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 Sustaining agronomic productivity and quality of a
Vertisolic soil (Vertisol) under soybean safflower cropping
system in semi-arid central India

Ch. Srinivasarao1, B. Venkateswarlu1, Rattan Lal2, Anil Kumar Singh3, Sumanta Kundu1,
K. P. R. Vittal4, S. K. Sharma5, R. A. Sharma5, M. P. Jain5, and G. Ravindra Chary1
1
Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Santoshnagar, Saidabad (P.O), Hyderabad, 500 059, Andhra
Pradesh, India (e-mail address: cherukumalli2011@gmail.com); 2Carbon Management and Sequestration
Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; 3Indian Council of Agricultural Research,
Krishi Anusandhan Bhawan (KAB-II), New Delhi, 110 012, India; 4National Institute for Abiotic Stress Management,
Baramati, 413 115, Maharashtra, India; and 5Dryland Research Station, All India Coordinated Research Project
on Dryland Agriculture, Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Indore, 425 001, Madhya Pradesh, India.
Can. J. Soil. Sci. Downloaded from pubs.aic.ca by 14.99.186.94 on 03/07/14

Received 19 October 2011, accepted 9 May 2012.

Srinivasarao, Ch., Venkateswarlu, B., Lal, R., Singh, A. K., Kundu, S., Vittal, K. P. R., Sharma, S. K., Sharma, R. A.,
Jain, M. P. and Chary, G. R. 2012. Sustaining agronomic productivity and quality of a Vertisolic Soil (Vertisol) under

soybean safflower cropping system in semi-arid central India. Can. J. Soil Sci. 92: 771785. Enrichment of soil organic
carbon (SOC) stocks through sequestration of atmospheric CO2 in agricultural soils is important because of its impacts
on improving soil quality and agronomic production, and also for adaptation to and mitigation of climate change. Thus,
a 15-yr soil fertility management experiment was conducted in the semi-arid tropical region of central India to evaluate the
impact of crop residue C input on soybean (Glycine max L.)safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) cropping sequence and
SOC sequestration in soils of Vertisolic order (Vertisols). Retention of crop residues of soybean/safflower, and application
of farmyard manure (FYM) at 6 Mg (t) ha1 alone or in combination with 20 kg N and 13 kg P ha1 supplied through
For personal use only.

chemical fertilizers or comparatively higher dose of chemical fertilizer (60 kg N and 35 kg P ha 1) either maintained or
increased the SOC stock. However, the combination of FYM and chemical fertilizer increased the profile SOC stock (69.9
Mg ha1), overall SOC build up (37.1%) and also sequestered high amount of SOC (11.9 Mg C ha 1 or 0.79 Mg C ha1
yr 1) compared with control and chemical fertilizer alone. Higher grain yield (2.10 and 1.49 Mg ha 1 of soybean and
safflower, respectively) was obtained through the application of FYM at 6 Mg ha 1N20P13. For every Mg C ha1
increase in the root zone, there was 0.145 and 0.059 Mg ha1 increase in grain yield of soybean and safflower, respectively.
Stabilization of the SOC stock requires a minimum input of 3.47 Mg C ha 1 yr 1. Application of 40 kg N26 kg P ha1
through chemical fertilizer also maintained the SOC stock at the antecedent level based on the SOC stocks in 1992.
Therefore, the combined use of organic manure (crop residues and FYM) along with chemical fertilizer is essential to
enhancing the SOC sequestration in a soybeansafflower sequence under rainfed conditions on Vertisols in central India.

Key words: Critical carbon inputs, crop residue, farmyard manure, sustainable yield index, semiarid tropics

Srinivasarao, Ch., Venkateswarlu, B., Lal, R., Singh, A. K., Kundu, S., Vittal, K. P. R., Sharma, S. K., Sharma, R. A.,
Jain, M. P. et Chary, G. R. 2012. Maintien de la productivité agricole et de la qualité d’un vertisol avec l’assolement soja-
carthame dans le centre semi-aride de l’Inde. Can. J. Soil Sci. 92: 771785. Il importe d’enrichir les réserves de carbone
organique du sol (COS) en séquestrant le CO2 atmosphérique dans les sols arables, parce qu’ainsi, on rehausse la qualité du
sol et la production agricole tout en permettant l’adaptation au changement climatique et l’atténuation de ce phénomène.
Les auteurs ont entrepris une expérience de 15 ans en gestion de la fertilité du sol dans une région tropicale semi-aride du
centre de l’Inde afin d’évaluer l’impact de l’addition de C issu des déchets de culture sur un assolement soja (Glycine max
L.)carthame (Carthamus tinctorius L.) et sur la séquestration du COS dans les vertisols. La rétention des résidus de
l’assolement soja-carthame et l’application de fumier à raison de 6 Mg (t) par hectare, seul ou avec des engrais chimiques
(20 kg de N et 13 kg de P par hectare), ou d’une dose comparativement plus élevée d’engrais chimiques (60 kg de N et 35 kg
de P par hectare) maintiennent ou augmentent les réserves de COS. Cependant, le mélange de fumier et d’engrais rehausse
le profil des stocks de COS (69,9 Mg par hectare), l’accumulation globale de COS (37,1 %) et la séquestration du COS
(11,9 Mg de C par hectare ou 0,79 Mg de C par hectare et par année), comparativement au traitement témoin et à
l’addition d’engrais uniquement. L’application de 6 Mg de fumier par hectare et de N20P13 augmente le rendement grainier
(2,10 et 1,49 Mg par hectare pour le soja et le carthame, respectivement). Chaque Mg de C par hectare ajouté au niveau des
racines entraı̂ne une hausse du rendement grainier de 0,145 et de 0,059 Mg par hectare, respectivement, pour le soja et le

Abbreviations: BD, bulk density; BMP, best management

practices; FYM, farmyard manure; INM, integrated nutrient
management; SOC, soil organic carbon; SYI, sustainable yield
index

