IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 30, NO.
2, JUNE 2015
Influence of Voltage Balancing on the Temperature
Distribution of a Li-Ion Battery Module
Unai Iraola, Member, IEEE, Iosu Aizpuru, Member, IEEE, Lorea Gorrotxategi,
José Marı́a Canales Segade, Ander Etxeberria Larrazabal, and Iñigo Gil
Abstract—Temperature is one of the key factors when working
with lithium-ion battery modules due to its influence in safety,
performance, and lifespan concerns in these devices. High working
temperatures reduce the available capacity of each cell within the
module after several cycles due to aging; nonuniform temperature
distributions in the module lead to different aging processes in
each cell, and thus it will be impossible to take advantage of all
the energy available in the Li-ion storage system, because the most
aged cell will limit the available energy. This paper is focused on the
minimization of the maximum temperature gradient of a battery
module for high depth of discharge applications to avoid different
aging processes of the cells within the module. Voltage balancing
is proposed as a solution for this purpose, and different strategies
and their results are presented in this paper.
Index Terms—Aging, battery modules, lithium-ion, temperature
distribution, voltage balancing.
I. INTRODUCTION
NERGY storage systems are presented nowadays as an
E alternative to support the main grid during high energy
demand periods because they can store energy during the low
consumption ones. Besides, their possibility to work without a
grid connection makes them an attractive possibility for elec-
tromobility applications. Lithium-ion batteries are one of the
most promising technologies for different purposes since they
cover a wide range of applications due to their high energy and
power density. Modeling the electrical and thermal behavior of
these devices has been one of the challenges of researchers un-
til now. According to the electrical behavior, it is compulsory
to be able to predict the state of charge (SOC) of the cells to
know the available capacity in the energy storage systems; there
are several works researching this field [1]–[4]. According to the
thermal modeling, it is important to predict the thermal behavior
of the battery under the power requirements of the application
[5]. Besides, temperature has a big influence on the performance
and lifespan of Li-ion batteries; low temperatures (below 10 °C)
reduce the performance of these batteries [6] while high tem-
peratures (over 40 °C) have direct influence on the acceleration
Manuscript received March 10, 2014; revised August 20, 2014; accepted
October 4, 2014. Date of publication November 20, 2014; date of current version
May 15, 2015. Paper no. TEC-00185-2014.
U. Iraola, I. Aizpuru, L. Gorrotxategi, J. M. C. Segade, and A. E. Larrazabal
are with Mondragon University, Mondragon 20500, Spain (e-mail: uiraola@
mondragon.edu; iaizpuru@mondragon.edu; lorea.gorrotxategi@alumni.
mondragon.edu; jmcanales@mondragon.edu; aetxeberria@mondragon.edu).
I. Gil is with the ORONA Elevator Innovation Center, Hernani 20120, Spain
(e-mail: igil@orona-group.com).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TEC.2014.2366375
0885-8969 © 2014 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
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507
of their ageing processes. In fact, predicting the state of health
(SOH) of Li-ion batteries is another big challenge nowadays due
to the importance of knowing this parameter for power appli-
cations; there are several works in bibliography analyzing the
SOH estimation [7]–[10]. Moreover, if higher temperatures are
reached (over 70 °C), the security of the whole system could
be in distress.
In this context, it is important to control the working tem-
perature of the cells within the battery to guarantee their best
performance for the longest time. According to thermal man-
agement of batteries, two main variables are taken into account:
maximum temperature of the module and temperature distribu-
tion within the module. Pesaran et al. in [11] mention the max-
imum differences in temperature distributions of single battery
modules to be 2–6 °C. However, it is important to minimize this
value because different average working temperatures between
cells of the same module will lead to different aging processes;
after certain cycles, these effects will have significant influence
on the maximum capacity of the module since the most aged cell
will determine the maximum energy delivered, and cells with
less aging will not deliver all their accumulated energy. Several
authors studied temperature-related ageing mechanisms in Li-
ion batteries; some of them talk about one month earlier ageing
if one cell is cycling 1 °C over its optimum working tempera-
ture. Other ones talk about cycles, 1000 less cycles done with
a cell working 8 °C over its optimum temperature, from 3500
cycles to 2500 cycles [12]–[17]. Maximum temperature of the
module can be kept below certain temperature value by the bat-
tery thermal management system or BTMS (commonly liquid
or air forced cooling); however, these systems hardly compen-
sate the temperature distribution within the module; thus, it is
important to minimize this effect by electrical or mechanical
improvements in the design of the module.
Each cell in a battery module has its own characteristics (for
instance internal impedance and maximum capacity); thus, their
thermal behavior is not the same despite the same current flow-
ing through them in a module. These small differences in ca-
pacity and impedance for different SOCs lead to different heat
generation rates in each cell; this effect is better seen when deep
discharges are reached because of the faster increase of the inter-
nal impedance when these SOC ranges are reached. Depending
on the layout of the module, this effect has less influence on the
temperature distribution; in modules with cells in touch, heat is
usually accumulated in the middle of the module, so the distri-
bution is mainly affected by the layout [see Fig. 1(a)]. However,
in modules with air gaps between cells, power losses determine
the temperature distribution of the module [see Fig. 1(b)].
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508 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 30, NO. 2, JUNE 2015

