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Interior of Earth Formation of Earth Crust Geomorphic Process Continental
Interior of Earth Formation of Earth Crust Geomorphic Process Continental
Interior of Earth Formation of Earth Crust Geomorphic Process Continental
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The interior of Earth can be observed through direct evidence such as rock samples from
mining, deep ocean drilling project, volcanic eruptions and indirect evidence such as seismic
waves, meteorite investigation, gravitation force, magnetic field etc.
Crust
Mantle
Note:
Core
Note: Inner core rotates slightly faster than the rest of the planet.
• The density at the outer core is at 5.5 g/cm3, which increases to 13 g/cm3 in the inner
core.
Note:
Dynamo theory: It suggests that convection in the outer core, combined with the
Coriolis effect, gives rise to Earth's magnetic field.
• Continental crust
• Oceanic crust
• Upper mantle
• Lower mantle
• Outer core
• Inner core
Important Facts
Earthquake
• It is shaking of the Earth caused due to the release of energy along a fault line.
• Hypocentre or Focus: The point where the energy of an earthquake is released
• Epicentre: It is the point on the surface, directly above the focus, the first one to
experience the waves.
• Body waves: created due to the release of energy at the Hypocentre (focus). These
waves travel in all directions through the body of the Earth.
It can be divided into:
1. P-waves: They are called Primary waves. They move faster and are first to
arrive at the surface. They are similar to sound waves and can travel through
Solid, Liquid and Gaseous materials. P waves vibrate parallel to the direction
of the wave which causes stretching and squeezing of the material
2. S-waves: They are called Secondary waves which arrive at a time lag with
Primary waves. They can travel only through solid materials. S-waves vibrate
in perpendicular to the wave direction which creates crests and troughs.
• Surface waves: the body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate surface
waves which move along the surface rocks. They are the last to report on the
Seismograph and are the most destructive. They cause displacement of rocks and
structural collapse. Surface waves vibrate perpendicular to the wave direction.
German meteorologist Prof. Alfred Wegener proposed this theory in 1912. The first
continental portion of the Earth was called 'Pangea', and the oceanic part was called
'Panthalassa'. Later, a sea called Tethys divided Pangea into two parts, namely Laurentia
(Laurasia) or Angaraland to the north and Gondwanaland to the south of Tethys.
Observations:
In the continental region of tropical zones, evidence of glaciation was found in the past and
the continental region of colder zones, evidence of tropical climate found. There were only
two possibilities, either the climates have changed, or the continents have changed their
positions. Wegener ruled out a change in climate that requires changes in Earth's axial
alignments, orientation, rotation and movements and rather suggested movements or drifting
of continents.
Theory:
Evidence:
1. Jig-Saw-Fit: The shorelines of South America and Africa facing each other have a
remarkable and unmistakable match. In 1964, after the death of Wegner, Bullard did a
similar Jig-Saw-Fit but at a depth of 1,000- fathom lines under the Earth. It proved to
be quite perfect.
2. Rocks of different continents on the two sides of the oceans had the same age and as
well as similar composition: Eg. Brazilian coast and western Africa.
3. Tillite deposit: Sedimentary deposits formed or brought by glaciers. Wegner said
tillite deposits in different continents and different positions at the present time,
formed when all the continents were joint and located around the south pole.
4. Placer deposit: Deposits of gold on Ghana coast without a source in proximity but
the source being found coast in Brazilian coast proves that two continents were
together.
5. Fossil evidence: fossil remains of Lemur found in India, Madagascar and Africa. This
contiguous landmass was called Lemuria. Fossil remains of Mesosaurus (small
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reptile) found in southern Africa, as well as South America, also proves that the
continents were together when animals moved to another continent.
6. Paleomagnetic evidence: In different continents, the solidified magma of past shows
that magnetic field for the same time in a different direction, which is not possible.
This phenomenon also explains if continents are places as Wegner proposed, then the
magnetic field show correct direction as per the past proposed direction.
After the evidence given by him, he talked about movements. Movements were in two
directions. The first movement was in northward, and its cause was a gravitational and polar
fleeing force. Laurentia moved and after that Gondwanaland moved in northward. The
second movement was in westward, and north America, South America, Africa shifted
towards west. The forces given as a cause are also the weakness of the theory. The continents
do not move because of these forces.
Criticism or Weakness:
1. It only talked about the movement of continents stating that the continent floated over
the ocean floors like ship floats on the ocean and this is not true.
2. It does not talk about the movement of ocean floors.
3. Reasons for the drift are not right.
4. Wegner did not talk about the condition before the Pangea starting the explanation
from only 250 million years before present.
Later, it was found that there were more such continents and their breaking. Wegner tried to
explain every part despite not having suitable reasons.
Contribution:
1. This theory was the first comprehensive theory to talk about the drifting of continents.
2. His contribution helped evolved the understanding the direction of drift and evidence
supporting it.
3. It finally led to the development of the theory of Seafloor Spreading and Plate
Tectonics.
Arthur Homes in 1930 discovered convection and convectional current in the mantle. The
generation of this current due to radioactive elements causing thermal differences in the
mantle portion. This convectional current was the cause of the movement of the earth crust. It
was an explanation for the issue of drift-force, based on which contemporary scientists
discarded the continental drift theory.
Overview:
McKenzie and Parker and Morgan in the 1960s developed a more comprehensive
understanding about the movement related to the different part of the earth crust (both
oceanic and continental) and the associated formations, this was explained under the theory
of plate tectonics.
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A plate is made part of lithosphere which comprises of the complete solid crust and the top
solid mantle. The whole lithospheric earth surface is divided into seven major and many
minor plates. Plate means the top solid fractured part of the lithosphere covering the whole
surface of the Earth as a solid rocky layer. Plates move over the asthenosphere horizontally as
rigid units. Tectonic means the movement and associate building of plate.
Plates can be major plate and minor plate based on size. For example, India-Australia-New
Zealand plate is a major plate, whereas the Arabian plate is a minor plate. And based on
nature, it is the continental plate or oceanic plate, decided by whichever occupy a large part
of the plate. For example, the Eurasian plate may be called as a continental plate, whereas
Antarctica and the surrounding oceanic plate is mostly an oceanic plate.
Theory:
The plate tectonics theory proposes that the Earth's lithosphere is divided into seven major
and various minor plates. The plate movement results in the building up of stresses within the
plates and the continental rocks above, which leads to folding, faulting and volcanic activity.
The major plates are surrounded by young fold mountains, trenches, ridges and faults.
Plate movement:
1. Oceanic-Oceanic plates
2. Oceanic-continental plates
3. Continental-continental plates
The divergent boundary will form oceanic plates only, and it does not form a continental
plate. Magma forms an oceanic crust on both sides. Even if it starts with the oceanic-
continental divergence, it turns into oceanic-oceanic divergence as it cannot remain
continuously as continental-oceanic.
Outcomes of these movements lead to the various forms such as HORST (peak) and the
GRABEN (valley) leading to block mountains and rifts, respectively. For example, Black
Forest, Vosges are Horst and Rhine river is Graben (Germany and France) & Vindhyachal
range, Satpura rang are Horst and Narmada river is Graben (India).
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