Can. J. Soil Sci. (2012) 92: 771785 doi:10.4141/CJSS2011-098 771

 772 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE
carthame. Pour stabiliser les stocks de COS, il faut ajouter au moins 3,47 Mg de C par hectare chaque année. L’application
de 40 kg de N et de 26 kg de P par hectare sous forme d’engrais chimiques maintient aussi les stocks de COS aux niveaux
antérieurs, établis en 1992. On en conclut que l’application combinée d’une fumure organique (résidus végétaux et fumier)
et d’engrais est indispensable si l’on veut rehausser la séquestration du COS dans les assolements soja-carthame non
irrigués, cultivés sur des vertisols, dans le centre de l’Inde.
Mots clés: Apports essentiels de carbone, résidus de culture, fumier, indice de rendement durable, tropiques semi-arides
Soils of the world’s agroecosystems (i.e., croplands,
grazing lands, rangelands) are depleted of their soil
organic carbon (SOC) stock by 2575% depending on
climate, soil type, and historic management, and the
magnitude of this loss may be 10 to 50 Mg C ha 1 (Lal
2011). Soils with severe depletion of their SOC stock
have low agronomic yield and low use efficiency of
added input. Conversion to a restorative land use and
Can. J. Soil. Sci. Downloaded from pubs.aic.ca by 14.99.186.94 on 03/07/14
adoption of best management practices (BMPs) can
enhance the SOC stock, improve soil quality, increase
agronomic productivity, advance global food security,
enhance soil resilience and adapt to extreme climatic
events, and mitigate climate change by off-setting
fossil fuel emissions. Application of plant nutrients
(Glendining and Powlson 1995; Paustian et al. 1997a)
and organic amendments and including legumes with
cereals improves soil quality, increases SOC stock, and
increases crop yields and the amount of crop residues
For personal use only.
returned to the soil (Paustian et al. 1997b). Legumes
enhance N stock and improve soil fertility (Wani et al.
1995). Integrated nutrient management (INM), a holis-
tic approach involving a combination of inorganic and
biofertilizers, maintains soil fertility for sustainable crop
productivity on a long-term basis. The INM may be
achieved through combined use of all natural resources,
nutrient cycling and conservation within a specific
farming/cropping system. An optimal level of SOC can
be achieved through adoption of an appropriate crop
rotation (Wright and Hons 2005), INM (Schuman et al.
2002; Mandal et al. 2007; Majumder et al. 2008), and
conservation tillage (Lal 2009). Soils in water-deficit
environments of the tropical and sub-tropical regions
are inherently low in SOC stock, and agronomic yields
are low. Therefore, reversing the declining trend of SOC
stock is essential to enhancing agronomic productivity
through balanced application of plant nutrients (i.e., N,
P, K, S, Zn, Mo) and organics.
Vertisols, covering about 70 million ha (Mha), are
the most predominant cultivated soils in central India.
These soils also occur in Australia (70.5 Mha), Sudan
(40 Mha), Chad (16.5 Mha) and Ethiopia (10 Mha).
These five countries contain over 80% of the global area
(250 Mha) of Vertisols (Virmani et al. 1989). During the
off-season, when cultivated Vertisols are denuded of
any vegetation cover, prevailing high soil temperatures
(Dalal and Carter 2000; Pal et al. 2011) increase SOM
decomposition. Thus, SOC concentration can be in-
creased by management practices that create a posi-
tive C budget (C gains exceed the losses). Therefore,
increase in SOC stock can result from: (1) improved
cropping systems, (2) increased quantity of residues
produced and retained, and (3) enhanced use efficiency
of inputs such as N and water (Follett 2001). Adoption
of these and other BMPs can enhance SOC sequestra-
tion while improving soil quality and mitigating atmo-
spheric CO2 enrichment. Verhulst et al. (2009) observed
that at least partial retention of the crop residues is
necessary to maintaining soil quality in the rainfed semi-
arid conditions. Verhulst and colleagues observed that
most soil quality indicators (i.e., mean weight diameter,
aggregate stability, water infiltration rate, soil moisture
storage, microbial biomass carbon or MBC, nutrient
reserves) were lower with residue removal than with its
retention.
Although, the use of mineral fertilizers is important
to increase productivity, hidden C costs of chemical
fertilizers are high. Further, use of chemical fertilizers
in rainfed cropping is meager because of the prohibi-
tively high cost and low use efficiency under harsh
climatic conditions. India produces about 185 Tg (Tg
teragram, 1012 g1 million metric tons) of crop
residues, of which about one-third is available for
recycling on arable lands (Lal 2005; Deshpande et al.
2007). There are not enough nutrients recycled to
support the growth of subsequent crops when low
amounts of crop residues are applied. In these situa-
tions, a judicious use of inorganic fertilizers is also
necessary to meet the nutrient requirements for increas-
ing production of rainfed crops. The rate of C addition
from crop residues and manure must equal the rate of
loss through decomposition, harvest and erosion
(Hamza and Anderson 2010). Residue mulches also
conserve soil and water and increase the available water
capacity of the post-rainy season crops. Aune and Lal
(1995) reported that the threshold level of SOC for
Vertisols is11 g kg1 (19 g kg1 SOM). However, the
research data on SOC management for Vertisols are
limited (Hamza and Anderson 2010). A survey of
SOC concentration, conducted at 21 locations across
rainfed regions of tropical India and involving eight
production systems, showed that these soils are low in
SOC (B5 g kg1) and in profile-based SOC stocks
(Srinivasarao et al. 2009).
Rainfed cropping is practiced on 1.132 billion ha
globally (Biradar et al. 2009), and meets about 60% of
the food and nutritional needs of the world’s popula-
tion. Rainfed cropping in India is practiced on 80 Mha,
mostly in arid, semi-arid and sub-humid climatic zones
 SRINIVASARAO ET AL. * AGRONOMIC PRODUCTIVITY AND QUALITY OF A VERTISOL
and constitutes about 57% of the net cultivated area.
Low and erratic rainfall, degraded soils, and poor
infrastructure are among the principal constraints in
the rainfed areas of India. Thus, intensive cropping
of Vertisols requires a careful management of soil
temperature and moisture regimes along with INM
(Srinivasarao et al. 2012a). Low agronomic yields, low
or no retention of crop residues, and long fallow periods
of up to 7 mo per year involving uncontrolled grazing
decrease the SOC concentration and stock (Srinivasarao
et al. 2011).
Soybean (Glycine max), designated as ‘‘golden bean’’,
has established its potential as an industrially vital and a
viable oilseed crop in India. Soybean grown extensively
in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan and
in some parts of Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu
Can. J. Soil. Sci. Downloaded from pubs.aic.ca by 14.99.186.94 on 03/07/14
and Andhra Pradesh as a monoculture crop and/or
intercrop (Singh et al. 2002). With an area of 8.0 Mha,