Fig. 1. Layout of the modules used during the experimental testing: (a) prismatic Lishen 6.5 A · h cell module; and (b) cylindrical Lifebat 8 A · h cell module.

Fig. 2. Thermocouples locations: (a) prismatic module; and (b) cylindrical module.

In this kind of modules, differences between the SOC of the

cells can determine the temperature distribution of the module.
The main target of this paper is to analyze the influence of the
voltage balancing to compensate this temperature distribution
and evaluate the energy delivered by the module in each exper-
imental test. For this purpose, the experimental results obtained
for the temperature distribution of an 8S1P battery module com-
posed by 8 A · h LiFebat cylindrical power cells for constant
current discharges from 100% SOC to 0% SOC are presented.
Three different voltage balancing systems will be analyzed: low
current passive balancing, high current passive balancing, and
an active inductive voltage balancing.
Fig. 3. Temperature distribution in the prismatic module during a 7C complete
II. INFLUENCE OF LAYOUT ON THE TEMPERATURE discharge. (End of discharge zoom.)
DISTRIBUTION OF BATTERY MODULES
When Li-ion based energy storage systems are thermally de-
signed, special attention has to be paid in the mechanical as- to correct possible irregularities in the surface of the cells and
sembly and the layout of the cells within the module; these improve heat transfer between them [see Fig. 1(a)].
parameters have direct influence on the thermal behavior of the The thermal behavior of the prismatic cell module [see
module but also in other important issues like in the size and Fig. 1(a)] depends on the layout of the module mainly; although
shape of the module. Besides, the BTMS of the battery will different power losses are generated within each cell, heat is
be influenced by these issues as well. Thus, it is important to accumulated in the centre of the module because these cells are
find a compromise between all factors according to the final further from the ambient air. This effect is seen in Fig. 3, since
application. thermocouples T8 and T9 are the highest ones. Besides, the first
Depending on the type of the cell selected, the layout of the and last cells have a bigger surface in contact with air, and as
module will be different; prismatic cells give the opportunity a consequence, the highest temperature difference is measured
to minimize the size of the module when the cells are in touch, between these cells and the ones in the centre (between T1 and
without any air gap between them. However, cylindrical cells are T9 in Fig. 3). However, this layout will help to make uniform
typically mounted between holders, being impossible to avoid the temperature distribution because of the high thermal con-
an air gap between them. Besides, thermal interface materials ductivity of the TIM between cells (ΔT of 3 °C at the end of
(TIM) are added between cells in the case of prismatic cells discharge). (Thermocouple location in Fig. 2)

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IRAOLA et al.: INFLUENCE OF VOLTAGE BALANCING ON THE TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION OF A LI-ION BATTERY MODULE 509

Fig. 4. Temperature distribution for the cylindrical module during a 1C com- Fig. 5. Voltage distribution for the cylindrical module at the end of 1C dis-
plete discharge without voltage balancing. (End of discharge zoom.) charge without voltage balancing. (End of discharge zoom.)

