted on the surface of a liquid, as shown in Figure 15.2, is
transmitted equally in all directions. This means that pressure at any one
point in a liquid which is static, in other words not moving, will be the same
in every direction.
x Pressure exerted on an enclosed liquid is transmitted, without losing any
intensity, in every direction. Pressure acts with equal force on equal areas.
This means that, in a hydraulic system, it does not matter whether the pipes
change in size, or go around corners, or go up or down. If the pressure in any
part of the system is 1 N/m2, it will be 1 N/m2 in any other part of the fluid. The
pressure is the same in every direction.
296
We can therefore say that at any point in a hydraulic system, equal areas
experience equal forces if the liquid is under pressure. This is shown in Figure
15.3 where a force of 1 N is exerted on a plunger.
Figure 15.3 Pressure exerted on the surface of a liquid
15.2.2 Flow rate

What is flow? Flow is much easier for us to visualise than pressure, because we
see it every time we turn on a water tap. It is the movement of the hydraulic
fluid caused by a difference in pressure at two points.
In our kitchen sink, for instance, we have atmospheric pressure. The city water
works has built up a pressure or head in our pipes. When we open the tap,
the pressure difference forces the water out.
In a hydraulic system, flow is usually produced by the action of a hydraulic

pump, a device used to push continuously on the hydraulic fluid.
Flow rate is the measure of the volume of liquid which passes a point in a
given time. It is usually measured in litres per second, l/s. Flow rate determines
the speed at which the load moves, and therefore is important to the
consideration of power.
If a fluid flows through a pipe of varying diameters, at any particular time the
same volume flows at all points. This means, that the velocity of liquid flow, or
flow rate, must increase at a narrow point.
To understand this concept study Figure 15.4. Suppose that we are pumping
at a constant rate of ten litres per minute through two chambers of different
diameter. Each chamber holds ten litres. So, each chamber will be emptied
and refilled once each minute.
297
Figure 15.4 Chambers with different diameters
Chamber A, however, is twice as long as chamber B. Fluid travelling through

chamber A must move at a velocity of one metre per minute.
Fluid travelling through chamber B moves only half as fast at 0,5 metre per
minute.
If A and B are sections of a pipe, it is obvious that a constant flow rate will
result in a lower velocity as the diameter increases or a higher velocity as the
diameter decreases.
In fact, the velocity of fluid in a hydraulic line is inversely proportional to the

cross-sectional area or to the diameter squared. Thus, flow velocity in a 100
mm diameter line will be ¼ as fast as the same flow rate in a 50 mm diameter
pipe. A low velocity is better to reduce friction and turbulence in the
hydraulic fluid.
15.2 Factors determining the choice between hydraulics and

pneumatics
Although some jobs can be done with both mediums of fluid power, the
following factors play a role in making the right decision:
• Power level
Pneumatic systems operate at a fraction of the power that hydraulic
systems produce.
• Noise level
Pneumatic systems are silent where the exhaust noise is muffled. Hydraulics
usually has a characteristic noise, easily identifiable in industry.
• Cleanliness
Pneumatic systems are cleaner. They are therefore the preferred systems
in the food industry.
• Speed
Hydraulic systems are slow and are usually dependent on the flow rate of
the pump. Pneumatic systems operate faster because of lightweight
components.
298
• Operating costs
Hydraulic systems cost less to operate than pneumatic systems which
have far more components active in the supply of air, e.g. the intercooler
and after cooler that cope with heat and expansion.
• Rigidity
Hydraulic systems, because of robust, heavier components/ offer greater
rigidity than lightweight components in pneumatic systems.
15.3 Function of the basic components in a hydraulic system

Figure 15.5 shows a hydraulic system.
Figure 15.5 Hydraulic system
The five basic components of a hydraulic system are:
x Pump
x Piping
x Actuators
x Reservoir
x Values
We will now take a look at some of the basic components of a hydraulic

system, and their functions.
(a)Pump
The function of a pump is to push on the hydraulic fluid and create flow. We
say that the pump converts mechanical energy from the prime mover, which
can be an engine or electric motor as previously discussed, into pressure
energy in the fluid.
The pressure energy is then used to operate an actuator, often with very
precise control.
299
(b)Pipes
Hydraulic fluids are conducted by pipe, tubing or flexible hose. Pipe has the
advantage of being relatively cheap. It is applied mainly in straight runs, and
is usually of steel. Tubing can be bent more easily into neat forms to fit
between the inlet and outlet com1ections. Hose is used when the lines must
be flexible or in applications where fixed, rigid conduit is unsuitable.
These lines or piping act as the conductor of hydraulic fluid. It is necessary to

channel the fluid under pressure from the pump to the actuators.
(c) Actuators
The actuator is a type of output mechanism. It may be the motor or rotary
actuator, or a cylinder or linear actuator, of the hydraulic system.
Actuators may consist of various types of cylinders, for example single or

double acting, or have different valve configurations. The actuator converts
the hydraulic liquid energy or pressure into mechanical energy or movement.
(d) Reservoir
The reservoir is often called the sump or tank. Ideally, a reservoir should be
deep and narrow, rather than shallow and wide.
Figure 15.6 A hydraulic system and it components
300
(e) Valves
Valves are used in hydraulic systems to control the operation of the
actuators. Very often, in fact, we find the valves referred to as the control,
particularly where a number of valves are built into a single assembly. The
functions of the valves are to:
x Regulate pressure in the circuit.

x Determine how much fluid will flow in different parts of the circuit.
x Direct the fluid into specific directions or lines.
x Connect various hydraulic lines to one another, to disconnect them from
one another, and to make a variety of cross linkage connections between
these different hydraulic lines continuously.
x Influence the direction of the effect of pressure and volumetric flow, and
therefore to control the start, stop and direction of motion in cylinders or
hydraulic motors.
15.4 Main functions of hydraulic fluid or oil

Hydraulic fluid (usually highly refined oil) has three functions in a hydraulic
system. These are:
x Power transmission
Power is transmitted via hydraulic fluid by the pressure that builds up in the
fluid. This pressure provides the energy that can be transferred.
x Lubrication
Mechanical hydraulic components are lubricated by hydraulic oil passing
through it, eliminating the need for external lubrication.
x Cooling
The hydraulic oil circulating in a system is an effective way of dissipating heat.
15.5 Valves used in hydraulic systems

We group hydraulic valves into the following three general categories:
1. Pressure relief valves.

2. Directional control valves.
3. Flow control valves.
15.6 Function of different valves used in hydraulic systems

15.6.1 Control valves
The primary function of the valve is to alert, generate or cancel signals for the
purpose of sensing, processing and controlling. In addition the valve is used
as a power element for the supply of working fluid to the actuator. Control
valves route oil to either side of the actuator.
301
15.6.2 Ball valves

Used in small reciprocating pumps and in small oil lines to permit oil flow in
one direction only. Ball valves are spring-loaded and open when the pressure
in the system becomes greater than the pressure exerted by the spring
(Figure 15.7).
Figure 15.7 Ball valves
15.6.3 Rotary valves

These valves are used to control the direction of oil flow (Figure 15.8). They
are generally used as pilot valves to control the movement of the spool
valve.
Figure 15.8 Rotary valves
15.6.4 Spool valves

Spool valves are used to control the direction of the oil flow (Figure 15.9). The
mating surfaces of this type of valve must be accurately machined and fitted
to prevent leakage and to ensure efficient operation.
Figure 15.9 Spool valves

302
15.7 Hydraulic symbols

In order to draw hydraulic circuit diagrams we must have standardised
symbols. These symbols are laid down at international level by the ISO
standards organisation. The following symbols (Table 15.1) are the most
commonly used.
Table 15.1 Hydraulic system symbols
15.8 Simple hydraulic circuit design

When designing a hydraulic circuit you start by investigating the job to be
done by the actuator. First determine the type and size of the actuator
needed. The actuator is the biggest factor influencing the design.
An accurate diagram of a hydraulic circuit is essential to the designer, to the

people who must build the machine and to the person who must repair it. It
shows the order in which the components must be connected, what each
component should do and where the fluid must go. Notice that the graphical
diagram doesn't show anything about the construction or relative location of
the components. Its purpose is to show functions, port connections and flow
paths.
303
Figures 15.10 are examples of line drawings of basic hydraulic systems with
their corresponding hydraulic circuit diagrams.
304
Figure 15.10 Examples of line drawings of basic hydraulic systems
Activity 15.1
1. Explain what is meant by the following units of measurement in hydraulic

systems:
(a)Pressure
(b)Flow rate
(c) Area
2. State Pascal's law.
3. Name the five basic components of a hydraulic circuit.
305
4. What are the three major functions of oil in a hydraulic system?

5. Sketch the following symbols as used in drawings of hydraulic circuits:
(a)Electric motor.
(b)Temperature gauge.
(c) Line back to reservoir above fluid level.
(d)Hydraulic pump.
(e) Single-acting cylinder, return stroke by external force.
(f) Flow measuring instrument.
(g)Filter.
(h) Check valve
6. Name and describe the function of the five basic components of a
hydraulic system:
(a)Pump
(b)Piping
(c) Actuators
(d)Reservoir
(e) Values
7. State the three main functions of hydraulic fluid or oil.
8. Explain the function of the different valves used in hydraulic systems.
9. Design a simple hydraulic circuit containing the five basic components.
10. Name six basic components of a hydraulic system.
11. What is the main difference between a pneumatic and hydraulic
system?
Self-Assessment

x Explain what is meant by the following units of measurement in
hydraulic systems:
o Pressure ; Flow rate; and Area
x Name and describe the function of the five basic components
of a hydraulic system:
o Pump; Piping; Actuators; Reservoir; and Values
x State the three main functions of hydraulic fluid or oil.
x Identify hydraulic symbols.
x Explain the function of the different valves used in hydraulic
systems.
x Design a simple hydraulic circuit containing the five basic
components.
306
Learning Outcomes
outcomes:
x Explain what is meant by the following units of measurement in pneumatic

systems:
o Pressure
o Flow rate
o Area
x State the factors which influence the force and speed of an actuator.
x Name and describe the function of the five basic components of a
pneumatic system:
o Compressor
o Piping
o Actuators
o Air receiver
o Values
x Explain the daily maintenance of a pneumatic system.
x Identify pneumatic symbols.
x Explain the function of the different valves used in hydraulic systems.
x Design a simple pneumatic circuit containing the five basic components.
16.1 Introduction
Pneumatic power is used to drive tools and machines requiring
rotary motion, such as drills, and reciprocating motion such as
hammers.
These tools and machines can vary from the small drilling machine used by
dentists to a large hydraulic hammer used to break concrete and rocks.
Pneumatic tools are driven by air motors, which are powered by compressed
air. The air motor is physically small and light for the high torque and power
that it delivers, and it does not generate heat. It can also not be damaged
by overloading.
307
Pneumatic cylinders, rotary actuators and air motors provide the force and
movement of most pneumatic control systems, to hold, move, form and
process material. To operate and control these actuators, other pneumatic
components are required, for example, air service units to prepare the
compressed air, and valves to control the pressure, flow and direction of
movement of the actuators.
16.2 Functions of the basic components in a Pneumatic system

A basic pneumatic system, shown in figure 10.1, consists of two main sections:
• The air production and distribution system.

• The air consumption system.
Although you are not required to know the functions of all the basic
components for this syllabus, we will briefly mention and d1scuss each of
them in order to have a better understanding of the pneumatic system.
Figure 16.1 A basic pneumatic system
16.2.1 Functions of the components on the air production side of the system
We will consider all the components on the air production side of the system.
(a) Compressor
Air is taken in at atmospheric pressure via an air filter. It is then compressed
and delivered at a higher pressure to a reservoir or tank where the air is
stored for use. The compressor converts mechanical energy and motion into
pneumatic energy or fluid power.
308
(b) Electric motor

The electric motor supplies mechanical power to the compressor. It
transforms electrical energy into mechanical energy.
(c) Pressure switch

The pressure switch controls the electric motor by sensing the pressure in the
tank. It will stop the motor if a set max1mum pressure IS reached, and will
restart it when the pressure drops to a set minimum.
(d) Check valve

The check valve allows compressed air from the compressor into the tank
and prevents it leaking back when the compressor is stopped.
(e) Air receiver

The air receiver or tank is a pressure vessel in which compressed air is stored
for use. The size of the air receiver is determined by the capacity of the
compressor. The larger the volume, the longer will be the intervals between
compressor runs.
(f) Pressure gauge

The pressure gauge indicates the pressure inside the air receiver. The pressure
gauge shows any blockage or damage in the system. This gauge verifies a
safe and satisfactory air pressure.
(g) Auto drain

The auto drain drains all the water condensing in the tank automatically.
(h) Pressure reducing valve

The pressure reducing valve is also known as a safety valve. This device allows
compressed air to escape into the atmosphere if the pressure in the tank
should rise above the allowed safe pressure. It is a device which limits the
maximum system pressure. So it is a protective device which prevents system
failure.
(i) Refrigerated air dryer

The dryer cools the compressed air to a few degrees above freezing point.
This means that most of the water vapour in the air will condense. It is thus a
device which reduces the water vapour content of the compressed air, in
other words it dries the air. This prevents water from contaminating the
downstream system.
(j) Line filter

The line filter, which is in the main pipe, must have a minimal pressure drop
and the capability of oil mist removal. It helps to keep the line free from dust,
water and oil.
309
16.3 Pressure, flow rate and area

Pressure, flow rate and area in a pneumatic system are basic variables
related to one another. Pressure and volume are the most important factors
in the proper functioning of any pneumatic system. Let us now discuss these
basic variables.
16.3.1 Pressure
x The air that fills your motorcar's tyres is a gas, and obeys the laws of gases.
When you inflate a tyre, you are squeezing in more air than the tyre would
like to hold.
x The air inside the tyre resists this squeezing by pushing outward on the
casing of the tyre. The outward push of the air is pressure.
x Air, of course, like all gases, is highly compressible. That means you can
squeeze it into a smaller volume, or you can squeeze more air into the
same space. It needs more force to squeeze additional air into a tyre, as
the pressure within the lyre increases.
x Pressure and flow, of course, must be inter-related in considering work,
energy and power. On the other hand, each has its own particular job to
do.
x Pressure is responsible for pushing or exerting a force or torque.
x Pressure is defined as force per unit of area. It is measured in pascal and
the unit is written as Pa.
16.3.2 Flow rate

Flow is responsible for making something move, causing motion. Flow is the
quantity of compressed air passing through a given cross section during a
specific unit of time. The flow rate is measured in liters per second, l/s or cubic
metres per second, m3 / s.
Take Note:
1 cubic metre = 1 m3 = 1 000 litres
16.3.3 Area
If air flows through pipes of varying diameters, at any particular time the
same volume flows at all points. This means, that the velocity of air flow or
flow rate will increase at a narrow point.
In fact, the velocity of air in a pneumatic line is inversely proportional to the

cross-sectional area or to the diameter squared.
Thus, flow velocity in a 100 mm diameter line will be only one quarter as fast
as the same flow rate in a 50 nun diameter pipe. Area is measured in metres
squared and the unit is m2
310
16.4 Symbols used for basic pneumatic systems

In order to draw pneumatic circuit diagrams we need to have standardised
symbols. These symbols are laid down at international level by the ISO
standards organisation. The following symbols (Table 16.1) are the most
commonly used:
Table 16.1 Pneumatic symbols
16.5 Functions of the basic components of a pneumatic system

Figure 16.2 shows the basic components of a pneumatic system including the
control valve.
16.5.1 The control valve

Principle of operation: In its normal position the supply port (P) is shut off. The
working line from the cylinder connected to port (A) is open to the exhaust
port (R).
When the plunger is depressed, the supply port (P) is connected to port (A)
and supplies air to the cylinder. In this position the exhaust port (R) is blocked
off.
311
Application: A 3/2-way valve normally closed is used to control the flow of air
to and from a single-acting cylinder when the piston is to be moved out
momentarily.
The symbols for a 3/2-way valve (normally closed), manual or lever control
and spring reset is shown in Figure 16.2(b).
(b) The control valve in a pneumatic system
Figure 16.2 Basic components of a pneumatic system
16.5.2 The actuator (cylinder)

Principle of operation: When air is supplied to the cylinder through a control
valve it enters the cylinder through the inlet port (A). The pressure in the
cylinder starts to build up in the chamber (B) at the back of the piston. The
312
piston then moves outwards until it reaches the end of its stroke. When the
supply of air to the cylinder is cut off, the inlet port is vented to atmosphere by
the control valve. The return spring now pushes the piston back until it returns
to its initial position- see Figure 16.2(c).
Figure 16.2(c) The actuator
16.5.3 The compressor

The main function of the compressor is to take in air via the air filter and, by
means of the machine, a piston is used to compress the air to a certain
pressure and then force it to a reservoir where the air is stored for use.
16.5.4 Air receiver (tank)

The function of the air receiver is to store the compressed air and provide
large quantities of compressed air to the pneumatic equipment.
16.5.5 Piping
The function of the piping in pneumatic systems is to transfer the air to be
used to its specific point of application.
16.5.6 Valves
The function of the valves is to release any excess air that can be a danger to
workers and the system.
16.5.7 Service unit

The function of the service unit is to prepare the air for use in the system.
It has three components, namely:
1. Filter with water trap

The filter with the water trap removes the remaining contaminants that
have not been removed by the air filter at the compressor. It also removes
moisture or water vapour in the air.
2. The pressure reducing valve

The pressure reducing valve is a valve that opens up if the pressure
reaches a certain level.
313
3. The lubricator
The lubricator lubricates the moving parts.
16.6 Pneumatically controlled valves

16.6.1 Directional control valves
Valves in pneumatics are used to open and dose flow paths. They regulate
pressure, adjust flow rate of air and direct flow through various pathways.
One type of valve is the directional control valve. This valve blocks and opens
the flow path to direct the flow of compressed air to the actuator.
Figure 16.3 (a)
A typical example is the 4/2-way directional control valve that you can see in
Figure 16.3. This directional control valve can be used to control the
movement of a single-acting cylinder. It has four passage ways called ports.
The valve also has two switching positions.
Thus, with four ports and two switching positions, it is called a 4/2-way
directional control valve. The design is called a spool valve or poppet valve
and is represented by the ISO symbols in Figures 16.3 (c) and (d).
When the valve is not actuated, the spring holds the piston in the retracted
position. When the valve is actuated, air pressure pushes on the piston and
the piston rod extends. When the valve is released, the piston retracts due to
spring pressure and air is exhausted into the atmosphere via the exhaust port.
314
Figure 16.3 A typical example is the 4/2-way directional control valve
16.7 Maintenance of a pneumatic system

x Make sure that the air supply is as pure and as cool as possible.
x Inspect the receiver for any air leakages.
x Check that the pressure on the gauge does not exceed the maximum
working pressure.
x Open drain valve periodically to release any moisture.
x Keep intake filter clean.
x Make sure that all hoses and fittings are in good working order.
x Document all inspections and checks.
315
16.8 Typical design of a simple pneumatic circuit

Figure 16.4 shows a typical simple pneumatic circuit, which includes:
x A spring controlled single acting cylinder

x Manual directional control valve
x A pipeline
x The pressure source
x Air connection point
Figure 16.4 Simple pneumatic circuit
Activity 16.1
1. List the seven basic components of a pneumatic system and state their
functions.
2. Describe the function of the service unit on a pneumatic system and
mention it’s thee components.
3. Make neat sketches of the following pneumatic system symbols:
(a)Compressor
(b)Electric motor
(c) Flow measuring instruments
(d)Filter
(e) Thermometer
(f) Pressure gauge
(g)Dryer
(h) Heat engine
(i) Safety valve, and
(j) Pressure regulator
4. Give the function of the following pneumatic components:

(a)Air receiver
316
(b)Pipes
(c) Actuator
5. Describe FIVE main aspects of a maintenance inspection of a pneumatic
system.
6. Explain what is meant by the following units of measurement in pneumatic
systems:
(a)Pressure
(b)Flow rate
(c) Area
Self-Assessment

7. Explain what is meant by the following units of measurement
in pneumatic systems:
o Pressure
o Flow rate
o Area
8. State the factors which influence the force and speed of an
actuator.
9. Name and describe the function of the five basic
components of a pneumatic system:
o Compressor
o Piping
o Actuators
o Air receiver
o Values
x Explain the daily maintenance of a pneumatic system.
x Identify pneumatic symbols.
x Design a simple pneumatic circuit containing the five basic
components.
If you have answered ‘no’ to any of the outcomes listed above, then speak to
your facilitator for guidance and further development.
317
Learning Outcomes
outcomes:
x Explain the functions and uses of dividing heads.

x Identify and explain the function of dividing head components.
x Describe and calculate for the following types of indexing:
o Rapid
o Angular
o Simple
o Differential
x Explain the differences between Browne & Sharpe and Cincinnati indexing
plates.
x Identify the following types of milling cutters from given drawings:
o Plain helical slab cutter
o End mill
o Slotting cutter
o T-slot
o Side and face cutter
o Slot drill
o Slitting saw
o Dovetail cutter
x Give the reasons for using the smallest diameter milling cutter and the
nicked helical cutter.
x State the advantages of coarse-toothed milling cutters.
x Indicate the angles on milling cutters using suitable line drawings.
x Calculate the milling speeds and feeds.
x Represent the following machining processes by means of simple line
drawings:
o Slab milling
o Down-cut milling
o Straddle milling
o Up-cut milling
o Gang milling
318
17.1 Introduction
This module deals with milling machining processes and the
calculations on which these processes are based. Since you
studied the milling machine on N1, you should now know the
functions of a milling machine and be able to identify its various
components (see Figure 17.1)
Figure 17.1 (a) Diagrams of vertical and horizontal milling machines
Figure 17.1 (b) Knee type milling machine

319
17.2 Dividing head

The dividing head is an attachment to the milling machine which makes it
possible to machine components with an accurate number of grooves,
holes, splines, teeth and flats along its circumference. This means that, by
using the dividing head, you can divide the circumference of a circular
object into any number of divisions. Look at the dividing head illustrated in
Figure 17.2.
Figure 17.2 Diving head of a milling machine
17.2.1 Dividing head and rotary table