total production is merely 7.5 million Mg, which is
projected to increase to 18.0 million Mg by 2025.
Soybean has the potential to bridge the gap between
the demand and supply of edible oils and protein. It
can also fix N at the gross rate of 125150 kg N ha 1
(Chandel et al. 1989; Sharma 1992), enhance N stock,
and improve soil physical and chemical properties (Saraf
and Patil 1995). Leaf fall during crop development and
For personal use only.
input through nodulated roots may contribute up to
40 kg N ha1 (Buresh and De Datta 1991).
Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), another important
oilseed crop of India, is cultivated in the winter (Rabi)
season from September/October to February/March.
India accounts for 41% (0.3 Mha) of world area under
safflower. Because of low yield (630 kg ha1), safflower
production of merely 0.19 million Mg is only 29% of
global production followed by that in the US (17%),
Argentina (13%), and Kazakhastan (12%) (The Hindu
2010). It is generally preceded by a short duration
legume such as soybean or mungbean (Phaseolus mungo)
during the rainy season from June to September. It is
grown as a monocrop on residual soil moisture in a 2-yr
rotation involving chickpea (Cicer arietinum) or sor-
ghum (Sorghum bicolor). Nutrient management is one of
the critical inputs for enhancing productivity of saf-
flower (Hegde 1998). Being cultivated by small land
holders and resource-poor farmers, use of low-cost
nutrient sources (e.g., organic manures, biofertilizers)
are critical to improving its agronomic productivity.
Biofertilizers (e.g., Azotobactor and phosphate solubi-
lizing bacteria) supply N and also improve P availability
(Directorate of Oilseeds Research 2001).
Thus, the present study was conducted to assess
the effects of 15 yr of cropping with variable levels of
chemical fertilizers and organics on SOC sequestra-
tion in Vertisols, establish the relationship between SOC
sequestration and sustainable yield index (SYI), and de-
termine the requirement of critical inputs of biomass-C
for stabilizing (zero change) the SOC stock in Vertisols
under the harsh tropical climate.
773
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Site Description
A long-term field experiment with soybean (cv. JS
72-44)safflower (cv. JS1) sequence on a medium
Vertisol was conducted at the College of Agriculture
Farm, Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Viswavidyalaya, In-
dore, Madhya Pradesh, India. The site is representative
of the Malwa region situated at lat. 22843?N, long.
76854?E and at altitude of 618 m above sea level. The
site is characterized as a hot, dry, semi-arid (AESR
5.1) ecoregion (Velayutham et al. 1999). The experiment,
initiated during the rainy season of 1992, was conducted
within the All India Coordinated Research Project
on Dryland Agriculture (AICRPDA). Over the 15-yr
duration of the experiment (19922007), the mean
annual rainfall was 964 mm (CV 47%), of which a large
fraction was received between 22 and 42 standard
meteorological weeks. The annual maximum and mini-
mum temperatures of the site range from 25.5 to 41.38C
and from 8.9 to 26.68C, respectively. Total annual
rainfall and that received during the cropping season
over the 15-yr experimental period are shown in Fig. 1.
The length of the growing period at this site varies
between 90 and 120 d.
The soil of the experimental site has a clay texture,
a high moisture retention capacity, is alkaline (pH 7.9),
and has low profile SOC concentration (3.9 g kg1 soil),
low available N (215 kg ha1), low to medium available
P (12 kg ha1), and has relatively high available K (323
kg ha1) contents. Sand, silt and clay contents are 9.5,
30.5 and 60.0%, respectively. It has a soil inorganic car-
bon concentration of 5.6 g kg1, and a cation exchange
capacity of 54.9 C mol (P ) kg 1 (Srinivasarao et al.
2006, 2009). The soils of the experimental site belong to
the Sarol series, which is classified as fine, smectite
dominant Gleysolic Vertisolic order (Soil Classification
Working Group 1998).
Treatments and Crop Management
Soybean was grown every year during the rainy sea-
son from the third week of June to the last week of
September over the 15-yr period (19922007). Safflower
was grown from October to February/March just after
the harvest of soybean. The experiment was laid out
in a randomized block design with the following nine
treatments:
i. T1 Control (no N-P-K fertilizers or organics),
ii. T2 20 kg N13 kg P ha1 (for each crop),
iii. T3 30 kg N20 kg P ha1 (for each crop),
iv. T4 40 kg N26 kg P ha1 (for each crop),
v. T5 60 kg N35 kg P ha1 (for each crop),
vi. T6 6 Mg farmyard manure (FYM)N20P13 ha1
(6 Mg ha 1 of FYM was applied in the rainy sea-
son only plus fertilizer N and P at the rate of 20 and
13 kg ha 1 respectively to each crop),
 774 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE
Fig. 1. Mean annual and seasonal rainfall in relation to mean soybean and safflower seed yields between 1992 and 2006.
Can. J. Soil. Sci. Downloaded from pubs.aic.ca by 14.99.186.94 on 03/07/14
vii. T7 5 Mg crop residues (CR)N20P13 ha1 (5 Mg
ha1 of crop residues of soybean or safflower
applied as surface mulch between crop rows in
each crop plus fertilizer N and P at the rate of 20
and 13 kg ha1, respectively, to each crop). Crop
residues were incorporated into surface soil after
harvest of each crop,
viii. T8 6 Mg ha 1 FYM (6 Mg ha 1 of FYM
was applied in rainy season only), and
For personal use only.
ix. T9 5 Mg crop residues (CR) ha1 (5 Mg ha1 of
CR of soybean or safflower applied as surface
mulch between crop rows in each crop, which was
subsequently incorporated into the surface soil after
harvest of each crop).
The gross and net plot sizes were 11.7 10.0 m and
9.9 8.2 m, respectively, and each treatment had three
replicates. Organic materials (i.e., FYM and soybean/
safflower residues) were incorporated into the soil with
a wooden plow. Average annual N addition through
soybean residues (18.6 g kg1 N), safflower residues
(15.4 g kg1 N) and FYM (5.3 g kg1 N) were 93,
77 and 32 kg ha 1 with C:N ratios of 19.1, 22.1 and
64.0, respectively. Application of N as urea and P as
diammonium phosphate as per treatments were made
at the time of sowing of the soybean and safflower. Soil
was harrowed prior to sowing, and soybean was seeded
by a seed drill. Manual weeding was done as a part
of the intercultural operation as and when needed.
Following the harvest of crops, above-ground biomass
was removed, grain and haulm yields of soybean and
safflower were recorded every year, and reported on an
air-dry basis (14% grain moisture contents).
Soil Sampling and Analysis
Three representative field-moist soil samples were col-
lected with a tube auger at 0.2-m increments to 1-m
depth during April 2007 from each plot and replication.
Soil samples were composited for each depth and
replication. Additionally, three samples were taken
from all five depths using a core sampler (0.05 m in
diameter, 0.08 m in length) to measure soil bulk density
(BD) (Grossman and Reinsch 2002).
Total Organic Carbon
Soil samples were air dried, gently ground, and passed
through a 2-mm sieve. A part of the sample was finely
