Chapter1 MAGNETISM

INTRODUCTION: The study of magnetism began in the thirteenth century with many eminent scientists and physicists. The
association between electricity and magnetism is a fairly recent finding in comparison with the very first understanding of basic
magnetism.

DEFINITION: A permanent magnet is a piece of ferromagnetic material (such as iron, nickel or cobalt) which has properties of
attracting other pieces of these materials.

PROPERTIES OF A MAGNET: all magnets have the following properties;

1. Attractive properties: magnet attracts ferromagnetic materials like iron, cobalt and nickel
2. Repulsive properties: like magnetic pole repel each other and unlike magnetic poles attract each other.
3. Directive properties: A freely suspended magnet always points north-south direction

MAGNETIC FIELD AND SPECTRUM: A permanent magnet will position itself in a north and south direction when freely
suspended. The north-seeking end of the magnet is called the North Pole, N, and the south-seeking end the South Pole, S. The area
around a magnet is called the magnetic field and it is in this area that the effects of the magnetic force produced by the magnet can
be detected. Therefore magnetic field is the region around a magnet were magnetic force is experience.

A magnetic field cannot be seen, felt, smelled or heard and therefore is difficult to represent. Michael Faraday suggested that the
magnetic field could be represented pictorially, by imagining the field to consist of lines of magnetic flux, which enables
investigation of the distribution and density of the field to be carried out.

Properties of magnetic lines of force. The important properties of magnetic lines of force are :
(i) Each magnetic line of force forms a closed loop i.e. outside the magnet, the direction of a magnetic line of force is from north pole to
south pole and it continues through the body of the magnet to form a closed loop
(ii) No two magnetic lines of force intersect each other. If two magnetic lines of force intersect, there would be two directions of
magnetic feld at that point which is not possible.
(iii) Where the magnetic lines of force are close together, the magnetic feld is strong and where they are well spaced out, the feld is
weak.
(iv) Magnetic lines of force contract longitudinally and widen laterally.
(v) Magnetic lines of force are always ready to pass through magnetic materials like iron in preference to pass through non-magnetic
materials like air.
It may be noted that in practice, magnetic felds are produced by:

(a) current carrying conductor or coil or

(b) a permanent magnet. Both these means of producing magnetic felds are widely used in electrical engineering.
Magnetic Flux
The number of magnetic lines of force in a magnetic feld determines the value of magnetic flux. The more the magnetic
lines of force, the greater the magnetic flux and the stronger the magnetic feld.
* Theoretically, it is not possible to get an isolated N-pole. However, a small compass needle well approximates to an isolated N-pole.
The marked end (N-pole) of the compass needle indicates the direction of magnetic lines of force

The total number of magnetic lines of force produced by a magnetic source is called magnetic flux. It is denoted by Greek
letter f (phi).
A unit N-pole is supposed to radiate out a flux of one weber. Therefore, the magnetic flux coming out of N-pole of m weber
is
Φ = m Wb

Magnetic Flux Density

The magnetic flux density is defned as the magnetic flux passing normally per unit area

Magnetic flux density, B =Φ/A Wb/m2

where Φ = flux in Wb
A = area in m2 normal to flux

The SI unit of magnetic flux density is Wb/m2 or *tesla. Flux density is a measure of feld concentration i.e. amount of flux in
each square metre of the feld. In practice, it is much more important than the total amount of flux. Magnetic flux density is
a vector quantity.

(i) When the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the flux direction, maximum
flux will pass through the coil i.e.
Maximum flux, Φm = B A in Wb
Axis of rotation

θ
B

Area A normal to B

(ii) When the plane of the coil is inclined at an angle θ to the flux direction, then flux Φ through the coil is Φ = B A sin
θ Wb
(iii) When the plane of the coil is parallel to the flux direction, θ = 0° so that no flux will pass through the coil
(Φ = BA sin 0° = 0).
Example 1. A circular coil of 100 turns and diameter 3·18 cm is mounted on an axle through a diameter and placed in a
niform magnetic feld, where the flux density is 0·01 Wb/m2, in such a manner that axle is normal to the feld direction.
Calculate :
(i) the maximum flux through the coil and the coil position at which it occurs.
(ii) the minimum flux and the coil position at which it occurs.
(iii) the flux through the coil when its plane is inclined at 60º to the flux direction
solution
(i) The maximum flux will pass through the coil when the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the flux direction
Maximum flux, Φm = B × Total coil area

= (0·01) × π r2 0·01 × π × ( 3 .18

2 )
× 10
−4
= 0·795 × 10-5 Wb θ
Uniform magnetic field, B
Wb/m2
axle

coil
(ii) When the plane of the coil is parallel to the flux direction, no flux will pass through the coil.
This is the minimum flux coil position and the minimum flux is zero.
(iii) When the plane of the coil is inclined at an angle θ to the flux direction, the flux Φ through the coil is
Φ = B A sin θ = (B A) sin θ = (0·795 × 10-5) × sin 60º
= 0·69 × 10-5 Wb

Magnetic Intensity or Magnetizing Force (H)

Magnetic intensity (or field strength) at a point in a magnetic field is the force acting on a unit N-pole (i.e., N-pole of 1 Wb) laced at that
point. Clearly, the unit of H will be N/Wb.

Magnetic Potential
The magnetic potential at any point in the magnetic field is measured by the work done in moving a unit N-pole (i.e. 1 Wb
strength) from infinity to that point against the magnetic force.

Absolute and Relative Permeability

Permeability of a material means its conductivity for magnetic flux. The greater the permeability of a material, the greater
is its conductivity for magnetic flux and vice-versa. Air or vacuum is the poorest conductor of magnetic flux. The absolute
(or actual) permeability *µ0 (Greek letter “mu”)

* The absolute (or actual) permeability of all non-magnetic materials is also 4π × 10 -7 H/m. of air or vacuum is 4π × 10-7 H/m. The
absolute (or actual) permeability µ of magnetic materials is
much greater than µ0. The ratio µ/µ0 is called the relative permeability of the material and is denoted
by µr i.e. µr = µ/ µ0
where µ = absolute (or actual) permeability of the material
µ0 = absolute permeability of air or vacuum
µr = relative permeability of the material

Relation between B and H

The flux density B produced in a material is directly proportional to the applied magnetizing force H. In other words, the
greater the magnetizing force, the greater is the flux density and vice versa i.e. B ∝ H or B/H = Constant = µ

Magnetic Materials
We can classify materials into three categories viz. diamagnetic, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic. The behaviour of
these three classes of substances is different in an external magnetic feld.
(i) When a diamagnetic substance (e.g. copper, zinc, bismuth etc.) is placed in a magnetic field, the substance if feebly
magnetised in a direction opposite to that of the applied feld. Therefore, a diamagnetic substance is feebly repelled by a
strong magnet.
(ii) When a paramagnetic substance (e.g. aluminium, antimony etc.) is placed in a magnetic feld, the substance is feebly
magnetised in the direction of the applied feld. Therefore, a paramagnetic substance is feebly attracted by a strong magnet.
(iii) When a ferromagnetic substance (e.g. iron, nickel, cobalt etc.) is placed in a magnetic feld, the substance is strongly
magnetised in the direction of the applied feld. Therefore, a ferromagnetic substance is strongly attracted by a magnet.
Note that diamagnetism and paramagnetism are weak forms of magnetism. However,
ferromagnetic substances exhibit very strong magnetic effects.