Two of the many accessories of a milling machine is the dividing head and
the rotary table. They are devices that equally divides the circumference of
a workpiece into a number of parts, and to hold the workpiece in the
required position while work is done. They can be used to cut gears, spirals,
cams, cutters, drill holes and many other jobs.
To obtain a fourth axis, a CNC milling machine (machining centre) makes use
of a CNC dividing head which takes out the calculation part of the dividing
head. It also makes it easier to cut spirals, cams and helixes. The operating
principle between the common dividing head and the CNC one remains the
same.
17.2.2 Parts of the dividing head

The main parts of the index (or dividing) head are the worm, the worm wheel,
the index crank index, plates and sector arms. In addition the dividing head
comes with a footstock which supports long work, much like the tailstock of
the lathe. In actual fact the dividing head when set up in the milling machine
looks like a centre lathe.
17.2.3 Worm and worm-wheel

The chuck is attached to the worm-wheel and the crank to the worm. For
every 40 turns of the crank the wheel or chuck will rotate once. Due to the
high gear ratio as well as the frictional force between the two it is virtually
impossible to turn the chuck by hand.
320
Figure 17.3 Components for indexing
Although, when working, it is always best to use the lock as cutter forces can
be great. The worm and its shaft are made from steel and the worm wheel
made from bronze.
Figure 17.4 Figure 8 Worm and worm wheel gears
321
17.2.4 Index plate

The index plate, for rapid indexing, is mounted on the spindle behind the
driving plate. The index plate is equipped with accurately spaced holes on
different-diameter circles. Each circle has a different number of holes. These
circles allow the crank handle to be given an accurate part of a turn.
The crank handle turns the worm-gear and spindle through any required part
of a full circle. The adjustable plunger can be set in the crank handle to fit
any required hole circle.
As the ratio between the worm and wheel is 40:1 which means that every 40
turns of the worm the workpiece will rotate 360o therefore 1 turn of the crank
is equal to 9o.
This one turn of the crank must be further subdivided into fractions of a turn.
The index plate does this by having equally spaced holes on a circle.
There are a number of circles each having a different amount of holes so that
any angle or division can be indexed. The standard dividing heads come
supplied with one of the following index plate sets.
17.2.5 The Brown and Sharpe index plates
The Brown and Sharpe dividing head

Number of holes
Plate 1 15 16 17 18 19 20
Plate 2 21 23 27 29 31 33
Plate 3 37 39 41 43 47 49
20 holes 33 holes
19 holes 31 holes
18 holes 29 holes
17 holes 27 holes
16 holes 23 holes
15 holes 21 holes
Plate 1 Plate 2
Figure 17.5 Brown and Sharpe plates
322
17.2.6 Cincinnati indexing plate

The Cincinnati plate has holes on either side, therefore the plate can be
turned as required.
The Cincinnati dividing head
Side 1 24 25 28 30 34 37 38 39 41 42 43
Side 2 46 47 49 51 53 54 57 58 59 62 66
17.2.7 Crank and index pin

The crank is mostly turned in a clockwise direction so that any backlash is
eliminated. One end is clamped in the centre of the dividing head worm
gear with a nut. On the other end is the index pin.
The index pin fits into any hole on the index plate. The crank arm knob can
be pulled out so that the index pin is retracted from the hole. A spring will
push the index pin back into a hole once the knob is released.
Because of the different pitch circle diameter of the holes in each circle, the
crank arm can be adjusted so that the index pin will fit into any of the holes in
a circle. To adjust it, loosen the nut so that the crank arm can slide in the
groove until the indexing pin fits properly in the required hole of the index
plate. The pin must enter and exit the hole freely. The nut is then locked.
Figure 17.6 Crank arm and index pin
17.2.8 Sector arms

The sector arms or sometimes called fingers are adjustable so they can be set
against the index plate. They are set to the number of holes between one
division and the next. They manage to hold their setting whilst being rotated
323
due to friction between them. The sector arms makes it unnecessary to count
the holes when moving the index pin after each cut.
Figure 17.7 Sector arms
If the hole into which the pin must locate is overshot do not just
return to the hole and engage the pin. The backlash will not be
taken up and inaccuracy will occur. Rather reverse back the crank
about a turn and then go forward again to the hole.
17.2.9 Footstock
The footstock is used to support long workpieces on the opposite side of the
dividing head. The central part of the footstock is adjustable in the vertical
direction so that tapered workpieces can be made.
Two lugs are situated underneath the footstock which fit into the T slots of the
milling machine table. Two similar lugs are also under the dividing head. The
two lugs align the dividing head and the footstock centrally.
Figure 17.8 Footstock
324
17.2.10 Clamping workpieces

The chuck, like a lathe, is the most common method of clamping workpiece
on the dividing head. The chuck can be removed and a centre fitted into
the central spindle so that workpieces can be machined between centres,
like the lathe.
A lock screw is used to lock the spindle in the machining position when the
workpiece is ready for a cut.
There is a hole through the spindle which allows for long smaller diameter bars
to be worked on.
17.2.11 Direct indexing plate

Most dividing heads have a permanent indexing plate situated behind the
chuck (when mounted), that provides quick divisions for the most common
angles.
To use direct indexing the worm and wheel are disengaged and the chuck or
workpiece turned by hand to the next required position. A lever locates the
pin into a hole or slot for accurate indexing.
Common angles that are on the direct indexing plate vary but 15o divisions
are common so 15o, 30o, 45o, 60o, 75o and 90o can be easily obtained.
17.2.12 Checking the dividing head

The dividing head can rotate about the centre of the crank from the
horizontal to the vertical. To check whether the head has been set
horizontally it is best to use a dial or dial test indicator mounted on a
magnetic stand.
The dividing head comes with a test mandrel, which is hardened and ground,
mounted onto a taper shank which fits into the dividing head.
17.2.13 Adjusting the horizontal height of the dividing head

No cosine error compensation required
x All surfaces as well as the inside taper of the dividing head must be
thoroughly cleaned before fitting the shank and carrying out the test.
x Remove the chuck and fit and tighten the test mandrel.
x Mount a clock onto a magnetic stand, but do not switch the magnet on.
The stand must be free from any dirt or small chips that may cling to the
base due to being magnetized.
x Move the base of the stand so that the clock registers a reading at a point
close to the shank.
x Move across the top of the shaft so that a maximum deflection is read.
x Zero the clock.
325
x Move the clock to the opposite end of the test piece.

x Again move the clock across the top of the shaft and observe what the
maximum reading is.
x If the reading is at the zero mark then the dividing head is horizontal.
x If it is not, then the bolt needs to be slightly loosened and the head set to
zero, by tapping it lightly with a plastic hammer.
x Move back to the shank end and repeat the procedure until the head is
horizontal
.
Figure 17.9 Testing if the dividing head is horizontal
17.2.14 Adjusting the footstock

First set the height of the dividing head with the test mandrel as explained in
the previous section. With the test mandrel in position engage the footstock
centre with the centre hole in the bar.
Proceed the same way as before by moving the clock gauge backwards
and forwards and setting the footstock height (not the dividing head) until no
error is indicated on the clock dial.
326
Figure 17.10 Testing the footstock
17.2.15 Rotary table

The rotary table consists of a circular worktable which has T-slots for mounting
workpieces. The circular table revolves on a base bolted directly to the
milling machine worktable.
It may be used for milling circles, angular indexing, arcs, segments, circular
slots, grooves, and radii, as well as for slotting internal and external gears.
The rotary table works very similarly to that of the dividing head the drive
being transmitted from the operating handwheel to the table through a
worm and wormwheel.
A lever is usually incorporated for disengaging the worm to enable rapid

rotation of the table.
A lock is also provided to secure the table firmly at any required position.
A scale graduated in degrees is found on the micrometer handwheel. Each

increment is normally equal to 0,1o which means that a circle can be divided
into 3600 segments.
327
Many workpieces that are not circular in shape require angular indexing
during machining operations.
It is therefore necessary to use some means of work holding other than the
dividing head during their manufacture.
A rotary table can conveniently be used for many such applications. All
rotary tables can be mounted flat against the milling table and some have
the extra option of mounting them upright as well.
Figure 17.11 Rotary tables
17.2.16 Centering a workpiece to the rotary table

x Thoroughly clean the milling machine table as well as the rotary table.
x Gently place the rotary table onto the milling machine table. If it is heavy
call for assistance.
x Bolt the rotary table to the machine table approximately in the centre.
Make sure the bolts are tight.
x Place the workpiece with a previously machine bore on parallels and bolt
lightly to the rotary table as shown below. Try to get the workpiece as
centered to the rotary table as possible by eye.
x Disengage the worm to enable rapid rotation of the rotary table by
moving the locking lever.
x Set the spindle to a low speed or apply the brake as the spindle is not
rotated for this set up.
328
x Fit the dial test indicator with its attachment directly into the spindle of the
milling machine.
x Set the stylus so that it just touches the inside bore of the hole.
x Zero the dial test indicator, and rotate the rotary table 1800 and note the
reading.
x Lightly tap the workpiece so that the clock reading difference is halved.
x Repeat this procedure at 900 to where the first reading was taken.
x Lightly tap the workpiece so that the clock reading difference is halved.
x Repeat until the workpiece is completely centered. Slowly tighten the
clamps but keep checking and tap the workpiece until it is completely in
centre.
Figure 17.12 Centering a workpiece on the rotary table by rotating the table
17.2.17 Centering positioning the workpiece to the machine spindle

The workpiece must be positioned concentrically to the machine spindle.
No cosine error compensation required.
1. Place the spindle in neutral or for very high speed so that it may easily be
rotated by hand.
2. Mount a dial test indicator into the spindle of the milling machine.
3. Open the sweep of the dial test indicator until it scribes a circle that is
close to the diameter of the workpiece, and a reading is obtained.
4. Zero the dial test indicator, and rotate the spindle 1800 and note the
reading from A to A in the figure
329
Figure 17.13 Centering the workpiece to the spindle
5. Place the spindle in neutral or for very high speed so that it may easily be
rotated by hand.
Figure 17.14 Alternative method of holding the clock
330
6. Mount a dial test indicator into the spindle of the milling machine.
7. Open the sweep of the dial test indicator until it scribes a circle that is
close to the diameter of the workpiece and a reading is obtained.
8. Zero the dial test indicator and rotate the spindle 1800 and note the
reading from A to A in the figure.
Figure 17.15 Clock readings at opposite ends
9. Zero the milling machine longitudinal and cross traverse hand wheels.
10. Move the table of the milling machine exactly half of the reading (in the
correct direction). Eliminate the backlash.
11. Repeat this procedure at 900 to where the first reading was taken from B
to B in the figure.
12. Keep repeating until a zero reading is obtained for both axis.
13. Zero both the cross traverse and the longitudinal micrometer hand wheels.
14. The spindle, the centre of the rotary table and the bore of the workpiece
are now concentric.
17.2.18 Squaring the workpiece parallel to the table movement

After centering the workpiece and the rotary table to the spindle of the
milling machine it may be required to square the workpiece to the table
movement either along the X or the Y axis. No cosine error compensation
required.
331
x The milling machine hand wheels or the digital readout must be zeroed so
that the position of the spindle centre is not lost after centering.
x Mount the clock on a magnetic stand and place it on the column.
x By eye estimate the squaring of the workpiece. The worm and wheel can
be disengaged and the table rapidly turned.
x Place the clock in such a way that a reading is obtained at one end of
the workpiece.
x Turn the handwheel of the milling machine to the other end of the
workpiece and check the error.
x Engage the worm and wheel if the error is not great and rotate the rotary
table to half the difference.
x Repeat the steps from one side of the workpiece to the other until the
difference is zero.
x Lock the rotary table and check again.
x Set the rotary table hand wheel to zero.
Figure 17.16 Squaring the workpiece to the table
332
17.3 indexing methods

The four methods of indexing with the use of the dividing head are:
x rapid indexing
x simple indexing
x a angular indexing
x differential indexing.
17 3.1 Rapid indexing

When you want to perform you must ensure that the special rapid index plate
with required number of slots is fitted behind the drive plate. Rapid index
plates have 36, 24 or 12 slots on their circumferences, making it easier and
one full revolution of the circumference of the work piece.
Steps:
1. Disengage worm from the worm wheel. The lever for doing so is usually
clearly visible on the side of the head.
2. Mark the slots to be used for indexing with chalk. If you are using the 24 slot
rapid index plate and 6 grooves have to be machined, you would mark
hole numbers 0, 4, 8,12,16,20
3. Place the plunger in the marked slot and cut and cut the first division.
4. Remove the plunger from the slot, turn the spindle by hand and engage
the plunger in next marked slot. Cut the next division.
5. Repeat until all the divisions have been machined.
17.3.2 Simple indexing

Simple indexing is performed by engaging the worm and worm-gear. The
indexing is calculated and the adjustable plunger set into the required hole
circle on the index plate.
Sector arms are set to count the required number of holes. One sector arm is
set against the plunger which is in a hole. The hole after the one in which the
plunger is set is counted as the first hole.
Continue counting the correct number of holes, set the second sector arm
and tighten. The index crank handle is now given the required number of full
turns and/or part of a turn up to the second sector arm.
When the plunger is put into the hole the sector arms must be moved to stop
against the plunger.
This procedure is repeated until the required number of divisions has been
cut.
333
Worked example 1
Calculate the number of turns on the crank handle and the index plate
required to give 13 equally spaced divisions, by using the Cincinnati index
plate : 24, 28, 30, 34, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42,
Solution
Simple index = N where N = number of divisions
40
= 40
13
= 3 1 turns
3
You therefore have 3 whole turns the crank handle and 1 of a turn
13
Note: You do not have a 13 hole circle to divide a full turn into A of a turn, but
you do have a 39 hole circle which is divisible by 13.
1 x 3 = 3
13 3 13
Therefore, 1 of a turn is equal to 3 holes in a 39 hole circle.

13
Answer: 3 turns and 3 holes in a 39 hole circle.
17.3.3 Angular indexing

When the crank handle is turned 40 times the workpiece turns one revolution
or 360°.
When the crank is turned one revolution the workpiece turns 1/40 of a
revolution or : 360° = 9°
40
Indexing = N
9
Where N = angle required.
334
Worked example 2
Calculate the index crank movement for an angle of 55° using a Cincinnati
dividing head.
SOLUTION
Indexing = N
9
= 55°
9
= 6 1 turns of the crank

9
To find the number of holes and the hole circle proceed as before.
9 will divide into a 54-hole circle 6 times
Therefore: 1 x6
9 6
= 6
54
Indexing = 6 full turns of the crank and 6 holes in a 54- hole circle.
Worked example 3
Calculate the required indexing for an angle of 3° 40' on a Cincinnati dividing

head.
SOLUTION
335
Worked example 4
Calculate the required indexing for an angle of 30° 30' using a Cincinnati
dividing head.
SOLUTION
17.3.4 Differential indexing

To perform differential indexing a universal dividing head is used and the
procedure is as follows:
x Fit an extension shaft to the back of the main spindle.

x Mount a quadrant to hold the change-gears in position.
x Release the index-plate so that it will be free to turn.
x Calculate and obtain the correct change-gear for the number of divisions
required.
336
x Mount the change-gears in the correct position between the main spindle
and the index plate drive shaft.
x Ensure that when the crank handle is turned, the index plate will revolve in
the correct direction (either in the same direction as the crank or opposite
to the crank).
The change-gears supplied with the Cincinnati dividing head are as follows:
Standard change gears

24 - (2 off), 28, 32, 40, 44, 48, 56, 64, 72, 86 and 100 teeth.
The procedure for calculating the indexing and change-gears is as follows:
Worked example 5
Calculate the required indexing and change-gears to cut 113 divisions using
a Cincinnati dividing head.
SOLUTION
This fraction cannot be divided out in full and some close approximate
indexing must be used.
Now 28 is an available hole circle. Approximate indexing = 113 movements of

10 holes in a 28-hole circle, and this gives
turns of the crank. For the workpiece to make one revolution, the crank must
turn 40 revolutions. Therefore, the crank makes 10/28 of a revolution too much
and this must be subtracted by means of gears.
337
The index plate must turn in the opposite direction to the crank.
Worked example 6
Calculate the crank index movement and change-gears for a gear with 127
teeth.
SOLUTION
Calculate the crank index movement:
338
Worked example 7
A gear with 119 teeth must be cut on a universal milling machine and
dividing head. Calculate the required indexing and change-gears.
SOLUTION
17.4 Milling cutters

The type of cutter that you choose depends on the shape that you need to
cut and the type of material that a workpiece is made of. For example, if the
work piece is made of:
x a hard material such as tooled steel, then use a cutter made of high-
carbon steel, or
x a softer material such as mild steel, then use a cutter made of high-speed
steel.
17.4.1 Types of milling cutters

You can use the following types of cutters on a horizontal and a universal
milling machine:
x a slotting cutter to cut keyways and slots into steel shafts,

x a slitting saw to cut through thin tubes such as steel electrical conduit,
x an involute gear cutter to cut teeth on gear wheels,
x a shell end mill to cut heavy work pieces such as large pieces of iron, and
339
x a side and face cutter to do straddle milling and cut keyways.
You can use the following types of cutters on a vertical milling machine:
x an end mill to cut keyways in solid shafts, and

x a radius cutter to make round corners and smooth edges on a work
piece.
Figure 17.17 Cutter with cemented carbide tips
Overall length
Flute length
Cutter diameter Shank diameter
Figure 17.18 Milling cutter terms

Roughing End mill Slot drill Ball nose T slot Dovetail
Figure 17.19 HSS milling cutters
340
17.4.2 Teeth and flutes on cutters

The number of teeth in contact will the workpiece at any one time
determines the success and type of finish obtained.
Figure 17.20 Number of teeth in contact

Flute
Chip space
Chip space
2 flute cutter 3 flute cutter 4 flute cutter
Figure 17.21 Flutes on milling cutters
Angle
Slit cutter Radius Gear
cutter cutter cutter
Cylindrical Cylindrical Side and face Angle

cutter cutter cutter cutter
Figure 17.22 Various horizontal milling cutters

341
17.4.3 Advantages of using cutters with small diameters

• Higher speeds can be used.
• They save on power consumption.
• They are cheaper.
• Chattering is reduced.
17.4.4 Advantages of using milling cutters with coarse teeth

x There is less power consumption.
• They are more easily sharpened when worn.
• They are cheaper to manufacture because there are fewer teeth.
• Chattering is reduced.
17.5 Angles on milling cutters

Figure 17.23 shows the various terms and angles on a milling cutter.
Figure 17.23 Milling cutter angles
17.6 Cutting speed and feed calculations

17.6.1 Cutting speed
When you want to determine cutting speeds and feeds, use the above
formula:
V= ND
V = cutting speed in metres per minute

D = diameter of the cutter (in metres)
N = revolutions per minute (RPM)
Take Note: If the diameter is given in millimetres it must be

converted to meters. Since there are less meters than millimetres in
a given unit, the value must be divided by 1000 to convert it to
meters.
342
Worked example 1
Calculate the cutting speed of a specific type of material that is being

machined, using an end milling cutter of 16 mm. The rotational speed of the
cutter is 320 revolutions per minutes. The unit of measurement for cutting
speed is m/ min.
SOLUTION
V 1'
D = 16 mm = 90/ 1 000 = 0,016 m

N = 320 RPM
V = Ǒ[ 320 x 0,016
= 16,08 m/min
Worked example 2
What would be the spindle speed of a milling machine while using a 90 mm

slab milling cutter? The cutting speed prescribed for the material being used
is 30m/min.
SOLUTION
V 1'
D = 90mm = 90/1000 = 0,09 m

V = 30 m/min
9 Ǒ1'
1 9Ǒ' Ǒ[ 530
Worked example 3
At what spindle speed (in revolutions per minute) would a milling machine be
set, using a 100 mm diameter cutter, to machine a workpiece, if the required
cutting speed is 29 meters per minute?
343
SOLUTION
100
D
1000
0,01 m
V SDN
V
?N
SD
29
S x 0,1
92,3 rpm
17.6.2 Feed on a milling machine

The calculation of feed on a milling machine varies from the calculation on a
centre lathe and other machines. The terms in which the feed is expressed
also differ. The most commonly used method of determining the feed is by
expressing it in a value per tooth of the cutter.
When the feed rate per tooth is known, it is much easier to determine the
feed per revolution as well as the feed per minute.
The formula that can be used is :
f ft u T u N
Where
f = Feed in meters (or mm) per minute
ft = feed per tooth in meters (or mm)
T = Number of teeth on cutter
N = Number of revolutions of cutter per min.
Worked example 1
Calculate the feed in millimetres per minute of a 70 mm diameter cutter with

12 teeth, operating at a cutting speed of 25 meters per minute and a feed of
0,08 per tooth.
SOLUTION
Step 1:
Cutting speed is given, therefore the rotational frequency (rpm) must first be
calculated.
344
V SDN
V
?N
SD
25
S x 0,07
113,682 rpm
Step 2:
Calculate the feed.
f ft x T x N
= 0,08 x 12 x113,682
= 109 mm / min
Worked example 2
A milling cutter is 100 mm in diameter and has 14 teeth. The cutting speed for
the material is given at 24 meters per minute and the feed per tooth is 0,051
mm.
SOLUTION
V SDN
V
?N
SD
24
S x 0,1
76,394 rpm
f ft x T x N
= 0,051 x 14 x 76,394
= 54,55 mm / min
17.7 Milling processes

The material-removal process intended to produce plane, form, or profile
surface geometry by a rotating cutter is termed milling. Normally, the rotating
spindle and cutter remain stationary, and the workpiece moves in the X, Y, or
Z axis.
Process operations such as broaching, planing, grinding, and shaping are

competitors of milling because these too can produce plane and form
geometric surfaces.
345
Milling cutters can be classified by two principal cutting actions: those which
remove material by cutting on the side and those whose cutting action may
be described as end cutting in addition to side cutting. The types of milling
processes and operations are:
x Slab milling
x Gang milling
x Straddle milling
x Up-cut and down-cut milling
Common types of milling cutters and typical operations are shown in Figure
17.24
Gang milling Straddle milling
Up-cutting Down-cutting
Figure 17.24 Milling processes and operations
346
17.7.1 Advantages of down-cutting

x Good quality finish can be obtained.
x Deeper cuts during the machining process are possible.
17.7.2 Disadvantages of up-cutting

x The feed of the table must be slower
x Can cause vibration
Activity 17.1
12. Name the parts of the milling machine shown in Figure 17.25
Figure 17.25
2. State the difference between a plain and universal milling machine.

