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Through the
Corruption: delving into lens of Islam
the muddy water through
the lens of Islam
139
Siti Faridah Abdul Jabbar
School of Accounting, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine corruption from the perspective of Islam.
Design/methodology/approach – The paper takes the form of a critical analysis of the primary
sources of Islamic law and extant literature.
Findings – In Islam, corruption is vehemently condemned; the meaning and scope of corruption is
wide; and Islamic internal constraint is a significant tool against corruption.
Practical implications – The paper suggests a manner by which Muslim countries may effectively
combat corruption.
Originality/value – This paper contributes to a discourse on corruption from an Islamic perspective,
which is currently lacking.
Keywords Corruption, Islam
Paper type Viewpoint

Introduction
A significant number of Muslim countries occupy the bottom of the Transparency
International Corruption Perceptions Index[1]. While at the one end there may be some
who hastily put the blame on religious influence for this predicament, at the other there
may be others who try to empathise with the misfortune by linking it to factors such as
lower income and educational levels of the majority of the Muslim population[2]. While
it is not the aim of this paper to uphold or refute any of the sentiments, it does, however,
begin by examining Islam’s stance on corruption. Next, it analyses the meaning and
scope of corruption in Islam and finally discusses the significant role that Islam can
play in combating corruption.

Islam’s stance on corruption

Islam vehemently condemns corruption and fervently prohibits its followers from
indulging in the moral sin. This is evident from the numerous verses in the Qur’an
(holy book for Muslims) and the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad (sayings, conducts
and implied approvals of the Prophet that are reported as Hadith), which constitute the
primary sources of Shari’ah (Islamic law). One such example from the Qu’ran is Surah
Al-Baqarah (2), verse 188, which is translated thus:
[. . .] and do not consume one another’s property unjustly nor give bribery to the rulers so that
they might aid you to consume a portion of the property of others sinfully, while you know
[it is unlawful]. Journal of Financial Crime
Vol. 20 No. 2, 2013
pp. 139-147
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
This paper is one of the research outputs funded by Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia’s 1359-0790
UKM-GGPM-CMNB-005-2011. DOI 10.1108/13590791311322337
JFC It is apparent from this Qur’anic verse that corruption is unlawful in Islam[3] and those
20,2 who acquire wealth by corrupt means do so unjustly and commit a heinous sin.
In Islam, it is paramount that one seeks one’s livelihood in a just manner[4]. Further,
Surah Al-Anfal (8), verse 27 decrees that those who engage in corruption do not only
breach the trust that has been entrusted upon them by others, but has also betrayed
God. The Qur’anic verse is translated thus:
140 O you who believe! Betray not Allah and His Messenger, nor betray knowingly your Amanat
[the things entrusted to you] [. . .]
Accordingly, Surah Ar-Rum (30), verse 41 strongly urges the corrupt to repent because
of the many negative repercussions that corruption entails. The verse is translated thus:
[. . .] corruption has appeared throughout the land and sea because of what the hands of men
have earned so He may let them taste part of the consequence of what they have done in order
that they will return [to righteousness].
Nonetheless, prevention is always better than cure. That explains the reason why Islam
advises for a proper selection to be made so that only the trustworthy are appointed
to office as enunciated in Surah Al-Qasas (28), verse 26, which is translated thus:
[. . .] verily, the best of men for you to hire is the [. . .] trustworthy.
The Qur’anic admonition against corruption is further strengthened by a Hadith where
it was reported that the Prophet Muhammad had sent a person by the name of Ibn
Allatbiah to collect zakah (tax). The person came back with the zakah and some gifts
and he said to the Prophet:
[. . .] this is the zakah and these gifts where given to me and, thus, they are mine.
The Prophet replied:
[. . .] why does an employee who we send to collect zakah come back to say this is zakah and
these are gifts given to me; would anybody have given him these gifts had he stayed in his
mother’s home? By God, anyone who takes these gifts when he is on a public mission will
carry its burden on the Day of Judgment[5].
In another Hadith, it was related by Umar ibn Al-Khattab that the Prophet had cursed
those who pay bribes, receive bribes and facilitate bribes[6]. The Prophet’s intense
disapproval of corruption is manifestly clear and this is further exhibited in a Hadith as
reported by Abu Dharr, where the Prophet said:
[. . .] an office is a trust; it is a humiliation except for those who rise equal to the task and pay
everyone his due[7].
