Geosynthetics International, 2021, 28, No.

Modeling the WRC and volume change behavior

of GCLs considering net stress and temperature
S. Rajesh1, S. Roy2 and V. Khan3
1
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur,
India, E-mail: hsrajesh@iitk.ac.in (corresponding author)
2
Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur,
India, E-mail: sumanroy@iitk.ac.in
3
Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur,
India. E-mail: vishwjit@iitk.ac.in

Received 23 October 2019, revised 08 March 2020, accepted 10 May 2020, published 16 November 2020

ABSTRACT: Geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) are used in cover and bottom lining systems to mitigate
contamination from landfills. During their service period, they are often subjected to varying net mean
stress levels, temperature fluctuation, and water content, which could affect their water retention and
volume change behavior severely. These changes under thermo-hydro-mechanical conditions can be
evaluated through experimental methods or mathematical models. In the present study, the combined
effect of net mean stress and temperature on water retention and volume change behavior of GCL in the
unsaturated regime were studied. A theoretical thermo-hydro-mechanical framework for GCLs over a
wide suction range is proposed based on experimental observations. The proposed framework was
implemented in a simple water retention model and volumetric constitutive model to capture the
thermo-hydro-mechanical behavior of GCL through several sets of experimental data available in
the literature. The predicted results from the proposed method were in good agreement with the
experimental results. Also, the proposed method required minimal input parameters to predict water
retention and volume change behavior over a wide suction range. The proposed framework is therefore
quite useful for engineering applications of GCLs under the combined effect of suction, net mean stress,
and temperature.

KEYWORDS: Geosynthetics, GCL, volume change, water retention, net mean stress, temperature,
thermo-hydro-mechanical framework

REFERENCE: Rajesh, S., Roy, S. and Khan, V. (2021). Modeling the WRC and volume change
behavior of GCLs considering net stress and temperature. Geosynthetics International, 28, No. 2, 174–
185. [https://doi.org/10.1680/jgein.20.00032]

subjected to significant levels of stress (Peirce et al.

1. INTRODUCTION
Geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) are widely used
as hydraulic barriers in municipal solid waste (MSW)
landfills to prevent contamination of the environment
(Bouazza 2001; Rajesh and Viswanadham 2010; Koerner
2012; Rowe 2012, 2020; Rajesh and Khan 2018). Serving
as an alternative to compacted clay liners, their primary
use in MSW landfills is to prevent the emission of harmful
gases into the atmosphere, reduce infiltration of rainwater,
and to limit the release of leachate into the groundwater
(Rowe et al. 2004; Rajesh et al. 2014, 2016; Bouazza et al.
2017; Li and Rowe 2020). The cover system is often
subjected to fluctuations in temperature and infiltration
of rainwater, which could lead to varying levels of
saturation within the GCL (Bouazza 2001; Rajesh and
Viswanadham 2010). The bottom lining system is
1072-6349 © 2020 Thomas Telford Ltd
1986; Bannour et al. 2014), and fluctuations in the
temperature due to continuous biodegradation of the
MSW within the landfill (Bouazza et al. 2011; Jafari et al.
2017). The biodegradation of MSW may also induce
excess deformation in the cover system (Viswanadham
and Rajesh 2009; Gourc et al. 2010; Rajesh and
Viswanadham 2012, 2015). Under these conditions,
GCLs may undergo alteration in hydraulic behavior that
will affect the service period of the landfill severely
(LaGatta et al. 1997; Viswanadham et al. 2012;
Seiphoori et al. 2016; Zhan et al. 2017; Pu et al. 2018;
AbdelRazek and Rowe 2019). Therefore, the water
retention and volumetric behavior of GCLs under the
combined effect of saturation, high levels of stress, and
elevated temperature, need to be studied for understand-
ing their behavior.
174

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 Modeling the WRC and volume change behavior of GCLs considering net stress and temperature 175

Very few experimental studies have been conducted to
understand the thermo-hydro-mechanical behavior of a
GCL under the combined effect of net mean stress and
temperature over a wide suction range. The effect of net
mean stress on water retention and volume change beha-
vior of GCLs has been investigated by a few researchers
with the help of axis translation and vapor equilibrium
techniques (Southen and Rowe 2007; Bannour et al. 2014;
Ghavam-Nasiri et al. 2019a). The effect of temperature
on water retention and volumetric behavior of GCLs
was systematically studied by Risken (2014) using a
combination of axis translation, filter paper, and rela-
tive humidity measurement in a temperature-controlled
chamber. Recently, Ghavam-Nasiri et al. (2019a 2019b)
studied the effect of net vertical stress and temperature on
the hydraulic and mechanical behavior of GCLs through
experimental and numerical simulations over a wide
range of suction. An equation for the water retention
curve (WRC) of GCLs was developed based on the van
Genuchten (1980) model to incorporate the effect of net
mean stress and temperature. The developed WRC
equations were then used in numerical studies by coupling
them with appropriate thermo-hydro-mechanical con-
stitutive models for unsaturated soils to assess the effect
minimal input parameters that can be easily determined
from conventional experimental procedures.
2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.2. Water retention behavior of GCLs under varied net
mean stress and temperature
2.2.1 Experimental observations
A WRC defines the relationship between suction (matric
or total) and water content (gravimetric, volumetric, or
apparent degree of saturation) in a GCL. Experimental
studies performed by various researchers on GCLs reveal
that observable changes of the WRC in drying and wetting
under various net mean stresses occur mainly in the
saturation regime, and beyond a certain suction value,
close to residual suction, the effect of net mean stress was
found to be negligible in the gravimetric water content
plane (Beddoe et al. 2011; Bannour et al. 2014). Typical
results of Bannour et al. (2014) shown in Figure 1a reveal
200
Constant slope in Bannour et al. (2014)
saturation regime at
Gravimetric water content (w) (%)

