Grade 9 Agriculture Science - 2021 - Term 2

Ministry on Education
Secondary Engagement Programme
January 2021
Week 1
Lesson # 1
Grade: 9
Subject: Agricultural Science
Topic: Preparation and Marketing of Livestock Produce
Subtopic: Preparation of Meat
Objectives:
-To be knowledgeable of the stages of meat preparation
-To be familiar with the popular cuts of meat on the market
Classes of animals, meat and approximate age and weight at slaughter
The main purpose of preparation of livestock produce is to offer consumers commodities which
are clean, wholesome, disease free and unadulterated in hygienic environments.
Name of animal Name of meat Approximate age at Approximate weight

slaughter
Cattle Beef 16 to 24 months 500-600 kg
Pig Pork to 8 months 54to 60 kg
Sheep Mutton to 8 months 40 to 60 kg
Goat Chevon 6 to 8 months 40 to 60 kg
Fowl Chicken 2 months 1.75 to 2 kg
Duck Buck 2 months 3 to 5 kg
Rabbit Rabbit 2 months 2 to 2.5 kg
Preparation of Meat
Preparation of meat for marketing may be done by the farmer or the butchers
-Before slaughtering, animal are taken to holding pens at an abattoir where they will be provided
with much water to drink, but no food for 18-24 hours, before the time of slaughter.
-This practice does not reduce the carcass weight and carcasses are easier to dress since the
stomach will be empty
-Animals for slaughter are examined by a qualified Animal Health Inspector
Stage 1
-The meat preparation process involves restraining the animals, slaughtering, dressing and
chilling.
-The popular method of slaughtering meat animals is “sticking”.
-Sticking-during this process, large animals are shackled with the hind legs attached to overhead
rails and the ventral part of the body facing the worker
-Pigs are positioned on their sides on large concrete tables
-Birds are placed in a killing cone which restrain them and expose the neck which arereadily
cutoff, allowing their carcasses to bleed out
-The trend of slaughtering today is towards humane method are made unconscious immediately
before slaughter.
-The electrical knife is used on birds
-Pigs to be slaughtered are driven onto to a moving floor, which travels and exposes pigs to
carbon dioxide. This renders the animal unconscious and ready for bleeding.
-The captive bolt method is used on larger animals. The bolt is pushed forward. The animal is
stunned by the blow on the head.
-After slaughter, ruminants and rabbits are skinned.
-Pigs are scalded in a scalding vat which contains water at 65°𝑐-71°𝑐.Then scraped immediately.
- Birds are scalded in water at 64°c to loosen the feathers which are later plucked by hand or
machine.
Stage 2
-This stage of preparation is dressing the carcass.
-With the exception of poultry, a long cut is made ventrally (along the belly) from the chest to
hind legs to expose the internal organs.
-Care must be taken not to cut the intestine.
-All the internal organs and other structures are removed from the chest and the abdominal
cavities.
-Carcasses, at this stage are displayed for post-mortem inspection by the Public Health
Inspectors.
-Meat acceptable for human consumption is stamped after inspection.
-Diseased or unfit carcasses and/or parts are condemned by the Public health Inspector and in
whose presence they are destroyed
Stage 3
-Chilling is the cooling of carcasses to a temperature of about 2.2°c-4.5°c (37°F-40°F).
-carcasses are usually hung up at room temperature for about two hours before chilling.
-Quick chilling of carcasses is done to check and prevent the growth of spoilage on the meat.
-The actions of enzymes in the meat also slow down during chilling and this prevents sour meat.
-Chilling should be done for about twenty four hours before the carcass is cut up.
PREPRATION OF MEAT
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Answer the following question
1) List four classes of animals and the names of their meat
2) State the main objective of preparation of livestock meat
3) In one paragraph explain the duties of the Public Health Inspector.
4) Compare traditional slaughtering to modernized slaughtering of livestock.

Home Work
Slaughter a Broiler/Chicken using the traditional method under the supervision of your parents or
guardian.
REFERENCES
 S. Ragoonanan (2011) ‘Agriculture for CSEC Revision course’ New Edition, Caribbean
Educational Publisher Ltd, Trinidad, WI
 F. Weever et al (2014) Agricultural Science for Secondary Schools in Guyana, Book 3,

Ministry on Education NCERD, Georgetown, Guyana
 S. Ragoonanan (1991) CXC Agriculture- A Revision Course, Caribbean Educational

Publisher Ltd, Trinidad, WI
 Video- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p_lAkPyvSnA&has_verified=1
Week 1 Lesson # 2
Topic: Preparation and Marketing of livestock produce
Subtopic: Marketing meat
Objectives
-To be cognizant of the factors that influence market price of meat
-To be aware of the cuts of meat per animal
Reasons for the demand of meat
-The demand for meat is increasing due to
*Urbanization
*Nutritional needs of people
*Higher earing capacity of people
-the total number of animals plus the yield of meat per animal have increased due to
*Improved breeding stock
*Better husbandry practices
*The injection of capital
-Meat is considered to be the most important protein food of all.

Cuts of beef
Whole cuts Retail cuts

Round steak Round steak, top round stack, bottom round
stack, heel of round, ground beef, hind shank
Rump Rolled rump, rump roast
Loin end Sirloin rump, rump roast
Short loin Porter house stack-bone steak, club steak
Flank Flank steak, rolled flank, flank stew, flank
steak fillet
Rib Standing rib roast, rolled rib roast, rib steak
Plate Plate boiling beef, rolled plate, short ribs
Brisket Beef brisket, corned beef
Shank Knuckle soup bone, cross cut fore shank
Chunk Blade steak, blade pot roast, triangle pot roast,
shoulder fillet, rolled neck, boneless neck,
arm steak, arm pot roast
Cuts of beef
Cuts of pork
The order of cuts is as follows:
-Shoulder -Fore shank
-Clear plate -Spare ribs and belly
-Loin and back fat -Jowl
-Neck bone -Ham
Wholesale and retail cuts of pork

Cuts of lamb/Mutton
Factors which cause

Cutsthe price of meat to be lowered
of chicken
-Too much of fat (in pig and chicken).In beef when fat is spread uniformly through the meat, it is
known as marbling and the cuts are costlier
-Dark colour of meat (sticky and labby).
-Too many connective tissues (stringy)
-Old animals (tough muscle fibres)
After cutting, meat is package for storage at a temperature of 9.4°F.
Review Questions
Answer the following questions
1. List three reasons why the demand for meat is increasing.
2. Meat is considered to be the most important ___________ _________ of all.
3. State three cuts of market chicken
4. Discuss three factors that cause the price of meat to be lowered
Home work
Investigate the reasons for choices of meat used in your household.
REFERENCES
 F.Weever et al (2014) Agricultural Science for Secondary Schools in Guyana, Book 3,


Week 1 Lesson # 3
Subtopic: Methods of cooking
Objectives
-To be knowledgeable of the methods of cooking the different cuts of meat per animal
Sheep/Goat
Sheep meat or Sheep’s meat is the meat of the domestic sheep. A sheep in its first year is a lamb
and its meat is also lamb. A sheep in its second year, meat is called hogget. Older sheep meat is
mutton.
Goat meat or Goat's meat is the meat of the domestic goat .The common name for goat meat is
simply "goat”. An adult goat is referred to as chevon while there from young goats can be called
a kid.
Methods of cooking of Mutton/Chevon
Pig
Pork is the culinary name for the meat of a pig. It is the most commonly consumed meat
worldwide.
Methods of cooking of pork