3. Calculate simple indexing for the following divisions:
4. 6, 12, 22, 30, 38, 54, 60 and 68, using a Brown and Sharp dividing head.
5. Describe how rapid indexing is done.
6. Calculate angular indexing for angles of 6° 20', 50° 30', 12° 10', 18° 40' and
20° 45', using the Cincinnati dividing head.
7. State the purpose of the following dividing head parts:
(a)Index plate.
(b)Crank handle.
(c) Sector arms.
8. Calculate differential indexing for 83, 93, 99, 101, 109, 119, 121 and 129
divisions using the Cincinnati dividing head, and change gears.
9. Show with the aid of a sketch the difference between gang milling and
straddle milling.
10. Show the difference between up-cut milling and down-cut milling and
state the advantages of each.
347
11. Give the reason for a dividing head on a milling machine.

12. Briefly describe the function of the following components on a dividing
head:
(a)Spindle; (b)Index plate; (c)Sector arms; (d) Rapid indexing plate; and
(e) Index pin
Self-Assessment

x Explain the functions and uses of dividing heads.
x Identify and explain the function of dividing head components.
x Describe and calculate for the following types of indexing:
o Rapid
o Angular
o Simple
o Differential
x Explain the differences between Browne & Sharpe and
Cincinnati indexing plates.
x Identify the following types of milling cutters from given
drawings:
o Plain helical slab cutter
o End mill
o Slotting cutter
o T-slot
o Side and face cutter
o Slot drill
o Slitting saw
o Dovetail cutter
x Give the reasons for using the smallest diameter milling cutter
and the nicked helical cutter.
x Indicate the angles on milling cutters using suitable line
drawings.
x Calculate the milling speeds and feeds.
x Represent the following machining processes by means of
simple line drawings:
o Slab milling
o Down-cut milling
o Straddle milling
o Up-cut milling
o Gang milling
348
Learning Outcomes
outcomes:
x Describe the advantages of mandrels and give examples of where they

are used.
x Explain the use of different clearance angles on lathe cutting tools.
x Describe the uses of fixed and travelling steadies during the following
applications:
o Support of ling work pieces
o Turning of a long small-diameter shaft
o Support of a square bar on the centre lathe
x Describe methods of tailstock set-over using:
o The dial-test indicator
o The graduated sleeve method
x Calculate the correct set-over of the tailstock by application of the
appropriate formula.
x Calculate the following angles applicable to square threads:
o Helix angle
o Leading angle
o Following angle
x Calculate the:
o Cutting speed
o Spindle speed
o Cutting feed of a centre lathe
x Name the three basic instructional formats applicable to CNC lathes,
namely:
o G commands
o M commands
o Positional data or movement on X and Y axis
x Distinguish between the following two types of programming:
o Absolute
o Incremental
x Explain the basic principles that apply to CNC programming to machine a
work piece with a simple profile
349
18.1 Introduction
This module deals with machining processes and the calculations
on which these processes are based. Since you studied the centre
lathe on N1, you should now know the functions of a centre lathe
and be able to identify its various components (see Figure 18.1)
18.1 Centre lathe components
18.2 Turning operations

18.2.1 Parallel turning
This is probably the most common operation carried out on the lathe. It
reduces the diameter of the workpiece along its length. The diameter is the
same at one end as the other end, as shown in Figure 18.2 (a).
350
18.2.2 Facing
Facing is when the length of the workpiece is slightly reduced so as to obtain
a clean face (or end), shown in Figure 18.2 (b).
Figure 18.2 (a) Parallel turning (b) Facing (c) Taper turning
18.2.3 Taper turning

By offsetting the compound slide to half the required angle the lathe can cut
internal as well as external tapers, as shown in Figure 18.2 (c). For long tapers,
a taper turning attachment can be used. An alternative is to off-set the
tailstock, with the workpiece held in between centres.
18.2.4 Screw cutting

One of the advantages of a lathe is that it can be set to cut numerous types
of threads, as illustrated in Figure 18.2 (d). Screw cutting is a very common
operation but also rather difficult for the beginner. Internal or external threads
can be carried out using different types of tools. Metric as well as imperial
threads can be cut and also square, acme, buttress and others.
The metric screw thread has a thread angle of 60°. When the lathe is used for
screw cutting there must be careful co-ordination between the rotation of
the workpiece and the longitudinal feed. On the centre lathe this is achieved
by the lead screw so as to obtain the correct pitch. The workpiece is
controlled by the spindle and its rotation is transmitted to the lead screw via
the feed gearbox.
Figure 18.2 (d) Screw cutting (e) Parting off (f) Profile turning
351
When the lead screw is engaged by the half nuts, the rotation of the lead
screw is converted to a linear motion of the carriage. The purpose of the feed
gearbox is to control the ratio of rotation of the spindle to the rotation of the
lead screw so that the correct feed is obtained. This feed is equal to the pitch
of the thread being cut.
18.2.5 Parting off

When a workpiece has to be cut off from the parent material then a parting
off tool is used to cut or part it. The advantages are that it is quick and easy
to cut and if a high degree of accuracy is not required the workpiece can be
parted to length. The parting tool is narrow and is slowly and smoothly fed
into the work at right angles to the spindle axis, as shown in Figure 18.2 (e)
18.2.6 Profile turning

In profile turning the tool is shaped to the correct profile, which when fed into
the material will shape it to the tool, as illustrated in Figure 18.2 (f). A
disadvantage is that the tool has to be ground to its shape which can involve
expensive machining. Another disadvantage is that a roughing tool should
first be used.
18.2.7 Drilling
If a drill bit is placed in the tailstock the workpiece can be drilled either right
through or to the required depth, as in Figure 18.2 (g). If a more accurate
hole is required it can first be drilled undersize and then reamed or bored to
the correct size. The main advantage is that it is quick and simple. For larger
diameter holes, first a smaller drill is used to drill a pilot hole and then the
larger one of the correct size.
Figure 18.2 (g) Drilling (h) Boring (i) Chamfering
18.2.8 Boring
A hole is first drilled into the workpiece, which is then made larger by using a
boring tool, as in Figure 18.2 (h). A high degree of accuracy is achieved. A
major advantage is that expensive reamers do not have to be used and
boring can be carried out to any size.
352
18.2.9 Chamfering
A chamfer is cut on the corner of a workpiece and is used to break the sharp
edge, as shown in Figure 18.2 (i). Normally a chamfer makes an angle of 45°.
18.2.10 Knurling
A knurling tool consists of hardened steel wheels, called knurls, each with a
protruding pattern on them. As the tool is rolled into the rotating workpiece
the knurling is formed (not cut) on it as it slowly moves along the work.
Knurling is used to increase the grip on a workpiece or where slight buildup of

metal is required because with knurling the diameter increases very slightly.
Knurling has either a straight pattern, where one wheel is used, or a diamond
pattern where two wheels are used. These are illustrated in Figure 18.3.
Figure 18.3 Knurling operations
18.3 Fit the cutter in the tool post and adjust its height
Choose the appropriate cutting tool based on the type of turning job that
you need to do. Clamp the selected cutting tool with bolts into the bracket in
the tool post.
Make sure that the cutting tool has the correct overhang. In general, the
cutting tool should protrude approximately10 mm from the tool post. If the
cutting tool protrudes more than 10 mm, then it is too far from the tool post,
which can cause it to break.
353
Smaller cutting tools such as the knife-cutting tool, parting-off tool and screw-
cutting tool follow this general rule. However, larger cutting tools such as front
roughing tools, side roughing tools and boring tools can have a longer
overhang.
Figure 18.4 Three types of common lathe tools
Now set the cutting tool to the correct centre height of the work piece. This
means that the cutting face of the cutter must be in line with the centre line
of the work piece.
Keep in mind that, before you can adjust the height of the cutting tool, you
need to fit the work piece in the chuck that fits in the spindle.
Use one of the following ways to set the centre height of the cutting tool:
x Insert a centre into the tailstock spindle. Slide the tailstock centre very
close to the cutting face of the cutter.
x Keep in mind that the point of the tailstock centre will be in line with the
centre of the work piece. If the cutting tool is below the point of the
tailstock centre, then you need to raise it until it is in line with the point of
the centre.
x The cutting tool is clamped in a bracket in the tool post. You can move
this bracket up and down with an adjusting screw. Adjust the screw until
the edge of the cutting tool lines up with the point of centre that is in the
tailstock.
x Turn the hand wheel that moves the cross slide, which holds the cutting
tool, tool post and compound slide.
x Move the cutter gently to the centre of the work piece against its face.
Measure the diameter of the work piece and divide it by two (this will be
equal to the radius of the work piece). For example, if the diameter of the
work piece is 60 mm, then the radius will be 30 mm.
354
x Position the vernier calliper vertically on the edge of the work piece face
and measure down to the edge of the cutting tool.
x If the reading on the vernier calliper indicates 30 mm, then the cutting tool
is set at the correct centre height.
x If the reading is different, then you need to adjust the cutting tool with the
adjusting screw until the edge lines up with the vernier calliper.
18.5 Tool heights
An easy way to set the height of the cutting tool is by placing the tool in the
tool holder and a centre in the chuck. Bring the tool tip close to the centre
and set the height of the tool accordingly.
Figure 18.6 Setting the tool height
Another consideration when setting the cutting tool is the distance of the tip
relative to the clamping screws of the tool holder.
355
If the distance is excessive then the tool may shift because of the overhang.
The tool will also deflect downwards altering the centre height, chatter will
also occur and the tool may even break.
Figure 18.7 Correct and incorrect tool overhang
18.4 Mount and clamp the work piece in a chuck

Choose the correct chuck based on the size and shape of the work piece
that you need to turn and fit it into the spindle. For a three-jaw chuck, insert
the work piece into the chuck and close one of the jaws with a chuck key.
When you turn the chuck key, you'll notice that all three jaws close at the
same time. For a four-jaw chuck, insert the work piece into the chuck and
then close each jaw individually with the chuck key.
As mentioned earlier, each jaw of a four-jaw chuck works independently.

Make sure that the chuck is fitted correctly into the spindle and that the jaws
of the chuck are gripping the work piece tightly. If the work piece is long,
then support its other end in the tailstock centre.
18.5 Lathe steadies

A lathe steady is used to support long shafts during turning, boring or thread
cutting. The lathe steady is clamped onto the lathe bed opposite the tool
post.
It is used to support a long work piece on three points of its circumference

during machining operations. It also prevents the work piece from vibrating
during the turning process.
When turning or screw-cutting small-diameter shafts, or when boring the end

of a long shaft, it is necessary to lend additional support to the workpiece to
prevent it from springing or bending.
Long, small-diameter shafts will often be thicker in the middle than at their
ends. This is caused by the shaft moving away from the tailstock support,
356
under pressure. To prevent this it may be necessary to support the shaft with
either a fixed steady or a travelling steady or both.
Points on the steady jaw are usually made of a material such as bronze or
cast iron which, when lubricated, prevents damage to the shaft.
18.5.1 The fixed steady

The fixed steady (Figure 18.8) is fastened to the lathe bed in a convenient
position. It has three pins and is used mainly for supporting long shafts
between centres or at the right-hand end, for drilling, boring or facing.
Figure 18.8 Fixed steady
Using and setting the fixed steady o Place the work between centres and
carefully turn a short section near the centre of the workpiece.
x Remove the workpiece and move carriage towards tailstock.

x Clamp the steady finger-tight in centre of workpiece length.
x Open top of steady and swing outwards.
x Replace the workpiece between centres and position steady on turned
piece. Clamp securely.
x Replace top of steady over workpiece and clamp in position.
x Adjust one pin at a time, starting with the bottom two. When adjusting a
pin, place a piece of paper between the pin and the workpiece and
adjust until pin grips the paper.
357
x Paint shaft with white or red lead after the three pins have been adjusted
with paper feeler.
x Again adjust the pins slightly until a mark appears on the red lead. This
indicates that the pin is just touching the shaft. Lock each pin as it touches
the shaft.
x Keep pins and shaft well lubricated while turning.
18.5.2 Supporting long workpieces with fixed steady

When work has to be done on the end of a long workpiece, like facing and
boring, the workpiece cannot be supported by means of the tailstock. When
such work must be done, the workpiece must be supported on its end by
means of the fixed steady (Figure 18.9).
Figure18.9 Workpiece supported by fixed steady
To set up and machine the shaft the following procedure should be followed:
x Drill accurate centre holes at both ends of the shaft.

x Set shaft in four-jaw chuck to turn accurately while supporting with
tailstock at right-hand end.
x Machine a track for the fixed steady at the tailstock end as shown.
x Set fixed steady on machined track (as described in setting the fixed
steady).
x Move tailstock back and remove centre.
x Fit drill of about two millimetres smaller than required size hole into
tailstock, and drill hole to required depth.
x Move tail stock back and remove drill.
358
x Fit right-hand facing tool in tool holder and face end of shaft.
x Remove facing tool and fit boring bar in tool post.
x Bore hole to size, depth and good finish.
x Repeat procedure for other end of shaft.
18.5.3 Using and setting the travelling steady

The travelling steady (Figure 18.10) is clamped to the saddle and moves with
it. Two jaws, one to the back and one at the top of the workpiece, provide
two-point support. Proceed as follows:
x Attach the travelling steady to the saddle.

x Mount work in lathe.
x Take a cut and ensure that the shaft will be cleaned up all round for a
distance of about 15 mm.
x Adjust and set pins on turned portion as described for fixed steady.
Figure 18.10 Supporting a shaft with a travelling steady
18.5.4 Turning a long small-diameter shaft

If unsupported, long slender shafts may tend to be pushed aside by the
forces of cutting. After turning such an unsupported shaft, and measuring it, it
will be found to have the same diameter at the ends. Measuring towards the
middle of the shaft, it will be found to increase in diameter, being the biggest
in the middle.
359
To overcome this problem, and to produce a shaft that will be parallel for its
entire length, a two-point travelling steady must be used as shown in Figure
18.11. The steady is mounted and set as described previously.
Figure 18.11 Travelling steady
18.5.5 Mounting the steady on the lathe

The travelling steady is fitted to the saddle of the lathe so that it travels with it.
Figure 18.12 shows a method of mounting the steady to the saddle. Figure
18.13 shows how the fixed steady is attached to the lathe bed.
Figure 18.12 Mounting the travelling steady
360
Figure 18.13 Mounting the fixed steady
18.5.6 Supporting a square shaft with a fixed steady

It may sometimes be necessary to turn the ends of square shafts which are to
serve as journals for bearings.
This requires the square shaft to be supported in the middle by a fixed steady.
To accomplish this, a short length of bush which has an inside diameter that is
bigger than the distance across the corners of the shaft, and an outside
diameter that is true, must be used.
The bush is supplied with four tapped holes around the circumference at
both ends to accommodate setscrews for setting the bush true (Figure 18.17).
x Set up shaft in lathe with bush in central position.

x Mount clock gauge in tool post and set plunger on bush.
x Rotate shaft slowly and adjust set-screws at both ends of bush until it runs
true.
x Tighten set-screws and check if set-up is true.
x Set up and clamp fixed steady and jaws as described previously.
361
Figure18.14 Steady bush for centering and supporting a square shaft
18.6 Mandrels
Mandrels are used for completing or modifying work done in a previous
machining process. A mandrel is an accurately turned shaft on which work
which has already been bored is first mounted and then machined in the
lathe or milling machine. It can therefore be considered to be a fixture or
work-holding device.
You use a mandrel when you want to machine the outside diameter of a
tubular work piece on the lathe. The average length of the mandrel that you
will use is approximately 200 mm, which is the ideal size for most of the
operations that you need to do.
Let's look at an example to explain the function of a mandrel.
You need to turn a 40 mm long tubular work piece:
x Fit one end of the mandrel into the chuck on the headstock.
x Slide the work piece onto the mandrel until it reaches the shoulder.
x Fit the tailstock centre into the centre hole in the other end of the
mandrel, which has a centre hole specifically for this purpose.
362
Figure 18.15 Lathe mandrels Figure 18.16 Work piece on mandrel
The plain mandrel has a slight taper along its length so that it can be pressed
tight into the work piece that has a hole in its centre.
The hole should be lubricated before pressing. The bigger end of the taper
should always be the correct way round. For normal turning in the lathe the
large end should be at the headstock side. A screwed mandrel can
accommodate a work piece that is threaded.
18.6.1 Advantages of using mandrels

A mandrel is a shaft or tube used to hold workpieces accurately in position.
Workpieces are mounted on mandrels, after the hole has been drilled and
bored or reamed, by pressing the mandrel into the hole of the workpiece.
Mandrels, which can be of the solid or expanding type, provide the following
advantages:
x When workpiece is mounted, no setting-up is required in the lathe.

x Workpieces are easily mounted and removed.
x Ensure that external turning will be true to internal diameter.
x Production of large quantities of similar workpieces is made easier.
x Setting is simple, quick and true.
x Can be adapted to suit a large variety of workpieces.
18.6.2 Types of mandrels

Figure 18.17 shows the mandrels that are more and available:
363
Figure 18.17 Types of applications of mandrels
18.6.3 Plain or solid mandrels

Plain mandrels (Figure 18.17 (a)) are available in most standard hole sizes. The
mandrel is hardened and ground between centres with a taper of about 0,50
mm/m with the standard size being near the middle.
The ends are made smaller and provided with flats to accommodate a lathe
carrier. The centre-holes are provided with an undercut to protect them from
damage.
364
The workpiece is pressed on the mandrel in an arbour press and is usually

mounted between centres with the large end of the mandrel at the
headstock side.
The plain mandrel can be used for holding a large variety of workpieces with
standard holes, such as bushes and small pulleys, in position. The solid
mandrel can be made to hold threaded parts as shown in Figure18.17(c).
18.6.4 Expanding mandrel

A mandrel of the expanding type is shown in Figure 18.17(b) and is suitable
for holding workpieces with a small variation in their inside diameter. When
tightened the nut draws the tapered mandrel into the taper-bored split bush,
causing it to expand and grip the workpiece.
18.2.6 Double-cone mandrel

The double-cone mandrel shown in Figure 18.17(d) has one cone solid with
the mandrel, the other being free and can be tightened onto the workpiece
by means of a collar and nut. This type of mandrel is capable of holding a
wide variety of components having tapered bores or bores of different
diameters. The component is automatically centralized on the cones when
the nut is tightened, and only light cuts should be taken during machining to
prevent the part from moving on the cones.
18.6.7 Gang mandrel

These mandrels are parallel and are used for holding a number of similar parts
at the same time as shown in Figure 18.17(e).
18.7 Taper turning on a centre lathe

Taper-turning can be done on the lathe using any one of three methods:
x Set-over of compound slide.

x Set-over of tailstock.
x Taper-turning attachment.
The method used to machine any specific taper will depend on the length of
the taper, the taper angle and the number of pieces to be machined.
18.7.1 Set-over of compound slide

A quick and quite accurate method of turning short internal and external
tapers is by swivelling the compound slide so that it is at half the included
angle of the taper. The tool is fed by hand by rotating the compound slide
graduated wheel. The quality of the finish depends largely on the skill of the
operator.
The compound slide method of taper-turning is used to produce short, steep

tapers (see Figure 18.18).
365
The advantages of this method are that large, steep tapers can be turned as
well as internal and external tapers.
The disadvantages are that the length of the taper is limited to the distance
the slide travels and it requires hand feeding which results in a poor finish.
Figure 18.18 Top view of compound slide set-over for external taper-turning
PROCEDURE
x Mount the work piece in a chuck and make sure that it is true.
x If machining an external taper, turn it down to the bigger diameter of the
taper.
Figure 18.19 Machining the external taper
366
18.7.2 Cutting an internal taper with a compound slide

x Loosen the compound slide Jock-nuts;
x turn the slide to half of the included angle, in degrees;
x tighten the lock-nuts;
x mount the boring bar in the tool post with the cutting tool on centre;
x using the compound slide feed handle, very slowly feed in the cutting
tool;
x check the taper with the taper gauge for size and fit; the set-up for cutting
an internal taper is shown in Figure 18.20.
Figure 18.20 Machining the Internal taper
18.8 Set-over of tailstock

The tailstock method of taper-turning involves the setting of the tailstock out
of line with the headstock.
Take Note: When the tailstock method is used the workpiece must
revolve between centres. Ball centres must be used if available.
This can be accomplished by one of the following methods:
18.8.1 Method 1: Set-over with dial test indicator

x Mount a dial indicator in the tool post with its plunger horizontal and
centre to the tailstock spindle (see Figure 18.22(a));
x with the cross-feed, move the indicator so that it registers about 0,5 mm
and set the dial to zero;
x adjust the set-screws until the required offset is registered on the dial (see
Figure 18.21);
367
x tighten both set-screws, and ensure that the dial still registers the required
offset (see Figure 18.22 (b)).
Figure 18.21 Section of tails tack showing screws for set-over
Figure 18.22 (a) Measuring the offset with the dial test indicator
368
Figure 18.22 (b) Alternative method of adjusting the offset
18.8.2 Method 2: Set-over by means of graduated sleeve

x Mount a tool-holder in a tool post with its back facing the tailstock spindle;
x feed tool-holder towards the tailstock spindle by means of the cross-slide
with a strip of paper between the tool-holder and spindle until the paper is
gripped tight (see Figure 18.24 (a));
x take up the slack and slowly feed out the cross-slide; stop when the paper
can just be pulled out;
x set the graduated sleeve to zero;
x feed out the cross-slide by an amount equal to the required set-over (see
Figure 18.24 (b));
x adjust the set-screws so as to move the top of the tailstock over in such a
way that the paper strip can just be pulled out between the centre
spindle and the back of the tool; both set-screws must be tightened (see
Figure 18.24 (c)).
The advantages of the tailstock method are that long tapers can be cut and
automatic feed can be used to obtain a good finish.
The disadvantages are that internal tapers cannot be cut and because of
limited set-over, only small tapers can be cut. Also, the tailstock must be
adjusted for different workpiece lengths.
369
Figure 18.23 Off-setting the tailstock
Figure 18.24 shows the set-up for taper-turning by means of the tailstock set-
over method.
Figure 18.24 (a) Paper strip between tool-holder and tailstock
370
Figure 18.24 (b) Cross-slide moved over correct set-over amount with aid of
graduated sleeve
Figure 18.24(c) Tailstock set-over with paper strip between spindle and tool-
holder
371
Figure 18.25 Tailstock set-over
18.8.3 Taper-turning attachment