160 various net mean/vertical stress

of net mean stress and temperature on the hydraulic
behavior of a GCL (Zhou and Rowe 2003; Azad et al.
2012; Ghorbani et al. 2018; Ghavam-Nasiri et al. 2019a). 120 Points at various
One of the major issues with the experimental studies on net mean/vertical
stress merge indicating
GCLs considering net mean stress and the temperature is constant slope in transition
the duration of the test. The presence of bentonite along 80 and residual regime
with the composite structure of a GCL makes water σv = 10 kPa
retention and volumetric measurements in the unsaturated 40
σv = 50 kPa
zone quite laborious. Most of the experimental data points σv = 100 kPa
are highly scattered in the high suction zones due to poor σv = 200 kPa
contact and capillary breaks (Southen and Rowe 2007; 0
Acikel et al. 2015; Ghavam-Nasiri et al. 2019a). Often, 10–1 100 101 102 103 104 105 106
Suction (kPa)
suitable hydro-mechanical mathematical models are effec- (a)
tively employed to represent the experimentally observed
behavior. But most of these models require an extensive 100 20 kPa, 20°C
number of calibration parameters from a lot of experimen-
Apparent degree of saturation (Sr) (%)

20 kPa, 35°C
tal data or more than one experimental stress-dependent 20 kPa, 40°C
80
WRC, which are not easy to obtain (Zhou and Rowe 2003; 0 kPa, 20°C
Azad et al. 2012; Ghavam-Nasiri et al. 2019a). 0 kPa, 35°C
Keeping the above points in mind, in the present study, 60
At low suctions 0 kPa, 60°C
a brief review of the water retention and volume change significant difference
behavior of GCLs under various net mean stress and in apparent saturation
40
temperature are carried out. A theoretical thermo-hydro-
At mid to high suctions
mechanical framework is proposed based on the exper- insignificant difference
imental observations from water retention and volume 20 in apparent saturation
change characteristics of a GCL. Based on characteristic
Ghavam-Nasiri et al. (2019a)
features of the GCL, a stress-dependent WRC framework, 0
namely the Pham and Fredlund model (Pham and 10–1 100 101 102 103 104 105 106
Fredlund 2008), and a volumetric framework, namely Suction (kPa)
(b)
the SFG model (Sheng et al. 2008), were chosen. The
proposed mathematical model was then validated with
Figure 1. WRC of (a) needle-punched GCL with granular sodium
experimental data sets available in the literature on bentonite (wetting) under various net mean/vertical stress (data
WRC and volume change behavior of GCLs considering from Bannour et al. 2014), and (b) pre-hydrated GCL with
variation in the net mean stress and temperature. The powdered bentonite, needle-punched and thermally treated at
proposed framework has the advantage of predicting the different temperatures (T ) (data from Ghavam-Nasiri et al.
thermo-hydro-mechanical response of GCLs with 2019a)
Geosynthetics International, 2021, 28, No. 2

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 176 Rajesh, Roy and Khan

that with the increase in the net mean stress, a significant
decrease in the maximum gravimetric water content and a
noticeable increase in the air entry value of the GCL is
observed. Nevertheless, the variation in the magnitude of
residual suction with the increase in the net mean stress
was found to be negligible. Interestingly, the slope of the
WRC in saturation, transition, and residual regimes
remains constant, irrespective of the chosen magnitude
of net mean stress. These features of WRC for GCLs
under different net stress conditions closely resemble the
behavior of fine-grained soils, wherein the micro-pores
located in the residual regime remain unaffected by the
change in density and/or net mean stress (Salager et al.
2010; Gao and Sun 2017; Roy and Rajesh 2020). Even
though GCLs behave as composite materials, the bento-
nite in the GCL could control the WRC more than
the geotextiles, as the geotextile has no significant influ-
ence on the WRC beyond relatively low suction values
(Bouazza et al. 2006; Abuel-Naga and Bouazza 2012;
Seiphoori et al. 2016); hence, the response of GCLs under
various net mean stress conditions is similar to fine-
grained soils.
Another important variable that could control the
water retention behavior of GCL is the temperature. The
experimental observations on GCLs confirm that with
the increase in the temperature, a significant variation
in gravimetric water content was noticed, especially at the
low suction range (saturation regime), while at higher
accurately. The WRC model proposed by Pham and
Fredlund (2008) is adopted in the present study, as it can
model accurately the water retention behavior of expan-
sive soils in the gravimetric plane. Pham and Fredlund
(PF) model adopted in the study is given in Equation (1).

 h

w ¼wmax M1g þ M3g þ S1g  logðψ aev Þ M1g þ M3g
i   6   
10 ψr
M2g þ S2g M1g log  log M3g þ M2g
ψ aev ψ aev
ð1Þ
where, wmax is the maximum gravimetric water content at
1 kPa suction (the influence of geotextiles is neglected),
ψ aev is the air entry value, ψ r is the residual suction, S1g and
S2g are the slope of the curve in saturation and transition
regime, t1g and t2g are curve fitting parameters that control
transition portions of the curve, M1g , M2g and M3g are
fitting functions depending on ψ , ψ aev , ψ r , t1g and t2g .
Considering the experimental observations, a schematic
representation of the water retention behavior of GCL
under two different net mean stresses, po and p1 ( p1 > po),
and two different temperatures, T0 and T1 (T1 > To), is
illustrated in Figures 2a and 2b respectively. The water
retention response of GCL at any net mean stress can be
obtained from the modified PF model given in Equation
WRC at net mean stress po
Gravimetric water content (w) (%)

WRC at net mean stress p1 > po

suctions (transition and residual regime), the effect of po
w max p p po
ψ aev
S2g1
= S2go
temperature was found to be insignificant (Abuel-Naga p1
w max p
ψ aev
1

and Bouazza 2012; Risken 2014; Ghavam-Nasiri et al. p

S1go
2019a). A typical result of Ghavam-Nasiri et al. (2019a), p1
S1g
p
= S1go
a
shown in Figure 1b, reveals that with a change in the b
temperature a significant variation in the WRC is notice-
p p
able, especially in the saturation regime. This could be ψ r 1= ψ r o
p p
due to a combined effect of modified surface tension and S3g1 = S3go

thermal-induced volume changes (Abuel-Naga and Log suction (kPa)