ground and passed through a 0.2-mm sieve. Simulta-
neously, the organic material/crop residues (i.e., FYM,
soybean/safflower residues, soybean and safflower leaf,
stubbles, roots and nodules) was dried and finely ground
in a mechanical grinder (Nelson and Sommers 1996).
These samples were analyzed for C concentration by
a LECO CHNS analyzer (Elementar Vario EL Cube,
DonaustraBe 7, Hanau, 63452, Germany). Soil samples
were also analyzed for a soil inorganic carbon concen-
tration titrimetrically, by digesting them with dilute HCl
(Loeppert and Suarez 1996). Total SOC concentration
was estimated by Eq 1.
SOC LECO CHCI C (1)
Profile SOC Stock
The total SOC stock of the profile expressed as Mg
ha 1 for each of the five depths (00.2, 0.20.4, 0.40.6,
0.60.8, and 0.81.0 m) was computed by multiplying
the SOC concentration (g kg 1) (obtained by SOC 
LECO C HCl C) by the BD (Mg m 3) and depth (m),
and by 10.
Carbon Inputs through Plant and Organic
Materials
Based on biomass yield of soybean and safflower,
annual C inputs to the soil through leaves, stubbles,
roots, nodules and rhizodeposition were computed. The
leaf fall constituted 9.8, 13.1, 14.5, 15.7, 16.9, 20.1, 19.8,
19.1, 18.2% in soybean and 7.8, 11.9, 12.3, 13.1, 14.3,
17.2, 16.9, 16.1, 16.4% in safflower of the harvestable
above-ground biomass yield in the plots under control,
20 kg N13 kg P, 30 kg N20 kg P, 40 kg N26
kg P, 60 kg N35 kg P, 6 Mg ha1 FYMN20P13,
 SRINIVASARAO ET AL. * AGRONOMIC PRODUCTIVITY AND QUALITY OF A VERTISOL
5 Mg CRN20P13 ha1, 6 Mg ha1 FYM, 5 Mg ha 1
CR, respectively. The root biomass was calculated using
the root:shoot biomass ratios recorded from the experi-
ment. Root biomass was measured immediately after
harvesting the crop, following the core-sampling proce-
dure as described by Franzluebbers et al. (1999). It was
estimated that the root biomass represented 38.5, 39.7,
40.1, 41.0, 42.2, 33.1, 33.6, 30.5, 30.3% in soybean and
37.8, 38.1, 39.1, 39.9, 41.2, 31.4, 32.6, 28.4, 29.9% in
safflower of the harvestable above-ground biomass in
the treatments listed above, respectively. Nodule bio-
mass of soybean consisted of 9.3, 10.5, 10.8, 11.1, 11.6,
12.9, 13.0, 14.2 and 13.9% of root biomass in plots
corresponding with the treatments listed above, respec-
tively. Stubble biomass of safflower consisted of 5.6, 5.8,
6.1, 6.3, 6.4, 6.6, 6.7, 5.7 and 5.9% of harvestable above-
Can. J. Soil. Sci. Downloaded from pubs.aic.ca by 14.99.186.94 on 03/07/14
ground biomass in treatments listed above, respectively.
Rhizodeposition of C from root turnover and exu-
dates was assumed to be 10% of the harvestable above-
ground biomass of soybean and 1.4 times of the root C
of safflower (Shamoot et al. 1968). Leaves, roots and
nodules of soybean contain 378, 342 and 315 g kg1 C,
respectively. Leaves, stubbles and roots of safflower
contain 355, 320 and 344 g kg1 C, respectively. During
the growth of the crops, weeds were either removed or
killed with herbicides, and, thus, C inputs from roots
For personal use only.
and rhizodeposition by the weeds were not considered.
Using all the measurements described above, a treat-
ment-wise estimate of plant derived C inputs, as well
as C inputs through organics applied to the soil, are
presented in Table 1. The highest mean annual C inputs
through crop residues and organic material were added
in 5 Mg CRN20P13 ha 1 (7.0 Mg ha1 yr 1),
followed by that in 6 Mg FYMN20P13 ha1 and
5 Mg ha 1 CR (6.3 Mg ha1 yr1), 6 Mg ha1 FYM
(5.4 Mg ha 1 yr 1), and the lowest in the control
(1.9 Mg ha1 yr 1).
Calculations for C Budgeting
Components of the ecosystem C budget were computed
by using Eq. 2 to 5 as follows:
Ctrt  Ccont
C build-up (%) 100 (2)
Ccont
Where Ctrt represents profile SOC stock in fertilizer
org (FYM/CR) treatments or just fertilizer treatment
and Ccont is the profile SOC stock in control treatment.
C build-up rate (Mg C ha1 yr1 )
Ctrt  Ccont
 (3)
years of experimentation
Cfertorg  Cfert
C stabilization (%) 100 (4)
Corg
Where, Cfertorg, Cfert, represents profile SOC stock in
fertilizerorg (FYM/CR) and just fertilizer treatments,
775
respectively; Corg represent C applied through organic
material (FYM/CR)
C sequestered (Mg C ha1 )SOCf SOCi (5)
Where SOCf and SOCi indicate the SOC stocks in 2007
(current) and that at the initiation of the long-term
experiment (in 1992). Positive and negative values
indicate SOC gains and losses of C, respectively.
Sustainable Yield Index
The total crop productivity was calculated through a
SYI using 15 yr of yield data. The SYI was computed to
minimize annual variations in the yield, and to highlight
the performance of the treatments, during the entire
experimental period. The SYI is defined as per Eq 6.
Y s
SYI  (6)
Ym
Where Y is the estimated average yield of a practice
across the years, s is its estimated standard deviation,
and Ym is the observed maximum yield in the experi-
ment during the years of cultivation (Singh et al. 1990).
Statistical Analysis
Statistical analysis was performed using the Windows
based SPSS program (Version 11.0, SPSS, Chicago, IL).
The SPSS (2001) procedure was used to analyze variance
and to determine the statistical significance of treat-
ment effects. The Duncan multiple-range-test was used
to compare treatment means. Simple correlation coeffi-
cients and regression equations were also developed
to evaluate the relationships among the response vari-
ables (SYI, C inputs, profile SOC, C build up and
C sequestration) using the same statistical package.
Experimental means were compared at the 95% prob-
ability level.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Carbon Input Levels, Yield and Sustainability
Estimates of the component wise (leaf, stubble, root,
nodule and rhizo-deposition) as well as external inputs
through FYM/CR cumulative C inputs into soil under
different treatments during the 15 years of continuous
cropping are given in Table 1. The cumulative C input
ranged from 28.7 Mg C ha1 in the control to 104.9
Mg C ha1 in the 5 Mg CR N20P13 ha1 treatment.
Application of nutrients supplied either through chemi-
cal fertilizers or organic material (CR and FYM), or by
conjunctive use of organic materials along with fertilizer
produced higher biomass and subsequently higher C
input in terms of crop residues (2.864.24 Mg C ha1
yr 1) compared with the control (1.91 Mg C ha1
yr 1). Treatments comprising FYM/CR addition re-
ceived the extra 2.033.48 Mg C ha1 yr 1 in the form
of organic materials.
Grain yields of soybean and safflower increased sig-
nificantly with different fertilizer and manure treatments
 776 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE
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Table 1. Mean (1992 2006) annual C input to soil from soybean safflower sequence under different fertilizer and manurial treatments
1
Mean yield (Mg ha ) SYI z
Annual C input (Mg ha 1 yr 1)
Mean annual Mean annual C
Soybean Safflower crop residue inputs through Total C input
C inputs FYMz/CRz in 15 years
1
Treatment Soybean Safflower Soybean Safflower Leaf fall Root Nodule RD Leaf fall Stubbles Roots RDz (Mg ha yr ) (Mg ha1 yr 1)
1
(Mg ha1)