The taper-turning attachment provides a very accurate way of cutting
internal and external tapers without disturbing alignment of the centres.
The advantages of the taper-turning attachment are:
x lathe centres are not disturbed and remain aligned to perform parallel
work, as required;
x after the correct taper has been set it can be cut on any length of work;
x taper attachment can be permanently set and used whenever required;
x internal and external tapers can be machined with the same setting so
that tapers will be true;
x work can be held in lathe by any method, i.e. in chuck or between
centres;
x angular setting of attachment is not affected by length of workpiece;
x large quantities of duplicate tapers are easily turned.
Disadvantage of taper attachment:
x very steep tapers cannot be turned;

x length of taper is limited to length of attachment; for longer tapers the
attachment must be re-positioned on side of bed.
A top view of a taper-turning attachment is shown in Figure 18.26. The guide

bar can swivel about its centre and is mounted on a base plate on which the
graduations are marked. One end is marked in degrees and the other in
mm/m.
372
Figure 18.26 Set-up with taper-turning attachment
The set-up from the taper-turning attachment to the cross-slide of the lathe is
shown in Figure 18.27 and it operates as follows:
The guide block, sliding on the guide bar, is located in the sliding block by a
spigot. This gives it a solid location, allowing the guide block to take up the
same angle as the guide bar. The sliding block is attached to the end of the
cross-slide lead screw.
When the carriage is traversed along the bed, with the guide bar remaining
stationary, the sliding block will push or pull the cross-slide lead screw. For this
movement to take place a special lead screw is fitted.
The front end of this lead screw has a spline which slides into the hand-wheel
spindle. The sliding block pushes the lead screw back, and because it passes
through the lead screw nut which is screwed to the cross-slide, the cross-slide
and cutting tool will also move back, pushing the spline up the inside of the
hand-wheel spindle.
373
By using this method, a cut can be put on by rotating the hand wheel, driving
through the spline to the lead screw and nut without interfering with the
taper-turning attachment.
18.9 Tailstock set-over calculations

Before any taper is cut, the machinist must be able to easily calculate a
specific taper and set up the machine accordingly. There are always two
matching pars that make up a taper, the internal and external or male and
female tapers. The two must match exactly so great care must be taken
when setting up the lathe to cut the tapers.
18.9.1 Calculations for taper turning

Methods of expressing a taper
Diameters and length
Figure 18.27 Methods of expressing a taper by diameter and length
By angle
Figure 18.29 Methods of expressing a taper by angles
374
18.9.2 Calculate the taper if the ratio of diameter to length is given

The taper may be expressed as the reduction of the diameter per unit length
of the taper. As an example a taper of 1:10 means that for every 10 units
moved in a straight line the diameter shrinks by one unit.
Worked example 1
Should the taper be given as a ratio of diameter to length proceeds as

follows:
Assume taper is given as 1 in 6, that is to say the diameter increases (or

decreases) by one unit when the length increases by 6 units, determine at
what angle the compound slide should be set to produce this taper.
T 0,5
Tan
2 6
T 1
Tan 0,0833
Set over = 4,76q
or = 4q 46'
When a taper is given as a ratio in a calculation the amount of tailstock set-

over may be calculated by using the following formula:
Length of workpiece
Set over x Ratio
2
Worked example 2
A taper of 1 in 10 has to be turned on a work piece 300 mm long. Calculate

the amount of tailstock set-over.
Length of workpiece
Set over x Ratio
2
300 1
x
2 10
15 mm
375
Worked example 3
A taper of 7 in 100 must be turned on a shaft of 400 mm long. Calculate the

tailstock set-over to turn the taper.
Length of workpiece
Set over x Ratio
2
400 7
x
2 100
14 mm
When the following information is given, namely:
x Length of shaft.
x Length of taper to be cut
x Two diameters (D and d)
The following formula may be used to determine the set-over of the tailstock:
Dd Length of workpiece

Set over x
2 Length of taper
Worked example 4
A parallel bush 200 mm long is mounted between centres on a mandrel 300

mm long. If the bush is to receive a taper of 200 mm diameter at the large
end and 120 mm at the small end, calculate the amount that the tailstock
will have to be set over to complete the task (see Figure 18.30).
NOTE: The length of the taper has no effect on the set over of the tailstock.
The actual length of the shaft between centres will affect the set over.
Let us examine an example of setting over the tailstock.

Set over x
2 Length of taper
200 120 300
x
2 200
= 60 mm
376
Figure 18.30
Worked example 5
A shaft must be turned to the dimensions shown in Figure 18.31. Calculate

the set-over of the tailstock and the included angle of the taper.
Figure 18.31

Set over x
2 Length of taper
90 60 500
x
2 300
= 25 mm
To Calculate the Included Angle (T):
377
T x 90 60
tan but x
2 300 2
T 15 30
tan 15
2 300 2
T
tan 1 0,05
2
2 ,862q
T 2 ,862 u 2
5,724q
5q43'
18.9.3 Tapers are machined to match each other

The lathe is a machine that can spin at very high speeds which makes it like
any other machine very dangerous if not correctly used.
The following safety rules should be constantly applied when using this
machine:
x Only use the machine if you know exactly how it operates.
x Know the position of all the levers and switches that can turn the machine
off in an emergency.
x Wear safety glasses when using the lathe.
x Do not wear loose clothing.
x Do not wear any jewellery such as chains, rings and watches when using
this machine.
x Use the correct tool, speed and feed for the material being cut. Does not
change spindle speeds until the lathe comes to a complete stop.
x Never leave a key in the chuck.
x Before starting the machine, make sure that the automatic feed and
other mechanisms are in a neutral position.
x Make sure all guards are in working order and in place before starting to
work.
x Keep the lathe clean and in good condition.
x Do not use compressed air to clean the lathe.
x Immediately switch off the machine if anything goes wrong.
x Never touch any moving parts of the machine. Always stop the lathe
before making adjustments or taking measurements.
x Never lean on the lathe whilst it is in motion.
x Do not try to clean cutting with fingers or hands. Long chips are very
sharp and dangerous, use a pair of pliers or a hook to remove them.
x Don’t lay tools on the bed.
x If sanding a work piece with emery cloth use both hand to hold it.
x If using a file to de-burr, hold the file handle with the left hand and the
point with the right hand even if you are right handed. Do not use a file
without a handle.
378
18.10 Cutting square threads

Square threads were often used in screw jacks, vise screws and other devices
where a large amount of force is required to be transmitted by the thread.
Because of the difficulty in making these threads they have been largely
superseded by the acme thread. However, they can be quite easily
machined by means of the lathe.
The earliest type of translating screw thread was the square thread.
Clearance must be provided on the flanks and the major diameter. A
modified square thread was designed but is also not widely used because of
the same drawbacks of the square thread.
Figure 18.32 Square thread terms
All the surfaces of the square thread form are square with each other and the
sides are perpendicular to the axis of the threaded part.
Figure 18.33 Square thread profile

379
18.10.1 Left- hand and right- hand screw -threads

A right-hand thread is one that, when assembled with a fixed mating thread,
is turned in a clockwise direction. A left-hand thread is one that, when
assembled with a fixed mating thread, is turned in an anti-clockwise
direction.
Figure 18.34 Left and right hand threads
18.10.2 Multiple- start threads

x A multiple start thread is one that has two or more threads cut next to
each other. An analogy would be two coloured strings wound side by
side around a shaft.
x Standard products such as bolts, nuts and screws have single start threads
where each revolution of the screw results in a axial movement either in or
out equal to the pitch of the screw.
x In a double start thread the axial movement is equivalent to twice the
pitch which is known as the lead.
x In a triple start thread the lead is equal to three times the pitch.
x Multiple start threads are not only found on machinery but also in some
common household items such as in fountain pens (usually triple start), on
SLR cameras to adjust the focus, on jar tops although the thread is very
short and many more items.
18.10.1 Gear selection and setting for a specific thread cutting operation
Located behind the hinged door on the left side of the headstock is the
change gear train. Most of the time, the gears are set for driving the carriage
and cross-slide for power feed cutting operations. When the need arises to
cut threads, gears are elected according to the chart situated somewhere
380
on the lathe. The gears are installed in the proper location in the gear train to
cut the desired thread pitch. Table 18.1 illustrates the gear selection and
setting for thread cutting.
Gears Pitch mm
0,25 0,3 0,35 0,4 0,45 0,5
A 30 30 35 40 30 30
B 120 100 100 100 100 80
A C 60 60 60 60 60 -
D 120 120 120 120 80 120
0,6 0,7 0,75 0,8 1,0 1,25
A 30 50 45 50 50 50
B 100 100 80 100 80 100
C B C - 70 - 80 - -
D 100 100 120 100 100 80
1,5 1,75 2,0 2,5 3,0
A 45 49 50 50 45
B 100 120 120 120 120
D C - - - - -
D 60 56 50 40 30
Table 18.1 Gear selection for thread cutting
The lead-screw is engaged with the lathe spindle by a series of gears

mounted on the left end of the lathe. By selecting various combinations of
gears, screw threads can be cut to a desired metric thread.
The pitch of a screw thread is defined as the distance between two

consecutive troughs (valleys) or two consecutive apexes (peaks) on the
thread.
Thus far only single start screw threads have been discussed. A single start
thread, has consecutive peaks and valleys belonging to the same thread.
Imagine holding a single pencil and making the helix. This would be
equivalent to a single start thread.
However, if you were to hold two pencils simultaneously you would have two
helix curves next to each other. It is now clear (as previously mentioned) that
consecutive peaks (or troughs) do not belong to the same thread. Had this
been a screw thread it would be termed a two start thread.
The pitch is still defined as the distance between two consecutive peaks,
even though they belong to different threads and the distance between two
successive peaks on the same thread is called the LEAD. A multi-start screw
thread is shown in Figure 18.35.
381
Figure 18.35 Multi- start square thread

The different threads are called starts, therefore is ‘n’ is the number of starts.
So, to determine the lead, the following formula may be used:
Lead = Pitch x starts

=Pxn
Clearly for a single start thread where n = 1; Lead = Pitch. The depth and
width to which the thread must be machined depends on the pitch, but the
rate of the tool feed longitudinally depends on the lead. Thus, when
determining change gear ratios the lead is always considered.
To perform the operation of cutting multi-start threads is not unlike cutting

single start threads in that the procedure is exactly the same except the
work-piece must be turned through certain.
18.10.2 Square thread cutting tool angles

The top rake angle is the same as for other lathe cutting tools. The important
factor that must be considered is that the tool edges must not rub against the
already machined screw thread whilst cutting deeper.
382
Figure 18.36 Square thread cutting tool
18.10.3 To calculate the helix angle of a square thread

Before the cutting tool can be prepared it is necessary to determine the
KHOL[DQJOHRIWKHWKUHDG ǃ 7KHUHLVKRZHYHUDQRWKHUVOLJKWSUREOHPWKH
helix angle depends on two factors:
• The helix angle changes for each different diameter of thread. The
smaller the diameter the smaller the helix angle.
• The helix angle changes for each different lead, which is equal to the
pitch times the number of starts. The larger the lead the larger the helix
angle.
The helix angle is represented by a triangle consisting of the

circumference at the base with the lead at right angles to it. The angle
formed is equal to the helix angle and can be worked out by
trigonometry.
Lead
Figure 18.37 Calculating the helix angle

383
The following formula can be used to calculate the helix angle:
ܱ‫݁ݐ݅ݏ݋݌݌‬
ܶܽ݊ߚ =
‫ݐ݆݊݁ܿܽ݀ܣ‬
‫݀ܽ݁ܮ‬
=
‫݁ܿ݊݁ݎ݂݁݉ݑܿݎ݅ܥ‬
ܲ݅‫ݏݐݎܽݐݏ × ݄ܿݐ‬
ܶܽ݊ߚ =
ߨ × ݀݅ܽ݉݁‫ݎ݁ݐ‬
Worked example 1
Calculate the two helix angles of a single start square thread. The pitch of
the thread is 10 mm and the major diameter is 80 mm.
SOLUTION
‫݌ ݌‬
‫ݎ݁ݐ݁݉ܽ݅݀ ݎ݋݊݅ܯ‬ = ‫ ݎ݁ݐ݁݉ܽ݅݀ ݎ݋݆ܽܯ‬െ െ
2 2
= 80 െ 5 െ 5
= 70 ݉݉
HELIX ANGLE OF MAJOR DIAMETER ( = to the trailing angle)
ܶܽ݊ߚ =
ߨ × ݀݅ܽ݉݁‫ݎ݁ݐ‬
10 × 1
=
ߨ × 80
= 2,27ை
HELIX ANGLE OF MINOR DIAMETER (= to the leading angle)
ܶܽ݊ߚ =
ߨ × ݀݅ܽ݉݁‫ݎ݁ݐ‬
10 × 1
=
ߨ × 70
= 2,6ை
384
18.10.4 Leading and trailing angles of the tool

Figure 18.38 shows the leading and trailing angles of a square thread cutting
tool.
Figure 18.38 Leading and trailing angles on tool
A cutting clearance is ground onto the tool which must be about 1o. If no
clearance is ground then the tool would rub on the sides.
For the leading angle 1o is added to the minor diameter helix angle. For the
trailing angle 1o is subtracted from the major diameter helix angle.
Worked example 2
A two start square thread is to be machined on a lathe. The pitch of the

thread is 7 mm. Calculate the leading and trailing clearance angles of the
cutting tool if the major diameter is 90 mm.
SOLUTION
‫݌ ݌‬
‫ݎ݁ݐ݁݉ܽ݅݀ ݎ݋݊݅ܯ‬ = ‫ ݎ݁ݐ݁݉ܽ݅݀ ݎ݋݆ܽܯ‬െ െ
2 2
= 90 െ 3,5 െ 3,5
= 83 ݉݉
HELIX ANGLE OF MAJOR DIAMETER ( = to the trailing angle)

ܶܽ݊ߚ =
ߨ × ݀݅ܽ݉݁‫ݎ݁ݐ‬
7×2
=
ߨ × 90
= 2,83ை
385
TRAILING CLEARANCE ANGLE
ܶ‫݈݁݃݊ܽ ݁ܿ݊ܽݎ݈ܽ݁ܿ ݈݃݊݅݅ܽݎ‬ = ߚെ1

= 2,83 െ 1
= 1,83ை
HELIX ANGLE OF MINOR DIAMETER (= to the leading angle)
ܶܽ݊ߚ =
ߨ × ݀݅ܽ݉݁‫ݎ݁ݐ‬
7×2
=
ߨ × 83
= 3,07ை
LEADING CLEARANCE ANGLE
‫݈݁݃݊ܽ ݁ܿ݊ܽݎ݈ܽ݁ܿ ݃݊݅݀ܽ݁ܮ‬ = ߚ+1

= 3,07 + 1
= 4,07ை
The finishing tool width should be made slightly wider than half pitch groove
size. An amount of 0,1 mm wider is adequate for pitches of around 6 mm. If
the pitch is bigger, then it can be made slightly bigger than 0,1 mm.
,1 mm
+0
Figure 18.39 Cutting tool left slightly wider for finishing
18.10.5 Multiple start threads are machined and matched

Machining left hand and right hand threads
When machining a right hand thread on the lathe, the tool travels in the
direction of the headstock (chuck) i.e. from right to left.
The set up for cutting a left hand thread is exactly the same as that of the
right hand thread except that the lead screw must rotate in the opposite
386
direction. This means that the tool must travel from left to right in the direction
of the tailstock.
It is required that an undercut is made in the work piece so as to

accommodate the tool when cutting a left hand thread.
Figure 18.40 Machining left and right hand threads
18.10.6 Machining multi start square threads

x The procedure used for cutting of square threads is exactly the same as V
threads except that the tool shape is different.
x The calculations for the tool size (width) vary according to the pitch of the
thread. For example, if the pitch of the thread is 4 mm then the tool width
will be 2 mm to a depth of 2 mm.
x If the pitch of the thread is 6 mm then the tool width is 3 mm, and the
depth of the thread is 3 mm.
x The diameter for the male thread blank should be machined 0,20mm
undersize and the female blank should be bored a similar amount
oversize. If the threads bind on the sides when assembled, easing must be
done by advancing the compound slide and starting from the beginning.
387
x As the tool is not ground to take side cuts trying to remove the side of the
thread in one cut would be fatal.
x Because of the width of the tool, large cutting forces are exerted onto it,
and so it is necessary to run the lathe at low speeds for this screw cutting
operation.
x The cutting tool must be set at center height.
x Coolant should be used to obtain a good thread finish
The cutting of the square thread presents certain difficulties, although square,
it assumes a slight twist as it progresses along its helix form.
The tool must be ground so that it does not interfere with the thread that it is
cutting. The tool looks very much like a parting tool with one main
difference; the blade is not square with the bottom but is canted off to
match the slant of the helix.
18.10.7 Procedure to cut a multi start square thread

x The use of a roughing and then a finishing tool is recommended. The
roughing tool should be about 0,2 mm under size and the finishing tool 0,1
mm oversize.
x Correctly grind all the angles especially the leading and trailing.
x Grind the square thread cutting tool so that the width of the tool is about
0,1 mm wider than the calculate thread groove.
x Mount the work piece into the chuck and support it with the tailstock
centre.
x Machine the major diameter of the thread.
x If allowed machine a undercut at the end of the thread length. The
diameter of the undercut is equal to the minor diameter of the thread.
The undercut allows the tool to “run out” at the end of the thread.
x Cut a groove on the right hand end of the work piece to exactly the
diameter of the minor diameter. This will indicate when the thread is cut
to the correct depth.
x Select the correct feed so that the pitch is equal to the pitch of the
thread.
x Select the correct spindle speed.
x Set the compound rest at 30o to the right. This provides side movement if
the tool has to be reset.
x Set the tool so that it is at exactly centre height.
x Set the tool square with the work piece.
x Start the machine and just touch the tool to the surface of the work piece.
x The cross-feed graduated collar must be set to zero.
x Move the carriage back so that the tool clears the work piece.
x Take a trial cut to a depth of 0,1 mm.
x Check the pitch with a screw pitch gauge.
x Apply cutting fluid.
x Move the cross-feed so that each cut is about 0,2 mm. Use only the cross-
feed and not the compound rest as in “v” threads.
388
x Once the first start is complete, rotate the gears, or work piece ready for
the next start.
x Repeat until all starts are completed.
18.11 Calculations of cutting speed, spindle speed and cutting

feed
18.11.1 Determine the work piece diameter and calculate the spindle speed
(RPM)
You can get information about the diameter of the work piece from the
engineering drawing and the cutting speed from the manufacturer's
guidelines.
Once you have this information, you can work out the rpm of the work piece
using the required formula, as well as taking the diameter of the work piece
and its material into account. As with the feed rate, the type of material will
affect the rpms.
The rpm for a work piece with a specific diameter will differ according to the
type of material it is made of. The rpm will be faster for a soft material like
aluminium and slower for hard and tough materials like mild steel or carbon
steel.
Therefore, you need to adjust the rpm based on the type of material. Reduce
the rpm for hard, tough material and increase the rpm for soft materials.
Before you can start the machining process, you need to calculate the rpm.
This calculation is necessary to make sure that work pieces that have different
diameters run at the correct speed.
18.11.2 Calculating cutting speeds

Although you can usually obtain the cutting speed from the manufacturer's
guidelines, you do need to know how to calculate this speed if the
information is not available.
Once you have worked out the cutting speed, you can work out the rpm.
Keep in mind that the actual cutting speeds and feeds in m/min vary for
different materials, and also for the shape and strength of the material.
Aluminium needs a faster cutting speed than tool steel. A harder material
needs a reduction of cutting speeds or feeds and a decreased depth of cut.
Table 18.2 shows the cutting speeds suitable for turning on the centre lathe
using a cutting tool of high speed steel.
389
Materials Cutting Speed in m/min
Mild steel 30.4 m/min

Cast steel 15.2 m/min
Aluminium 91 m/min
Brass 60.8 m/min
Bronze 21 m/min
Table 18.2 Cutting speeds for a cutting tool of high-speed steel
Use the following formula:

9 '1
L=fxNxt
Information
V = cutting speed (m/s)
D = diameter of work piece (m)
N = rotational speed of spindle (revolutions per second)
L = length of work piece in millimetres (mm)
t = lime (cutting lime) in minutes
f = feed of cutting tool in mm /revolutions
Now let's look at some examples to show how to use these calculations.
Worked example 1
Calculate the cutting speed needed to machine a brass work piece with a
diameter of 40 mm if the spindle speed is 600 rpm.
Solution

V = '1
3,142 x 40 x 600 (Convert mm to m by dividing by 1 000)
1000
= 75,4 m/min
390
Worked example 2
Calculate the RPM (N) of a work piece made of steel with a 100 mm
diameter if the cutting speed for steel is 30 m/min.
Solution
V = '1
N = V x 1000 x 100 (Convert to mm by multiplying by 1 000)
3,143
= 95 rpm
After you have worked out the appropriate rpm, you can set the rpm of the
machine spindle on the quick-change gearbox, which is located on the
headstock.
Worked example 3
A shaft 40 mm in diameter must be machined on a centre lathe. Calculate

the speed of the spindle in revolutions per minute if the for the cutting speed
for material is 25 metres per minute.
Solution
V = '1
N = V x 1000 x 40 (Convert to mm by multiplying by 1 000)
3,143
Therefore the spindle speed = 199 rpm
391
Worked example 4
Calculate the time taken to take one cut over a length of 250 mm if the
automatic feed of the cutting tool is 0,5 mm/revolution. The spindle speed is
199 RPM.
Solution
t = L
fxN
t = 250
0,5 x 199
t = 2,512 minutes
t = 2 minutes 30,7 seconds
18.11.3 Determine the feed rate and cutting depth