Bouazza 2012). In the saturation regime, an increase in a - Significant difference in water content due to volume change
temperature often alters the swelling pressure/void ratio of in consolidation
bentonite, leading to changes in the maximum gravimetric b - No difference in water content at higher suctions

water content and air entry value of GCLs. Moreover, the (a)
initial slope of the saturation regime for a WRC is WRC at temperature To
Apparent degree of saturation (Sr) (%)

equivalent to the slope of the consolidation curve for WRC at temperature T1 > To
Gravimetric water content (w) (%)

fine-grained soils (Pham and Fredlund 2008; Gao and T

wmax
o
or Srmax
o T
T T
S2g1 = S2go S2g
oT T
ψ aev
o

Sun 2017; Rajesh et al. 2017) which remains unaffected by T1

wmax or
T1
Srmax
T1
ψ aev
temperature (Cui et al. 2000; Graham et al. 2001). Beyond S1go
T

the saturation regime, the effect of temperature will induce a

or

T T
S1g1 = S1go
very insignificant changes in suction values due to surface b
tension (Risken 2014; Ghavam-Nasiri et al. 2019a), which ψro
T
T
causes the residual suction and slope in transition, the S3go T
ψ r 1 Close to the
T T
residual regime of the WRC, to remain unaltered under S3g1 = S3go reference
the influence of temperature. residual suction
Log suction (kPa)

a - Significant difference in water content due to thermal volume

2.2.2 Framework and methodology
The salient features observed from the experiments can be
incorporated in a WRC model to account for the influence
of net mean stress and temperature on the water retention
behavior of a GCL. As GCLs contain bentonite (swelling
clay), the WRC model must be chosen carefully, such that
the salient features of swelling clays can be captured
Geosynthetics International, 2021, 28, No. 2
change and surface tension
b - Negligible difference in water content only due to surface
tension
(b)
Figure 2. Schematic representation of water retention behavior in
a GCL under the combined effect of (a) net mean stress and
suction, and (b) temperature and suction

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 Modeling the WRC and volume change behavior of GCLs considering net stress and temperature 177
p
(2) by knowing all calibration parameters ψ paev, ψ pr , S1g , (2) Determine the calibration parameters by the fitting
p p p
S2g , t1g and t2g respectively. However, as is evident from of the experimental data of gravimetric water
experimental observation, apart from wpmax and ψ paev at content vs. soil suction at reference net mean stress
required net mean stress, all other calibration parameters ( po) and temperature (To) using Equation (1).
can be identical to the reference WRC. Similarly, for water (3) Measure the maximum gravimetric water content at
retention response of GCL also under the influence of various net mean stresses (wpmax ) and reference
temperature, it can be concluded from experimental temperature (To)
observations that apart from wTmax and ψ Taev at the required (4) Determine the modified air-entry value (ψ paev ) at
temperature, all other calibration parameters are constant. various net mean stresses ( p) using Equation (3).
For the sake of simplicity, the modified PF model has (5) After determining wpmax and ψ paev , obtain the
been provided with superscript k signifying net mean predicted WRC at various net mean stresses ( p) and
stress ( p) or temperature (T ). reference temperature (To) from Equation (2).

 h

 (6) After obtaining the predicted WRC at various net
wk ¼wkmax M1g
k k
þ M3g k
þ S1g  log ψ kaev M1g k k
þ M3g mean stresses ( p) and reference temperature (To),
" ! ! #
i 106 ψ kr determine the maximum gravimetric water content
k k k k k
M2g þ S2g M1g log log M3g þ M2g at various temperatures (wTmax ) and chosen net mean
ψ kaev ψ kaev
stress ( pi).
ð2Þ
(7) Determine the modified air-entry value at chosen
The value of wpmax or wTmax can be obtained from lab- net mean stresses ( pi) and various temperatures (T )
oratory experiments on the hydration of GCL or loading of using Equation (3).
a pre-hydrated GCL under the required net mean stresses (8) Obtain the predicted WRC at chosen net mean
( p) in temperature-controlled water baths (T ). An alternate stresses ( pi) and various temperature (T ) using
way of determining it is from the conventional or thermal the PF Equation (2) by putting the wTmax and ψ Taev .
consolidation curve of a pre-hydrated GCL (i.e. bulk void (9) Modify the suctions in predicted WRC to
ratio – net mean stress curve) (Ghavam-Nasiri et al. 2019a). incorporate the effect of surface tension
The modified air entry value (ψ paev or ψ Taev ) under net mean following Equation (4).
stress can be determined by equating the slope of the (10) Once the gravimetric WRC at a particular
respective (net mean stress or temperature) residual temperature (T ) is modeled, the apparent degree
portions of the PF model and can be given as of saturation WRC for a GCL (Sr) at the modified
 suctions can be also obtained from wT =wTmax o
. The
ψ kaev ¼10A1 =A2 where A1 ¼ wkmax o
 wkmax methodology for the determination of WRC is

 

ko ko ko ko further illustrated with the help of a flow chart
þ S2g  S1g log ψ kaev
o
; A2 ¼ S2g  S1g
in Figure S1.
ð3Þ
where the superscript k signifies net mean stress ( p) or 2.3. Volume change behavior for GCL under various net
temperature (T ). Further details of deriving this expression mean stress, suction, and temperature
are provided in Roy and Rajesh (2020). Considering the 2.3.1 Experimental observations
effect of temperature, the above modification is only for The volume change behavior of a GCL under net mean
thermal volume change. The effect of surface tension can stress and suction can be comparatively different from
be further incorporated by modifying the predicted suction expansive soils due to the presence of geotextiles, fibers
value as suggested by Ghavam-Nasiri et al. (2019a) present in bentonite, and constraint thickness owing to the