In the case of the cylindrical cell module [see Fig. 1(b)], all
the cells have similar surface in contact with air; thus, layout
is not as important as in the case of prismatic module. In this
module, the differences in the internal heat generation play the
most important role in the temperature distribution of it.
That is why this module is selected for the experimental test-
ing of the voltage balancing to compensate temperature dis-
tributions. The air gaps between cells and the mismatch in the
internal heat generation make the temperature distribution of the
module to be less uniform than in the case of prismatic one. For
the case of 1C complete discharge, at the end of discharge, the
maximum ΔT is 4.8 °C (see Fig. 4). The target of this work is to
compensate the temperature gradient in this module as much as
possible to reduce the influence of this mismatch on the ageing Fig. 6. Structure of the passive voltage balancing used.
processes of the different cells within the battery module.
IV. DIFFERENT VOLTAGE BALANCING SYSTEMS USED
III. RELATION BETWEEN TERMINAL VOLTAGE TO ACHIEVE THE EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
AND CELL TEMPERATURE
A. Passive Voltage Balancing 1 (PB1, 12 Ω)
Before all the following discharge experimental tests with the The passive voltage balancing system (see Fig. 6) consists of
cylindrical module, the module is charged with a constant C/20 an electronic switch and a 12 Ω resistor in parallel with each cell
current until 3.65 V and a passive voltage balancing connected working independently. When one of the voltages in the module
to ensure that all the cells reach this voltage, and thus, the 100% is higher than the lowest one, the electronic switch is closed
of their SOC is considered. The maximum Qm ax of the cells and the current IBal is discharged during a fixed period to do
are between 9 and 8.72 A · h. However, the maximum capacity the balancing. The value of this current depends on the actual
of the cells is not the same and when the constant discharge voltage of the cell and the fixed value of the resistor as in (2).
current is applied to the module, cells with lower Qm ax will A threshold value is defined to fix the value when the voltage
increase their internal resistance first, generating more power balancing is going to start working following (1). Vlim is the
losses than in the cells with higher Qm ax . This mismatch will voltage limit, Vlow is the lowest voltage of one of the cells, and
lead to a nonuniform temperature distribution in the module. Vthreshold is a user defined value, 5 mV during these experimen-
The evolution of the terminal voltage of each cell reflects the tal tests.
mismatch in the evolution of the internal impedances. Fig. 5
shows the evolution of the terminal voltages of the cells in the
cylindrical module and Fig. 4 presents the temperature distri- B. Passive Voltage Balancing 2 (PB2, 3.8 Ω)
bution during the same discharge; voltages 4 and 6 reach faster The second balancing system is equal to the previous one but
the end of discharge (see Fig. 5) and the thermocouples located with a lower fixed resistor value to increment the value of the
in that cells (T7, T8, T9, and T10) reach higher temperatures balancing current IBal . In this case, the value of the resistor is
(see Fig. 4) due to higher internal heat generation of the cells. 3.8 Ω
Thereby, the balancing of the voltages and at the same time the
SOC is considered to compensate the temperature distribution. Vlim = Vlow + Vthreshold . (1)

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510 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 30, NO. 2, JUNE 2015

Fig. 7. Structure of the active inductive voltage balancing used threshold

voltage (V th re sh o ld ) as in (1).

TABLE I
SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS FOR THE CONDUCTED TESTS