Control 1.0490.28 0.6390.26 0.41C 0.22E 0.13 0.47 0.01 0.36 0.07 0.05 0.34 0.48 1.91E  28.7H
20 kg N13 1.6290.48 0.8090.39 0.47A 0.29D 0.28 0.76 0.03 0.56 0.14 0.06 0.44 0.61 2.86D  42.9G
For personal use only.

kg P
30 kg N20 1.7690.50 1.0290.40 0.46A 0.29D 0.33 0.83 0.03 0.61 0.19 0.08 0.57 0.80 3.44C  51.6F
kg P
40 kg N26 1.8990.52 1.1690.46 0.48A 0.31C 0.38 0.91 0.03 0.65 0.23 0.10 0.66 0.93 3.89B  58.3E
kg P
60 kg N35 1.9990.53 1.2190.50 0.48A 0.31C 0.44 0.99 0.04 0.69 0.26 0.10 0.71 1.00 4.22A  63.4D
kg P
6 Mg FYM 2.1090.53 1.4990.44 0.48A 0.45A 0.55 0.82 0.03 0.72 0.38 0.13 0.67 0.94 4.24A 2.03 94.1B
N20P13 ha 1
5 Mg CR 1.7990.61 1.1690.47 0.38D 0.36B 0.46 0.71 0.03 0.62 0.29 0.10 0.54 0.76 3.51C 3.48 104.9A
N20P13 ha 1
6 Mg FYM 1.8690.56 1.2290.48 0.42B 0.38B 0.46 0.67 0.03 0.64 0.29 0.09 0.50 0.70 3.38C 2.03 81.1C
ha 1
5 Mg CR 1.6390.53 0.9790.41 0.44B 0.32C 0.39 0.58 0.03 0.56 0.23 0.08 0.41 0.58 2.86D 3.48 95.0B
ha 1

z
SYI, sustainable yield index; RD, rhizodeposition; FYM, farmyard manure; CR, sorghum crop residue.
AH Different letters within columns are significantly different at P0.05 according to Duncan’s multiple range test (DMRT) for separation of means.
 SRINIVASARAO ET AL. * AGRONOMIC PRODUCTIVITY AND QUALITY OF A VERTISOL
compared with the control (P B0.05) (Table 1). How-
ever, grain yield did not differ among treatments for the
initial 2 to 3 yr. Subsequently, consistently higher yields
were obtained with the use of organics in combination
with chemical fertilizer than that in the control. For the
entire 15-yr period, higher grain yield was obtained
through the application of 6 Mg FYMN20P13 ha 1
(2.10 and 1.49 Mg ha1 for soybean and safflower,
respectively), and was the least in the control (1.04 and
0.63 Mg ha1 for soybean and safflower, respectively).
Both crops responded well to a higher dose of fertilizer
application and also to the combined application of
organics and chemical fertilizers. Significantly higher
yields were obtained through the application of 60 kg
N35 kg P ha1 (1.99, 1.21 Mg ha1) compared with
that with application of 5 Mg CRN20P13 ha1 (1.79,
Can. J. Soil. Sci. Downloaded from pubs.aic.ca by 14.99.186.94 on 03/07/14
1.16 Mg ha 1), 6 Mg FYM ha1 (1.86, 1.22 Mg ha1),
and 5 Mg CR ha1 (1.63, 0.97 Mg ha1). Manna et al.
(2005) reported a negative yield trend of soybean with
unbalanced use of N and NP application in Vertisol.
Under rainfed conditions, farm yields are usually in-
fluenced by seasonal rainfall, particularly the amount
received at the critical growth stages (Srinivasarao
et al. 2011, 2012a, b). In the present study, grain yield
of soybean was significantly and positively correlated
with the amount of rainfall received in July (r0.81,
For personal use only.
P B0.05) and August (r 0.83, P B0.05). In the case of
safflower, rainfall received during September (r0.87,
P B0.05) and October (r 0.79, P B0.05) was important
to obtaining higher yields.
Though the application of organics did not drastically
increase the SYI of soybean, it sustained the agronomic
productivity of the soybeansafflower system on a long-
term basis. Application of 6 Mg FYMN20P13 ha 1
produced significantly higher grain yield in both crops
compared with the unfertilized control. Similarly, com-
paratively higher SYI was obtained with the application
of organics either alone or in combination with chemical
fertilizers compared with the control or with the sole
application of chemical fertilizers at a lower dose in the
case of safflower. Significantly higher residual effect was
observed in FYM compared with that with the use of
residues of soybean and safflower. The highest SYI was
measured with 6 Mg FYMN20P13 ha1 (0.48 and 0.45
for soybean and safflower, respectively), and the lowest
in the control (0.41 and 0.22) (Table 1). Besides in-
cluding a legume in the sequence, combined use of
available organic sources along with chemical fertilizers
might prove beneficial for long-term productivity and
sustainability of the system (Behera et al. 2007). Even a
significantly higher SYI in soybean was obtained by the
sole application of chemical fertilizers compared with
the control. This trend is mainly attributed to the
resilience of the soil system to intermittent droughts,
with high moisture retention capacity in plots receiving
organic amendments compared with those receiving
inorganic fertilizers in the case of a post rainy season
crop of safflower. Such a positive response underlines
777
the importance of organics in enhancing soil resi-
lience under harsh climatic conditions during the crop-
ping period, a common feature of rainfed agriculture
(Srinivasarao et al. 2011). In comparison, soybean,
being a nutrient exhaustive crop, requires more nutrients
during the growing period.
Soil Bulk Density
The depth-wise BD of the experimental soil before the
initiation of the long-term experiment, and the treat-
ment-wise data at the end of the experiment, are
presented in Table 2. Soil BD was lower with organic
amendments than with mineral fertilization and the
unfertilized control. The lowest BD was observed in
00.2 m depth with 6 Mg FYMN20P13 ha 1 and 5 Mg
CRN20P13 ha1 (1.46 Mg m 3) treatments, and the
highest in the control (1.53 Mg m 3) and the treatments
receiving chemical fertilizer. Soil BD decreased with the
application of organic amendments due to higher SOC
concentration and increased root biomass (Halvorson
et al. 1999), which enhanced aggregation and soil aera-
tion. Lower BD improved crop growth and enhanced
agronomic yield (Srinivasarao et al. 2012a). There ex-
isted a negative correlation between SOC concentration
in the surface 0.2-m layer and its BD (Fig. 2), as was also
reported by Du et al. (2009). As expected, however, soil
BD increased with increase in soil depth.
Depth Distribution of Organic Carbon
The SOC concentration differed significantly (P B0.05)
among treatments and depths (Table 3). The highest
SOC concentration of 6.7 g kg 1 in the 0- to 0.2-m
depth was observed in the 6 Mg FYMN20P13 ha1
followed by that in the 5 Mg CRN20P13 ha1 (6.4 g
kg 1) treatment. All plots treated with organic amend-
ments contained higher SOC concentration in the sur-
face and sub-soil compared with those not receiving any
organics. The SOC concentration also improved with
the application of 6 Mg FYM ha 1 (5.9 g kg1) and 5
Mg CR ha1 (5.6 g kg1). The SOC concentration was
also improved (5.6 g kg1) even with the application of
higher dose of chemical fertilizer (60 kg N35 kg P). In
contrast, SOC concentration was reduced by cultivation
without any fertilizer or manuring, or by using the low
dose of fertilizer (2030 kg N1320 kg P) over 15 yr.
In contrast, the SOC concentration increased even in
the sub-soil with the application of organic materials.
The mean profile SOC concentration increased from 3.4
g kg1 in the control to 4.7 g kg1 in 6 Mg FYM
N20P13 ha1 treatment. However, no increase in SOC
concentration was observed in treatments receiving the
low rate of fertilizers (2040 kg N1326 kg P). It is
widely recognized that the use of organic manures and
compost enhances the SOC concentration more than
does the use of the same amount of nutrients applied
as chemical fertilizers (Gregorich et al. 2001). Manna
et al. (2005) and Hati et al. (2007) reported that SOC
decreased by 15.5% compared with initial values in the
 778 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE

AD, ad Different capital letters within rows and different lower case letters within columns are significantly different at P0.05 according to Duncan’s multiple range test (DMRT) for
unfertilized plot, and was either maintained or improved

1.4790.06Dd

1.5190.08Ab
1.5290.08Aa
1.4990.07Cc
1.4990.07Bc
5 Mg CR
in soybeanwheat system in Vertisols with application

ha1
of NPK and NPKFYM. Crop residue retention and
nutrient application increase SOC and are considered
effective measures of C sequestration (Dalal et al. 2011).
In the present study, the use of soybean/safflower crop

1.4790.06Dd

1.5290.08Aa
1.4890.07Dc

1.5090.08Bb
1.4890.07Cc
Table 2. Change in soil bulk density (Mg m 3) in the experimental plot in relation to cropping, fertilization and manuring treatments (9 standard deviation from mean)

6 Mg FYM residues (C:N ratio of 19.1 to 22.1) contributed a low

ha 1 amount of C input, had a higher mineralization rate in
tropical semi-arid conditions, and resulted in a lower
SOC sequestration rate.

1.5290.08Aa
1.4690.06Ed

1.5090.07Bb
1.4990.07Cc
1.4990.07Bc
N20P13 ha1
5 Mg CRz

Profile Soil Organic C, C Buildup, Stabilization and

Sequestration
The profile SOC stock differed significantly (P B0.05)
among treatments (Table 4). The highest SOC stock
Can. J. Soil. Sci. Downloaded from pubs.aic.ca by 14.99.186.94 on 03/07/14

of 69.9 Mg C ha1 was observed in the 6 Mg FYM

N20P13 ha1 treatment followed by that of 68.7 Mg C
6 Mg FYMz

1.5290.08Aa
1.4690.06Ed

1.5090.08Bb
1.4990.07Cc
1.4990.07Bc
N20P13 ha 1

ha 1 in the 5 Mg CRN20P13 ha1  that in the 6 Mg

FYM ha 1 (66.9 Mg C ha1) 5 Mg CR ha 1 (63.6
At the end of experiment (in 2007)

Mg C ha 1)60 kg N35 kg P (62.7 Mg C ha1), and

the lowest SOC stock (51.0 Mg C ha1) was observed
in the control. A relatively higher percentage of SOC
sequestration was observed in the 6 Mg FYMN20
1.5190.08Ab
1.5290.08Aa
1.5190.07Bb
1.5090.07Cc

1.5090.07Ac
60 kg N35

P13 ha1 treatment (37.1%) followed by those in the

kg P

5 Mg CRN20P13 ha1 (34.7%) and 6 Mg FYM ha1

For personal use only.

(31.2%) treatments. The rate of SOC sequestration

also followed a trend similar to that of the SOC
sequestration. The data show that 41.7 and 22.0%
1.5190.08Ab
1.5290.08Aa
1.5190.07Bb
1.5190.07Bb
1.5090.07Ac

of the biomass-C input was stabilized in FYM, and

40 kg N
26 kg P

soybean/safflower CR, respectively. Majumder et al.

(2008) reported that 67.9, 57.3 and 48.9% C input as
FYM was stabilized in a ricewheat (Triticum aestivum
L.) system in the Indo Gangetic plains. Higher amounts
of ash, lignin and polyphenol present in FYM and a
1.5190.07Ab
1.5290.08Aa
1.5190.07Bb
1.5190.07Bb
1.5090.07Ac
30 kg N

higher C:N ratio (64.0) lead to higher C stabilization

20 kg P

compared with that for the application of soybean/

safflower crop residues. With the exception of the
control, even treatments involving a higher rate of
N and P applied either as chemical fertilizer (4060 kg
1.5290.08Aa

1.5190.08Ab
1.5290.08Aa
1.5190.08Bb
1.5090.08Ac

N and 2635 kg P) or as FYM and CR along with

20 kg N
13 kg P

FYM, farmyard manure; CR, sorghum crop residue.

chemical fertilizers caused SOC sequestration ranging

from 0.6 to 11.9 Mg C ha1 over the 15-yr period.
The combined use of FYM and chemical fertilizers
(20 kg N ha 1 and 13 kg P ha1) had a higher SOC
sequestration rate than the 5 Mg CRN20P13 ha1
1.5390.08Aa
1.5290.08Ab
1.5090.08Ad

1.5290.08Ab
1.5190.08Ac

(10.7 Mg C ha1), which was greater than the 6 Mg

Control

FYM ha1 (8.9 Mg C ha1) treatment. In comparison,

the cultivation of soybean followed by safflower without
application of any organics and/or inorganic fertilizers
(control) over 15 yr depleted the SOC stock by 7.0 Mg
1.4990.07
1.5090.08
1.5290.08
1.5390.08
1.5590.09

C ha1. However, the application of 40 kg N26 kg

separation of means.
(1992)
Initial

P ha1 maintained the SOC stock, while the application

of chemical fertilizers at a lower rate also depleted
the SOC stock by 0.70.8 Mg C ha1. Regardless of the
farming system, maintaining the SOC stock above the
0.20.4
0.40.6
0.60.8
0.81.0
Depth

threshold level is necessary to sustain agronomic pro-

00.2
(m)

ductivity and minimize the risks of soil degradation.

z
 SRINIVASARAO ET AL. * AGRONOMIC PRODUCTIVITY AND QUALITY OF A VERTISOL 779
Can. J. Soil. Sci. Downloaded from pubs.aic.ca by 14.99.186.94 on 03/07/14

Fig. 2. Influence of SOC concentration on bulk density of soils.