    
T þ 273:15 1:256 T þ 273:15
0:2358 1  1  0:625 1 
ψT Tc þ 273:15 Tc þ 273:15
¼  1:256    ð4Þ
ψ To To þ 273:15 To þ 273:15
0:2358 1  1  0:625 1 
Tc þ 273:15 Tc þ 273:15

where ψ To is the suction at reference temperature To (°C)
and ψ T is the suction at temperature T (°C) and Tc is the
critical temperature given as 373.95°C.
The methodology adopted to predict the WRC of
GCLs at different net mean stresses ( p) and temperatures
(T ) are as follows.
(1) Measure the experimental data of gravimetric water
content vs. soil suction at reference net mean stress
( po) and temperature (To) in the laboratory.
Geosynthetics International, 2021, 28, No. 2
stitching or needle punching of carrier and cover
geotextiles (i.e. geotextile encasement). GCLs tend to
swell (i.e. increase in the bulk void ratio) upon wetting till
a particular water content is reached, after which the
swelling is restricted due to the geotextile encasement,
leading to a limited thickness of the GCL. Before
attaining the limited thickness, the swelling behavior of
GCL is exactly similar to the bentonite core present within
the GCL, as shown in Figure 3a (Suzuki et al. 2017).
Similarly, when the pre-hydrated GCL is allowed to dry,

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 178 Rajesh, Roy and Khan

9 6
Suzuki et al. (2017) Data σv = 0.5 kPa Southen and Rowe (2007)
8 Data σv = 100 kPa

Swelling displacement ΔHs (mm)

5 Minimal reduction in
Bentonite + woven Geotextiles
7 bulk void ratio due
Bentonite + nonwoven Geotextiles to geotextile constraint

Bulk void ratio (eB)

6 Bentonite 4
ψ 0.5
y
5 GCL follows
3 drying curve
4 Swelling similar to bentonite
of bentonite
Minimal
3 swelling 2 Decrease in
ψ 100
y
due to saturated
2 geotextile bulk void ratio
1 under net mean/
1
vertical stress
0 0
100 101 102 103 104 105 10–1 100 101 102 103 104 105 106
Submersion time (min) Suction (kPa)
(a) (b)

Figure 3. (a) Swelling of bentonite and bentonite with woven and nonwoven geotextiles for a submersion period of seven days (data from
Suzuki et al. 2017); (b) shrinkage of GCL under the effect of vertical stress and suction (data from Southen and Rowe 2007)

Thermal expansion
Thermal expansion at temperature T1 and T2
at temperature T1

ψ yT2
ψ yT1 ψ yT1
ψ yTo
Bulk void ratio (eB)
Bulk void ratio (eB)

All curves have same slope ψ yTo

ψ yT2 All curves have same slope

Thermal contraction
at temperature T2

To To
T1 T1
Decrease in suction yield stress T2 Decrease in suction yield stress T2
with respect to temperature with respect to temperature
Log suction (kPa) Log suction (kPa)
(a) (b)

Figure 4. Schematic representation of the change in the volume and yield stress under the combined effect of temperature (T2 > T1 > To)
(max 60°C) and suction in the GCL for (a) Case I, and (b) Case II

the shrinkage (decrease in the bulk void ratio) will be the suction of GCLs under the various magnitudes of
negligible up to a particular suction/gravimetric water temperature (T2 > T1 > T0) is shown in Figure 4. In the
content, after which there will be a significant reduction in saturated regime, depending on the change in swelling
the bulk void ratio of the GCL as shown in Figure 3b. In pressure (Ps) of bentonite with respect to temperature
analogy with the swelling behavior during wetting of the (@Ps =@T) and stress from reinforcing fibers of geotextile
GCL, it can be said that the drying curve of the GCL after (σf ) with respect to temperature (@σ f =@T), the bulk
the specific suction value/gravimetric water content void ratio at minimum suction of GCL may undergo
follows the drying curve of the bentonite present within expansion, contraction or negligible volume change
the GCL. This specific suction value, known as yield (Abuel-Naga and Bouazza 2012). However, in both
point/stress ψ y (Chiu and Ng 2012), arises primarily due cases, @σ f =@T  @Ps =@T (case I) or @σ f =@T . @Ps =@T
to the existing pre-consolidation pressure provided by the (case II), there is a decrease in suction yield stress, as
geotextile encasement (Lake and Rowe 2000; Kang and shown in Figures 4a and 4b respectively. At the post-yield
Shackelford 2009). Under the effect of net mean stress, in phase, the bulk void ratio of GCL will follow the drying
the drying phase there is a change in bulk void ratio at curve of bentonite, which is dependent on the virgin
minimum suction of the GCL, as shown in Figure 3b. compression index of pre-hydrated bentonite and remains
Also, the drying curve of GCLs under different net mean unchanged with temperature (Campanella and Mitchell
stresses follows a similar trend to the drying curve under 1968; Cui et al. 2000; Graham et al. 2001).
negligible net mean stress.
The change in the bulk void ratio of a pre-hydrated 2.3.2 Framework and methodology
GCL, especially the bentonite core under the variation of The void ratio of the bentonite core varies significantly
temperature is substantially less compared to the vari- compared to the void ratio or thickness of the geotextile
ation of the net mean stress condition (Abuel-Naga and under the influence of net mean stress, temperature, and
Bouazza 2012). A typical variation of bulk void ratio with suction (Chai et al. 2016; Ghavam-Nasiri et al. 2019a).
Geosynthetics International, 2021, 28, No. 2

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 Modeling the WRC and volume change behavior of GCLs considering net stress and temperature 179