Further, in a Hadith reported by Abu Hurairah, the Prophet said:
[. . .] the signs of the hypocrites are three: when he speaks, he lies; and when he makes
a promise, he breaks it; and when he is charged with a trust, he becomes dishonest[8].
It may be surmised from all the Hadith in the foregoing that a person who has been
entrusted with a position, power or task is not to receive any gifts or rewards from a
third party for performing the trust other than what he is entitled to receive from the
one who has appointed him. Further, the trust is to be performed honestly and to the
best of his ability. Otherwise, he would have engaged in a corrupt act.
 So reproached is corruption in Islam that Umar ibn Abdul-Aziz, who was one of the Through the
great leaders of the Islamic community after the death of the Prophet, would extinguish a lens of Islam
candle that was bought using public funds if others came to see him for a private purpose.
It was also reported that he would use a candle from his own property when he was
writing to his family or for a need he had concerning his private self (Er, 2008). In sum,
it is plainly obvious from the discussion above that Islam does not condone corruption.
It, in fact, abhors the act and declares it a sin not only against mankind but God as well. 141
Meaning and scope of corruption in Islam
The frequently quoted definition of corruption in the extant literature is “the abuse of
public office for private gain” as pronounced by the World Bank[9]. This definition has
invited criticisms from several parties on the basis that it focuses on the public sector
as the source and/or location of corrupt activities but fails to recognise corruption in the
private sector (Brown and Cloke, 2011). Whereas incidences of private sector
corruption are aplenty but simply to name a few, BAE Systems plc in relation to the
Al Yamamah defence contract with Saudi Arabia (Sexton and Hildyard, 2008) and the
massive US corporate corruption in Iraq (Whyte, 2007). Accordingly, the World Bank’s
definition of corruption has been criticised as being obviously limited and overly
narrow in focus (Asian Development Bank (ADB), 1998). ADB proposed that the
definition of corruption be replaced by “the abuse of public or private office for
personal gain” (ADB, 1998). Similarly, Transparency International has suggested for
the definition to be broadened to the “abuse of entrusted power for private gain”
(Transparency International). Nonetheless, Transparency International is said not to
walk its talk because when it comes to its annual Corruption Perceptions Index, it only
determines how corrupt the public sectors are perceived to be and fails to include the
private sector in its assessment (Andersson and Heywood, 2009). The limited yet
dominant approach in defining corruption is argued to inhibit any meaningful
investigation of the causes and impacts of corruption in different settings as well as
any effort in combating it (Brown and Cloke, 2011). The limited approach, according to
Polzer (2001), is based on the common Western conception of corruption, and to
anthropologist Gupta (1995) who made an early contribution to the international
scholarly debate about corruption, is predicated on a particular European cultural and
historical experience which is far from universal. Rider (2007), thus, rightly points out
that it is an arduous task to come up with an exhaustive definition of corruption since
its meaning can vary at different times in different societies.
In Islam, the meaning and scope of corruption is very wide since the trajectory upon
which corruption is based is the principle of justice (‘adl )[10]. Anything done by
mankind that defies justice is considered as corruption (Abuarqub, 2009). Justice is to
be upheld in every facet of human life – public and private; and towards other human
beings, animals and the environment[11]. Thus, any action that threatens the social,
economic and ecological balance is corruption in Islam (Iqbal and Lewis, 2002).
Examples of corrupt practices are abundant in the Qur’an and Hadith. The Qu’ran, for
instance, forbids anyone who mediates a conflict be it a ruler, judge or decision-maker
from inappropriately taking sides with one of the conflicting parties[12]; prohibits
depriving others of what is due to them[13]; and denounces those who sow the seeds
of racial divisions and practice preferential treatment[14]. Meanwhile, an example of
a Hadith is where the Prophet was reported to have said:
JFC [. . .] Whoever employs a man to a task while knowing the existence of a more qualified person
for the same task, truly betrays God and his Messenger and the believers (Abuarqub, 2009).
20,2
It can be deduced from the Qur’an and Hadith that corruption in Islam includes the
abuse of trust, power, authority and prowess whether it is judicial, administrative,
political, financial or social that emasculates societal harmony. Accordingly, Iqbal and
Lewis (2002) opine that the various corrupt acts articulated in the Qur’an and Hadith
142 relate to “universally respected standards of moral virtue” and, hence, are suitable in
various situations and societies.