There existed a positive relationship between SOC
stock in the root zone and the grain yield of soybean
(145 kg ha 1 yr 1 Mg 1 of SOC) and safflower (59 kg
ha1 yr 1 Mg 1 of SOC) (Figs. 3a, b). Improvement
in soil quality, by increasing the SOC stock of 1 Mg C
ha1 yr 1 in the root zone, can increase annual food
production in developing countries by 2432 million
tons of food grains and 610 million tons of roots and
For personal use only.
stock is widely observed, the magnitude of depletion
differs among soil types, climatic regimes, crops/crop-
ping systems, land use history, and the duration of the
fallow period (Davidson and Ackerman 1993; Guo and
Gifford 2002; Mandal et al. 2008). A higher input of
biomass C through the application of organic amend-
ments or combined use of organics and chemical
fertilizers may be due to increased availability of es-

tubers (Lal 2011). However, maintaining or improving
SOC stock in arid and semiarid regions is a major
challenge (Srinivasarao et al. 2011, 2012a). The prevail-
ing low levels of SOC concentrations and stocks in soils
of these regions in India are attributed to soil-mining
practices: little or no crop residues returned to the soil,
excessive tillage, imbalance in fertilizer use and severe
soil degradation by erosion and other processes (Lal
2009).
Plow-induced perturbation adversely impacts the
amount and stability of soil aggregates, exacerbates
the mineralization of organic matter and depletes the
SOC stock. While plowing-related depletion of SOC
sential nutrients (i.e., N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Zn and B)
(Srinivasarao and Vittal 2007). Annual inputs of bio-
mass-C as crop residues and other biofertilizers signifi-
cantly increased SOC stock, following an asymptotic
relationship between the SOC stock and the magnitude
of the inputs of biomass C in different treatments
(Fig. 4). The application of biomass decreases soil BD
in the surface and subsurface layers and also increases
the root biomass (Halvorson et al. 1999; Du et al. 2009).
Thus, there existed a strong negative correlation
between SOC stock and soil BD. There was also a
positive correlation between SOC stocks and magnitude
of SOC sequestration, and the input of CR (r 0.65;

Table 3. Changes in soil organic carbon (SOC) concentration (g kg 1) in soil sampled in 2007 (9 standard deviation from mean)

Depth (m)

Treatment 00.2 0.20.4 0.40.6 0.60.8 0.81.0 Mean

Initial SOC 5.090.27 4.390.23 4.090.22 3.590.19 2.590.14 3.990.21

Control 3.990.21Ha 4.090.22Db 3.390.18Ec 3.290.17Ed 2.490.13Ce 3.490.18D
20 kg N13 kg P 4.690.25Ga 4.190.22Cb 3.590.19Dc 3.890.21Cd 2.990.16Ae 3.890.20C
30 kg N20 kg P 4.790.25Ga 4.190.22Cb 4.490.24Bc 3.590.19Dd 2.390.12Ce 3.890.21C
40 kg N26 kg P 4.890.26Ga 4.290.23Ca 4.490.24Bb 3.490.18Dc 2.690.14Bd 3.990.21C
60 kg N35 kg P 5.190.28Fa 4.490.24Aa 4.490.24Bb 4.190.22Bc 2.890.15Ad 4.290.22B
6 Mg FYMN20P13 ha 1 6.790.36Aa 4.890.26Ab 4.790.25Ac 4.490.24Ad 2.990.16Ae 4.790.25A
5 Mg CRz N20P13 ha1 6.490.35Ba 4.990.26Aa 4.690.25Ab 4.390.23Ac 2.990.16Ad 4.690.25A
6 Mg FYMz ha1 5.990.32Ca 4.890.26Aa 4.690.25Ab 4.490.24Ac 2.890.15Ad 4.590.24A
5 Mg CR ha 1 5.690.30Da 4.790.25Ba 4.190.22Cb 4.290.23Bc 2.790.15Bd 4.390.23B
Mean 5.390.29a 4.490.24b 4.290.23c 3.990.21d 2.790.15e

z
FYM, farmyard manure; CR, sorghum crop residue.
AH, ad Different capital letters within columns and different small letters within rows are significantly different at P0.05 according to Duncan’s
multiple range test (DMRT) for separation of means.
 780 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE

Table 4. The profile soil organic carbon (SOC) stock, percent increase in SOC stock, rate of SOC sequestration and the total amount of SOC for
different fertilization treatments under semiarid conditions (9 standard deviation from mean)

Profile SOC Increase in Rate of SOC sequestration Total SOC sequestrated

Treatment (Mg ha 1) SOC (%) (Mg C ha 1 yr 1) (Mg C ha 1)

Control 51.091.6E   7.090.44F

20 kg N13 kg P 57.291.8D 12.290.7G 0.4190.02G 0.890.05E
30 kg N20 kg P 57.391.8D 12.490.7G 0.4290.02G 0.790.04E
40 kg N26 kg P 58.691.8D 14.990.9F 0.5190.03F 0.690.04D
60 kg N35 kg P 62.791.9C 22.991.3E 0.7890.05E 4.790.30C
6 Mg FYMzN20P13 ha 1 69.992.2A 37.192.1A 1.2690.07A 11.990.75A
5 Mg CRzN20P13 ha1 68.792.1A 34.792.0B 1.1890.07B 10.790.67A
6 Mg FYM ha1 66.992.1B 31.291.8C 1.0690.06C 8.990.56B
5 Mg CR ha 1 63.692.0C 24.791.4D 0.8490.05D 5.690.35C

z
FYM, farmyard manure; CR, sorghum crop residue.
AG Different letters within columns are significantly different at P 0.05 according to Duncan’s multiple range test (DMRT) for separation of
means.
Can. J. Soil. Sci. Downloaded from pubs.aic.ca by 14.99.186.94 on 03/07/14
For personal use only.