However, the volume change of the bentonite core is
restricted due to the presence of geotextile encasement
(Suzuki et al. 2017). Hence, the volume change behavior
of GCL can be modeled using existing void ratio
constitutive models for unsaturated soils, such as the
Sheng-Fredlund-Gens model (Sheng et al. 2008). For
GCLs they are a suitable choice as the volume change
behavior of a GCL resembles a pre-consolidated soil rather
than a swelling soil due to the geotextile encasement.
Following the SFG model, the change in the bulk void ratio
of GCLs under the effect of suction at net mean stress p or
temperature T can be derived using the expression
λψ
dvkB ¼  dψ
pþψ
where the superscript k denotes net mean stress ( p) or
temperature (T ), vkB is the specific bulk volume ( = 1 + ekB )
at a particular net mean stress p or temperature T, ekB is the
bulk void ratio of GCL (Petrov and Rowe 1997) and λψ is
the elastoplastic compression index related to an increase
in suction ψ given as
8 9
< λp  for ψ  ψ sa =
λψ ¼ ψ sa ð6Þ
: λp for ψ . ψ sa ;
ψ and chosen net mean stress ( pi) from laboratory
where λp is the elastoplastic compression index related to
the increase in net mean stress and ψsa is the saturation
suction. Solving the above equations, the bulk void ratio
under the effect of suction can be given as
(2) Determine the calibration parameters (pTyoo , λp, κp,
and ψsa) by the fitting of the experimental data of the
bulk void ratio vs. soil suction at reference net mean
stress ( po) and temperature (To) using Equations (7)
and (8). Alternatively, the calibration parameters can
be obtained from the consolidation curve of the
pre-hydrated GCL. The value of ψsa is equivalent to
the air entry value of the GCL in the degree of
saturation plane.
(3) Measure the bulk void ratio at minimum suction
(ψmin) for various net mean stress (epB jψ¼ψmin )
and reference temperature (To) from laboratory
experiments of loading on pre-hydrated GCLs
ð5Þ under the required net mean stresses or from
the consolidation curve of pre-hydrated GCLs
(i.e. bulk void ratio – net mean stress curve).
(4) Predict the variation of bulk void ratio with
suction for various net mean stresses ( p) and
reference temperature (To) using Equations (7)
and (8).
(5) After obtaining the bulk void ratio – suction relation
at various net mean stresses ( p) and reference
temperature (To), measure the bulk void ratio at
minimum suction (ψmin) for various temperatures (T )
experiments on the hydration of GCLs in
temperature-controlled water baths or the thermal
consolidation curve of a pre-hydrated GCL at the
chosen net mean stress.

8   9
> pþψ
>
< ln vB jψ¼ψmin  λp ln p þ ψ
> k
for ψ , ψ sa >
>
>
=
min
ln vkB ¼     ð7Þ
>
> p þ ψ sa ψ ψ p þ ψ sa >
>
>
: ln vkB jψ¼ψmin  λp ln  λp sa ln for ψ  ψ sa >
;
p þ ψ min p ψ sa p þ ψ

where ψmin is the minimum suction. The yield surface for (6) Determine the modified yield surface at chosen net
net mean stress ( p) and temperature (T ) can be given as mean stresses ( pi) and various temperatures (T )
8 9 using Equation (8).
yo þ α T ð T  T o Þ  ψ
pT ψ , ψ sa =
1
< o

ψ
(7) Obtain the predicted bulk void ratio – suction
py ¼
: pT
yo þ αT ðT  To Þ  ψ sa  ðψ sa Þ ln
o 1 ψ  ψ sa ; curve at chosen net mean stresses ( pi) and various
ψ sa
temperatures (T ) using Equations (7) and (8).
ð8Þ
where pTis the preconsolidation pressure in the pre-
yo
o
The methodology for the determination of the bulk void
hydrated state at reference temperature To, and α1T is ratio vs. suction is further illustrated with the help of a
the parameter dependent on thermal coefficient of the flow chart in Figure S2.
GCL. Within the yield surface, the volume change can be
predicted for elastic deformation by replacing the elasto-
plastic compression index (λp) with the elastic compression 3. EXPERIMENTAL VALIDATIONS
index (κp) (Zhou et al. 2014).
The methodology to evaluate the volume change Experimental datasets of water retention and volume
behavior of GCLs using the SFG model at different net change of the GCL under the effect of net mean stress and
mean stresses ( p) and temperatures (T ), is as follows. temperature are validated in this section using the
proposed framework.
(1) Measure the experimental data of the bulk void ratio
vs. soil suction at reference net mean stress ( po) and 3.1. Water retention behavior of GCLs
temperature (To) in the laboratory. This can be taken The water retention behavior of a GCL (commercially
as the shrinkage curve of GCL as well. known as Bentofix BFG 5000™) was studied under the
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 180 Rajesh, Roy and Khan

200 Experimental decrement of w

at 10 kPa applied equivalently Fit σv = 10 kPa (R2 = 0.9837) Bannour et al. (2014)
200

Gravimetric water content (w) (%)

Gravimetric water content (w) (%)

to model at 1 kPa as both are in Predicted σv = 50 kPa (R2 = 0.9586)
160 saturation regime
Calibration
Predicted σv = 100 kPa (R2 = 0.9327)
160 parameters
Calibration Predicted σv = 200 kPa (R2 = 0.9926)
ψaev = 79.87 kPa
120 parameters
Data σv = 3.0/0 kPa ψr = 2993.73 kPa
ψaev = 554.60 kPa 120
t1g = 13.49
Data σv = 100 kPa ψr = 4499.94 kPa
t2g = 1.12
80 Fitted σv = 3.0/0 kPa t1g = 37.01
80 S1g = 10
(R2 = 0.9553) t2g = 1.29
Data σv = 10 kPa S2g = 65.26
Predicted σv = 100 kPa S1g = 11.91
40 S2g = 151.35 40 Data σv = 50 kPa
(R2 = 0.9422)
Data σv = 100 kPa
Southen and Rowe (2007) Data σv = 200 kPa
0 0
10–1 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 10–1 100 101 102 103 104 105 106
Suction (kPa) Suction (kPa)
(a) (b)