Cow
Beef is the culinary name for meat from cattle, particularly skeletal muscle.
Methods of cooking of beef
Chicken
Chicken is the culinary name for meat from domesticated fowl.
Methods of cooking Chicken
Roasted Chicken
Roasted chicken is one of the tastiest, most satisfying dishes you can make.
Baked Chicken
Baked chicken is different from roasted chicken in two ways. First, baked chicken is prepared with
chicken parts (i.e., individual drumsticks, thighs, breasts, and wings) whereas roasted chicken is
cooked whole. Second, baked chicken is dredged in seasoned flour before we cook it, which we
don't do when roasting a whole bird.
Braised Chicken
Braising is a great technique for when we want to cook cheaper or less tender cuts of meat, but it's
also a wonderful way to cook chicken. Braised chicken is a warming, soulful dish, and the meat
will almost fall off the bone.
Poached Chicken
Whether you're just poaching chicken breasts or you're poaching a whole chicken, poaching is an
easy and delicious method for cooking chicken. Poached chicken is naturally low in fat and always
comes out moist and juicy. And as an added bonus, when you're done poaching the chicken, you're
left with a delicious, savory chicken broth that you can use for making sauces, soups and all kinds
of dishes.
Fried Chicken
The key to deep-frying is maintaining the oil's temperature between 325 F and 400 F.Fried
chicken is a great example of the basic deep-frying technique where items are dipped in a simple
batter or seasoned flour before we cook them, which helps to protect and further seal in moisture.
Broiled Chicken
Broiled chicken is prepared using a smaller bird called a "broiler" (typically around two to three
pounds) which is either split open around the backbone so that it can be cooked flat or simply
halved. Either way, flattening out the chicken helps it cook faster, which is important given that
broiling involves very high heat.
Grilled Chicken
Grilled chicken is always a favorite dish. You can grill an entire cut up chicken, which is great
because the breasts cook a lot faster than the thighs or drumsticks. Skinless, boneless chicken
breasts are especially popular for the grill.
Sautéed or Pan-Fried Chicken
Sautéed or pan-fried chicken is really a two-stage procedure that involves cooking in a hot pan
with a small amount of fat and finishing it either in the oven or by simmering it in some sort of
sauce. This lets flavors develop while also ensuring that the chicken is fully cooked. Boneless
chicken breast cutlets are great for this method.
Smoked Whole Chicken
Using the smoker (or grill set up as a smoker) is a nice alternative to simply roasting a whole bird
in the oven. The chicken is covered with a flavorful spice rub and then left to slowly cook over low
heat. The result is moist, rich-tasting meat with a crispy outer skin.
Review Questions
Answer the following questions
1. List the names of three domesticated animals’ meat.
2. Complete the table below
Name of Animals
Sheep/Goat Cattle Chicken Pig
Cuts of Method of Cuts of Method of Cuts of Method of Cuts of Method of
meat cooking meat cooking meat cooking meat cooking
Shank Brisket Neck Steak
Leg Leg Leg Leg
Racks Ribs Ribs Ribs
Shoulder loin Fillet Shoulder
Home work
Visit the local meat shop and identify the different of meat and their cuts
REFERENCES


Week 2 Lesson # 1
Subtopic: Structure of Meat and Tender Vs Tough Meat
Objectives:
-To be familiar with the factors which constitute good meat quality
-To differentiate between tough and tender meat
- To be aware of the methods used to tenderize meat
- To be knowledgeable of what is marbling
STRUCTURE
-Lean meat or muscles tissue is composed of bundles of very tiny fibres which contain protein,
mineral salts and extractives dissolved in water.
-Each fibre is surrounded by a wall of elastin, a tough connectives tissue.
- Fat cells are distributed between the fibres. This is called marbling.
There are more fat cells in some meat than others, e.g. Pork has more than chicken.
Fat is also present on the outer surface as adipose tissue.
As the animals’ ages, there is a build –up of fat.

Tender Vs Tough Meat
There are several factors that make meat either tender or tough; age of animal, muscle activity
and method of hanging meat after the animal has been slaughtered.
AGE-meat from an old animal is generally tough because there is a greater amount of connective
tissue.
ACTIVITY- When a muscle is very active, its fibres become longer and thicker and connective
tissues are built up to hold these large fibres.
HANGING - Before slaughtering, it is essential that animals are rested and do not struggle
during slaughter because stores of glycogen are used up, which make the meat tough.
-
Correct hanging can do much to improve the tenderness of meat.
Tenderizing
Meat can be tenderized in several ways:
-By injecting tenderizing enzymes into the live animal before slaughter.
-Mechanically – pounding the meat with a machine or steak hammer
-Chemically- treating the meat with proteolytic enzymes.
-Cooking – slow methods, use of pressure cookers.

Tenderizing Meat
Meat Quality
-The numerous biochemical reactions governing the actions of the muscles do not stop
immediately after the animal is killed.
-In living muscles, one of the most important reactions involving generation of energy is
glycolysis.
-When oxygen is not available, after the animal is killed or is under stress, the glycogen is
broken down to lactic acid.
-The quality of meat is related to the amount of fat which is distributed uniformly through the
muscle. This is known as marbling.
-Meat should not have a dark colour, since the s a result of high p H associated with killing an
animal with a low glycogen reserve.
-Rigor mortis results in a sequential toughening of the meat.

It is important that the carcass be ‘aged ‘.This is the time when the meat returns to pre- rigor
tenderness due processes involved in muscle stretching.
Review Questions
1) Define the following terms:
a) Marbling b) Tenderizing
2) Differentiate between tough and tender meat.
3) List and discuss two ways of tenderizing meat.
4) Explain how glycogen is broken down in lactic acid after the animal is killed.
Home Work
Investigate the importance of rigor – mortis in meat tenderizing.
REFERENCES


Week 2 Lesson # 2
Subtopic: Dressing Percentage and Meat Requirements
Objectives:
-To be familiar with the term dressing percentage of animals.
-To understand how to calculate the dressing percentage of farm animal.
-To discuss the quality requirement for various meat cuts.
Meat Products
Listed below are the names of some products:
- Chops
- Roasted
- Minced Meat
- Sausages
-Salami
-Beef
-Pork
-Ham
-Offal Products
Offal Products
The term ‘offal products’ refer to all the edible internal organs of an animal.
- Liver
- Tongue
- Kidney
- Heart
- Sweet bread
1) Pancreas
2) Thymus glands
-Brain
-Tripe
Dressing Percentage
Dressing percentage is the relationship between the live weight and the dressed weight.
Dressing percentage = Dressed weight x100

Live weight
The dressed weight is the weight of the dead animal after all the offal has been removed.
Animal Dressing Percentage
*PIG -65-80%
*GOAT -50-55%
*CATTLE -50-60%
*RABBIT -55-65%
*BROILER -76-80%
QUALITY REQUIREMENTS FOR VARIOUS MEAT CUTS
CATTLE[BEEF] Ribs, sirloin, rump, brisket, *Rosy red colour

neck, *Bright white fat
And clod ,leg, Silverside *As meat ages, there will be a reddish
brown colour
*Firm to the touch
PIG[PORK] Loin rib end ,belly, neck, *Pale pink to pink
bacon, ham *White fat
*Firm to the touch
*Good marbling
SHEEP [MUTTON] Shoulder, rack, chops, breast, *Brick red in colour
loin, leg *Fat firm and white
*Fine textured and firm
*Good marbling
POULTRY[BROILER] Leg , thigh , breast ,wings *Pink in colour
*Free of bruising
*Clean, cold and tightly sealed
Review Questions
1) List five meat products.
2) a) Define the term ‘offal products’.
b) List five examples of offal products.
3) Calculate the dressing percentage of a broiler from the given information: Live weight – 3.0
Kg and Dressed weight – 2.5 Kg.
4) Mark is going to the market to purchase ribs and sirloin to cook. Advise him on the qualities
to look for when purchasing these choices of cuts.
Home Work
Conduct a session with your family members, informing them of the quality requirements for the
various meat cuts, regularly consumed by the family.
REFERENCES


Week 2 Lesson # 3
Subtopic: Requirements of Slaughtering
Objectives:
- To be aware of all the requirements for effective slaughtering of farm animals
- To know the recommended age and weight of farm animals at the time of slaughter
Requirements of a slaughter house
1. The essential considerations in any slaughterhouse are:
- Protection of the consumer
- Production of meat with good keeping quality
- The utilization of the offal
2. The main requirements of a slaughterhouse are:
- A smooth impervious, non-slipping floor
- Gallows with hoisting facilities
- An adequate water supply
- Hanging rails
-Scalding vats
-Proper effluent disposal
-A fence to keep away stray animals
Requirements for efficient slaughtering
- Proper pre-slaughter care
- The stock is fasted, but with access to clean water 16-24 hours before slaughter.
- The animal is not to be excited.
- A humane method of slaughter is adopted. E.g. the animal is stunned first, using a captive bolt
gun
- After slaughter, the animal is bled completely.
- Contamination of meat is avoided.
- The carcass is hung in an open space to allow for cooling.
- Provision of facilities for meat inspection
Time to slaughter
-The optimum time for slaughter in influenced by knowledge of the normal age/weight of
slaughter of the various farm animals.
-Another guide to deciding time for slaughter is the specific marker or consumer demand, e.g.,
‘baby beef, lamb, mutton, etc.
Age and weight for slaughtering farm animals
Animal Age Weight