Islam’s role in combating corruption

Why do we need to fight corruption? Many studies have been and are still carried out
to examine the impact of corruption. In one of the numerous studies, it is found that
corruption increases poverty and inequality and is harmful to poor classes (Ravallion
and Chen, 1997). Such a negative impact may be exemplified in a situation where there
is a subsidy system in a country that is meant to improve the conditions of the poor.
Corruption allows the rich to inappropriately reap the benefits of the subsidy, thus,
resulting in the abuse of the subsidy and denying the poor what is theirs, which only
perpetuate and degenerate their sorry conditions (Tanzi and Davoodi, 1997). Likewise,
in a country where there is a progressive tax system, i.e. the tax rate that rises with the
size of income, corruption enables the wealthy to evade tax, thus, frustrating the role of
the tax system and deepening the income gap between the wealthy and the poor
(Gupta et al., 1998). Further, where tax payers bribe public officials to be lenient in
assessing their taxes[15], it reduces tax and government revenues (Haque and Sahay,
1996; Friedman et al., 2000) which could result in a fall in government expenditures on
social development such as education[16], health services, housing (Shleifer and
Vishny, 1993), transportation and conservation projects[17]. Conversely, it is found
that the fall of corruption from six to eight points results in an increase of spending on
education by 0.5 percent of gross domestic product, which in turn leads to a higher rate
of economic growth (Mauro, 1998). Not surprisingly, the World Bank declares
corruption as “the single greatest obstacle to economic and social development”
(World Bank). Similarly, in a survey of 150 leading policy makers in 60 developing
countries, corruption is named the greatest obstacle to economic development
(Gray and Kaufman, 1998). Empirically, the adverse impact of corruption on economic
growth is recorded in a study which finds that a 1 percent increase in the corruption
level reduces the growth rate by about 0.72 percent (Mo, 2001)[18].
These adverse impacts of corruption are repugnant to the Islamic principle of
equitable distribution of income, resources and wealth. In Islam, the use and
accumulation of wealth shall not endanger the interests of society or disturbs public order
but should, in fact, bring about social and economic justice for the benefit of the society at
large (Mannan, 1982; Ahmad, 1991). As a corollary, one is obliged to take into account the
impact of one’s action not only to self but to others as well. If an action is beneficial to self
but detrimental to others, one shall refrain from indulging in the action. Such an act of
internal constraint is possible if one has aqidah (faith, belief), which includes iman
(full submission) and taqwa (piety) to Allah (God). The faith, full submission and piety
to Allah would guide an individual to engage in actions that would please Allah and
avoid His displeasures. The individual would be directed by his God-fearing conscience
to engage only in activities that are approved by Allah and to avoid those that are
prohibited even in the absence of any codified laws. This is because his fear of invoking Through the
Allah’s wrath surpasses that of suffering from worldly legal sanctions. In relation to
this, it was related by Umar ibn Al-Khattab that the Prophet Muhammad was asked:
lens of Islam
What is goodness?
and the Prophet replied:
That you worship God as if you see Him, for if you see Him not, surely He sees you[7].
143
This is what is called strict accountability in Islam. It was narrated by Abdullah bin
Umar that the Prophet Muhammad had said:
[. . .] everyone of you is a keeper or a shepherd and will be questioned about the well-being of
his fold. So, the Head of the State will be questioned about the well-being of the people of the
State. Every man is a shepherd to his family and will be answerable about every member of it.
Every woman is a shepherd to the family of her husband and will be accountable for every
member of it, and every servant [employee] is a shepherd to his master [employer] and will be
questioned about the property of his master[8].
It can be adduced from this Hadith that everyone is a trustee who is accountable to
Allah for all his actions. It follows that one is to use one’s power, authority, wealth,
opportunities, and the like in accordance with the teachings of Islam and is not to use
them, for example, to engage in corrupt practices that are detrimental to others. Strict
accountability would guide a Muslim to adopt a righteous conduct despite the apparent
losses, and to refrain from an evil conduct despite the apparent gains[19].
Hence, corruption can be effectively fought against in Muslim countries if serious
and earnest efforts are made to internalise the Islamic values, namely commitment
to social justice and public interest that takes cognizance of strict accountability.
The internal constraint would significantly support the external constraints such as
education, law and institutional infrastructures (Iqbal and Lewis, 2002), which
currently fail to make a greater impact on corrupt behaviour (Graycar and Villa, 2011).
The conundrum with the majority of the Muslim countries is that at present,
the external constraints are weak and the internal constraint is nearly absent!

Conclusion
Corruption is fervidly forbidden in Islam. There are numerous verses in the Qur’an and
innumerable Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad which condemn corruption. The fight
against corruption is, thus, obligatory upon all Muslims. The meaning and scope of
corruption is very wide in Islam. Any act that flouts the principle of justice and
causes harm to mankind, other creatures and the environment is corruption. Islam can
play a significant role in the fight against corruption. Its central value of equitable
distribution of income, resources and wealth coupled with the principle of strict
accountability would significantly support the external constraints such as education,
law and institutional infrastructures in combating corruption.