Figure 5. Fitted and predicted WRC at under various net mean stress for (a) GCL with powdered bentonite, carrier-woven and cover
nonwoven needle-punched geotextile (data from Southen and Rowe 2007), and (b) needle-punched GCL with granular bentonite (data from
Bannour et al. 2014)

effect of net vertical stress of 0 kPa, 3 kPa, and 100 kPa in conclusion can be made about the predicted results.
a pressure plate and pressure membrane extractor by According to Risken (2014), this discrepancy in
Southen and Rowe (2007). The experimental data points results might have arisen due to errors in calibration
for gravimetric water content vs. suction at various net associated with the filter paper method under various
vertical stresses along the drying path are shown in temperatures.
Figure 5a. The data points at net vertical stress of 0 kPa A systematic study was conducted by Ghavam-Nasiri
and 3 kPa were chosen to determine the reference WRC et al. (2019a) on the WRC of GCL following the drying
( po). To find wpmax (158.42%) at 100 kPa ( p1), in absence path under the combined effect of net vertical stress (0/10
of the data at 1 kPa suction, reduction in the gravimetric to 20 kPa at 20°C) and temperature (20°C to 35°C at
water content at 10 kPa suction from experimental data 20 kPa) respectively. To predict the WRC of a GCL under
was equivalently applied to 1 kPa as both are within the the combined effect, experimental data points for
saturation regime. The predicted WRC for 100 kPa shown 0/10 kPa ( po) at 20°C (To) were fitted to obtain the
in Figure 5a has a good match with the experimental reference WRC and the calibration parameters listed in
results. The minimum and maximum deviations of Figure 6a respectively. The predicted WRC at a net
gravimetric water content from experimental data were vertical stress of 20 kPa is also shown in Figure 6a. The
found to be 1% and 27% respectively. The high deviation experimental bulk void ratio and the apparent degree of
is probably due to scattered data points at the same saturation at a net vertical stress of 20 kPa were utilized to
suction value. obtain the experimental value of wpmax at 20 kPa using
The effect of net vertical stress on the water retention saturated mass-volume relationships as suggested by the
behavior of a needle-punched GCL containing gra- authors (Sr = 100% and epB jψ¼ψmin = 3.92 at 20 kPa).
nular sodium bentonite was studied by Bannour et al. For the elevated temperature of 35°C (T1) at net vertical
(2014). WRCs of the GCL were evaluated in a suction- stress of 20 kPa, the same calibration parameters, and the
controlled oedometer at net vertical stresses of 10 kPa predicted WRC at a net vertical stress of 20 kPa and
( po = 6.67 kPa), 50 kPa, 100, and 200 kPa along the temperature of 20°C (To) are utilized. The value of the
wetting path. Experimental water retention data for apparent degree of saturation at this specific temperature is
the needle-punched GCL during wetting is shown in taken from the experimental data provided by the authors
Figure 5b. Predicted gravimetric WRCs at higher net at minimum suction (Sr = 92.19% for 35°C). The predicted
vertical stresses of 50, 100, and 200 kPa show a close curves for 35°C at a net vertical stress of 20 kPa are shown
match with the experimental results. A deviation of in Figure 6b. It is observed that at higher suctions,
gravimetric water content varying between 0.12 to 30% deviations from the experimental results are noticed. This
for 50 kPa, 0.06 to 20% for 100 kPa, and 0.07 to 11% for may be attributed to the value of the apparent degree of
200 kPa respectively from the experimental values is saturation used for prediction, which must be found out
observed. appropriately from experimental results.
The effect of temperature on the water retention A comparison of the present model is also made with
behavior of a needle-punched GCL containing granular the results of the model proposed by Ghavam-Nasiri et al.
bentonite was investigated by Risken (2014) using a (2019a). It is observed that even though the predicted
pressure plate, relative humidity chamber, and filter results by the authors under net mean stress shows a close
paper technique at 2°C, 20°C and 40°C. The measured match with the experimental results, a high deviation is
and predicted WRC using the proposed formulation at observed for the results under temperature, which shows
various temperatures are shown in Figure S3a. Due to the efficacy of the present model over the available models
excessive scattering of the experimental data, no definite to predict the water retention behavior of GCL.
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 Modeling the WRC and volume change behavior of GCLs considering net stress and temperature 181

100 Ghavam-Nasiri et al. (2019a) 100

Apparent degree of saturation (Sr) (%)

Apparent degree of saturation (Sr) (%)

Calibration
80 parameters 80
Data 0/10 kPa, 20°C
ψaev = 57.51 kPa
Data 20 kPa, 20°C
ψr = 8000.27 kPa
60 Fitted 0/10 kPa, 20°C t1g = 1.35
60 Data 20 kPa, 20°C
(R2 = 0.9986)
t2g = 5.57 Data 20 kPa, 35°C
Predicted 20 kPa, 20°C S1g = 0 Predicted 20 kPa, 20°C (R2 = 0.9996)
40 (R2 = 0.9974) 40
S2g = 40.57 Predicted 20 kPa, 35°C (R2 = 0.7251)
Predicted 0/10 kPa, 20°C Predicted 20 kPa, 35°C
20 (Ghavam-Nasiri et al. 2019) 20 (Ghavam-Nasiri et al. 2019a)
Predicted 20 kPa, 20°C
(Ghavam-Nasiri et al. 2019) Ghavam-Nasiri et al. (2019a)
0 0
10–1 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 10–1 100 101 102 103
Suction (kPa) Suction (kPa)
(a) (b)

Figure 6. Fitted and predicted WRC of needle-punched and thermally treated GCL with powdered bentonite at different (a) net mean
stresses, and (b) temperatures (data from Ghavam-Nasiri et al. 2019a)

6
Calibration parameters Southen and Rowe (2007) Possible air entry value
Southen and Rowe (2007) 1.0
pyo = 500 kPa
5 kp = 0.01
λp = 0.22 0.8
Bulk void ratio (eB)

4 ψsa = 1081.06 kPa

Degree of saturation (S)