1C complete discharge 2C complete discharge

Balancing ΔTm a x Tm a x ΔTm a x Tm a x

system [°C] [°C] E [Ah] [°C] [°C] E [Ah] Fig. 8. Results for passive balancing 2 (PB2) during a 1C complete discharge.
(a) Voltage distribution. (b) Temperature distribution.
No Balancing 4.75 35.2 8.88 5.1 41.3 9
PB1 3.22 35.3 8.664 4.31 41.6 8.797
PB2 2.17 35.5 8.447 2.78 42 8.694
AB 3.2 35.4 9.06 3 40.8 8.99
charge is reached. Besides, as the voltage balancing systems
consume energy, the total amount of energy delivered by the
battery module (E) has been quantified in each case. These
C. Active Voltage Balancing (AB) constant current discharges have been applied for the case with-
The active balancing system (see Fig. 7) consists of a sepic- out voltage balancing, and for the previously mentioned three
based multistacked converter [18]. When the switch is ON, the different voltage balancing systems. Results show better tem-
inductors are charged from all the cells and when the switch perature distributions when the voltages of the cells within the
is OFF, the energy is released. In the single switch balancing module are more balanced for passive balancing systems. When
system, the energy is released to the lowest voltage cell. This active voltage balancing systems are used, temperature distri-
natural behavior of the converter permits to balance the voltages bution is improved because of the compensation of the power
with a fixed duty cycle of the switch losses although voltage mismatch is similar to the case without
voltage balancing.
V
IBal = . (2)
RBal
A. Passive Voltage Balancing (PB1 and PB2)
V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION PB1 and PB2 voltage balancing systems improve the voltage
The experimental tests conducted for this analysis are sum- distribution when the end of discharge is reached; as a conse-
marized in Table I; the eight cylindrical cells are characterized quence, temperature distribution is also improved. For 1C dis-
before the tests in terms of internal impedance and nominal ca- charge rate, the (ΔV )m ax without voltage balancing is 0.64 V;
pacity at 1C discharge rate. The maximum mismatch between PB1 reduces this value to 0.414 V and with PB2, this value is
the maximum capacities of the cells is 0.28 A · h and the maxi- reduced until 0.21 V.
mum internal impedance mismatch is 0.24 mΩ; constant current According to temperature distribution, when no voltage bal-
discharges from the 100% of SOC until one of the cells reaches ancing system is used, (ΔT )m ax is about 4.75 °C; for PB1, this
2 V and under two different current rates, 1C and 2C (8 and value is reduced to 3.22 °C and with PB2 the maximum im-
16 A). The evaluated variables have been the maximum voltage provement is obtained with 2.17 °C. Fig. 8 shows the results for
difference (ΔV )m ax and the maximum temperature difference 1C rate and PB2 voltage balancing. PB2 gets better results since
(ΔT )m ax between cells, both evaluated when the end of dis- it has a higher current capability, but also higher power losses.