Approximately Approximately
(in months) (in kg)
Cattle 16 - 24 500 – 600
Goat/Sheep 6-8 40 – 60
Pig 5–8 54 – 60
Rabbit 2 2 – 2.5
(medium breed)
Poultry 2 1.72 - 2
Review Questions
1) List three main requirements of a slaughter house
2) Explain why the carcass is hung in an open space after slaughtering
3) Discuses two factors that influence the time to slaughter farm animals
Home Work
“A humane method of slaughter in adopted”
Research one other method of slaughtering under the following headings:
-Name of method
- Description of method
- Pictures of method
REFERENCES


Week 3 Lesson # 1
Subtopic: Preservation of meat
Objectives:
-To be aware of the methods of preserving meat
-To know the appropriate methods of preserving meat according to the choice of cuts
Preservation of meat
Methods of preserving meat are curing, drying, smoking, canning and refrigeration. Meat is
preserved to weaken or destroy the undesirable micro-organisms and enzymes so that spoilage is
reduced considerably.
Curing
There are two main methods of curing- pickle cure (or wet cure) and dry cure. The main
ingredient is common salt. When salt (sodium nitrate) is used, it preserves the meat as well as
improves it colour and flavor. Vinegar and spices are usually added to enhance the flavor of the
meat. In wet cure, a concentrated salt solution (called pickle or brine) made and the meat
immersed in it.
In dry cure, the pickle is pumped into the arteries of the meat or it is spray pumped onto the
meat. This method is used in ham production.
Drying
This process is used to reduce most of the moisture in the meat tissues. It creates an unfavourable
environment for the growth of spoilage organisms. Salt can be rubbed on the surface of the meat
which is later allowed to dry in the shade.
Smoking
Meat is exposed to wood smoke. The smoke kills bacteria and prevents the growth of other
spoilage organisms. It also slows up the action of fat, become rancid and adds flavour to the
meat. Smoking sometimes is used together with drying and curing.
Canning
By this method, meat previously processed by curing, smoking or cooking may be packed with
salt solution into specially designed aluminium cans which are then heated to remove the air
before they are sealed. The vacuum created in the tin slows up growth of micro-organism. Tins
labelled “Perishable” must be kept under refrigeration.
Refrigeration
Meat frozen quickly to a temperature of -26.1° C can be kept in storage for a long time, if the supply
of electricity is continuous. At this temperature, the meat appears to retain its colour after thawing.
Refrigeration at this temperature freezes and bacterial growth is suppressed so that spoilage is
delayed. It is advisable to start this process as soon as possible after slaughter. Frozen meat should
not be placed on racks in a warm room to be defrosted since the surface meat can begin to spoil
before the interior parts of the cut are fully defrosted. Frozen meat should be placed in a large
container of circulating water with temperature up to 32.2° 𝐶.
Preservation of Meat
-Curing - Smoking
-Drying -Canning
- Refrigeration
Review Questions
1) List three methods of preserving meat
2) There are two methods of curing- ____________ cure and___________cure.
3) Frozen meat can be kept up to a temperature of _____°C when placed in a large container of
circulating______.
4) List four ingredients that are used in the processes of preserving meat.
Home Work
- Chose a method of preserving meat and practice same
- Record the following
(i) Activity done
(ii) Change in appearance
REFERENCES


Week 3 Lesson # 2
Subtopic: Preparation of milk
Objectives:
- To be aware of the steps involved in the preparation of milk
Preparation of milk
Milk is the fluid produced by the secretory cells of mammary glands. For consumers, it is the white
emulsion which contains proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals and vitamins. It should be free
from colostrums, flakes, blood and other abnormalities. Milk is withdrawn from dairy animals
during the process of milking, whereby it is removed from the gland and teat cisterns after
successful milk let down. Consumers require milk of high quality so it must be clean, of good
flavour and must contain very low levels of bacteria.
-The cow produces milk only when it has a calf.
-The lactation period is that period during which milk is produced.
-The lactation period states when the animal gives birth, and peaks around 3-3 ½ months after.
-The lactation period continues until about 6-8 weeks before the next calving.
‘Milk Let Down’
‘Milk let down’ is controlled by a combination of nervous and hormonal actions.
*The cow needs a stimulus. The udder is stimulated by:

-Feeding -Touch massage -Warm water -Familiar sights, smells and sounds
-Suckling
*The nervous system relays a message to the posterior pituitary which releases the hormone,
Oxytocin.
*Oxytocin circulates in the blood and is carried to the udder.
* ‘Milk let down’ is initiated.
* The action of Oxytocin lasts for about four minutes, thus, during this time the milk is
withdrawn.
Processes involved in Milk let down
Condition inhabiting ‘Milk Let Down’
-Adrenalin, a hormone produced by the adrenals, inhibits the action of Oxytocin.
-Any practice that induces the production of adrenalin inhibits ‘milk let down’.
-Lactating cows should therefore not to be excited or angered.
Methods of milking
There are two methods of milking:
-by hand -by machine
Review Questions
1) Define the following terminologies
(a) Milk (c) The Lactation cycle
(b) ‘Milk let down’
2) Explain two conditions that inhabit ‘milk let down’
3) List the two methods of milking
4) Differentiate between the two methods of milking
5) The _____ is released into the blood stream and cause milk let down.
Home-Work
Research animals whose milk is used for human consumption

REFERENCES


Week 3 Lesson # 3
Sub topic: Marketing Milk
Objectives:
-To be familiar with the causes of low butterfat content in milk
-To be aware of the popular tests done before marketing
-To detect the signs of milk spoilage
Marketing Milk
Before milk is marketed, tests can be done to ensure that it is of very high quality. Popular tests
are the Methylene Blue Test for the level of bacteria and the solid Non Fat test which indicates
how dense the milk is. There tests are carried out on farmers’ milk before it is sold for processing.
However, it is not usually done when farmers sell their milk on the farm or retailed to customers
at their homes. Milk of poor quality is rejected by the buyers and farmers suffer great loss.
Processed milk such as pasteurized milk is more expensive than fresh milk sold by farmers on the
farms.
Structure of an udder
Spoilage of milk
-Bacteria in milk feed on the sugar present in the milk (lactose).
-Bacteria convert the lactose to lactic acid.
-The acid curdles the milk and thus the milk takes on a spoilt appearance (milk solids floating at
the surface with lactic acid and water at the bottom).
-The milk is not fit for drinking but can be made into cheese or yogurt.
Test for Butterfat
-10 ml of concentrated Sulphuric acid (𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4), 1 ml of milk and 1 ml amyl alcohol are put in a
butyrometer.
-The a stopper is placed in the opening of the test tube which is then placed into a centrifuge.
-The acid separates the fat which is dissolved in the amyl alcohol.
-The butyrometer is removed and turned upside down and the percentage of fat read on the
butyrometer scale.
Causes of low Butterfat
Low butterfat content in milk is caused by:
*Age of cow – the older the cow the greater the decrease of butterfat
*Stage of lactation-as the yield of milk increases, the butterfat tends to decrease
*Feeding- insufficient roughage in cow’s diet. Good hay is important in maintaining a high
butterfat content.
*Ill-health- animals exhibiting signs of ill health would produce milk with low butterfat
*The breed – Guernsey produces milk with the highest butterfat content
Test for Bacteria
The Methylene Blue Test
*The Methylene blue test involves adding a blue dye to the sample of milk.
*If there is a high concentration of bacteria, the blue colour changes to white in a short time.
*If there are few bacteria in the milk, the blue colour remains for a long time.
*The specific procedure for the Methylene blue test is as follows:
-10 ml of milk is mixed in a sterile stoppered test tube with 1 ml of Methylene blue thiocyanate.
-The test tube with the mixture is placed in a water bath held at 35-36°c.
-After 30 minutes, the sample is examined.
*Within this time the factor which is of critical importance, the dye resazurin is used.
*If the milk is fresh (few bacteria) the sample turns blue.
*If there is bacteria build up, the sample turns pink.