Fitted
0.6 t1s = 5.22
3 parameters
S = 0.95 t2s = 4.57
ψaev = 1050.02 kPa S1s = 0.01
0.4 ψr = 6000 kPa
2 Data σv = 0.5 kPa S2s = 0.58
Data σv = 100 kPa
0.2 Pressure plate (0 kPa)
1 Calibrated σv = 0.5 kPa
Pressure membrane (0.5 kPa)
Predicted σv = 100 kPa (R2 = 0.7779) Fitted (R2 = 0.7928)
0 0
10–1 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 10–1 100 101 102 103 104 105
Suction (kPa) Suction (kPa)
(a) (b)

Figure 7. (a) Fitted and predicted volume change, and (b) experimental data and fitted degree of saturation WRC for GCLs with
powdered bentonite, carrier-woven and cover nonwoven needle-punched geotextile (data from Southen and Rowe 2007)

3.6. Volume change behavior for GCLs range, which makes the calibration of the reference
Southen and Rowe (2007) studied the volume change curve less precise.
behavior of a GCL under the combined effect of net Risken (2014) studied the volume change behavior of
vertical stress and suction. The experimental data points multiple GCL samples using Vernier calipers at three
for the bulk void ratio of the GCL under the effect of different temperatures of 2°C, 20°C and 40°C under 2 kPa
0.5 kPa and 100 kPa net vertical stresses measured over a net vertical stresses. The measured and predicted curves
wide range of suction from 10 to 10 000 kPa are plotted in are shown in Figure S3b along with their coefficient of
Figure 7a. The reference curve (0.5 kPa net vertical stress) determination. Similar to the WRC prediction of Risken
was calibrated appropriately to obtain the calibration (2014), for the volume change behavior excessive scatter-
parameters. The value of saturation suction ψsa is taken ing of the experimental data also makes it difficult to draw
close to the air entry value from the degree of saturation a logical conclusion about the predicted results.
WRC of the GCL as shown in Figure 7b. To predict Ghavam-Nasiri et al. (2019a) studied the combined
the bulk void ratio vs. suction at higher net vertical effect of net vertical stress and temperature on the volume
stress of 100 kPa ( p1 = 66.67 kPa by assuming Ko = 0.5), change of a needle-punched and thermally treated GCL.
the experimental value of the bulk void ratio at Data for bulk void ratio vs. suction data of the GCL at
minimum suction for this net vertical stress was utilized varying stresses (10 kPa to 20 kPa at 20°C) and varying
(epB jψ¼ψmin = 2.59). It can be inferred from the coefficient temperatures (20°C, 35°C and 40°C for 20 kPa) are
of determination that the predicted curve matches presented in Figures 8a and 8b respectively. To evaluate
closely with the experimental results. However, a signifi- the volume change behavior under the combined effect,
cant deviation is observed from the experimental bulk first the reference bulk void ratio vs. suction curve for
void ratio in both the reference and the predicted curve 10 kPa ( po = 6.67 kPa, considering Ko = 0.5) at 20°C (To),
at high suction. This is probably due to the lower number is fitted to obtain the calibration parameters. The predicted
of experimental data points over the higher suction bulk void ratio vs. suction at higher net vertical stress of
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 182 Rajesh, Roy and Khan

6 5
Ghavam-Nasiri et al. (2019a) Calibration
Ghavam-Nasiri et al. (2019a)
parameters
5 20°C
pyo = 21.67 kPa
kp = 4.40 × 10–3 4
Bulk void ratio (eB)

Bulk void ratio (eB)

4 λp = 9.12 × 10–2 Data 20 kPa, 20°C
ψsa = 828.51 kPa Data 20 kPa, 35°C
3 3 Data 20 kPa, 40°C
Predicted 20 kPa, 20°C
(R2 = 0.9234)
2 Data σv = 10 kPa (20°C)
Data σv = 20 kPa (20°C) Predicted 20 kPa, 35°C
2
(R2 = 0.8233) Calibration
1 Calibrated σv = 10 kPa (20°C) parameters
Predicted 20 kPa, 040°C
Predicted σv = 20 kPa (20°C) (R2 = 0.9234) (R2 = 0.9324) α T1 = –2.50 × 10–4
0 1
10–1 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 10–1 100 101 102 103
Suction (kPa) Suction (kPa)
(a) (b)

Figure 8. Calibrated and predicted volume change for a needle-punched and thermally treated GCL with powdered bentonite at different
(a) net mean stresses and (b) temperatures (data from Ghavam-Nasiri et al. 2019a)