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IRAOLA et al.: INFLUENCE OF VOLTAGE BALANCING ON THE TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION OF A LI-ION BATTERY MODULE
Fig. 9. Results for a 2C discharge rate without voltage balancing. (a) Voltage
distribution. (b) Temperature distribution.
For 2C rate, results are similar since PB2 is the system with
better results; however, as the current rate is increased, the effect
of PB1 and PB2 in the temperature distribution is less important.
Besides, with this rate, the end of discharge is reached faster and
the balancing system works during a shorter period of time.
Without voltage balancing, the (ΔV )m ax is 0.462 V and the
(ΔT )m ax is 5.1 °C; PB1 obtains intermediate results although it
also improves the temperature distribution of the module, with
a (ΔV )m ax of 0.33 V and a (ΔT )m ax of 4.31 °C. With PB2,
these values are reduced to 0.114 V and 2.78 °C, respectively.
Figs. 9 and 10 show results for 2C discharge rate without voltage
balancing and with PB2 voltage balancing, respectively.
However, passive balancing systems reduce the battery mod-
ule available energy to balance the voltage; this is the main
drawback of this kind of balancing systems. In order to measure
the impact of this problem, the evaluated parameter is the en-
ergy delivered by the module during each discharge (E). In the
case without voltage balancing system, the energy delivered by
the module (E) for 1C discharge rate is 8.88 A · h; for PB1, this
energy is reduced to 8.664 A · h, and for PB2, E is reduced until
8.447 A · h due to its higher current capability. For 2C rates,
without voltage balancing, the energy delivered is 9 A · h; for
PB1, this value is again reduced to 8.797 A · h, and for PB2
is again reduced until 8.694 A · h. In applications without grid
connection where the available energy is the most important
parameter for the user, this loss of energy can be important.
The increase of the energy delivered from 1C rate to 2C rate is
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511
Fig. 10. Results for passive balancing 2 (PB2) during a 2C complete discharge.
(a) Voltage distribution. (b) Temperature distribution.
considered to be an effect of the improvement of the efficiency
due to the higher working temperature for the 2C rate scenario.
B. Active Voltage Balancing (AB)
In order to improve this parameter, the active voltage balanc-
ing is proposed; in this voltage balancing system, the energy
is transferred from the cell with more remaining energy to the
weakest cell to balance its voltage. Obviously, there are power
losses for this system, but if the current managed is high enough,
the discharge process will be longer, improving the amount of
energy delivered by the battery module. Fig. 11 shows the re-
sults of voltage and temperature distribution with 2C discharge
rate and with AB system. For this voltage balancing system, in
the scenario of 1C discharge rate, (ΔV )m ax is 0.6 V and the
(ΔT )m ax is about 3.2 °C. However, the energy delivered by
the module is higher than in the other cases, 9.06 A · h, con-
cretely. For the 2C discharge rate, the (ΔV )m ax is 0.58 V and
the (ΔT )m ax is about 3 °C. In this case, there is no improve-
ment in the energy delivered comparing it with the case without
balancing.
In this balancing system, the balancing current depends on
the voltage differences between cells and the inductors; at the
beginning of the discharge, the differences are quite low and also
the energy transferred between cells. When low SOC values
are being reached, the voltage differences are higher and the
balancing currents increase; however, for 2C discharge rate, the
512
Fig. 11. Results for active balancing (AB) during a 2C complete discharge.
(a) Voltage distribution. (b) Temperature distribution.
end of discharge is reached in a short period of time; thus,
the AC is not able to improve the delivered energy for this rate.
C. Comparison Between Passive and Active Balancing
Both passive and active balancing systems try to reduce the
differences between internal heat generations of the cells within
the module. Passive balancing systems discharge energy from
the cells with higher SOC trying to bring these cells to the
SOC of the weakest cell. The consequence is that the internal
heat generation of all the cells is more uniform but also higher
because the SOC is lower and the internal resistance of all the
cells increases.
Active balancing systems try to increase the SOC of the weak-
est cell transmitting energy from the cells with higher SOC.
During the discharge process, the cells with higher SOC deliver
the energy demanded by the application but also transmit energy
to the weakest cell, so the current flowing through their internal
resistance is higher and thus their internal heat generation.
The weakest cell delivers the energy of the application but
receives the energy of every cell with higher SOC within the
module. The resultant current flowing through the weakest cell
is reduced and also the internal heat generation of this cell. The
difference between these strategies is clearly seen in Fig. 12(b).
With PB2, the power losses of the battery module are in-
creased and a higher maximum temperature is reached. How-
ever, the temperature distribution is more uniform because the
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 30, NO. 2, JUNE 2015
Fig. 12. Temperature distribution for the end of discharge moment with dif-
ferent voltage balancing: (a) 1C current rate; and (b) 2C current rate.
internal heat generation mismatch is compensated. AB instead
reduces the heat generated by the weakest cell and increases the