You can get charts to determine feed rates from material suppliers or any
engineering tools supplier.
The type of material of which the work piece is made will decide the feed
rate (m/min) of the cutting tool as it removes material from the surface of the
work piece. As with the rpm, the feed rate for a work piece with a specific
diameter will differ according to the type of material it is made of.
The feed rate will be faster for a soft material like aluminium and slower for a
hard, tough material like mild steel or carbon steel. For example, you will have
a faster feed rate when you cut brass, than when you cut steel.
If you need to reduce a diameter by 6 mm, don't remove all of this material in
one cut. Look up the type of material on the chart and get a feed rate in
m/min.
The amount of material, which in this instance is 6 mm, is too much material
for a small centre lathe, (with a size of 600 mm and 800 mm between
centres), to remove.
392
When you remove 2 mm from the outside diameter of a cylinder, you are
actually removing 4 mm on the outside diameter. Therefore, in order to
reduce a diameter by 6 mm, you need to remove 3 mm of material.
Take a cut of 1 mm at a time, which will actually remove 2 mm on the outside

diameter. This means that you will need to take three cuts of 1 mm in depth
to remove 6 mm of material from the diameter.
Figure 18.41 Three important elements
18.12 Computer numerical control (CNC) lathes

One of the most significant developments in the manufacture of machined
parts is the use of computers to control the machine. It has increased
productivity, efficiency and accuracy as well lowered costs to the consumer.
The abbreviation CNC is short for Computer Numerical Control. In short it

means that a machine is controlled by numbers via a computer. In other
words a programme is written in a special code (called G code instructions),
loaded into the machine, where by interpolation the tool is moved along the
required path.
The path that is programmed is not just in a straight line but can also be in a
curved path. The movement is not restricted to two dimensional machining
but can be extended to three dimensions. We will discuss the machine axis
at a later stage where up to seven axes can be machined.
The biggest advantage of a CNC controlled machine is that it does not have
to stop and think about its next move after a cut, it moves rapidly and with a
393
high degree of accuracy, if needed, to the next position. It does not stop for
tea, go on strike or look forward to Friday. It can work hour after hour day
and night as long as it has an ample supply of raw material and cutting tool
replacements.
18.12.1 Basic instructional formats for CNC lathes

There are three basic instructional formats applicable to computerised
numerical controlled (CNC) lathes, they are:
1. G commands
2. M commands
3. Positional data or movement on X and Y axis
x G – codes
A G code serves as a preparatory function and tells the machine to do
specific operations, such as:
o Move the tool at rapid traverse – G00.

o Move the tool at a feed rate along a straight line – G01.
o Move the tool along an arc at a feed rate in a clockwise direction – G02.
o Move the tool along an arc at a feed rate in a counter clockwise
direction – G03.
o Move the tool through a series of repetitive operations controlled by "fixed
cycles" such as, spot drilling, drilling, boring, and tapping - G70 is one.
The step by step movements that the machine must make, for example in a
straight line, counter-clockwise arc, clockwise arc and the speed it must do it
at are expressed in G codes. Another function of the G codes is to manage
the position of the tool so that with the G codes must go the direction of
each movement, the axis, which are expressed as +X, -X, +Y, -Y, +Z, -Z. The +
sign is not necessary in the programme.
With the direction must go the distance that the machine must move, either
in millimetres or in inches (not for our purposes).
The dimension contains a decimal point and not a comma, for example
32.68. In the programme the direction and dimension would be written as
follows X32.68.
Some programmes will write X200 as X200.0 which is done for clarity and is not
necessary.
Some of the more common G codes are shown in the table below.
Please note that some manufacturers use slightly different codes and the
manual that comes with the machine should be referred to before
programming.
394
CODE FUNCTION
G00 Rapid travel at maximum speed
G01 Linear movement at feed rate.
G02 Clockwise circular motion in two axes
G03 Counter-clockwise circular motion in two axes
G04 A dwell, stoppage of axis motion, for a programmed length of
time
G17 x-y plane for circular interpolation
G18 z-x plane for circular interpolation
G28 Return to a reference point
G29 Automatic return from reference point (machine home)
G53 Zero Offset Off
G54 Zero Offset #1
G55 Zero Offset #2
G56 Zero Offset #3
G57 Zero Offset #4
G58 Zero Offset #5
G59 Zero Offset #6
G70 Turning-Canned Finishing Cycle*
G72 Turning-Canned Facing Cycle*
G73 Turning-Canned Roughing Cycle*
G74 Turning-Canned Peck Drilling Cycle*
G75 Turning-Canned Grooving Cycle*
G76 Deep hole drilling
G78 Multiple threading cycle
G83 Drilling cycle
G84 Tapping cycle
G85 Reaming cycle
G90 Absolute dimensioning
G91 Incremental dimensioning
G95 Feed rate in mm/rev Lathe only
G96 Constant cutting speed m/min
G97 Constant rotational speed in r/min
G99 Return to withdrawal plane
*Each G code is followed by the appropriate command such as X,Y,Z,R,I,J,F
and P.
x M - Codes
The M codes manage the machine; these are also referred to as the
miscellaneous codes and are mainly used to either turn ON or OFF some
function of the machine. They cause an action to occur. For example turn
on the spindle or turn off the coolant.
395
Some of the more common M codes are shown in the table below. Please
note that some manufacturers use slightly different codes and the manual
that comes with the machine should be referred to before programming.
CODE FUNCTION
M00 Program stop
M01 Optional stop
M02 End of program
M03 Spindle on clockwise
M04 Spindle on counterclockwise
M05 Spindle off
M06 Tool change
M07 Flood with coolant or coolant on
M08 Coolant off
M20 Tailstock back
M21 Tailstock forward
M25 Open chuck
M26 Close chuck
M30 Program end
x Positional data (x, y or z movements)

Figure 18.42 shows the Cartesian coordinate system which is the basis of all
CNC programming.
Figure 18.42 Cartesian coordinate system
Most lathes are programmed on two axes, the X and Z axis. For the CNC
lathes shown in Figure 18.43, the cutting direction is always towards the
396
negative. Look at the cutting direction of the tool. In the first figure, the tool
is behind the work piece when the operator is standing in front as if working
with a normal centre lathe. To take a cut the tool is fed in a negative X
direction and then the feed is towards the chuck in a negative Z direction.
There is no movement in the +Y and –Y directions.
Figure 18.43 Two (2) Axis CNC lathe with tool behind work piece
If for example you would want the tool to cut 1 mm off the diameter from its
present position for a length of 30 mm the coordinates would be X = -0,5 (half
the diameter) and Z = -30.
In Figure 18.44, the +X and –X have changed positions, the tool is in front the
work piece when the operator is standing in front as if working with a normal
centre lathe. To take a cut the tool is fed in a negative X direction and then
the feed is towards the chuck in a negative Z direction. Again there is no
movement in the +Y and –Y directions.
Figure 18.44 Two (2) Axis CNC lathe with tool in front of work piece
397
18.12.2 Programming systems

In addition to the paths of the machine there are two positioning systems that
a programmer would use:
1. Incremental positioning
2. Absolute positioning
Most modern machine tools are capable of handling both incremental and
absolute systems.
x Incremental positioning
When programming or executing the programme in incremental mode, the
control tells the machine to move the required amount from its present
position. In other words the present position becomes the zero point and the
machine moves from this point to the next point.
In Figure 18.45 the cutter is positioned at A. We will ignore the Z axis.
o To move to B from A the instruction will be:

X = 0; Y = 70.
o To move to C from A the instruction will be:

X = 60; Y = 70.
o To move to D from B the instruction will be:

X = 40; Y = -70.
Figure 18.45 Positioning the cutter
The G code for incremental programming is G91.

398
x Absolute positioning
When carrying out absolute positioning, every movement is relative to the
zero point. From the same figure shown the cutter is positioned at A. We will
again ignore the Z axis.
o To move to B from A the instruction will be:

X = 0; Y = 85.
o To move to C from A the instruction will be:
X = 75; Y = 85.
o To move to D from B the instruction will be:
X = 55; Y = 15.
All the values are relative to the zero point regardless of the position of the
cutter.
The G code for absolute programming is G90.
NOTE
G70 is the inch format and G71 the metric format. In some
machines G20 is the inch input and G21 the metric input.
If switching between the two, for example if a programme is written in inches

but you prefer to machine in metric, the measurements are not converted.
This may cause a serious accident if attempting to perform the operation with
invalid data.
18.12.3 Basic aspects of CNC programming

Before you can start writing a programme for CNC machines, some basic
considerations have to be determined. These include:
x How the work will be held in position,

x What cutting tools will be needed,
x The material being machined and speeds and feeds of cutting tools
x Stock length
x Specifications from drawing
x Planning sequence of operation
x Coolant applications
x Sizes according to dimension positioning
All these, along with tooling paths and determining XYZ coordinates, have to
be kept in mind and will play a significant part in the programming.
399
Activity 18.1
6. Name two types of steadies used when working on a centre lathe.

7. A shaft must be turned to tapered dimensions. Calculate the tailstock set-
over required if the shaft is 400 mm long and the taper to be turned is 1 m
10mm.
8. Calculate the included angle of the taper mentioned in question 2.
9. State two advantages and two disadvantages of using the graduated
sleeve method of taper turning.
10. Name the aspects that should be considered by the parts programmer
who writes the instructional program for a CNC lathe task.
11. Name two types of dimension positioning applicable to a CNC centre
lathe.
12. It takes ten minutes to execute a longitudinal cut on a work piece 500 mm
long and rotating at 240 r/min in the centre lathe. Calculate the feed of
the cutting tool in mm/ revolution. Round off to three decimal places.
13. Name four different types of lathe mandrels.
14. Name two advantages of using lathe mandrels.
15. A 5-mm pitch, 2-start square thread is to be machined on a lathe that has
an 8-mm pitch lead screw. If the pitch diameter is 100 mm, calculate the
following:
(a) the helix angle of the thread
(b) the leading angle of the cutting tool
(c) the following angle of the cutting tool.
11. Describe, making use of a sketch, the alignment of the headstock with the
bed in both the vertical and horizontal planes.
12. Describe, with the aid of a sketch, the alignment of the headstock with the
tailstock in both the horizontal and vertical planes.
13. Name and describe the purpose of lathe steadies.
14. Describe how a square shaft can be supported in the lathe by using a fixed
steady. Make a neat sketch of the set-up.
15. A long slender shaft is turned in the lathe. After the first cut it was measured
and found to be smaller in diameter at the right-hand end than at the left-
hand end. The middle portion of the shaft was bigger in diameter than that
at both ends.
16. State the reason for each fault and describe how it can be rectified.
17. Describe how the fixed steady is set up and adjusted to support a long
shaft in the lathe.
18. Draw a neat sketch to show where and how the travelling steady is
mounted on the lathe.
19. Name five advantages obtained when using mandrels.
20. Make a neat sketch of a gang mandrel to show how the workpieces are
mounted and held on it.
400
Self-Assessment

x Describe the advantages of mandrels and give examples of
where they are used.
x Explain the use of different clearance angles on lathe cutting
tools.
x Describe the uses of fixed and travelling steadies during the
following applications:
o Support of ling work pieces
o Turning of a long small-diameter shaft
o Support of a square bar on the centre lathe
x Describe methods of tailstock set-over using:
o The dial-test indicator
o The graduated sleeve method
x Calculate the correct set-over of the tailstock by application of
the appropriate formula.
x Calculate the following angles applicable to square threads:
o Helix angle
o Leading angle
o Following angle
x Calculate the:
x Cutting speed
x Spindle speed
x Cutting feed of a centre lathe
x Name the three basic instructional formats applicable to CNC
lathes, namely:
o G commands
o M commands
o Positional data or movement on X and Y axis
x Distinguish between the following two types of programming:
o Absolute
o Incremental
x Explain the basic principles that apply to CNC programming to
machine a work piece with a simple profile.
401
Learning Outcomes
outcomes:
x Describe the reasons for surface grinding.

x Describing the following:
o Types of surface grinding machines
o Horizontal spindle reciprocating table
o Vertical spindle rotary table
x Explain the following types of grinding:
o Off-hand grinding
o Precision grinding
x Identify and select grinding wheels for specific materials.
x Explain the following terms applicable to grinding wheels:
o Grit size
o Grain structure
o Letters designating grade
o Structure number.
x Discuss bonding types and wheel markings briefly.
x Identify and discuss the uses of the following types of grinding wheel
profiles:
o Straight wheels
o Flaring cup
o Cup
o Double cup
x Describe the following faults:
o Chattering
o Burning
o Glazing
o Scratching
o Loading
402
19.1 Introduction
Grinding may be defined as the cutting action of thousands of
sharp, abrasive grains on the face of the grinding wheel with the
grains actually cutting chips out of the work.
Grinding may also be compared to turning, with a great number of tiny,

single-point tools, or to milling, with a cutter having thousands of minute
cutting teeth on its periphery.
The similarity between grinding and turning is immediately evident when

comparing the chips produced by the two methods.
19.2 Surface grinding

Surface grinding is the precision grinding of a planed surface. While all
grinding, strictly speaking, is surface grinding, the term is commonly used to
describe the grinding of flat surfaces.
The metal-working industry is increasingly standardizing ground surfaces for

reasons of economy and productivity as well as for considerations such as
quality of surface finish, accuracy and appearance.
Many parts formerly milled, planed or hand scraped, are now precision
ground. The variety of surface grinders available, of each type, testifies to the
importance that industry attaches to this machine as a production tool.
With the introduction of large, high-powered surface grinders, it is obvious

that steel or other metals are actually machined away.
Grinding wheel manufacturers have played an important part in improving

abrasives, bonds and wheel designs to supply free-cutting, strong and
durable wheels for use under comparatively severe load conditions.
19.2.1 Reasons for surface grinding

Surface grinding machines can grind very hard materials such as carbon
steel and can give a smooth finish to the surface being ground.
You can use a surface-grinding machine for the following types of jobs:
x grinding parts such as guillotine blades, which are used to cut metal
plates, to sharpen them;
x grinding the tops of engine blocks to get smooth flat surfaces during the
reconditioning process;
x grinding kitchen knives when they become blunt
403
19.2.2 The advantages of surface-grinding machines

The advantages of using surface-grinding machines instead of other machine
tools such as the milling machine are that:
x it is cheaper to machine a work piece,

x it is more accurate during the machining process, and
x it gives a very good surface finish that does not need extra polishing.
19.3 Types of surface grinding machines

Among the numerous types of surface grinders that are manufactured, the
following are the principal ones:
x horizontal surface-grinding machines;

x vertical surface-grinding machines;
19.3.1 Horizontal spindle reciprocating table

A horizontal surface-grinding machine has a machine table that moves from
side to side (laterally) and backwards and forwards (transversely) below the
grinding wheel.
The grinding wheel is able to move upwards and downwards.
The machine table is fitted with a magnetic vice to hold the work piece in
place. You can use a horizontal surface-grinding machine to:
x skim the tops of car engines;

x clean the surface of metal plates;
x grind slots and grooves in work pieces such as spline shafts and gear
teeth, which need more accurate finishing after been milled; and
x clean the rough surfaces of work pieces to make them look the same and
smooth.
o Working principle of the horizontal surface grinding machine

Figure 19.1 illustrates this machine with various motions required for grinding
action.
A disc type grinding wheel performs the grinding action with its peripheral
surface. Both traverse and plunge grinding can be carried out in this
machine as shown in Figure 19.2.
404
Figure 19.1: Horizontal spindle reciprocating table surface grinder
Figure 19.2 Surface grinding (a) traverse grinding (b) plunge grinding
19.3.2 Vertical spindle reciprocating table

Using cup or cylinder wheels or segments, the column supporting the wheel
head may be fixed or it may slide laterally so that work that is wider than the
grinding wheel can be handled.
19.3.3 Vertical spindle rotary table

A vertical surface-grinding machine has a revolving table on which the work
piece is clamped. You can use a vertical surface-grinding machine to:
405
x produce ball-shaped parts on work pieces, and machine small curves on

parts.
Using cylinder wheels or segments, machines are built with one, two, three,
four and even five spindles mounted on a central column.
A ring-type rotary table carries the work under the wheels so that roughing,
semi-finishing and finishing cuts can be made on parts as large as engine
blocks by passing only once through the machine.
19.3.4 Working principle of the vertical spindle reciprocating table grinder

This grinding machine with all working motions is shown in Figure 19.3. The
grinding operation is similar to that of face milling on a vertical milling
machine.
In this machine a cup shaped wheel grinds the workpiece over its full width
using end face of the wheel as shown in Figure 19.4. This brings more grits in
action at the same time and consequently a higher material removal rate
may be attained than for grinding with a peripheral wheel.
Figure 19.3 Vertical spindle reciprocating Figure 19.4 Surface grinding in

table surface grinder Vertical spindle reciprocating
table surface grinder
19.3.5 Working principle for the horizontal spindle rotary table grinder
Surface grinding in this machine is shown in Figure 19.5. In principle the
operation is same as that for facing on the lathe. This machine has a
406
limitation in accommodation of workpiece and therefore does not have

wide spread use. However, by swiveling the worktable, concave or convex or
tapered surface can be produced on individual part as illustrated in Figure
19.6
Figure 19.5 Surface grinding in Horizontal spindle rotary table surface grinder
Figure 19.6 Grinding of a tapered surface in horizontal spindle rotary table

surface grinder
19.3.6 Working principle for the vertical spindle rotary table grinder
The principle of grinding in this machine is shown in Figure 19.7. The machine
is mostly suitable for small workpieces in large quantities. This primarily
production type machine often uses two or more grinding heads thus
enabling both roughing and finishing in one rotation of the work table.
407
Figure 19.7 Surface grinding in vertical spindle rotary table surface grinder
Figure 19.8 A horizontal surface-grinding machine

408
Figure 19.9 Vertical Grinder
19.4 Types of grinding

19.4.1 Off-hand grinding
Offhand grinding is grinding done to broad tolerances by either applying the
grinding wheel manually to the work or by applying the work by hand to the
grinding wheel.
19.4.2 Precision grinding

Precision grinding is machine grinding where the size limits are exceedingly
small.
19.5 Select grinding wheels for specific materials

A grinding wheel has two components, namely:
x Abrasive which does the actual cutting.

x Bond which supports the abrasive grains while they cut.
19.5.1 Select the correct grinding wheel

The material (hard or soft that the component is made of will determine the
selection of the grinding wheel. You will need to use a hard wheel for soft
409
materials and a soft wheel for hard materials. The manufacturer will always
recommend the wheel speed, which will be printed on the wheel. Keep the
following general rules in mind when choosing a grinding wheel:
x Use a hard wheel for soft work pieces.

x Use a soft wheel for hard work pieces.
x Use a coarse grain-size wheel if you need to remove material more
quickly.
x Use a small grain-size wheel if you need a smoother and more accurate
finish.
When you choose a wheel for a specific job, you need to consider the grain,
the grade and the bond of the wheel. All grinding wheels are classified
according to these characteristics.
19.5.2 Classification of grinding wheels

As mentioned earlier, all grinding wheels are classified according to the
following characteristics:
x the type of grain (also called the abrasive),

x the type of bond, and
x the grade.
Let’s discuss each of these characteristics in more detail.
o Type of grain (abrasive)

When you look at the type of grain, you need to consider the type of
material that the wheel is made of and the size of the grain particles.
You will choose the type of material according to the metal that you need to
grind.
x Use silicon carbide for grinding softer metals such as brass, soft bronze,
copper and aluminium.
x Use aluminium oxide for grinding harder metals such as carbon steels,
alloy steels and high-speed steels.
Figure 19.10 Wheel structure
410
o Size of the grain

You will choose the grain size of the wheel based on the type of grinding
work that you need to do. The grain is classified according to the size of the
abrasive particles, as shown in Table 19.1
Coarse Medium Fine Very fine
8 30 80 220
10 36 90 240
12 46 100 280
14 54 120 320
16 60 150 400
Table 19.1 Grain size (size of abrasive particles)
Figure 19.11 Grain size
19.6 Bonding types and wheel markings

19.6.1 Type of bond
The bond is the adhesive that holds the grains together on the wheel during
the grinding process. Grinding wheels can use the following types of bonds:
x Vitrified bond allows the wheel to remove high quantities of material.

x Silicate bond allows the wheel to provide a quality finish.
x Shellac bond allows the wheel to provide a quality finish.
x Rubber bond allows the wheel to provide a high-quality finish.
411
x Resinoid bond allows the wheel to remove material quickly.
Symbols are used to show the type of bond used on the grinding wheel. The
bonds and their symbols are shown in Table 19.2
Bond Symbol
Vitrified V
Silicate S
Shellac E
Rubber R
Resinoid B
Table 19.2 Symbols for type of bond
19.6.2 Type of grade

The grade of the wheel refers to the hardness of the wheel and the strength
of the bond, which holds the abrasive grains in place. A soft bond is a bond
from which the abrasive grains break away easily. The grade of a grinding
wheel is indicated by the letters of the alphabet, as shown in Table 19.3
Soft Medium soft Medium Hard Very hard
ABCDEFGHI JKL MNOP QRS STUVWXYZ
Table 19.3 Grade of a grinding wheel
19.6.3 The structure of a grinding wheel

The structure of a grinding wheel means how far apart the grain particles are
spaced from one another. The wheel can have a dense structure or an open
structure. The structure or grain spacing in the wheel is indicated by the
structure number, which ranges from 1 to 15. Table 19.4 shows the structure
numbers.
Dense Open
12345678 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Table 19.4 Structure numbers for grinding wheels
412
These symbols appear on the paper disk on the side of the grinding wheel to
show the type of grinding work that the wheel can be used for. Let’s look at
an example of the symbols that appear on a grinding wheel for grinding
brass.
C12-K2S
Figure 19.12 Grinding wheel identification
These symbols appear on the paper disk on the side of the grinding
wheel to show the type of grinding work that the wheel can be
used for. Let’s look at an example of the symbols that appear on a
grinding wheel for grinding brass.
413
19.6.4 Determine the type of material