Test for Solid Non Fat (S.N.F)
*In the test for S.N.F a lactometer is used.
*The lactometer floats in a measuring cylinder containing milk.
*The degree of density of the milk governs the depth to which the lactometer sinks.
*The higher the lactometer stands, the denser the milk and therefore the more solids it contains.
A reading is taken from the lactometer scale and the S.N.F is then calculated.
Reviews Questions
1) List two tests done on milk in preparation for marketing
2) Discuss the two tests mentioned in question (1)
3) Draw and label an udder
4) Explain the importance of milk tests
5) In one paragraph explain the causes of low butterfat.
Home-Work
Add two teaspoons of lemon or lime juice to a glass of milk
-Observe the changes
-Record changes made
-Name two products that can be made from this substance

REFERENCES


Week 4 Lesson # 1
Subtopic: Processed milk
Objectives:
-To be cognizant of the reasons for processing milk
-To be knowledgeable of the methods used for processing milk
-To be aware of the steps involved in the processing of milk and the forms of milk product
marketed.
Reasons for processing milk
The main purpose of processing milk is to destroy harmful bacteria. Milk which is not used in its
fresh form must be processed. Processing is done so as to prolong the shelf life of the milk. The
bacteria present in unprocessed milk for a period of time would result in milk spoilage.
Milk and methods of processing
Grade of Milk Definition Method of Processing

Untreated milk Milk which has not undergone Milk is strained and may be
any form of heat treatment. cooled on the farm. Sold as
fresh milk.
Homogenized milk Milk processed to break up fat Warm milk is forced through
globules and scatter them very tiny valves so that the fat
evenly throughout the milk so globules break up into tiny
that they do not float on top globules and are evenly
scattered in the milk. Fat does
not float to the top.
Pasteurised milk Milk which has been mildly Milk heated to 72°c for 15
heated to destroy disease seconds, than rapidly cooled to
causing bacteria. 10°c or below. It is then bottled
and sealed.
Ultra Heat treated milk Homogenized milk which has Milk heated to 132°c for 1
(UHT) been subjected to a very high second, destroying micro-
temperature organisms without producing
undesirable chemical changes
that would affect flavor.
Sterilized milk Homogenized milk which has Pre-heated, homogenized,
been treated in the bottle and bottled and sealed. The filled
vacuum sealed. The taste of the sealed bottles are that heated to
milk is expected to change and 104°c for 20-30 minutes and
most of the Vitamin B and C allowed to cool.
destroyed but the milk can be
kept for several months.
Milk products
 Curd
 Sour cream
 yogurt
 Butter cream
 Cheese
 Butter
 Ghee
 Dhoa
 Condensed milk
 Dried(powered) milk
 Ice cream
 Evaporated milk
 Butter milk
Milk Products
Processing milk
Milk from farm→ Factory→ Clarification(removes foreign matter) →Separation(removes 50%

of fat content) →pasteurization(Kills harmful bacteria) →Cooling(temperature reduced to 5°c)
→Storage(stored at 5°c before filling→ Sterilization(U.H.T. method→ Removal of al bacteria)
→Homogenization(reduces size of fat globules) →Filing and Packing(packs formed around
milk) →Incubation Holding(milk tested and released 10 days later).
Review Questions
1) State the main purpose of processing milk
2) List three grades of milk
3) Discuss the three, grades of milk listed in question 1 under the headings
Grades of milk Definition Method of processing

4) Explain three forms of milk products that are marketed
5) List five milk products
Home-Work
-Record the milk products that you have consumed for the past month
-State the names, describe the taste and the form in which they were consumed whether cooked
or in their natural state.
REFERENCES


 Video- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4DxK4yYSEZ4
Week 4 Lesson # 2
Sub topic: Milk composition
Objectives:
- To be aware of the nutrient composition of milk
-To be knowledgeable of the factors that influence milk composition
Milk composition
The Milk Composition includes the chemical and physical properties of milk. Milk provides
essential nutrients and is an important source of dietary energy, high-quality proteins and fats. Milk
can make a significant contribution to the required nutrient intakes for calcium, magnesium,
selenium, riboflavin, vitamin B12 and pantothenic acid. Milk and milk products are nutrient-dense
foods.
The species of dairy animal, its breed, age and diet, along with the stage of lactation, parity
(number of parturitions), farming system, physical environment and season influence the colour,
flavour and composition of milk and allow the production of a variety of milk products:
 Cow milk: Fat constitutes approximately 3 to 4 percent of the solid content of cow milk, protein
about 3.5 percent and lactose 5 percent, but the gross chemical composition of cow milk varies
depending on the breed.
Variations in milk composition are due to:-
 Carbohydrate (Lactose) content

 Fat content
 Protein content
 Vitamins and Minerals contents
 Enzymes content
Factors that influence milk composition
Milk is composed of water, lactose, fats, protein and minerals and vitamins and is influenced by
breed, genetics, stage of lactation, age, nutrition and health status
 Breed – generally, the high production breeds such as Holstein tend towards lower milk solids
than the lower production breeds such as Jersey or beef breeds.
 Genetics – within breeds, selection of sires with high solids percentages is critical to maintain herd
milk composition.
 Stage of lactation – fat and protein concentration generally increases towards the end of lactation.
 Age – milk fat and protein both decrease with subsequent lactations.
 Nutrition – lactose is the driver of milk volume and its percentage is independent of nutritional
influences. Butterfat percentage is dependent on forage intake, ingested fats and bodyweight loss.
Protein percentage can be manipulated by varying concentrate feed level, starch concentration and
amino acid balance.
 Health status – udder health is critical to maintaining optimum milk composition while general
cow health and energy balance play an important role in milk quality.
Review Question
1) State your understanding of what is milk
2) List 2 sources of milk
3) List 4 nutrients that are found in milk
4) Explain 3 factors that influence milk composition

Home-Work
Check your milk packages or tins at home and write down the nutrient content and percentage of
each.
REFERENCES


Week 4 Lesson # 3
Sub topic: Preparation of eggs
Objectives:
- To be aware of the measures practiced for the best quality eggs.
- To demonstrate the skill of sorting, grading, cleaning and packaging
- To accurately draw and label the external and internal parts of an egg.
Preparation of eggs
To ensure that the best quality eggs are marketed, the following measures should be practiced:
*Feed suitable rations with minerals and grit to laying hens.
*Provide clean nesting materials.
*Gather eggs from the nesting boxes frequently.
*Clean dirty eggs and keep them in a cool place with a temperature of 18° C to 21° C and a
relative humidity of 18.3° C – 21.1° C.
*Candle eggs, to check for meat and blood spots.
*Separate eggs into small, medium and large sizes.
*Pack eggs carefully and market immediately.
On the large markets, the external and internal qualities of table eggs are of great importance.
The external qualities are measured by shell quality, cleanliness, shape, colour, size and weight.
Shell quality
Eggs should have strong sound shells which must be attractive and even. Cracked, hair-line
cracked or broken eggs are rejected. Eggs with chalk heads and heads are disqualified.
Cleanliness
Eggs shells should be clean. Dirty and contaminated egg shells are rejected.
Shape and Colour
A normal egg is oval shaped. Very round or very long eggs must not be selected because of
transportation problems. Abnormal shaped eggs are also rejected. They do not fit well into the
egg flats and are easily broken. An even shell colour adds to the attractiveness on the egg. Some
consumers have special preferences for either white shell or brown shell eggs.
Size and weight
Eggs must be uniform in size. Double yolk and extremely large eggs are rejected became of
transportation problems. Eggs weight is important in grading eggs by weight. This system allows
eggs of similar weight to be put in a particular class for market.
Internal qualities
Quality Checked Accepted eggs Rejected eggs

Egg shell Whole Hair crack, thin
Air space 1 cm- 1.5 cm, fixed 1.5 cm or more, loose
Yolk Firm, well centered, free from Loose at the side
blood and meat spots
Egg white Clear, thick, firm Blood and meat spots
The internal qualities of eggs are measured by the (i) size and condition of the air space, (ii)
condition of the yolk egg white (albumen) and the (iii) presence of blood and meat spots or other
abnormalities in the egg white. These qualities can be assessed by the use of a Candler which is
used to see the egg against a light in a darkened room. The following checks are made during
candling:
Grading of eggs
European American African

Class Weight Size Weight Size Weight
1 70 g and Jumbo 65g to 70 g Large 65g to above
above
2 60g to 70 g Extra large 65g to 70 g Medium 55g to 65 g
3 60g to 65 g Large 56g to 65 g Small 45g to 55g
4 55g to 60 g Medium 49g to 56 g
5 50g to 55g Small 42g to 49g
6 45 to 50g Pee wee 35g to 42g
7 45 g and
below
Review Questions
1) List five measures that should be practiced to ensure very high quality eggs.
2) Compare accepted egg and rejected egg under the quality check of egg shell, yolk and egg
white
3) Grade the following eggs based on the individual weight using the American grading
(i) 49g to 56g (iv) 56g to 65g
(ii) 35g to 42g (v) 49g to 56g
(iii) 65g to 70g