Fig. 3. Influence of root zone SOC stocks on yield of soybean (a) and safflower (b) seed yield in a 15-yr long-term experiment under
semiarid conditions.
 SRINIVASARAO ET AL. * AGRONOMIC PRODUCTIVITY AND QUALITY OF A VERTISOL
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Fig. 4. Effects of input of the C in crop residues on SOC stock (SOC; error bars represents the standard error of mean).
P B0.05), organic amendments (r0.75; P B0.05) and
total C inputs (r 0.93; P B0.05) explaining 42 to 87%
of variability in SOC stocks. Relatively higher magni-
tude of SOC sequestration in treatments receiving FYM
may be attributed to the application of already decom-
posed material containing a higher proportion of
chemically recalcitrant compounds (Paustian et al.
1992). A significant correlation between the SOC stock
For personal use only.
and the C input as CR, biofertilizers and the total C
input indicate the importance of residue retention and
application of biosolids to improving soil quality.
However, availability of adequate quantities of organic
amendments under such conditions is a major con-
straint. Low biomass production, alternative use of crop
residues as animal feed and of animal dung as a cooking
fuel aggravate the problem of low C input to the soil.
Relationship among C Inputs and Sequestrated C
with Yield Sustainability
The SYI of safflower was in accord with the SOC
concentration and stock, and a significant correlation
existed between SYI and the total C input (R2 0.53, P B
0.05), percent SOC sequestration (R2 0.63, P B0.05),
Table 5. Relationships of sustainable yield index (SYI) to crop residue C
input, total cumulative C input, percent change in soil organic carbon
(SOC) stock and the magnitude of SOC sequestered after 15 yr of
cropping
Parameters Regression equation
Annual crop residue C input (X) SYISoybean 0.001X0.37
SYISafflower 0.002X0.17
Total cumulative C input (X) SYISoybean 0.005X0.48
SYISafflower 0.002X0.20
C buildup% (X) SYISoybean 0.001X0.46
SYISafflower 0.004X0.24
Profile SOC (X) SYISoybean 0.001X0.51
SYISafflower 0.01X0.19
C sequestrated (X) SYISoybean 0.001X0.45
SYISafflower 0.008X0.29
781
profile SOC stock (R2 0.63, P B0.05) and the SOC
sequestered (R2 0.63, P B0.05) (Table 5). However,
the correlation of SYI with the annual input of
CR was weak (R2 0.26). But these relationships were
not significant in case of soybean. Thus, the maintenance
of SOC stock through application of FYM and chemical
fertilizers is essential to the sustainability of rainfed
production systems particularly in cropping systems
like soybeansafflower, which need high external inputs.
Any improvement in SOC enhances the available water
capacity of the soil profile (Du et al. 2009), and reduces
frequency and intensity of pedological and ecological
droughts.
Carbon Sequestration and the Critical Level of C
Inputs
Cultivation of Vertisols for the soybeansafflower
sequence over 15 yr under semi-arid conditions without
using any organics and/or inorganic fertilizers (control)
depleted the SOC stock by 7.0 Mg C ha 1. However,
addition of FYM, alone or in combination with
inorganic fertilizers, significantly increased the SOC
stock. Bhattacharyya et al. (2009) reported that the C
sequestration potential at 0- to 0.2-m depth ranged
from 0.18 Mg C ha 1 yr 1 in the unfertilized control
to 0.57 Mg C ha1 yr 1 in the 50% RDF4 Mg
groundnut shells ha1. In the present study, the posi-
tive and linear correlation between changes in SOC
stock and the total cumulative C inputs to the soils
R2
(external organics plus crop residue) over the 15 yr
0.21NS (Y 0.222X  11.55; R2 0.87, P B0.001) (Fig. 5),
0.26NS is a strategically important information. It implies that
0.10NS even with 15 yr of continuous input of biomass-C
0.53*
0.03NS ranging from 1.91 to 4.24 Mg C ha 1 yr1, the soil C
0.63* sink capacity was not filled. The data of the present
0.03NS study also indicate that the critical amount of C input
0.63* into the soil is 3.47 Mg C ha1 yr 1 in Vertisols
0.03NS
0.63*
for a soybean-based cropping system. Therefore,
Vertisols in central India have a high SOC sink capacity.
 782 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE
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Fig. 5. The level of critical C input to maintain SOC stock at the initial level (error bars represents the standard error of mean for
sequestrated C).
Yet, the soil C sink capacity is finite (Six et al. 2002), and
a different rate of C loading causes a new steady state of
SOC over time. Therefore, a periodic assessment of SOC
stock, even at decadal intervals, may provide guide-
lines for sustainable management of soils. The slope of
the curve (Fig. 5) represents the rate of conversion of
For personal use only.
biomass-C into SOC stock, which is about 22% for the
soybean-based cropping system. The higher value of the
X intercept in the equation suggests that the rate of
depletion of SOC is very high in semiarid Vertisols
without addition of any C input either through crop
residues or from an external source. Similar trends of
degradation of a Vertisol by intensive agricultural
practices in Texas, USA, were reported by Potter
(2010), with a loss of SOC concentration in 69 yr from
65 to 10 g kg1 in the surface layer. Adoption of BMPs,
however, increased SOC sequestration at a rate of 0.15
to 0.3 Mg C ha1 yr 1 (Potter et al. 1998; Potter 2006).
Kundu et al. (2001) reported that the annual rate of
SOC enrichments ranged from 0.09 to 0.74 Mg C ha 1
for the 0- to 15-cm depth and 0.05 to 0.15 Mg C ha 1
for the 15- to 30-cm soil depth in soybeanwheat
(Triricum aestivum) sequence in Vertisols of central
India. They observed that the annual rate of change in
SOC stock (Y, kg C ha1 yr 1) for the 0- to 30-cm
depth was positively correlated with the gross annual C
input (X, kg C ha 1 yr1) (Y 0.18X  160.3; r0.978,
P B0.01), and estimated that 18.06% of the annual
gross C input was incorporated into the SOC stock.
Webb et al. (1977) measured a 15% decline in SOC (0-
to 100-cm depth) concentration in an Australian Verti-
sol from 26 to 22 g kg1 after forest clearing. Yet,
application of balanced fertilizers in combination with
organic manure sequestered SOC, improved the soil
physical environment and sustained higher productivity
in Vertisol under an intensive soybean-based cropping
system (Hati et al. 2007). For an irrigated Vertisol in
Mexico, Follett et al. (2005) observed a significant
correlation between the amount of biomass produced
and the SOC sequestered with a no-till system on N-
fertilized wheat-corn systems.
CONCLUSION
The data presented support the conclusion that a regular
input of biomass-C along with chemical fertilizers is
essential to improving soil quality in the semi arid
tropics of India, and for minimizing the depletion of
SOC stock under continuous cropping, particularly in
energy intensive double cropping regions. The use of
chemical fertilizers at comparatively higher rate (40
kg N26 kg P ha1) can maintain the SOC level of
Vertisols under a soybeansafflower cropping sequence.
Though SYI of soybean was not significantly influ-
enced, a higher SYI of safflower was obtained with the
use of organic amendments (i.e., FYM/soybean/saf-
flower CR) along with the use of chemical fertilizers.
The use of organic amendments is essential to obtaining
higher yields and enhancing the SOC sequestration.
The minimum input of 3.47 Mg C ha1 yr1 is needed
to maintain SOC at the antecedent level. However,
availability of 6 Mg ha1 yr 1 of FYM on a dry weight
basis is a major challenge. But recycling the residues
of legumes (i.e., soybean) as mulch during the crop
growing period or incorporating into the soil along with
an appropriate rate for chemical fertilizer can sustain
the system’s productivity, reduce the cost of chemical
fertilizers and increase the SOC stock. Therefore, use
of crop residues along with 20 kg N13 kg P ha1 as
chemical fertilizers is a viable alternative for maintaining
SOC stock and sustaining crop production.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi, India, for
funding the project, through AP-Cess fund (Project
Code: 30303834024).
 SRINIVASARAO ET AL. * AGRONOMIC PRODUCTIVITY AND QUALITY OF A VERTISOL
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