The type of grinding wheel that you choose depends on the type of material
that you need to grind. As we mentioned earlier, you will use a hard wheel for
soft materials and a soft wheel for hard materials. Table 19.5 shows a list of
materials and whether they are classified as hard or soft materials.
Hard materials Soft materials
Carbon steel Bronze
Alloy steel Copper
High speed steel Aluminium
Table 19.5: Classification of materials
19.6.5 Check the wheel RPM specification

x The cutting action of the grinding wheel depends on the speed of the
wheel.
x Keep in mind that the grinding operation is always dangerous as the
wheel is operated at high speeds.
x The safe maximum operating speed of a wheel is shown on the wheel, for
example 1 500 rpm, because the manufacturer specifies this speed.
x Surface-grinding machines come in different sizes.
x Each size of machine uses a wheel with a specific diameter size.
x The rpm specified by the manufacturer on the wheel is controlled by the
diameter of the wheel, and has nothing to do with the hardness or softness
of the wheel.
x The rpm is the same for both hard and soft wheels with the same
diameter.
x When you need to select a grinding wheel for a machine, first check the
rpm listed on the motor casing.
x The wheel that you select must show the same or greater rpm rating as on
the motor rpm.
x If you select a wheel with the wrong rpm, you will reduce the cutting
speed of the wheel.
x The wheel will wear quicker due to the slower cutting speed and you will
need to replace it sooner, which is not cost-effective.
x If the wheel rotates too slow then excessive overheating of the wheel and
workpiece may occur. If the wheel rotates too fast then centrifugal force
in the wheel may cause it to explode.
x Burning of the wheel and workpiece may also occur.
414
19.7 Types of grinding wheel profiles

Surface grinding wheel profiles are either straight wheels used on horizontal
spindle machines, or straight and vertical cup wheels used on vertical spindle
machines.
The types are:
x Straight wheels
x Straight cup
x Flaring cup
x Dish cup
19.7.1 Grinding wheel applications

Table 19.6 illustrates the common grinding wheel shapes and applications.
Shape Name Application

Cylindrical, centre less, internal, cutter,
Straight surface, and off-hand grinding
operations.
Tool and cutter grinder and surface
Straight cup grinding on vertical and horizontal
spindle machines.
Tool and cutter grinder, used mainly
Flaring cup for sharpening milling cutters and
reamers.
Tool and cutter grinder. Its thin edge

Dish permits it to be used in narrow slots.
Table 19.6 Grinding wheel applications
Figure 19.13 illustrates the different types of surface grinding wheels.
Figure 19.13 Different types of surface grinding wheels

415
19.8 Grinding faults

Grinding problems can sometimes be traced to a faulty or neglected
condition in the grinding machine, the method of holding the work on the
table, the condition of the magnetic chuck, or to some error in the grinding
procedure.
19.8.1 Assess the condition of the grinding wheel

You can assess the condition of the grinding wheel as follows:
x Check if the wheel is sharp.

x Check the wheel for cracks.
x Check if the wheel is balanced.
x Check if the wheel is the right type wheel for the requirements for the type
of material to be ground, for example the type of grain, bond, grain size,
grade and structure.
19.8.2 Check the wheel for cracks

As you do grinding at a high speed, you should inspect the wheel before
mounting it onto the spindle to make sure that it is safe to use. When you
unpack a new wheel, always check that it has not been damaged during
delivery. You can carry out a ring test to check if a grinding wheel is cracked.
o The ring test

Check that the grinding wheel is dry. Then tap the wheel gently with a
metallic object such as a steel rod. An undamaged wheel will have a clear
metallic tone. A cracked wheel will have a dull sound.
Figure 19.14 The ring test
416
19.8.3 Chattering
Chatter marks are caused by vibration. In surface grinders of either the rotary
or reciprocating table types which employ the periphery of a wheel, chatter
marks may result from any one of the following conditions:
x Worn or inadequately lubricated wheel spindle.

x Wheel out of balance or out of true.
x Wheel too hard.
x Lack of solid foundation for the machine.
x Proximity to vibrating machines, such as punch presses.
On light finishing-cuts the grinding wheel may glaze, become dulled and
leave chatter marks on the work.
This condition is usually rectified by redressing the wheel with a sharp

diamond and taking a minimum number of passes to produce the desired
surface and accuracy.
For machines equipped with a balancing type wheel sleeve, balance the
wheel assembly before grinding with a new wheel.
19.8.4 Burning
Discoloration of the ground surface of steel workpieces is evidence that the
surface has been burnt. This usually results when a grinding wheel is too hard.
Accordingly, a softer, freer-cutting wheel should be used, or the operating

conditions changed, so as to give the wheel a softer grinding action.
Increasing the table speed, giving the wheel a coarser dressing, or reducing
the area of grinding contact by truing the face or rim to a narrower width, will
help in achieving the desired result.
If the wheel appears to be slightly too hard for the work, take lighter cuts and
dress it it more frequently.
Never stop the table while the work is in contact with the wheel. Use sufficient
coolant and direct it onto both the wheel and the work.
19.8.5 Glazing
A glazed wheel can be recognized by its shiny cutting face and slick feel. Use
a coarser grit- or a softer-grade wheel, or increase the table speed to
promote a more rapid breakdown of the wheel. Too light a feed or grinding
pressure, or insufficient coolant which is too oily, will cause a wheel to glaze
and lose its cut.
If improper dressing is suspected, check the diamond for sharpness and give
the wheel as coarse a dressing as the finish requirements will permit.
417
19.8.6 Scratching
Irregular "fishtail" scratches of varying length and width are generally caused
by dirty coolant or loose particles of dirt corning from underneath the wheel
guard.
It helps to flush the underside of the guard when changing wheels. Clean the
grinding fluid from time to time in order to ensure an adequate flow to the
grinding wheel and workpiece.
If the grinding wheel is too soft, abrasive grains released from the wheel will
wedge between the wheel and workpiece and cause irregular scratches of
varying depth. It is also possible that the wheel is too coarse for the finish
desired. To remedy this, either change to a finer grit wheel, or dress the
present wheel finer and allow it to spark out on the work.
Incorrect diamond wheel-dressing causes scratches on the work surface.

Ensure that the diamond is not cracked or loose in its mounting and is slanting
at about 10° in the direction of wheel rotation. Give the diamond a quarter
turn every few dressings. Traverse the diamond across the wheel face, slowly
and evenly.
If the feed lines from straight type wheels persist, round off the wheel edges
slightly. Do not slide the work off the magnetic chuck as this will scratch both
the work and the chuck.
19.8.7 Loading
Metal lodged in a wheel's pores indicates a loaded wheel. Use either a
coarser-grit wheel or a porous (open structure) wheel to provide greater chip
clearance, or a softer-grade wheel that will break down more readily.
If the wheel is loaded because it is slightly too hard, try increasing the table
speed. In this regard it is as well to remember that when grinding on a rotary
table machine, the speed near the centre of the table is much less than at
the outer edge.
If loading persists, check the diamond for sharpness and give the wheel a
very open or coarse dressing by using a relatively heavy feed and rapid
traverse.
Check the supply of fluid that flows onto the wheel and the work and ensure
that it is not dirty or too oily.
When grinding dead-soft steel, aluminium or soft stainless steels, metal

loading can be overcome by grinding with straight grinding oil, or emulsions
of 3% concentrate in water.
418
Activity 19.1
1. Name three types of surface grinders.

2. Name two types of surface grinder cup wheels.
3. Explain the following grinding wheel terms:
(a) grain size
(b) grade
(c) structure.
4. Name two possible causes of the following surface grinding faults.
5. What is meant by dressing and trueing, as applied to grinding wheels?
6. Name four types of grinding wheels that are generally used on a surface
grinding machine.
7. Make a neat sketch of the:
(a) single-cup grinding wheel
(b) flaring-cup grinding wheeL
8. State four factors that determine your choice of grinding wheel before you
start g1inding work.
9. What are the three possible reasons for chatter marks on a workpiece?
10. Explain what is meant by the term hardness or grade of a grinding wheel.
11. Explain how a grinding wheel can be either soft or hard, using the same
type of abrasive.
12. Name two types of synthetic abrasives and give the symbol for each.
13. Define the following grinding terms:
(a) Abrasive.
(b) Bond.
(c) Chatter marks.
(d) Glazing.
(e) Grade.
(f) Loading.
(g) Truing.
14. A grinding wheel is marked as follows: C 36 - K 6
15. Explain what each symbol in the marking stands for.
16. Name six factors to be considered when selecting a grinding wheel for a
specific job.
17. The following are all grinding faults:
(a) Scratching of work.
(b) Chatter marks.
(c) Burning of work.
(d) Wheel loading.
(e) Wheel glazing.
18. Explain the cause of each fault and how it can be rectified.
19. Draw sketches of a straight, straight cup and flaring cup grinding wheel
and state an application for each.
419
Self-Assessment

x Describe the reasons for surface grinding.
x Describing the following:
o Types of surface grinding machines
o Horizontal spindle reciprocating table
o Vertical spindle rotary table
x Explain the following types of grinding:
o Off-hand grinding
o Precision grinding
x Identify and select grinding wheels for specific materials.
x Explain the following terms applicable to grinding wheels:
o Grit size
o Grain structure
o Letters designating grade
o Structure number.
x Discuss bonding types and wheel markings briefly.
x Identify and discuss the uses of the following types of grinding
wheel profiles:
o Straight wheels
o Flaring cup
o Cup
o Double cup
x Describe the following faults:
o Chattering
o Burning
o Glazing
o Scratching
o Loading
420
Fitting and Machining N2
APRIL 2011
NATIONAL CERTIFICATE
FITTING AND MACHINING THEORY N2
(11022032)
(X-Paper)
09:00 – 12:00
REQUIREMENTS:
Calculators may be used.
Candidates will require drawing instruments, pens and a ruler.
This question paper consists of 6 pages, 1 diagram sheet and 1 formula sheet.
Gateways to Engineering Studies

1
TIME: 3 HOURS
MARKS: 100
___________________________________________________________________
NOTE: If you answer more than the required number of questions, only the required
number of questions will be marked. All work you do not want to be marked
must be clearly crossed out.
INSTRUCTIONS AND INFORMATION
1. Answer ALL the questions in SECTION A.
2. Answer ONLY TWO questions in SECTION B.
3. Answer either QUESTION 1.1 or 1.2 of QUESTION 1.
4. Read ALL the questions carefully.
5. Number the answers correctly according to the numbering system used in this
question paper.
6. Write neatly and legibly.

___________________________________________________________________

2
SECTION A
QUESTION 1: OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY
NOTE: Answer either QUESTION 1.1 or QUESTION 1.2.
1.1 Explain, in your own words, FIVE basic safety measures to for the use and (5)
'lock-out' electrical equipment, which apply to mechanical fitters when
working on machinery.
[5]
OR
1.2 Explain, in your own words, FIVE regulations associated with First Aid (5)
certification for workers above or below the surface with regard to mining
industry.
[5]
QUESTION 2: COUPLINGS
FIGURE 1 (DIAGRAM SHEET 1 attached) shows a sketch of a type of coupling.

Answer the following questions with reference to FIGURE 1.
2.1 Name the type of coupling. (1)
2.2 Describe the construction of this coupling with special reference to the (2)
material used for the different parts.
2.3 State TWO types of misalignment associated with couplings. (2)
[5]
QUESTION 3: LIMITS AND FITS
3.1 Explain, in your own words, what is meant by the following terms:
3.1.1 Tolerance (1)

3.1.2 Interchange-ability (1)
3.1.3 Allowance (1)
3.2 Indicate 4nder which classification of fit, the following types of fit are
categorised
3.2.1 Drive fit (1)

3.2.2 Push fit (1)
3.2.3 Slide fit (1)
3.2.4 Shrink fit (1)
3.2.5 Running fi (1)
[8]

3
QUESTION 4: BEARINGS
4.1 Give THREE reasons why bearings are important in industry. (3)
4.2 State FOUR properties of the material used for plain bearings. (4)
4.3 Give FOUR reasons for the failure of anti-friction bearings. (4)
[11]
QUESTION 5: LUBRICATION AND VALVES
5.1 Lubricants are classified into Solid; Semi-solid; and Liquid types. Give the
classification of lubricant used in the following lubricators:
5.1.1 Grease applicator gun (1)

5.1.2 Bottle oiler (1)
5.1.3 Splash feed lubricator (1)
5.1.4 Stauffer cup (1)
5.2 Name THREE types of shut-off valves. (3)
[7]
QUESTION 6: PACKING, STUFFING BOXES, JOINTS AND WATER PIPE

SYSTEMS
6.1 Give FIVE important guidelines to ensure the proper fitting of 0-rings and (5)
seals in hydraulic systems to prevent leakage.
6.2 Name TWO types of thermo-plastic pipes and give ONE example applicable (4)
to each.
[9]
QUESTION 7: PUMPS
7.1 Explain, in your own words, the function of a plunger when working with (1)
reciprocating pumps.
7.2 FIGURE 2 (DIAGRAM SHEET 1 attached) shows a sketch of a vane-pump. (4)

Name the FOUR parts of the pump that are indicated by the letters A - D.
[5]
QUESTION 8: COMPRESSORS
Explain in your own words, the function of each of the following compressor components:
8.1 Safety valve (1)

4
8.2 Belt transmission guard (1)
8.3 Drain valve (1)
8.4 Receiver (1)
8.5 Pressure regulator switch (1)
[5]
QUESTION 9: V-BEL T, GEAR AND CHAIN DRIVES
9.1 Explain the principle of velocity ratios and mechanical advantage when using (2)
different gears in gear drives.
9.2 State THREE advantages that belt drives have over gear drives. (3)
[5]
TOTAL SECTION A: 60
SECTION B
Answer only TWO of the questions in SECTION B
QUESTION 10: HYDRAULICS AND PNEUMATICS
10.1 Name the hydraulic components (A - E) associated with the ISO symbols in (5)
FIGURE 3, (DIAGRAM SHEET 1 attached).
10.2 State the main differences between a pneumatic system and a hydraulic (2)
system when referring to the recycling of oil as opposed to how pneumatics
deal with the same phenomenon?
10.3 State THREE ways by which directional control valves can be actuated. (3)
10.4 Give the function of the following pneumatic components
10.4.1 Vacuum pump (1)

10.4.2 Pressure regulator (1)
10.4.3 Double-acting cylinder (1)
10.5 State the TWO most important scientific factors which affect the speed of an (2)
actuator in a pneumatic system.
10:6 State FIVE advantages pneumatic systems have over hydraulic systems. (5)
[20]

5
QUESTION 11: CENTRE LATHES
11.1 State FOUR advantages of the use of mandrels. (4)
11.2 State TWO advantages and TWO disadvantages of using the tailstock set (4)
over method for taper - turning.
11.3 Calculate the amount of tailstock set-over required for a shaft, 240 mm in (3)
length with a taper of 6°.
11.4 A round shaft with an outside diameter of 75 mm must be provided with a

three-start thread with a lead of 30 mm.
11.4.1 Calculate the helix angle of the thread (Ʌ) as well as the leading and (3)
clearance angles. Assume that the clearance angle of 3°.
11.4.2 Calculate the leading angle. (1)
11.4.3 Calculate the clearance angle. (1)
11.4.4 Give the names of the square thread terms listed in FIGURE 4 (DIAGRAM (4)
SHEET 1 attached) between A- D.
[20]
QUESTION 12: MILLING MACHINES AND SURFACE GRINDERS
12.1 Identify the milling cutter types in FIGURE 5 (DIAGRAM SHEET 1 attached) (3)
and write the answers next to the letters A - C.
12.2 State FOUR methods of indexing on a milling machine. (4)
12.3 State THREE possible factors which cause the loading of a grinding wheel. (3)
12.4 Calculate the cutting speed of the cutter in meters per minute, when using a (3)
cutter of 35 mm in diameter at a speed of 360 r/min.
12.5 State TWO advantages and TWO disadvantages of upcut milling. (4)
12.6 Give THREE reasons why it is more desirable to use a milling cutter with (3)
coarse teeth.
[20]
TOTAL SECTION B: 40
GRAND TOTAL: 100

6
APRIL 2011
FORMULA SHEET
1. f = ft × T × N
஠ ୈ୒
2.
଺଴
3. S= ɎDN
ସ଴
4.
୒
୒
5.
ଽι
ୈ ିୢ ୪ୣ୬୥୲୦ ୭୤ ୵୭୰୩୮୧ୣୡୣ
6. ×
ଶ ୪ୣ୬୥୲୦ ୭୤ ୲ୟ୮ୣ୰
஘ ଡ଼
7. tan =
ଶ ୐
8.
x 90° - (Helix angle + clearance angle)
x 90° + (Helix angle - clearance angle)
9. Lead = No. of starts × pitch

7
APRIL 2011
DIAGRAM SHEET 1

8
APRIL 2011
FITTING AND MACHINING N2
(11022032)
(X-Paper)
09:00 – 12:00

9
SECTION A
ALL QUESTIONS ARE TO BE MARKED IN THIS SECTION
NOTE: Candidates need ONLY ANSWER QUESTION 1.1 OR QUESTION 1.2
1.1 (5)
x LOCK the switch in the “OFF” position – use key or padlock while
performing maintenance on machines.
x Or REMOVE fuses
x Warning signs are to be posted while working
x Mark power supplies “AC” or “DC”
x Place “DANGER!” or “DO NOT SWITCH ON” sign boards at the place of
disconnection of power supply.
x Label all circuit breakers to indicate which machines they serve
x Label the MAIN SWITCH so that it is clear and stands out from the rest of
the switches on the Distribution Board
x Faulty portable electrical must not be used.
x Record regular checks of faulty equipment as well as the record of repairs
and services
ANY 5
[5]
OR
1.2
(1)
Underground work - Every person in charge of more than 300 workmen
must be in possession of a first aid certificate. (1)
Underground work - All workers under the age of 50 years old must
have a first aid certificate. (1)
Workers on the - All workers near machinery on the surface must be
surface in possession of a first aid certificate. (1)
Underground and - Every person has a period of ONE year within
surface mining which to obtain a first aid certificate (1)
First Aid certificates are renewable every THREE years
[5]
FIGURE 1 (DIAGRAM SHEET) shows a sketch of a type of coupling. Give brief

answers to the following questions on this type of coupling.
2.1 Marine coupling (1)
2.2
x Consists of TWO solid flanges (1)

10
x Holes for fixing the flanges line up directly opposite each other, and they (1)
are bolted with taper bolt.
2.3 (2)
x Radial
x Axial
x Angular misalignment
ANY 2
[5]
3.1
3.1.1 Tolerance - Difference between the HIGH LIMIT and the LOW (1)
LIMIT of a specific dimension or size
3.1.2 Interchange - When a wide variety of similar components with the (1)
ability same nominal size and tolerance are able to fit each
other and vice versa.
3.1.3 Allowance - The dimension IN FIT/LIMIT between TWO (1)

MATCHING COMPONENTS (EXAMPLE: high limit of
a shaft = maximum allowance)
3.2
3.2.1 Transition (1)

3.2.2 Clearance (1)
3.2.3 Clearance (1)
3.2.4 Interference (1)
3.2.5 Clearance (1)
[8]
4.1
x Supports shaft (1)
x Eliminates wear (1)
x Eliminates friction. Provides a replaceable wear surface (1)
4.2 (4)
x Load Capacity
x Corrosion resistance
x Thermal conductivity
x Fatigue strength
x Embedded ability

11
x Compatibility
x Conformability
x Cost
ANY 4
4.3 (4)
x Insufficient lubrication
x Over lubrication
x Drying-up of grease
x Foaming oil
x Oil-pollution
x Rotating journal sleeve
x Insufficient bearing clearance
x Bearing slip on shafts
x Flat on rolling element/s
x Incorrect assembly
x Shaft out of roundness
x Excessive bearing
x Clearance
ANY 4
[11]
5.1
5.1.1 Semi-solid (1)

5.1.2 Liquid (1)
5.1.3 Liquid (1)
5.1.4 Semi-solid (1)
5.2 (3)
x Globe
x Gate
x Ball
x Diaphragm
ANY 3
[7]
QUESTION 6: PACKING, STUFFING BOXES AND JOIMTS AND WATER PIPE

SYSTEMS
6.1 (5)
x Clean all surfaces
x Lubricate the seal before install, ensure the correct seal, use a protective
sheath over a threaded section to protect the seal.
x Ensure no damage while installing the seal

12
x Always tighten up lightly in the beginning for squaring up the seal
6.2 (4)
x PVC PIPE
Sewage draining
Storm water drainage
Electrical conduit
Underground ducting
x POLYTHENE PIPE
Electrical sheathing
Industrial tubing (air, oil etc.)
[9]
QUESTION 7: PUMPS
7.1 Used to displace fluid from inlet to outlet (1)
7.2
A Outlet (1)
B Inlet (1)
C Rotor (1)
D Blades/Vanes (1)
[5]
8.1
8.1.1 Safety valve - Prevents excessive pressure build-up in air (1)

receiver
8.1.2 Belt transmission - Safety of workers & machines (1)
guard
8.1.3 Drain valve - Drainage point for water, condensate, dirt, oil (1)
8.1.4 Receiver - Storage of air – pressure energy (1)
8.1.5 Pressure - Ensures cut out of machine at desired air (1)
regulator switch pressure
[5]
QUESTION 9: V-BELT, GEAR AND CHAIN DRIVES
9.1 Velocity ratio is the relationship between the speeds of the drive gear to the (2)
speed of the driven gear or the number of teeth of the driven gear to the
number of teeth on the drive gear.
Mechanical advantage is the resultant effect between the two meshing gears