Home-Work
Select one dozen eggs and carefully carry out the following steps:
(i) Sort eggs based on size and write down the sizes
(ii) Damp a cotton piece of cloth or rag.
(iii) Gently hold the eggs individual in your hand and rub the damp cloth gently on the surfaces,
until each egg is clean.
(iv) Place clean eggs in an egg tray based on the sizes.
REFERENCES


January 2021
Week 5
Lesson # 1
Grade: 9
Sub topic: Preservation, storage and marketing of eggs
Objectives
- To accurately draw, label and identify the internal and external parts of an egg
- To discuss the practices of preservation, storage and marketing of eggs
External and Internal parts of an egg

Parts of an egg
Chalazae: the chords attached to either side of the yolk to keep it in the centre of the egg. It’s
important because without them, the yolk would settle at the side and the chick could become
malformed.
Eggshell: there is a shell around the egg to protect it. Few people are aware that the eggshell is
not airtight: it has about 10,000 tiny holes. We call these the pores, and they give the growing
chick a sufficient air supply.
Shell membrane: the membrane protects the contents of the egg against unwelcomed visitors,
such as bacteria.
Thin egg white: the thin egg white is found between the shell membrane and the yolk.
Thick egg white: the thick egg white is thick and cloudy and found around the yolk.
Yolk: the yolk provides the chick with the food it needs.
Blastodisc: this is where the egg will potentially be fertilized.
Air space: this is where the chick draws its first breath before pecking through the shell
Preservation, storage and marketing of eggs
Treatment to egg shells prevents the evaporation of moisture from the egg content, during hot
weather conditions eggs may be dipped or sprayed with light mineral oil.
Eggs may be marketed in the liquid form as frozen eggs. Before freezing, eggs should be
pasteurized. This process destroys micro-organisms which would have multiplied and spoiled the
eggs.
Eggs may also be purchased in the dry state for making cake mixes, sweets and meringue powders.
The liquid egg is first clarified of bits of egg shell, the pasteurized and preheated it is then pumped
under pressure trough nozzles and released in to a large room where it is exposed to a stream of
hot air. The moisture evaporates from the liquid egg causing the fine power to fall to the floor. It
is cooled, packed and sealed in containers.
Review Questions
1) Draw and label the external parts of an egg.
2) Discuss how eggs are (i) Preserved
(ii) Stored
(iii) Marketed
Home Work
Select a clean large egg and identify the external parts
REFERENCES


 Video-https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k_kljC4aRIg&t=12s
 Video- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i4W2ZLoczNw
 Video- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qHburN5ARdA
Week 5
Lesson # 2
Sub topic: Nutritive value of eggs
Objectives
- To know the nutrient content of eggs and the importance of these nutrients.
Nutrition Facts
Eggs are one of nature’s most nutrient-dense foods. One large (53g) Grade-A egg contains 6g of
protein and only 70 calories.
Protein
Eggs are one of the few foods considered to be a complete protein, because they contain all 9
essential amino acids. Amino acids are considered ‘building blocks for the body’ because they
help form protein.
In addition to giving you energy, your body uses the protein found in eggs to:
 build and repair body tissues and cells

 build and maintain healthy muscles
 grow strong hair and nails
 help fight infections
 help keep your body fluids in balance
Nutrients
Eggs are not only an excellent source of high quality protein, but they also contain many
vitamins and minerals
Cholesterol
An egg a day is ok!
If you’ve been avoiding eggs because of concerns linking them to dietary cholesterol and coronary
heart disease, it’s time to reconsider. The latest research shows that dietary cholesterol, like what’s
in eggs, has very little effect on your blood cholesterol levels. Healthy adults can enjoy an egg
every day without increasing their risk of heart disease.
According to the American Heart Association, lutein found in egg yolks also protects against the
progress of early heart disease.
Review Questions
1) List four benefits obtained from egg consumption
2) Complete the table below
Nutrients Benefits
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Home Work
“Egg is a cheap source of Protein”.
Explain in one paragraph the phrase above.

REFERENCES


 Video- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k_kljC4aRIg&t=12s
 Video- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qHburN5ARdA
 Video- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i4W2ZLoczNw
Week 5
Lesson # 3
Sub topic: Methods of cooking eggs
Objectives
- To be aware of the common methods of cooking eggs
Methods of cooking eggs
1. Hard boiled
A hard- boiled egg is cooked in its shell in boiling water. The “hard” refers to the consistency of
the egg white (or albumen) and the yolk.
2. Soft Boiled
Soft boiled eggs follow the same process as hard boiled eggs, but you cut the cooking time
roughly in half. This gets the egg white cooked while leaving the yolk runny
3. Hard Scrambled
Scrambled technically means that the whites and yolks are broken and mixed together. Hard
scrambled eggs are cooked all the way through.
4. Soft Scrambled
Soft scrambled eggs sometimes referred to as “wet.” The texture is ten times better, and they
play more nicely with other ingredients. The difference between soft and hard scrambled eggs is
cooking time.
5. Omelets & Frittatas
An omelet or frittata indicates that the scrambled eggs are cooked until they’ve stabilized into a
usable form. A frittata is typically open-faced, whereas an omelet is folded over in half onto the
additions.
6. Sunny Side up
Sunny side up means your egg yolk looks like a bright morning sun. We refer to these as runny
or “dipping” eggs.
7. Over easy
Eggs over easy and sunny side up are often using interchangeably, but they are different. You go
from sunny side up to over easy by simply flipping your egg when the edges are brown. The
“easy” doesn’t refer to the simplicity of turning over an egg, but the state of your yolk. “Over
easy” means the egg is flipped and cooked just long enough to make a film on the top of the
yolk. When served, the yolk and some of the whites are still runny.
8. Poached
It’s like boiling but without the shell, or like over medium that skips contact with the pan. These
means you’re avoiding any hard edges. The white is cooked through and the yolk is warm and
runny.
Review Questions
1) List 5 methods of cooking eggs.
2) Describe the methods you have listed in (1) in your own words.
Home Work
With the help of your parents /guardians prepare eggs using two of the methods and display your
finished product. You may also take photos of your cooked eggs and post on social media for
your peers to see.
REFERENCES


 Website: https://www.breakfastwithnick.com/2014/04/08/how-do-you-want-your-eggs-
eleven-ways-to-cook-an-egg/
Week 6
Lesson # 1
Topic: Sheep and Goat Production
Subtopic: External Features of Sheep and Goat
Objectives:
-To identify the difference between a sheep and a goat
-To identify the external parts of a sheep and a goat.
-To state the benefits of rearing sheep and goat.
Goat
*A goat is considered to be “poor man’s cow” because it does not cause as much as a cow to
rear.
*Goats supply food as cows do – meat and milk.
*Goats provide hides and manure.
*Goats do not eat much and can be kept on a small piece of land.
*Because of their size, a large number can be kept in a small area and are easily controlled.
*Goats feed on poor scrubby plants and convert them into valuable animal products.
*They have a F.C.R. of 5:1 and a D.P. of 50-55%

External Features of a Goat
Sheep
*The sheep has its origin in temperate countries.
*It was introduced into the Caribbean to increase the protein level in our diet.
*The importance of sheep rearing in the Caribbean is for its mutton.
*Production of wool, manure, skin and milk are incidental.

External Features of a Sheep
Review Questions
1) A goat is considered to be “poor man‘s cow “, explain why?
2) Goat provides _________ and __________ while sheep provides ________ and ________.
3) List five external parts of a sheep and five internal parts of a goat.
4) Discuss the benefits of rearing sheep and goat.