20 kPa ( p1 = 13.33 kPa considering Ko = 0.5) is shown in These calibration parameters are mostly obtained from
Figure 8a. The void ratio at the minimum suction for the laboratory experiments on GCLs, which are them-
various temperatures is utilized to predict the bulk void selves quite time-consuming, lack repeatability and
ratio at various suctions with variation in temperature (4.05 precision due to the expansive nature of GCLs and
for 35°C, and 3.82 for 40°C). A slight discrepancy is limitations associated with suction measuring/inducing
observed for the predicted curve of 35°C, which is probably instruments (Risken 2014). Hence, adequate care has to be
due to the mismatch of the initial void ratio at minimum taken while obtaining the required calibration parameters.
suction. Nevertheless, the maximum and minimum void Also, the proposed water retention framework under the
ratio deviation from the experimental results is observed to combined effect of net mean stress and temperature works
be only 0.77% and 3.96% for 20°C, 1% and 8.48% for 35°C along with a specific drying or wetting path, which
and 0.75% and 6.61% for 40°C respectively, which makes it impossible to capture the hysteresis of WRC in
determines the effectiveness of the model. GCLs. The chosen void ratio constitutive model, on the
other hand, cannot deal with complex issues like plastic
volumetric expansion for expansive clays during wetting
4. POTENTIAL APPLICATION AND (Sheng et al. 2008). Further development of the proposed
LIMITATIONS framework to incorporate such behavior must be probed
in order to simulate the thermo-hydro-mechanical behav-
The efficacy of GCLs in MSW landfills is highly ior of GCLs with greater efficacy.
dependent on their capability to prevent the flow of
harmful gases and leachates discharged from the solid
wastes. Under varying net stresses and temperatures, the
water retention behavior of the GCL is altered severely.
5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Moreover, the change in void ratio under these conditions In the present study, a theoretical framework based on
induces settlement and alters the permeability of the experimental observations is proposed for predicting the
GCL material. The long-term performance of the chosen combined effect of net mean stress and temperature on
GCL is often assessed using thermo-hydro-mechanical water retention and volume change behavior of GCLs in
models, simulated under harsh environmental conditions. the unsaturated regime. The experimental studies on
However, the chosen thermo-hydro-mechanical model GCLs under varied mean stresses reveal that a significant
must effectively simulate the changes in water retention change in the WRC under the drying and wetting path has
behavior and void ratio of the GCL in close agreement occurred mainly in the saturation regime, but beyond
with experimental results. The proposed model developed residual suction, the influence of net mean stress was
in this study has been validated with several experimental found to be negligible in the gravimetric water content
results available on GCLs under varying conditions of net plane. Similarly, with the increase in the temperature, a
stress and temperature using minimal input parameters significant variation in gravimetric water content,
(only one WRC and shrinkage curve under normal especially at the low suction range (saturation regime)
temperature and pressure). A fair prediction of the was noticed due to the combined effect of modified
WRC and volume change behavior of GCLs indicates surface tension and thermal-induced volume changes,
that the developed framework can be further used as a while at higher suctions the influence of temperature is
potential tool in numerical modeling to simulate the found to be insignificant. Hence, the maximum water
hydraulic and deformation behavior of GCLs. content and the air entry value of the GCL at varied
Having said that, it should be noted that the proposed mean stresses and temperatures need to be measured or
model is sensitive to the initial calibration conditions. estimated to predict the corresponding WRCs. The
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 Modeling the WRC and volume change behavior of GCLs considering net stress and temperature 183

stress-dependent Pham and Fredlund WRC model Sr apparent degree of saturation (dimensionless)
and SFG model were modified to predict the thermo- T temperature (°C)
hydro-mechanical response of GCL at any chosen net Tc critical temperature (°C)
mean stress and temperature condition. The proposed To reference temperature (°C)
framework was then validated with the experimental tp1g ; tp2g curve-fitting parameters for PF model that
dataset from the literature. The proposed framework can control the transition between portions of
effectively capture the water retention behavior of GCLs the WRC at net mean stress p in gravimetric
in both gravimetric and apparent degree of saturation plane (dimensionless)
planes under varying stress histories with reasonable tT1g ; tT2g curve-fitting parameters for PF model that
accuracy. The influence of temperature on the WRC control the transition between portions of the
of the GCL was also predicted well with the proposed WRC at temperature T in gravimetric plane
framework. The variation in the bulk void ratio with (dimensionless)
suction under the influence of net mean stress and vpB specific bulk volume at net mean stress p
temperature was successfully captured using the devel- (dimensionless)
oped framework, but the accuracy of the prediction vTB specific bulk volume at temperature T
depends on the initial calibration parameters. (dimensionless)
wp gravimetric water content at net mean stress p
(dimensionless)
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS wpmax maximum gravimetric water content at net
mean stress p (dimensionless)
Funding received from the Science and Engineering
wT gravimetric water content at temperature T
Research Board, Department of Science and Technology,
(dimensionless)
India under grant Nos. SERB/F/4638/2013-14 and
wTmax maximum gravimetric water content at
CRG/2018/004612 are gratefully acknowledged.
temperature T (dimensionless)
α1T parameter dependent on thermal coefficient
of GCL (Pa/°C)
NOTATION κp elastic compression index related to change in
Basic SI units are given in parentheses. net mean stress p (dimensionless)
λp elastoplastic compression index related
eB bulk void ratio (dimensionless) to change in net mean stress p
epB jψ¼ψmin bulk void ratio at net mean stress p and (dimensionless)
minimum suction (dimensionless) λψ elastoplastic compression index related to
eTB jψ¼ψmin bulk void ratio at temperature T and minimum change in suction ψ
suction (dimensionless) σf stress from reinforcing fibers of geotextile (Pa)
Ko ratio between the horizontal and vertical σv net vertical stress (Pa)
effective stress (dimensionless) ψ suction (Pa)
Ps swelling pressure of Bentonite (Pa) ψ paev suction corresponding to air entry value at net
p net mean stress (Pa) mean stress p (Pa)
po reference net mean stress (Pa) ψ Taev suction corresponding to air entry value at
py yield stress (Pa) temperature T (Pa)
pTyoo preconsolidation pressure in saturated state at ψmin minimum suction (Pa)
reference temperature To (Pa) ψ pr suction corresponding to residual suction at
p
S1g slope of the WRC in saturation regime at net net mean stress p (Pa)
mean stress p in gravimetric plane ψ Tr suction corresponding to residual suction at
(dimentionless) temperature T (Pa)
T
S1g slope of the WRC in the saturation regime at ψ sa saturation suction (Pa)
temperature T in gravimetric plane ψT suction at temperature T (Pa)
(dimentionless) ψTo suction at temperature To (Pa)
p
S2g slope of the WRC in transition regime at net ψy yield point in drying curve or bulk void
mean stress p in gravimetric plane ratio – suction curve (Pa)
(dimentionless)
T
S2g slope of the WRC in the transition regime at
temperature T in gravimetric plane
(dimentionless)
p ABBREVIATIONS
S3g slope of the WRC in residual regime at net
mean stress p in gravimetric plane GCL geosynthetic clay liner
(dimentionless) MSW municipal solid waste
T
S3g slope of the WRC in residual regime at PF Pham and Fredlund model
temperature T in gravimetric plane SFG Sheng-Fredlund-Gens model
(dimentionless) WRC water retention curve
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 184
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