Notes
1. Transparency International is a global non-governmental coalition against corruption and
scores countries each year on how corrupt their public sectors are perceived to be through
its corruption perceptions index (CPI). The CPI is determined through “the informed
views of analysts, businesspeople and experts in countries around the world”
JFC (Transparency International) and measured in the scale of 0 to 10. 0 is the highest level of
corruption and 10 the lowest. A higher value indicates a more honest and less corrupt
20,2 country. The CPI is employed by many as the standard indicator of the extent of corruption
in a country.
2. Although the following studies are not directly linked to the statement above, see
La Porta et al. (1999) who find that countries with higher Catholic or Muslim populations
144 tend to have higher corruption and Samanta et al. (2010) who present that a country becomes
less corrupt when the percentage of Islamic population goes up. For a succinct yet
comprehensive discourse on various other determinants of corruption (Pellegrini and
Gerlagh, 2008).
3. A corrupt act such as embezzlement (sarigah) has been categorised as hudud by the Qur’an
and Sunnah that would entail in a fixed penalty which cannot be reduced, augmented or
annulled by man. Corrupt acts that have not been specifically categorised as hudud may be
categorised as ta’zir by the State, which is also given the discretion to determine the
punishment for the acts after having taken cognisance of the requirements of the Qur’an and
Sunnah ( Jabbar, 2010).
4. See, for example, a Hadith where the Prophet Muhammad was reported to have said: “ [. . .] to
earn a lawful livelihood is an obligatory duty [. . .]” (Hadith Baihaqi).
5. Hadith Bukhari and Muslim.
6. Narrated by Ahmed, Al-Bazaz and Al-Tabarani.
7. Hadith Muslim.
8. Hadith Bukhari.
9. http://www1.worldbank.org/publicsector/anticorrupt/corruptn/cor02.htm
10. For a further discussion on “justice” in Islam (Rosen, 2000).
11. The duty to protect the environment may be derived, among others, from Surah Ar-Rahman
(55), verses 5-9 of the Qur’an, which is translated thus: “the sun and the moon run on their
fixed courses by precise calculation. And the stars and trees both prostrate. And the heaven
He has raised high and He has set up the balance. That you not transgress the balance. And
observe the weight in equity and do not make the balance deficient”.
12. For example, Surah Al-Baqarah (2), verse 188 which is translated thus: “and do not consume
one another’s property unjustly nor give bribery to the rulers so that they might aid you to
consume a portion of the property of others sinfully, while you know [it is unlawful]”.
13. For example, Surah Hud (11), verse 85 which is translated thus: “and O my people, give full
measure and weight in justice and do not deprive the people of their due and do not commit
abuse on the earth, spreading corruption”.
14. For example, Surah Al-Qasas (28), verse 4 which is translated thus: “indeed, Pharaoh exalted
himself in the land and made its people into factions, oppressing a sector among them,
slaughtering their [newborn] sons and keeping their females alive. Indeed, he was of the
corrupters”.
15. In a study based on interviews conducted with tax payers in Taiwan, 94 percent of them
admitted to bribing public officials to be lenient in assessing their taxes (Chu, 1990).
16. Mauro (1998) finds that corruption reduces government spending on education in a
cross-section of countries.
17. Smith et al. (2003) present that some developing countries have high levels of political
corruption, which reduces effective funding levels and distorts priorities, thus, affecting the
success of conservation projects.
18. Other impacts of corruption include lower level of investment (Wei, 2000; Habib and Through the
Zurawicki, 2002; Samanta and Breslin, 2007; Podobnik et al., 2008); adverse effect on business
(Bliss and Di Tella, 1997; Johnson et al., 2000; Anderson and Marcouiller, 2002; Beck et al., lens of Islam
2005); adverse effect on financial market (Fisman, 1991); negative effect on human capital
(Murphy et al., 1991); erodes belief in the political system (Seligson, 2002); and decline in foreign
aid (Mauro, 1997). Although there had been arguments that corruption may not necessarily be
bad and may, in fact, “grease the squeaking wheels of a rigid administration” or “grease the
wheels of commerce” by, among others, removing obstructionist bureaucratic behaviour that 145
stifle efficient investment and reducing transaction cost and the cost of capital (Leff, 1964;
Lui, 1985; Kaufmann and Wei, 1999; Ehrlich and Lui, 1999), these efficiency-enhancing
theoretical views of corruption, however, had been brushed aside on the basis that they lack
empirical support and have largely fallen out of favour (Iqbal and Lewis, 2002; Aidt, 2003).
19. Ahmad (1999). Individuals without any sense of the strict accountability “will be tempted to
engage in corruption when the size of their corrupt gain is greater than the penalty if caught
times the probability of being caught” (Klitgaard, 1998).

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Further reading
Transparency International (2012), available at: www.transparency.org (accessed
October 10, 2012).
World Bank (2012), available at: http://www1.worldbank.org/publicsector/anticorrupt/corruptn/
cor02.htm (accessed October 7, 2012).

About the author

Siti Faridah Abdul Jabbar, PhD (Lond.); LLM (Cantab.); LLB (UKMalaysia), is Senior Lecturer in
Law at the School of Accounting, Faculty of Economics and Management, Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia. Siti Faridah Abdul Jabbar can be contacted at: hafaopex@ukm.my

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