References
 S.Ragoonanan (2011) ‘Agriculture for CSEC Revision course’ New Edition, Caribbean

 S.Ragoonanan (1991) CXC Agriculture- A Revision Course, Caribbean Educational

Week 6
Lesson # 2
Sub Topic: Types and Breeds of Sheep and Goat
Objectives:
- To know the sub-families that sheep and goat belong to.
-To identify the breeds of sheep and goat.
-To be aware of the basic types of sheep and goat.
Sheep and Goat
*Sheep belong to the sub -family Ovidae while goats belong to the sub – family called Capra.
*Sheep and goats are ruminants.
*They are classified in to three basic types.
*The types are wool, meat and milk.
Breeds of Sheep
Texel
*This is a white faced breed of sheep with no wool on the head or legs.
*The breed is characterized by a distinctive short, wide face with a black nose and widely placed,
short ears with a nearly horizontal carriage.
*These sheep also have black hooves.
The outstanding feature of the Texel breed is its remarkable muscle development and leanness.
Barbados Black Belly
*This breed was developed in Barbados.
*Black belly sheep range in colour from light tan to a dark mahogany red, with black stripes on
the face and black legs, belly, inguinal region, chin and chest, which gives this herbivore its
name.
*The ears point forward and are black with white margins.
*Both male and female are polled.
*This is a very prolific breed.
*It can be bred twice a year.
*The breed is noted for giving birth to twins.

The Black Head Persian
*This breed originated in Somalia (Africa) and was introduced into the Caribbean.
*It is a large fat –rumped sheep having a pale coat with a fine woolly under coat.
*Its colour is white or light brown except for the head, neck and feet which are dark brown to
black.
*It is polled with long legs, semi – lopped ears and a well – developed dewlap.
*It is polled with long legs, semi – lopped ears and a well – developed dewlap.
*The tip of the tail is thin.

Breeds of Goats
Anglo Nubian
*This breed originated in India, Ethiopia and Egypt but was perfected in England.
*It has a characteristically long large drooping ears and a convex shaped face.
*The hair is short and fine with colour ranging between black, dark brown or tan, with or without
white markings.
*It is the largest of all the recommended breeds and gives the best quality milk, which is high in
butter fat.
Saanen
*This breed originated in Switzerland.
*The colour ranges from pure to creamy white.
*The breed is susceptible to skin cancer, under tropical conditions.
*It is the highest producer of milk among goats.
The Toggenbury
*This breed originated in Switzerland.
*The colour is brown or chocolate with a light stripe down each side of the face.
*The legs below the knees and hocks are light grey or white.
*They are very quiet animals with an extremely pleasing appearance.

Alpine
*There are four main types of Alpines.
1. The French Alpine which ranges from pure white to pure black, with white spots on the neck,
legs and underneath the body, if the animal is not white.
2. The Swiss Alpine, from Switzerland, has a rich brown colour with black markings.
3. The Rock Alpine was developed in America from Swiss goats and pure French Alpine rams.
They resemble the French Alpine in colour.
3. The British Alpine resembles the Toggenburg facially, but is black instead of brown.
1 2
4
Review Questions
1) Sheep belong to ______sub-family while the goat belongs to _________ sub-family.
2) Sheep and goats are _______ and are classified into _____, ____and _____types.
3) a) List two breed of sheep and goat.
b) Explain each breed listed in ‘a’.
4) State the physical differences between a sheep and a goat.
Home Work
Prepare a scrap book on the types and breeds of sheep and goats.
References


Week 6
Lesson # 3
Sub Topic: Management of Sheep and Goats
Objectives:
- To be aware of the similarities in stages of reproductive cycle between a sheep and a goat.
-To know the ratio of buck to ewe for sheep and goat
- To be able to define the term ‘flushing’.
Management of Sheep and Goats
*Sheep are easier to control and restrain than goats.
*The latter are much more active and require freedom of movement to maintain good health.
*Both classes of livestock can be reared under the semi – intensive system which allows for
better development and productivity.
Breeding and Reproduction
*Male goats may be ready for servicing as early as 5 – 6 months old but under a semi-intensive
system, they are not used for breeding until they are 12 months old.
*The females also experience very early Oestrous (4-6 months) but are not allowed to mate until
9 -12 months old.
Similarities in Stages of Reproductive Cycle
Age of puberty 5 -6 months
Age of mating 10 -12 months
Duration of oestrus 24 - 36 hours
Gestation period 145 -153 days
Sheep Breeding
*Under good management, the male sheep (ram) can service between 20 – 30 ewes.
*Two rams should be allowed to run with 50 ewes.
*For good reproductive performance, older rams should be allowed to mate with younger ewes
and young rams with older ewes.
*Ram should be kept with their ewes for about 50 -60 days, so as to ensure that the ewes are
pregnant.
*Ewes meant for breeding should show good udder development.
*They should also have strong legs.
*About two weeks before breeding, ewes should be put on good pastures or should be provided
with high protein concentrate.
*This practice is called flushing and is practiced to ensure a high percentage of twinning and a
good crop of lambs.
*Pregnant ewes are separated from the rams about 2- 3 months in to pregnancy.
*After birth, the lambs are allowed to run with their mothers until weaning.
*Male lambs not wanted for breeding can be castrated at age 4 – 6 weeks.
*Weaning is done around 2 – 3 months of age.

Goat Breeding
*Under semi- intensive management, male goats (bucks) are not used for mating until they are
12 months old.
*The females should also be mated at the same age even though they would be ready earlier.
*One buck can service up to 20 does.
*The doe is served after 12 hours from the start of oestrus which lasts for about 24 – 36 hours.
*Her feed can be reduced gradually.
*After giving birth, the kid is allowed to run with the mother.
*The kid is not weaned until 3 – 4 months old.
*At three weeks the kid should be introduced to grass or starter rations.
*Clean fresh water and minerals should be provided
Review Questions
1) Sheep are easier to control and restrain than goats. Explain why.
2) Discuss the similarities in the stages of reproductive cycle between sheep and goats.
3) Male lambs are castrated at the age of ____to ____ weeks old.
4) Explain why flushing is important in the rearing of ewes.

References


Week 7
Lesson # 1
Sub Topic: Management of Sheep and Goats
Objectives:
- To know the methods of milking goat.
-To understand the systems of management of sheep
- To be aware of the feeding methods for sheep and goats.
Milking Goats
*Goat‘s milk is not widely used by people in the region. Milking may be done by machine or by
hand.
*The lactation period of the doe lasts for 180 - 230 days with a total yield of up to 400 Kg
*Milk production increases to its peak at 6 - 8 weeks after which it declines.
Housing Sheep and Goats
*Sheep and goats may be reared intensively, semi – intensively or extensively
*Owing to our weather conditions and abundant vegetation, the system most used is the semi –
intensive.
*The animals are grazed freely in the open pastures during the dry season and are kept indoors at
nights and during the wet season.
*These are very small animals and do not require very elaborate housing
*Houses should be covered, well ventilated and have facilities for feeding, watering and mineral
licks.
*The floor of the pen should be wooden, raised about 0.5 meters from the ground.
Intensive system Semi-Intensive system
Extensive system
Feeds and Feeding
*Generally, sheep and goats maintain themselves by grazing unimproved pastures containing a
wide variety of vegetation which include grasses, legumes and shrubs.
*Goats feed on a wide range of vegetation.
*Commercial rations like starter and growing rations, rice bran and soya bean meal are used to
supplement the grazing.
*The feed can be supplemented with about 1 kg of a mixture of cereal and soya bean meal in
equal parts daily.
Review Questions
State whether the following statements are true or false
1) Milk productions increases at its peak at 6 – 8 weeks
2) Sheep and goats are reared only by semi- intensive system.
3) Elaborate housing is needed for rearing sheep and goat.
4) Goats do not feed on a wide range on vegetation.
5) People in the Caribbean region widely use goat’s milk

6) Animals are allowed to graze freely in open pastures in the dry season.
Home Work
Make a model of one of the systems of management of sheep and goats.
References


Week 7
Lesson # 2
Subtopic: Diseases
Objectives
- To be aware of the diseases that affect sheep and goats.
- To identify the symptoms of each disease.
-To state the preventative measures and treatment for each disease.
Diseases
Sheep and Goats are affected by similar diseases
The diseases are:
*Mastitis
*Foot rot
*Scouring
1) Mastitis
This is a bacterial infection of the udder and teats.
-The infected quarters or quarters become swollen and painful to touch.
-The milk is watery with clots of blood.
-Body temperature rises and the milk yield drops.

Prevention and Treatment
-Keep animals and pens clean.
-Use disinfectant to treat all wounds on the udder promptly.
-Milk healthy animals before milking infected ones.
-Use warm application and gently milk non-infected quarters.
-inject infected teats with antibiotics.
-Get rid of infected milk.
-Use clean equipment for milking.
Infected udder (Mastitis)
2) Foot Rot
-This disease is prevalent among sheep and goats that are rear in damp pastures.
-It is a fungal infection which causes animals to have difficulty in walking.