other heat generations. Thus, the maximum temperature of the
module is reduced and also the temperature distribution. Closer
results to PB2 can be reached with AB if the inductors of the
system are bigger to store more energy with lower voltage dif-
ferences. Besides, the available energy with AB is similar to
the case without balancing but PB reduces the available energy
significantly.
VI. CONCLUSION
Voltage balancing systems are commonly used to avoid SOC
mismatches between cells within the same module improving
their voltage distribution. However, if higher balancing currents
are reached for these systems, an important improvement in the
temperature distribution can be also obtained in applications
where the depth of discharge is high due to the internal heat
generation compensation.
PB2 voltage balancing system improves the temperature dis-
tribution of a Li-ion battery module in a 54% for a 1C rate of
discharge since this parameter is improved from 4.75 to 2.17 °C.
When the current rate is higher, 2C, the improvement is reduced
to a 45% (from 5.1 to 2.78 °C) because the duration of the dis-
charge is reduced. However, if the balancing current is increased
to reach better results with high current rates, the efficiency of
the system is reduced. With 1C rate, the energy delivered by the
module with a PB2 is reduced in a 5% if it is compared to the
case without voltage balancing (from 8.88 to 8.45 A · h); with
2C rate, the available energy is also reduced in a 3.5% (from 9
to 8.7 A · h).
IRAOLA et al.: INFLUENCE OF VOLTAGE BALANCING ON THE TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION OF A LI-ION BATTERY MODULE
AB mitigates this problem or even improves the available en-
ergy for certain working conditions. With a 1C rate scenario,
the energy is improved in a 2% and when 2C discharge rate is
applied, the available energy is reduced in a 0.66%. However,
the improvement in the temperature distribution is not as no-
table as with PB2. With 1C rate, an improvement of a 33% is
reached (4.75–3.2 °C); according to 2C rate of discharge, the
improvement is a 31% (5.1–3.51 °C).
Comparing both voltage balancing systems, it is concluded
that passive balancing reaches better temperature distributions
but increases the maximum average temperature of the mod-
ule and reduces the available energy significantly. The active
balancing instead reduces the temperature distribution without
increasing the average maximum temperature, and also delivers
the same energy as the case without voltage balancing.
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nol., vol. 60, no. 8, pp. 3635–3645, Oct. 2011.
Unai Iraola (M’09) was born in Eibar, Spain, on
April 25, 1985. He received the B.Sc. and M.Sc. de-
grees in electrical engineering from the University of
Mondragon, Mondragon, Spain, in 2006 and 2009,
respectively, where he is currently working toward
the Ph.D. degree in energy storage systems in the De-
partment of Electronics, Faculty of Engineering.
His research interests include renewable energies,
energy storage systems, and modeling and control of
power converters.
Iosu Aizpuru (M’09) received the B.Sc. and M.Sc.
degrees in electrical engineering from the University
of Mondragon, Mondragon, Spain, in 2006 and 2009,
respectively, where he is currently working toward
the Ph.D. degree in the Department of Electronics,
Faculty of Engineering.
His current research interests include power elec-
tronics modeling and control for energy storage sys-
tems. He has participated in various research projects
in the fields of traction and stationary systems for
railway applications.
Lorea Gorrotxategi was born in Oñati, Spain, in
1991. She received the B.Sc. degree in industrial
electronics engineering from the University of Mon-
dragon, Mondragon, Spain, in 2013, where she is
currently working toward the M.Sc. degree in energy
and power electronics.
Since 2013, she has been a Researcher in the De-
partment of Electronics, Faculty of Engineering, Uni-
versity of Mondragon. Her research interests include
batteries.
José Marı́a Canales Segade was born in Hengelo,
The Netherlands, in 1971. He received the B.Sc. de-
gree in electrical engineering from the University of
Mondragon, Mondragon, Spain, in 1993.
In 1993, he joined the Electronics Department,
Faculty of Engineering, University of Mondragon,
where he is currently an Associate Professor. He
teaches courses on power electronics, electric vehi-
cle, and energy storage systems. He is responsible for
the Medium Voltage Laboratory, University of Mon-
dragon, and he has experience testing high-power
converters for medium-voltage applications. His research interests include the
modeling control and design of power converters, and electrochemical storage
systems.
514
Ander Etxeberria Larrazabal received the Ph.D.
degree from Paul Sabatier University, Toulouse,
France, in 1985.
He is currently a Professor of Industrial Au-
tomation and Electrical Machines in the Electronics
and Informatics Department, Mondragon University,
Mondragon, Spain. His research activities are focused
on mechatronics, directing two Ph.D. works in this
field, and on Li-ion batteries.
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 30, NO. 2, JUNE 2015
Iñigo Gil received the B.Sc. degree in electronics and
the B.Sc. degree in mechanics from the University of
Navarra, San Sebastian, Spain, in 2000 and 2004, re-
spectively.
Since 2001, he has been an Engineer with the
ORONA Elevator Innovation Center, Hernani, Spain.
His research interests include energy management
and storage, and power electronics in vertical trans-
port applications.