13
and can be obtained by varying the velocity ration between them.
An increase in velocity ratio results in the ability of two meshing gears handle
higher torque and low speed situations.
Decrease of the velocity ratio means a lower torque and higher speed can be
achieved.
Velocity ratio therefore affects the mechanical advantage directly.
9.2 (3)
x Slip takes place
x No lubrication required
x Transmits motion over a longer distance
x Cheaper
ANY 3
[5]
SECTION A: 60 MARKS
SECTION B
CANDIDATES NEED PONLY ANSWER TWO QUESTIONS IN THIS SECTION
10.1
10.1.1 Check valve (1)

10.1.2 4/3 way N/C valve (1)
10.1.3 Pump – single direction (1)
10.1.4 Pressure relief valve (1)
10.1.5 Double acting cylinder (1)
10.2
x Hydraulics = back to tank – oil is recycled (1)
x Pneumatics = air is not recycled but is exhausted into the atmosphere (1)
10.3
x Manually (1)
x Electrically (1)
x By fluid pressure (pilot pressure) (1)
10.4
10.4.1 Vacuum pump - Produces negative pressure for e.g. suction (1)

14
function (suction cup for picking up

components)
10.4.2 Pressure regulator - Ensures that the working pressure is (1)
maintained after pre-setting
10.4.3 Double acting cylinder - Actuator for producing mechanical (1)
movement in a linear direction
10.5 Pressure (Force/Area) and Volume (Area/Diameter of Piston) (2)
10.6
x Noise/silent (1)
x Power consumption/low (1)
x Clean (1)
x High speed manufacturing (1)
x Components are lightweight (1)
[20]
11.1 (4)
x Time saving
x Concentricity is guaranteed
x Batch production is possible
x Mandrels can be modified to suit later work
x Setting up can be delegated to unskilled operators
ANY 4
11.2
ADVANTAGES: TAILSTOCK SET- (2)

OVER
x Automatic feed
x Finish is improved
ANY 2
DISADVANTAGES: TAILSTOCK
SET-OVER (2)
x Time-consuming to set-up
x Damage is done to the centre /
workpiece
x Too many cuts cause wear on the
centre-hole and lead to inaccuracy
of the taper
x Internal tapers cannot be machined
x Large angle tapers cannot be
machined
x Light cuts must be taken
ANY 2

15
11.3
஘
= 3ι
ଶ
஘ = x
Sin (1)
ଶ Length of work (1)
x = ஘
Sin × length (1)
ଶ
= Sin 3ι × 240
= 0,0523 × 240
x = 12,55 mm
11.4
11.4.1 (3)
Lead = Pitch × number of starts

= 10 × 3
= 30 mm
Pitch diameter = ଵ
Outside diameter െ ଶ pitch
= 50 – 5
= 45 mm
Helix angle tan Ʌ = lead

Ɏ × pitch diameter
= 30
Ɏ × 45
= 0,2122
Ʌ = 11ι 58’
11.4.2
Leading angle = 90ι െ (Helix angle + clearance angle)

= 90ι െ (11ι 58’ + 3°)
= 75ι 2’
(1)
11.4.3
Trailing angle = 90° + (Helix angle – clearance angle)

= 90° + 11°58’ െ 3°
= 98°58’ (1)

16
11.4.4
A Helix angle (1)
B Clearance angle (1)
C Leading angle (1)
D Following angle (1)
[20]
QUESTION 12:
12.1
12.1.1 T-slot cutter (1)

12.1.2 Dove-tail cutter (1)
12.1.3 Helical cutter with nicked teeth (1)
12.2
x Simple (1)
x Rapid (1)
x Differential (1)
x Angular (1)
12.3 (3)
x Too slow a speed
x Metal clogging the space between abrasive particles
x Wrong wheel
x Insufficient coolant
ANY 3
12.4
D = 0,035 meter / (35 mm)
S = ? m/min
N = 360 rpm (1)
S = Ɏ DN = Ɏ × 0,35 × = 38,58 m/min (1)

360 (1)
12.5
ADVANTAGES (2)
x The cut can start from underneath the hardened outer-skin of a casting,
flange or forgoing etc.
x The cut is positive – i.e. table direction is opposite to direction of cutter
x Less vibration
x Coarse feed is possible
ANY 2

17
DISADVANTAGES
x The cutter may lift work from the holding device (2)
x A good quality surface cannot be guaranteed
12.6 (3)
x Cheaper
x Chattering is reduced
x Higher speeds can be used
x They save on power consumption
ANY 3
[20]
TOTAL SECTION B: 40
GRAND TOTAL: 100

18
AUGUST 2011
(11022032)
(X-Paper)
09:00 – 12:00
REQUIREMENTS:
This question paper consists of 8 pages, 1 diagram sheet and 1 formula sheet.

19
TIME: 3 HOURS
MARKS: 100
___________________________________________________________________
number of questions will be marked. All work you do not want to be marked,
1. Answer ALL the questions in SECTION A
2. Answer ONLY TWO questions in SECTION B.
3. Answer ONLY question 1.1 or 1.2 of question 1.
question paper.

__________________________________________________________________

20
SECTION A
NOTE: Answer ONLY question 1.1 OR question 1.2.
1.1 Give FOUR examples of 'dangerous places', as stated in the applicable (4)
regulations and in terms of the Occupational Health and Safety Act.
OR [4]
1.2 Explain in your OWN words, FOUR regulations and preventative measures (4)
associated with fire prevention on mines {Mining Industry).
[4]
2.1 Name TWO couplings which fall under the classification of self-aligning (2)
couplings.
2.2 FIGURE 1 in the DIAGRAM SHEET {attached), shows an example of a

typical flexible coupling. With reference to FIGURE 1, answer the following
questions:
2.2.1 What is the name of the coupling in FIGURE 1? (1)

2.2.2 Describe the operation of the coupling in FIGURE 1, by completing the (4)
missing words in the paragraphs below: Write the answer next to the
question· number {2.2.2{a) - 2.2.2{d)) in the ANSWER BOOK.
These couplings allow for (a) ... and {b) ... -misalignment of shafts. Flanges
are fitted onto shaft ends and are keyed into position.
The holes for fixing the two flanges are lined up directly opposite. each
other. Instead of accurately machined bolts, pins are fitted that are much
smaller than the diameter of the holes.
These pins are fitted into (c) ... that fit into the boltholes. This means that
flexible rubber components make the coupling flexible enough to cope with
any misalignment.
Where heavy loads are experienced it is necessary to (d) ... the number of
pins to the couplings.'
[7]

21
3.1 FIGURE 2, DIAGRAM SHEET (attached) shows an example of an (4)

interference fit between a bush and shaft. Name the different parts as
indicated by the letters (A - D) in FIGURE 2 in the ANSWER BOOK.
3.2 A precision running fit between a shaft and a sliding bearing is given as
45H7-g6. What is meant by the following symbols?
3.2.1 The capital letter H (1)

3.2.2 The number 7 (1)
3.2.3 The small letter g (1)
3.2.4 The number 6 (1)
[8]
4.1 FIGURE 3, illustrates three plain bearing types. Name the THREE types as (3)
indicated by the letters from (A - C) in the ANSWER BOOK.
4.2 State FOUR properties of the materials used for plain bearings. (4)
4.3 Give FOUR reasons for the failure of anti-friction bearings. (4)
[11]
5.1 State FOUR factors which must be considered when choosing a lubricant. (4)
5.2 Explain in your OWN words the basic working principle of a gate-valve with
reference to:
5.2.1 The pressure rating (1)

5.2.2 The operation of the ‘gate' (1)
5.2.3 Direction of flow (1)
[7]

SYSTEMS
6.1 State FOUR important guidelines for the correct choice of 0-rings and seals in (4)
hydraulic systems when fitting a new seal.
6.2 Name FIVE common joint methods for coping with expansion and contraction (5)
in pipe systems.
[9]

22
QUESTION 7: PUMPS
7.1 Explain, in your OWN words, the function of a balancing disc when dealing (1)
with multistage centrifugal pumps.
7.2 FIGURE 4, DIAGRAM SHEET (attached), shows a sketch of a single-acting (4)

pump. Name the parts of the pump as indicated by the letters (A - D) in the
sketch in the ANSWER BOOK.
[5]
Explain the function of each of the following compressor components:
8.1 Filter (1)
8.2 Drain valve (1)
8.3 Intercooler (1)
8.4 After cooler (1)
8.5 Pressure regulator (1)
[5]
QUESTION 9: V-BELT, GEAR AND CHAIN DRIVES
9.1 Give ONE reason why 'slip' is an advantage and ONE reason why 'slip' is a (2)
disadvantage in terms of belt drives over other types of drives.
9.2 Use the leading phrases given below to answer the questions. State THREE
measures you would take when performing maintenance on a gearbox.
9.2.1 Bearings? (1)

9.2.2 Before dismantling? (1)
9.2.3 Removal of shims? (1)
[5]
TOTAL SECTION A: 60

23
SECTION B
Answer only TWO questions in SECTION B.
10.1 State the TWO physical properties which will determine the force with which (2)
an actuator operates.
10.2 State FOUR factors to consider when choosing between the use of hydraulic (4)
or pneumatic systems when designing a fluid drive.
10.3 State the THREE main functions of oil in a hydraulic flow system. (3)
10.4 Name TWO functions of the reservoir. (2)
10.5 Answer the following questions based on the directional control valve, as
shown in FIGURE 5, DIAGRAM SHEET (attached):
10.5.1 How many ports are indicated? (1)

10.5.2 How many switching positions are indicated? (1)
10.5.3 Is this valve normally open or normally closed? (1)
10.5.4 What is the name of this valve? (1)
10.6 Make neat, simple, freehand sketches of the symbols representing the
following pneumatic components:
10.6.1 Compressor (1)

10.6.2 Pneumatic motor (1)
10.6.3 Pressure source (1)
10.6.4 Regulator valve (1)
10.6.5 Thermometer (1)
[20]
11.1 Name THREE basic instructional formats applicable to a CNC lathe. (3)
11.2 A spindle with a total length of 150 mm is to be turned to the dimensions

given in FIGURE 6, DIAGRAM SHEET (attached).
11.2.1 Calculate the amount of tailstock set-over. (3)

11.2.2 Calculate the included angle of the tapered portion. Give the answer in (1)
degrees and minutes.
11.3 A carbon steel pin with a diameter of 10 mm is to receive a finishing cut on (3)
a center lathe. The cutting speed for carbon steel is 56,55 m/min. Calculate
the speed adjustment in r/min of the lathe.

24
NOTE: Use the formula: S = ɎDN
N= Spindle speed of machine;

S= Cutting speed;
D= Diameter of the work-piece.
11.4 Steadies are important accessories to a centre lathe. Answer the following:
11.4.1 Give TWO functions of lathe-steadies. (2)

11.4.2 What is the steady which is mounted to the lathe-bed called? (1)
11.4.3 What is the steady which is mounted to the lathe-saddle called? (1)
11.5 A single-start square thread of 10 mm pitch has to be machined on a round

shaft with an outside diameter of 80 mm. The pitch diameter is 75 mm.
Calculate the following:
11.5.1 The helix angle ( Ʌ) of the thread (3)

11.5.2 The lead angle of the cutting tool (1)
11.5.3 The following angle of the cutting too (1)
11.5.4 The axial distance a nut would travel after screwing it on this thread for (1)
ONE revolution?
[20]
12.1 Name the FOUR types of indexing as performed on a milling machine. (4)
12.2 Name an accessory you would use to perform any of the indexing named in (1)
QUESTION 12.1.
12.3 A milling machine is used to machine 54 gear teeth on the circumference of a

round work-piece.
12.3.1 Name the type of indexing that can be performed on this gear blank. (1)
12.3.2 Calculate the required indexing using a Browne and Sharpe dividing head. (3)
NOTE: Browne and Sharpe indexing information as shown below:
The Browne and Sharpe Dividing Head

Plate 1 15 16 17 18 19 20
Plate 2 21 23 27 29 31 33
Plate 3 37 39 41 43 47 49
12.4 Grinding wheels have markings for identification purposes. State the FIVE (5)
categories by which a grinding wheel could be identified.

25
12.5 State FOUR advantages of using helical milling cutters with nicked teeth. (4)
12.6 Name TWO types of milling processes used for slab or flat surface milling. (2)
[20]
TOTAL SECTION B: 40
GRAND TOTAL: 100

26
AUGUST 2011
DIAGRAM SHEET 1
FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2
FIGURE 3 FIGURE 4
FIGURE 5 FIGURE 6

27
AUGUST 2011
FORMULA SHEET
1. f = ft × T × N
஠ ୈ୒
2.
଺଴
3. S= ɎDN
ସ଴
4.
୒
୒
5.
ଽι
ୈ ିୢ ୪ୣ୬୥୲୦ ୭୤ ୵୭୰୩୮୧ୣୡୣ
6. ×
ଶ ୪ୣ୬୥୲୦ ୭୤ ୲ୟ୮ୣ୰
஘ ଡ଼
7. tan =
ଶ ୐
8.
9. Lead = No. of starts × pitch

28
AUGUST 2011
(11022032)
(X-Paper)
09:00 – 12:00

29
SECTION A
NOTE: Candidates need ONLY QUESTION 1.1 or QUESTION 1.2
1.1 (4)
x Elevated platforms
x Openings in floors
x Pits
x Trap holes
x Other dangerous places where machinery is used
ANY 4
[4]
OR
1.2 (4)
x Naked lights forbidden
x Caustic soda may not be stored underground
x Installation, construction and operation of a machine may not give off
dangerous heat.
x No welding flame-cutting or flame heating to take place unless
preventative measure (e.g. fire extinguishers).
x A competent person should inspect the area to ensure - NO DANGER of
fire breaking out.
x No waste material (potential fire hazard) to be stored underground close to
electrical equipment (e.g. transformers, switchgear or heating apparatus
ANY 4
[4]
2.1 (2)
x Hooke's Joint
x Universal Joint
x CV Joint
ANY 2
2.2
2.2.1 Pin and Rubber Bush Coupling (1)

2.2.2
a) Axial (1)
b) Radial (1)
c) Rubber bushings (1)
d) Increase (1)
[7]

30
3.1
A High limit (1)
B Low limit (1)
C Tolerance (1)
D Interference (1)
3.2
3.2.1 H = tolerance of hole (1)

3.2.2 3 = grade or degree of tolerance on hole (1)
3.2.3 g = tolerance of shaft (1)
3.2.4 6 = grade or degree of tolerance on shaft (1)
[8]
4.1
A Plummer block (1)
B Taper bearing (1)
C Hanger bearing (1)
4.2 (4)
x Load Capacity
x Corrosion resistance
x Thermal conductivity
x Fatigue strength
x Embedded ability
x Compatibility
x Conformability
x Cost
ANY 4
4.3 (4)
x Insufficient lubrication
x Over-lubrication
x Drying-up of grease
x Foaming oil
x Oil-pollution
x Rotating journal sleeve
x Insufficient bearing clearance
x Bearing slip on shaft
x Flat on rolling element/s
x Incorrect assembly
x Shaft out of roundness
x Excessive bearing clearance

31
ANY 4
[11]
5.1 (4)
x Speed between moving parts
x Operating temperature
x Load on bearing
x Cost of lubricant
x Environment
ANY 4
5.2
5.2.1 The pressure rating - high pressure conditions (1)

5.2.2 The operation of the "gate"- wedge called the "gate" makes a metal to metal (1)
seal. A handwheel is rotated for unseating the gate.
5.2.3 Direction of flow- in one way (1)
[7]
QUESTION 6: PACKING, STUFFING BOXES AND JOINTS AND WATER PIPE

SYSTEMS
6.1 (4)
x Check the nature of the fluid medium
x The pressure level
x Environment
x Operating temperature
x Fluid temperature
ANY 4
6.2
x Expansion diaphragm (1)
x Pipework suspension (1)
x Telescopic expansion joint (1)
x Corrugated expansion joint (1)
x Expansion bends and loops (1)
[9]
QUESTION 7: PUMPS
7.1 Helps to eliminate the effects of end thrust (1)

32
7.2
A Suction head (1)
B Inlet (intake) (1)
C Plunger (1)
D Outlet(delivery) (1)
[5]
8.1 Ensure the intake of clean air, free of dirt and other foreign matter. (1)
8.2 Positioned at the lowest point on the air receiver for draining water or (1)
moisture, which accumulates inside it.
8.3 Cools air between the low pressure and high pressure stages before entering (1)
the high-pressure cylinder.
8.4 Cools air after the high-pressure stage of compression before being stored in (1)
the air receiver.
8.5 Allows the compressor to be switched off electrically, after the prescribed (1)
pressure has been reached.
[5]
QUESTION 9: V-BEL T, GEAR AND CHAIN DRIVES
9.1
Bad slip - Means a loss of means that damage to the belt drive is (1)
efficiency
Good slip - Avoided because the belt slips under maximum load. (1)
9.2
9.2.1 Bearings - Bearing noise is an indication of failure (1)

9.2.2 Before dismantling - Mark casing letter stamp or popmark (1)
9.2.3 Removal of shims - Tie shims together and label (1)
[5]
TOTAL SECTION A: 60

33
SECTION B
ANSWER ONLY TWO OF THE QUESTIONS IN SECTION B
10.1
FORCE - Pressure and Area (1)
SPEED - Flow-rate (liters per minute) (1)
10.2 (4)
x Power to weight ratio
x Costs less
x Components are more robust
x Noise
x Cleanliness of the medium
x Speed of system; rigidity
ANY 4
10.3 (3)
x Transmits energy
x Lubricates
x Prevents corrosion
x Removes dirt
x Cools
ANY 3
10.4 (2)
x Storage
x Separates air from oil
x Dissipates heat
x Supports motor/pump
ANY 2
10.5
10.5.1 Four (1)

10.5.2 Three (1)
10.5.3 Normally CLOSED (1)
10.5.4 Four/Three Way or 4/3 Way Normally CLOSED Directional Control Valve (1)
10.6
10.6.1 (1)

34
10.6.2 (1)
10.6.3
(1)
10.6.4 (1)
10.6.5 (1)
[20]
QUESTION 11 CENTRE LATHES
11.1
x G - Commands (1)
x M - Commands (1)
x Positional Data (1)
11.2
11.2.1
Tailstock Set-over = (D െ d) × Length of Workpiece (1)

2 Length of Taper
= (60 െ 50) × 150 (1)
2 × 40
(1)
Therefore Set-over = 18.75 mm
11.2.2
Tan Ʌ / 2 = 18.75 = Tan 0,05

40
25.11ι ȣ = 50.22
= 50 degrees and 13.2 minutes (1)
11.3
D = 0,01 meter (10 mm) (1)
S = 56,55 m/min N = ? (1)

35
S = ȫDN
(1)
N = S = 56,55 = 1800 RPM
ȫD ȫ × 0,01
11.4
11.4.1 (2)
x To support long and slender work-pieces between the lathe spindle and
tailstock
x To reduce unnecessary vibration or chatter, thus ensuring a better finish
x To support work-pieces against the pressure of heavy machining
x To maintain concentricity of long work-pieces while machining
ANY 2
11.4.2 Travelling (1)

11.4.3 Fixed (1)
11.5
11.5.1
OD = 80 mm 1 start
thread
Pitch = 10 mm
Lead = No of starts × Pitch = 1 × 10 = 10 mm (1)

ଵ
Pitch = (OD െ ଶ Pitch) = 80 െ 5 = 75 mm
Diameter
Pitch = ȫ × Pitch Diameter = ȫ x 75 = 235.6

Circumference mm (1)
To find the helix angle ી
Tan 2 = Lead = 10 = 0,0424

Pitch Circumference 235.6 mm (1)
Therefore 2 = Tan – 0,0424 = 2.4ι ȣ = 4
11.5.2
Leading angle = 90ι + (helix angle – clearance angle)

= 90ι െ (4.86 + 3ι)
= 82.14ι (1)
11.5.3
Following angle = 90ι െ (helix angle + clearance angle)

36
= 90ι + (4.86 െ 3ι)

= 91.86ι (1)
11.5.4
Lead = No of starts × Pitch
= 1 × 10
= 10 mm (1)
[20]
QUESTION 12 MILLING MACHINES AND SURFACE GRINDERS
12.1
x Rapid (1)
x Simple (1)
x Angular (1)
x Differential (1)
12.2 (1)
x Rotary table or
x Dividing Head
ANY 1
12.3
12.3.1 Simple indexing (1)
12.3.2
40 = ଶ଴ (1)
0 turns of a turn
54 ଶ଻
Select the 27 hole circle of PLATE 2 of Browne & Sharpe and turn 20 holes in the (2)
27 -hole circle.
12.4
x Abrasive type (1)
x Grade of wheel (1)
x Bonding material (1)
x Grain Size (1)
x Structure (1)
12.5 (4)
x Less power consumption
x Chattering is reduced
x Shavings are broken up
x Better cutting action
x Surface finish is improved
ANY 4

37
12.6 (2)
x Gang
x Straddle
x Up-cut
x Down-cut
x Helical Milling
x End-milling
ANY 2
[20]
TOTAL SECTION B: 60
GRAND TOTAL: 100

38
NOVEMBER 2011
(11022032)
(X-Paper)
09:00 – 12:00
REQUIREMENTS:
This question paper consists of 8 pages, 1 diagram sheet, table 1 and a 1

formula sheet.

39
TIME: 3 HOURS
MARKS: 100
___________________________________________________________________
number of questions will be marked. All work you do not want to be marked,
1. Answer ALL the questions in SECTION A.
2. Answer only TWO questions in SECTION B.
3. Answer either QUESTION 1.1 or QUESTION 1.2.
5. Start each question on a NEW page.
question paper.