-This results in the animal being unable to feed itself well.
-Provide dry housing and pastures.
-Keep the feet in good condition – infected feet should be washed, cleaned and the diseased
tissue cut away.
-The area should be treated with a 10% formalin or 30% copper sulphate solution.
-Treated animals should be kept indoors until the condition is over.
Foot Rot
3) Scours or Diarrhoea
-Scours or diarrhoea in goat softens results from heavy infestation of the stomach and intestines
with harmful bacteria, coccidian and / or worms.
-These organisms damage the walls of the digestive tract and cause bleeding and digestive
disorders.
-scour or diarrhoea also results from the eating of stale mouldy food or very young grass.
-Frequent deworming.
-Keep stock away from food that is stale or mouldy and grass that is too young and succulent.
Scours or Diarrhoea
Review Questions
State whether the sentences are True or False
1) Mastitis is a bacterial infection of udder and teats.
2) Sheep and goats are not affected by similar diseases
3) Frequent deworming is a preventative measure of controlling Scours.
4) Foot rot is not prevalent among sheep and goats that are reared in damp pastures.
5) Treated animals should be kept indoors.
Home Work
As an Extension Officer advice Farmers on the benefits of preventative measures of diseases as it

relates to sheep and goat rearing.
References


Publisher Ltd, Trinidad, WI.
Week 7
Lesson # 3
Subtopic: Internal and External Pests
Objectives
- To know the internal and external parasites of sheep and goat

- To be knowledgeable of the preventative measures and treatments of each parasite.
Parasites
Sheep and Goats are affected by similar parasites
The pests are:
Internal External
Tape worms Screw worms Mites Lice
Lung worms Liver Flukes Ticks
Round worms
Internal Parasites
-These are parasites living inside the body of the animals.
-Tapeworms, roundworm, lungworms, and liver-flukes infest different internal organs of the
animals.
-These organs include the stomach, intestine, liver and lungs.
-Internal damage is done and the animal suffers from diarrhoea, anemia, loss of hair, loss of
condition and general weakness.
-Good sanitation and feeding prevent the animal from becoming susceptible to these parasites.
-Rotational grazing reduces the buildup of any infestation in the pastures.
-Regular deworming with drugs such as Miliven, being administered in the feed, should be
carried out.
Life cycle of a liver fluke
Review Questions
State whether the sentences are True or False
1) Liver – flukes and lung worms are internal parasites that affect sheep and goats.
2) Rotational grazing does not reduces the build – up of any of my infestation in the pastures.
3) Diarrhoea and hair loss are symptoms of internal parasites
4) All worms affect the same organs of the animals
5) The life cycle of an internal parasite begins from the pasture grass
Home Work
In one paragraph, explain the benefits of regular deworming of sheep and goat.
References


Week 8
Lesson # 1
Subtopic: External Parasites
Objectives
- To identify the external parasites based on their specific symptoms.
- To know the correct preventative and treatment of specific parasite.
External Parasites
- These parasites live on the outside of the animals.
Ticks
These suck the blood of the animals and cause Anemia.
-When ticks bite an animal, it cause irritation which result in an itch.
-Itching causes restlessness and damage to the skin of the animal.
-The lesions are openings for other external parasites.
-Ticks can be treated with tickicides, e.g., Bercotox.
-Rotational grazing also controls the infection by ticks in pastures.

Life Cycle of a Tick
Lice
-These can be spread by contact and infected animals become itchy and restless.
-They rub themselves against trees and fences causing damage that can lead to secondary
infection.
-Lice can be treated in the same way as ticks by:
*Dipping, spraying or dusting with an appropriate chemical.

Life Cycle of Lice
Screw Worm
-These are common among most classes of livestock.
The larvae are derived from eggs laid by the screw worm fly.
-These eggs are laid at the edge of fresh wounds or sores (lesions)
-The maggots then enter the wounds, where they feed on the tissues of the animals causing the
wounds to become more severe and to give off a foul odour.
-The maggots must be picked out and the wound should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected.
-A screw worm spray can be sprayed into the wound to control any further attack.
Life Cycle of Screw Worms
Review Questions
Complete the Table Below
1)
Name of Parasites Symptoms

Animals rub themselves against trees and
fences
Screw worms
Animals itching which cause restlessness
2) Identify two examples of external parasites.
3) State the preventative control measures and treatment of each example listed in ‘a’.
4) Explain two similarities amongst the external parasites.
References


Week 8
Lesson # 2
Topic: General Agronomic Practices of Crops
Subtopic: Varieties of Banana
Objectives
- To identify the varieties of banana cultivated in Guyana.
- To know the origin and distribution of the crop.
Banana
Botanical Name: Musa acuminate
Family : Musaceae
Picture of a bunch of banana
Origin and Distribution
*A banana is an edible fruit produced by several kinds of large herbaceous flowering plants in
the genus Musa.
*In some countries, bananas are used for cooking and may be called plantains.
*The fruit is variable in colour, size and firmness, but usually elongated and curved, with soft
flesh rich in starch and covered with a rind which may be green, red, purple, yellow or brown
when ripe.
*The fruit grow in clusters hanging from the top of the plant.
*Almost all modern edible parthenocarpic (seedless) bananas come two wild species – Musa
acuminate and Musa balbisianna.
Varieties
Gros Michel
- The fruit of this variety are of good flavor and high quality.
-Various species of the Cavendish banana, a hardier group, have been crossed with Gros Michel
to produce commercial varieties.
Other Varieties include the Cavendish, Valery, Lacatan and Robusta. The Valery, Lacatan and
Robusta are the three most important.
*Locally we have Sweet Fig, Sour Fig and Apple.
Sweet Fig Banana

Sour Fig Banana
Cavendish bananas
Cavendish bananas are the fruits of one of a number of banana cultivars belonging to
the Cavendish subgroup of the AAA banana cultivar group.
Gran Enano or Giant Cavendish

Greater fruit, greater weight and cylindrical, although shorter and more curved than those of the
clone ‘Robusta’. Plant of low growing habit, thick pseudo stem and wide foliar system.
Lacatan
It is considered as a primitive type of ‘Cavendish’ from which all the other cultivars originated
by mutation. The main producing countries are Brazil and Cameroun. The fruits are similar to
‘Valery’. High and vigorous plant, similar to ‘Gros Michel’.
Robusta
Mainly exported from the Ivory Coast. Also named ‘Poyo’, this variety developed from
‘Cavendish’. Shorter fruit with a very sweet flavour.
Valery
Great fruits but less cylindrical than those of ‘Gros Michel’. Sweet and consistent flavour. The
name is registered as a brand.
Cavendish banana
Characters used to classify banana cultivars derived from M. acuminata and M.

balbisiana
Character M. acuminata M. balbisiana
Color of pseudostem Black or grey-brown spots Unmarked or slightly marked
Petiole canal Erect edge, with scarred inferior Closed edge, without leaves,
leaves, not against the pseudostem against the pseudostem
Stalk Covered with fine hair Smooth
Pedicels Short Long
Ovum Two regular rows in the locule Four irregular rows in the
locule
Elbow of the bract Tall (< 0.28) Short (> 0.30)

Bend of the bract The bract wraps behind the opening The bract raises without
bending behind the opening
Form of the bract Lance- or egg-shaped, tapering Broadly egg-shaped

markedly after the bend
Peak of the bract Acute Obtuse
Color of the bract Dark red or yellow on the outside, Brown-purple on the outside,
opaque purple or yellow on the inside crimson on the inside
Discoloration The inside of the bract is more bright The inside of the bract is
toward the base uniform
Scarification of the Prominent Not prominent

bract
Free petal of the Corrugated under the point Rarely corrugated

male flower
Color of the male White or cream Pink

flower
Color of the Orange or bright yellow Cream, yellow, or pale pink

markings
Review Questions
1) The botanical name for banana is ______ and the family is_______.
2) A banana is an ______fruit produced by large herbaceous _________plants in the genus

_______.
3) The fruit grows in ______ hanging from the top of the plant.
Home Work
Identify two local varieties of banana and state two differences between the varieties.
References