__________________________________________________________________

40
SECTION A
NOTE: Answer either QUESTION 1.1 or QUESTION 1.2
1.1 Indicate whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE with regard to
safety in the workplace. Write only 'true' of 'false' next to the question number
(1.1.1 - 1.1.5) in the ANSWER BOOK.
1.1.1 Pneumatic equipment - Ensure that the regulator pressure at the (1)
compressor reaches the correct gauge
reading before cut-out. This can be
checked by observing the red line on the
pressure gauge.
1.1.2 Hydraulic equipment - Before use, one should blow air and oil (1)
hoses clean with compressed air.
1.1.3 Storage of gas cylinder - Gas cylinders should be dragged and not (1)
rolled.
1.1.4 Safety appliances - A machine should be stopped within 48 (1)
hours after a safety appliance (warning
bell, emergency brake etcetera) fails and it
poses a danger to those working in the
area.
1.1.5 Transmission belts - An inspector may decide when overhead (1)
transmission belts are light enough not to
need overhead guards.
[5]
OR
1.2 Indicate whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE with regard to
safety in the workplace. Write only 'true' or 'false' next to the question number
(1.2.1 - 1.2.5) in the ANSWER BOOK.
1.2.1 Underground work - Every person in charge of more than 300 (1)
workmen must be in possession of a first-
aid certificate.
1.2.2 Underground work - All workers under the age of 50 years old (1)
must have a first-aid certificate.
1.2.3 Workers on the surface - All workers who work near machinery on (1)
the surface of a mine do not need to be in
possession of a first-aid certificate.
1.2.4 Underground and - Every person has a period of five years (1)
surface mining within which to obtain a first-aid
certificate.
1.2.5 First-aid certificates are renewable every three years. (1)
[5]

41
2.1 Explain the difference between a coupling and a clutch. (2)
2.2 Name TWO different types of flexible coupling. (2)
2.3 What are the TWO main types of coupling misalignment? (2)
[6]
3.1 Explain in your own words, the difference between the TWO systems of limits
and fits:
3.1.1 Hole basis system (1)

3.1.2 Shaft basis system (1)
3.2 A shaft has to be machined according to a transition fit within the limits - 36 H7
k6 in order for the hole to fit. Use the information in TABLE 1 (attached
DIAGRAM SHEET) to answer the following:
3.2.1 Name the basis system that must be used. (1)

3.2.2 What is the type of fit derived from this dimension? (1)
3.2.3 Determine the tolerance of the shaft. (1)
3.2.4 Is the tolerance bi-lateral or unilateral? (1)
[6]
4.1 State FOUR disadvantages of plain bearing over anti-friction bearings. (4)
4.2 Name THREE devices used for the removal of bearings. (3)
[7]
FIGURE 1 on the attached DIAGRAM SHEET gives a representation of a lubricator.
5.1 Name this lubricator. (1)
5.2 Give a brief explanation, in your own words how it operates. (2)
5.3 Name FIVE parts of the lubricator as indicated in FIGURE 1 (A - E). Write the (5)
answer next to the question number (A- E) in the ANSWERBOOK.
[8]

42

SYSTEMS
6.1 Name FOUR important components of a stuffing box assembly as indicated (4)
in FIGURE 2 (A- D) on the attached DIAGRAM SHEET. Write the answer
next to the question number (A- D) in the ANSWER BOOK.
6.2
6.2.1 Give the main reason for using a lantern ring in association with stuffing (1)
boxes. (1)
6.2.2 What would happen if you do not use a latern ring?
6.3 Explain how a latern ring works by filling in the missing word(s). Write only (3)
the word(s) next to the question number (6.3.1 - 6.3.3) in the ANSWER
BOOK.
'The lantern ring is a steel ring which has a series of (6.3.1) ... set into
recess along its circumference.
Water is piped via a/an (6.3.2) ... from a water chamber to form a/an
attached (6.3.3) ... around the shaft to prevent water from entering the inlet
side of the pump (Example, centrifugal pump.)
[9]
QUESTION 7: PUMPS
FIGURE 3 on the attached DIAGRAM SHEET shows an illustration of a pump.
7.1 Name the category under which this pump is classified. (1)
7.2 Label from A - D the different parts of this pump as shown in FIGURE 3. Write (4)
the answer next to the question number (A - D) in the ANSWER BOOK.
[5]
8.1 Explain in your own words, TWO functions of an after cooler with regards to (2)
compressors.
8.2 Name the device used on intercoolers and after coolers which is used to trap (1)
condensation forming inside them.
8.3 Name the different types of rotary compressors. (3)
[6]

43
QUESTION 9: V-BEL TS, CHAIN AND GEAR DRIVES
9.1 Give THREE reasons why covers or guards are fitted on belt-drives. (3)
9.2 FIGURE 4 on the attached DIAGRAM SHEET is an illustration of a belt- (5)

drive. With reference to FIGURE 4 (A - E), list the different parts and terms
associated with belt drives. Write the answer next to the question number
(A - E) in the ANSWERBOOK.
[8]
TOTAL SECTION A: 60
SECTION B
NOTE: Answer only TWO questions in this section.
10.1 Explain, in your own words, the function of a pressure relief valve in a (1)
hydraulic system.
10.2 Make neat, freehand sketches of ISO symbols representing the following
pneumatic and hydraulic components:
10.2.1 Directional control valve (1)

10.2.2 Flow control valve (1)
10.2.3 Check valve (1)
10.2.4 Filter with water trap (1)
10.2.5 Service unit (1)
10.3 Name SIX valve types you would find in a typical hydraulic system. (6)
10.4 Explain, in your own words, the FIVE basic aspects of inspection in the (5)
routine maintenance of a compressor.
10.5 Explain, in your own words, the main function of the pump in a hydraulic (1)
system in terms of the conservation of energy.
10.6 Briefly describe the following with regard to the design of a reservoir: (1)
10.6.1 Ensures that dirt and contaminants do not re-enter the hydraulic system (1)
10.6.2 Helps to cool the oil as much as possible
[20]

44
11.1 Name THREE methods of taper-turning on a center lathe. (3)
11.2 State THREE advantages of using mandrels on a center lathe. (3)
11.3 Name TWO types of mandrels commonly used during machining on a (2)
centre lathe
11.4 State FIVE factors to consider when writing a CNC program. (5)
11.5 Name the programming system which uses zero as the point of reference, (1)
at all times during the machining cycle.
11.6 Calculate the time taken to take one cut during a machining task on the (3)
centre lathe. The length of the cut is 250 mm and the machine feed is set
at 0,5 mm/revolutions. The spindle speed of the machine is 199 r/min
(revolutions per minute). Calculate the time in minutes and seconds.
11.7 Give THREE possible reasons for 'chatter marks' on a completed (3)
machined work-piece.
[20]
12.1 State FOUR advantages for using milling cutters with coarse teeth. (4)
12.2 Calculate the indexing required for the following, using a Browne and
Sharpe index plate as shown below:
12.2.1 58 equally spaced gear teeth (3)

12.2.2 An angular-shaped groove of 45° (3)
NOTE: Browne & Sharpe indexing information
The Browne and Sharpe Dividing Head

Plate 1 15 16 17 18 19 20
Plate 2 21 23 27 29 31 33
Plate 3 37 39 41 43 47 49
12.3 Describe in your own words, what is understood by the following types of
grinding terms. Give ONE example of each:
12.3.1 Off-hand grinding (1)

12.3.2 Precision grinding (1)
12.4 Name TWO types of surface grinder machines (2)
12.5 Give THREE reasons for 'chatter marks' on a completed surface-ground (3)

45
work-piece.
12.6 Give THREE reasons for ('burning') on a completed flat-surface-ground (3)

workpiece.
[20]
TOTAL SECTION B: 40
GRAND TOTAL 100

46
NOVEMBER 2011
DIAGRAM SHEET 1
FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2
FIGURE 3 FIGURE 4

47
NOVEMBER 2011
TABLE 1

48
NOVEMBER 2011
FORMULA SHEET
1. f = ft × T × N
஠ ୈ୒
2.
଺଴
3. S= ɎDN
ସ଴
4.
୒
୒
5.
ଽι
ୈ ିୢ ୪ୣ୬୥୲୦ ୭୤ ୵୭୰୩୮୧ୣୡୣ
6. ×
ଶ ୪ୣ୬୥୲୦ ୭୤ ୲ୟ୮ୣ୰
஘ ଡ଼
7. tan =
ଶ ୐
8.

49
NOVEMBER 2011
(11022032)
(X-Paper)
09:00 – 12:00

50
SECTION A
NOTE: Candidates need answer ONLY QUESTION 1.1 or QUESTION 1.2
1.1
1.1.1 TRUE (1)

1.1.2 TRUE (1)
1.1.3 FALSE (1)
1.1.4 FALSE (1)
1.1.5 TRUE (1)
[5]
OR
1.2
1.2.1 TRUE (1)

1.2.2 TRUE (1)
1.2.3 FALSE (1)
1.2.4 FALSE (1)
1.2.5 TRUE (1)
[5]
2.1 (1)
COUPLING - Is a permanent assembly/connection between a drive source

and a driven source
CLUTCH - Is an assembly I connection which couples the drive source to
a driven source AND can be engaged and/or disengaged by
the operator.
2.2 (2)
x Spider
x Bibby
x Metal Disc
x Rubber
x Tyre
x Pin and rubber bush
ANY 2

51
2.3 (2)
x Axial
x Radial
x Angular
ANY 2
[5]
3.1
3.1.1 HOLE BASIS - The hole is of a fixed dimension and the shaft is (1)
fitted accordingly in terms of limits and fits.
3.1.2 SHIFT BASIS - The shaft is fixed and the hole is fitted accordingly in (1)
terms of limits and fits
3.2
3.2.1 Hole basis (1)

3.2.2 Type of fit - Transition (1)
3.2.3 Tolerance of - (+18; +2/ plus 0.018 mm; plus 0.002 mm) (1)
shaft
3.2.4 Unilateral tolerance (1)
[6]
4.1 (4)
x Disruption in fluid supply, insufficient lubricant
x Foreign material, dirt, grit
x Faulty maintenance and assembly
x High operating temperatures
x Faulty design
x Incorrect lubricant
x Flat on rolling element
x Ovality of shaft
x Incorrect grade of lubricant
ANY 4
4.2 (3)
x Screw puller
x hydraulic puller
x puller plates
x impact puller
x hydraulic press
x wheel puller
x Slide-hammer (pull extractor)

52
ANY 3
[7]
5.1 Sight feed lubricator (1)
5.2 The device consists of glass container (2)

As oil reservoir gauge glass to view the oil moving drop for drop onto bearing
cap feed-handle to open and close a needle valve for control of oil flow.
5.3
A OIL FILLER CAP (1)
B SPRING (1)
C FEED NUT (1)
D NEEDLE VALVE (1)
E SIGHT GLASS (1)
[8]
QUESTION 6: PACKING, STUFFING BOXES AND JOINTS AND WATER PIPE

SYSTEMS
6.1
A. PACKING (1)
B. PIPE FLANGE (1)
C. GLAND (1)
D. PIPE (1)
6.2
6.2.1 (1)
x Form a water - tight seal to prevent leaks
x Act as a seal
x Prevents dust from entering
x Maintaining the pressure within a container
ANY 1
(1)
6.2.2
x The pump would leak
x Pump efficiency would be affected
ANY 1
6.3
6.3.1 Holes (1)

6.3.2 Tube (1)
6.3.3 Seal (1)
[9]

53
QUESTION 7: PUMPS
7.1 Centrifugal (1)
7.2
A Inlet (1)
B Casing (1)
C Outlet (1)
D Eye (1)
[5]
8.1 Acts as a DRYER (2)
Cools air within a TWO-STAGE compressor between the high pressure

(final) stage and the receiver
AFTER second stage compression
8.2 Moisture trap (1)
8.3 (3)
x Rotary lobe
x Rotary screw
x Rotary vane
x Roots compressor
ANY 3
[6]
QUESTION 9: V-BELTS, CHAIN AND GEAR DRIVES
9.1 (2)
x Protect persons working in the vicinity
x Protects the machinery in case of chain breakage
x Contains the lubrication
x Prevents dirt and moisture from entering
ANY 2
9.2
A Driven pulley (1)
B Arc of contact (1)
C Jockey (1)
D Drive pulley (1)
E Centre distance (1)
[7]

54
SECTION B
10.1 Pressure relief valve is used to obtain AND maintain the prescribed (1)
hydraulic system pressure
10.2
10.2.1 (1)
4/2 Directional control valve
10.2.2 (1)
Flow control valve- variable flow
10.2.3 (1)
Check valve
10.2.4 (1)
Filter with water trap
10.2.5 (1)
Service unit

55
10.3
x Check valve (1)
x Directional Control Valve (1)
x Pressure relief valve (1)
x Throttle valve (1)
x Pressure reducer valve (1)
x Flow control valve (1)
10.4
x Check oil-level in crankcase (1)
x Belt-tension of motor to pulley drive (1)
x Pressure regulator cut-out pressure on pressure gauge (1)
x Drain air receiver (1)
x Check condition of filter element (1)
10.5 PUMP - TRANSFORMS MECHANICAL ENERGY TO ENERGY I FLUID (1)

ENERGY
10.6
10.6.1 The bottom of the tank slopes downward – allowing dirt particles to settle (1)
away from the suction side.
10.6.2 Cooling takes place as a result of a weir or divider plate keeping hot oil on (1)
one side away from the suction side
[20]
11.1
x Compound slide (1)
x Taper turning attachment (1)
x Tailstock set-over (1)
11.2 (3)
x Time saving
x Concentricity is guaranteed
x Batch production is possible
x Mandrels can be modified to suit later work
x Setting up can be done by unskilled operators
ANY 3
11.3 (5)
x Material type
x Stock length
x Information from drawing
x Sequence of operation
x Cutting tools required
x Dwell, delay or pause during elements of one cycle

56
x Coolant application
x Dimensioning or sizes
ANY 5
11.4
x ABSOLUTE PROGRAMMING: (1)

This system measures all tool movement from a fixed point, origin or zero.
x INCREMENTAL PROGRAMMING: (1)

This system allows each tool movement to be made with reference to the
previous or last position.
11.5
L = f×N×t (1)
t = L
f ×N (1)
= 250
0,5 × 199
= 2 min 30, 7 seconds (1)
11.6 (2)
x To support long and slender work-pieces between the lathe spindle and
tail-stock
x To reduce unnecessary vibration or chatter, thus ensuring a better finish
x To support work-pieces against the pressure of heavy machining
x To maintain concentricity of long work-pieces while machining
ANY 2
11.7 (2)
x Plain mandrel
x Screw mandrel
x Expanding mandrel
x Double cone mandrel
x Group mandrel
ANY 2
[20]
12.1
x Power consumption is reduced (1)
x Chattering is reduced (1)
x Much better cutting action (1)
x Sharpening I grinding is made easy (1)

57
12.2
12.2.1 (1)
40 = 40 = 20
N 58 29
The required indexing is therefore 20 HOLES with the crank-handle using

PLATE No. 2- BROWNE & SHARPE. THIS MUST BE DONE FOR EACH
TOOTH X 58
To calculate 20 /29 of a turn, we select PLATE No. 2 (1)
_______________________ (1)
29 hole circle of side 2 of the BROWNE & SHARPE index plate
20 holes in a 29 hole circle
12.2.2
1. Use the formula: N

9 (1)
2. = 45 = 5 turns of the crank handle
9 (1)
3. 5 full turns of the crank
(1)
12.3
12.3.1
x OFF HAND GRINDING: (1)

This is done on a bench or pedestal grinder and the workpiece is
usually held in the hands.
Example – hand-sharpening of a drill bit (1)
12.3.2
x PRECISION GRINDING: (1)

This is used to finish hardened parts to accurate sizes of micro-
tolerances
This is used for the precision sharpening of milling cutter angles (1)
12.4 (1)
x Horizontal spindle with linear table movement
x Horizontal spindle type with rotary table movement
x Vertical spindle type with linear table movement

58
x Vertical spindle type with rotary table movement

ANY 1
12.5 (2)
x Machine vibration
x Wheel spindle vibration
x Out-of-balance wheel
x Machine not securely mounted
ANY 2
12.6
x Coolant supply disrupted (1)
x Wheel too hard (1)
x Clogged wheel (1)
[20]
TOTAL SECTION B: 60
GRAND TOTAL: 100

59
N2 Fitting and Machining is one of Other titles in the Gateway series are:
many publications introducing
the gateways to Engineering
Studies. This course is designed n NCOR Engineering Science n N4 Machines & Properties of
to develop the skills for learners n N1 Engineering Science Metals
n N2 Engineering Science
that are studying toward an
n N3 Engineering Science n N1 Industrial Electronics
artisanship in the mechanical, n N4 Engineering Science
engineering and related n N2 Industrial Electronics
n N3 Industrial Electronics
technology fields and to assist n NCOR Mathematics
them to achieve their full n N1 Mathematics
n NCOR Industrial Communication
potential in an engineering n N2 Mathematics
career. n N3 Mathematics
n N1 Motor Trade Theory
n N1 Fitting and Machining n N2 Motor & Diesel Trade Theory
This book, with its modular n N3 Motor & Diesel Trade Theory
n N2 Fitting and Machining
competence-based approach, is
aimed at assisting facilitators n N3 Mechanotechnology n N3 Supervision in the Industry
a n d l e a r n e r s a l i ke. Wi t h i t s n N4 Supervisory Management
comprehensive understanding n NCOR Engineering Drawing n N5 Supervisory Management
of the engineering environment, n N1 Engineering Drawing
it assists them to achieve the n N2 Engineering Drawing n N3 Industrial Organisation
n N3 Engineering Drawing & Planning
outcomes set for course.
n N1 Electrical Trade Theory
The subject matter is presented n N1 Water & Wastewater
n N2 Electrical Trade Theory
a s wo r ke d e x a m p l e s i n t h e Treatment Practice
problem-solving-result n N3 Electrotechnology n N2 Water & Wastewater
methodology sequence, Treatment Practice
supported by numerous and clear n N1 Refrigeration Trade Theory n N3 Water Treatment Practice
illustrations. n N2 Refrigeration Trade Theory n N3 Wastewater Treatment
n N3 Refrigeration Trade Theory Practice
Practical activities are included
n N1 Metalwork Theory n N1 Plant Operation Theory
throughout the book.
n N2 Plant Operation Theory
n N2 Welder’s Theory
The author, Chris Brink, is well n N3 Plant Operation Theory
known and respected in the n N1 Rigging Theory
manufacturing, engineering and n N2 Rigging Theory
related technology fields. His
extensive experience gives an n N1 Plating & Structural Steel
excellent base for further study, as Drawing
n N2 Plating & Structural Steel
well as a broad understanding of
Drawing
technology and the knowledge to
success.
Drawing
Drawing
Published by
Hybrid Learning Solutions (Pty) Ltd
Copyright © Chris Brink

Orders: urania@hybridlearning.co.za 7 780992 171353
G ateways to Engineering Studies - Chris Brink

Fitting &amp; Machining N2 Nodrm-1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fitting &amp; Machining N2 Nodrm-1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

N2 Fitting and Machining

Gateways to Engineering Studies - Chris Brink

Fitting and Machining

© 2014 Chris Brink

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

Editor: Urania Bellos

Printed and bound by: Formsxpress

1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................22

1.3.1 Dangerous places within the workplace environment ...................................... 23

1.5.5 Basic rules for preventing mechanical handling accidents.............................. 34

1.5.11 Safe use of ladders ...................................................................................................... 41

1.7.2 Hydraulic Powered Tool Safety .................................................................................. 46

1.7.4 Safety checks before operating pneumatic tools ............................................... 47

1.8 Producing an accident or incident report .................................................................... 48

1.11.3 Regulations .................................................................................................................... 53

1.12.2 Accidents and enquiries............................................................................................ 55

1.12.5 Electrical installations .................................................................................................. 56

1.12. 9 Inspection and testing of boilers ............................................................................ 57

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 59

2.4 Classification of couplings .................................................................................................. 61

2.6 Flexible couplings .................................................................................................................. 64

2.6.2 Material flexible couplings .......................................................................................... 72

2.7 Self-aligning couplings ......................................................................................................... 76

2.8 Soft-start couplings ............................................................................................................... 78

3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 82

3.3.3 Interference fits ............................................................................................................... 86

3.4.2 The shaft-basis system of fits ........................................................................................ 87

3.5.1 ISO tolerances................................................................................................................. 87

3.5.3 Association of fundamental deviations and tolerances .................................... 88

3.5.6 Unilateral tolerance....................................................................................................... 89

3.6 Symbols .................................................................................................................................... 89

3.7.1 Selected tables for selected ISO fits ......................................................................... 90

3.7.2 Units used in tables ........................................................................................................ 90

3.8 Calculating limits of sizes ..................................................................................................... 92

4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 96

4.2 Plain bearings and bushes.................................................................................................. 97

4.2.2 Direct lined housings ..................................................................................................... 98

4.2.3 Insert liners ........................................................................................................................ 98

4.3.1 Solid bearings ................................................................................................................ 100

4.3.4 Thrust bearings .............................................................................................................. 102

4.3.7 Hanger bearings .......................................................................................................... 104

4.4 Advantages and disadvantages of plain bearings.................................................. 106

4.4.2 Disadvantages of plain bearings ............................................................................ 107

4.6 Material properties.............................................................................................................. 107

4.7 Plain bearing materials ...................................................................................................... 108

4.8.1 Plain bearing failures ................................................................................................... 110

4.9 Lubrication of plain bearings ........................................................................................... 111

4.12 Fitting and removing a solid bearing .......................................................................... 117

4.14 Bearing loads on anti-friction bearings ....................................................................... 119

4.15 Bearing selection .............................................................................................................. 120

4.19 Precision ............................................................................................................................... 121

4.21 Axial displacement ........................................................................................................... 122

4.26.4 Using presses ............................................................................................................... 133

4.26.6 Performing temperature removal method ........................................................ 135

4.27.1 Installing tapered roller bearings ........................................................................... 138

4.27.4 Installing pillow block bearings .............................................................................. 145

4.28 Bearing failure and how to prevent it ......................................................................... 150

5.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 155

5.2 The theory of lubrication ................................................................................................... 156

5.7 Classification of lubricants ................................................................................................ 159

5.7.3 Liquid (Oil) ...................................................................................................................... 159

5.10 Applications of lubrication ............................................................................................. 166

5.11 Using cutting fluids and coolants ................................................................................. 168

Fitting & Machining N2 Nodrm-1

Fitting & Machining N2 Nodrm-1