Week 8
Lesson # 3
Topic: General Agronomic Practices of Crops
Subtopic: Planting and Cultivation of Banana
Objectives
-To be aware of the methods of propagation of banana.
- To identify the three main types of suckers.
Planting and Cultivation
*The banana is propagated exclusively by vegetative methods.
*The pseudo stem produce three main types of suckers: Maiden, water and sword.
*The water sucker is one in which the stem is the same width from top to bottom. These are
usually produced by the remote or grandparents corm and must never be used for planting.
*The sword suckers are very vigorous and produced by the main stem. These are the best suckers
for planting.
*Maiden suckers also make good planting materials.
*The best plants are obtained from the corms of old stems which have one or two buds on them.
*Bananas keep growing for several years.
*The average period of productive growth, without replanting is about five years.
*This is particularly true of crops planted on clayey soils commonly found in Guyana.
*All new planting materials for banana should be free from pests and diseases.
*The farmer’s aim is to produce a high tonnage per hectare, although individual fruits may be
smaller.
*This means that if the spacing between plants is reduced, more plants can be planted per hectare
and higher yields can be obtained.
Pictures of the type of suckers
Maiden
Suckers
Review Questions
1) Banana is propagated by ________method.
2) Differentiate amongst the three main types of suckers.
3) (a) State the best type of sucker used for planting banana
(b)Explain your choice
References


Week 9
Lesson # 1
Topic: Cultivation of Banana
Subtopic: Application of Fertilizers
Objectives
- To identify the types of fertilizers used.
- To know how to apply fertilizers with varying methods.
- To be knowledgeable of the process of pruning.
- To become aware of the steps involved in harvesting banana.
Application of Fertilizer
*Banana requires fertilizer, if a high level of production is to be maintained year after year.
*At least two applications per year are recommended, but the rate of application and type of
fertilizer used has to be determined by soil testing.
*A mixed fertilizer is generally recommended since bananas do not appear to be show any major
mineral deficiency.
Pruning
*The attitude towards cutting out suckers has changed considerably since the introduction of the
practice of selling banana by weight.
*In fertile soils, as many as four or five suckers may be allowed to develop from the parent plant;
whereas in less fertile soil, it is advisable to allow only two suckers to be produced at different
stages of development.
*When a sucker needs to be removed from the parent plant, this should be done with a sharp
cutlass or machete, by inserting it between the sucker and the parent.
*A smooth, clean cut is essential since it discourages possible infection of the plant.
Pruning
Harvesting
*The top portion of the pseudo stem is cut off and allowed to remain as the base of the plant.
*Most losses occur during harvesting.
*In some plantations, the young fruits are wrapped in polythene bags to prevent gazing of the
fruit.
*The bananas are transported from the field to boxing plants.
*Hands of bananas may be dipped in growth regulators substances gibberellins to improve post –
harvest storage.
*Keeping at temperature of 13° c -15°c and 85 % relative humidity also prolongs the storage
time.
Harvesting Banana
Review Questions
1) ‘Banana requires fertilizer ‘.State why.

2) What type of fertilizer is recommended for banana?
3) Discuss the process of pruning.
4) Explain the terms –suckers and pseudo – stem.
5) Explain the steps involved in harvesting banana.
Home Work
In one paragraph explain the nutritive value of banana.

References


Week 9
Lesson # 2
Topic: Cultivation of Banana
Subtopic: Pests and Diseases of Bananas
Objectives
- To identify the diseases that affects the different cultivars.
-To know how diseases can be controlled.
-To become aware of the economic importance of banana.
Diseases
1) Panama Disease
This disease is caused by fusarium soil fungus, which enters the plants through the roots and
travels with water into the trunk and leaves, producing gel and gums that cut off the flow of
water and nutrients, causing the plant to wilt and exposing the rest of the plant to lethal amounts
of sunlight.
2) Black Sigatoka
*This is a fungal leaf spot disease. It is also known as black leaf streak.
*It has spread to all main cultivars of banana.

*Several resistant cultivars of banana have been developed, but none has yet received
commercial acceptance due to taste and texture issues.
3) Banana Bunchy Top Virus (Bbtv)
*This moves from plant to plant by aphids.
*It stunts leaves, resulting in a “bunched” appearance.
*Generally, an infected plant does not produce fruits.
*There is no cure.
*Its effects can be minimized by planting only tissue –cultured plants.

4) Banana Bacterial Wilt
*This is a bacterial disease caused by Xanthomonas campestris.
*It affects all cultivars of banana.
Control Measures
MANAGEMENT:
- Nematicides
- Cultural practices
- Nematode – free planting material
- Composting and mulching
- Crop rotation
Economic Importance
*Bananas are one of the most consumed fruits in America.
*They are often eaten raw, but can also come in the form of chips, on an ice –cream sundae , or
on a breakfast oatmeal .pancake , or cereal.
*Banana are a component of the Banana Rice Applesauce Toast (BRAT) Diet recommended to
people who have diarrhoea or are experiencing an upset stomach.
*The potassium helps to regulate the fluid balance in the body and the fibre aids in digestion.
Review Questions
1) a) List three diseases that affect banana.
b) Explain any two of the disease listed in ‘a’.
2) Identify and explain the two most popular methods of control practice in Guyana.
Home Work
Discuss the economic importance of banana cultivation to Guyana‘s economy.
References


Week 9
Lesson # 3
SubTopic: Cultivation of Banana
Subtopic: Pests of Banana
Objectives
- To be knowledgeable of pest management of banana
Pests of Banana
Nematodes
Nematodes are a common banana plant pest. They cause rotting of the corms and act as a vector
to the fungus Fusarium oxysporum. There are a number of different species of nematode that like
bananas as much as we do. Commercial farmers apply nematicides, which when properly
applied, will protect the crop. Otherwise, the soil has to be cleared, plowed and then exposed to
the sun and left fallow for up to 3 years.
Weevils
The black weevil (Cosmopolites sordidus) or banana stalk borer, banana weevil borer or corm
weevil, is the second most destructive pest. Black weevils attack the base of the pseudostem and
tunnel upward whereupon a jelly-like sap oozes out from the entry point. Different pesticides are
used commercially depending upon the country to control black weevils. Biological control
utilizes a predator, Piaesiusjavanus, but has not been shown to have any truly beneficial results.
Thrips
Banana rust thrips (C. signipennis), as its name suggests, stains the peel, causing it to split and
exposes the flesh which then begins to rot. Insecticidal dust (Diazinon) or a spraying of Dieldrin
can control thrips, which pupate in the soil. Additional insecticides combined with polyethylene
bagging are also used to control thrips on commercial farms.
Scarring beetle
The banana fruit scarring beetle, or coquito, invade the bunches when the fruit it young. The
banana scab moth infests the inflorescence and is controlled with the use of an injection or
dusting of pesticide.
Sap-sucking insects
Mealy bugs, red spider mites and aphids may also pay a visit to banana plants.
Review Questions
1) State the pests that affect banana.
2) Explain any three pests listed in question one
3) Identify and explain the two most popular methods of pest control practices in Guyana.
Home Work
Discuss two reasons why a farmer needs to be knowledgeable of pest management

References


Week 10
Lesson # 1
Topic: Cultivation of Heliconia
Subtopic: Growing Heliconia
Objectives
- To identify heliconia plants.
- To understand the process of preparation and planting of heliconia.
Heliconia
*Heliconia, derived from a Greek word helilwnios , is a genus of about 100-200 species of
flowering plants.
*Many species of heliconia are found in rain forest or tropical wet forest of these regions.
*Collectively, these plants are also simply referred to as heliconias.
*The heliconia are a monophyletic genus in the family Heliconiaceae, but formerly include in
the family Musaceae, which include banana.
*The herbaceous plants range from 0.5 to nearly 4.5 meters tall depending on the species.
*The simple leaves of these plants are 15 -30 cm.
*They are characteristically long, oblong, alternate, or growing opposite one another on non –
woody petioles often longer than the leaf funning large clumps with age.
*Their flowers are produced on long, erect, or dropping panicles and consist of brightly colour
waxy bracts, with small true flowers peeping out from the bracts.
*The flowers can be hues of red, oranges, yellows and greens and are subtended by brightly
coloured bracts.
*The plants typically flower during the wet season.

Sowing Heliconia
*Preparing your potting mixture: select a suitable potting mixture and add 1/3 peat moss and 1/3
sand.
*You can then fill the container with prepared mixture.
*If you are planting your heliconia outdoors, dig a hole slightly larger than the rootball.
Add sand and peat moss.

Water thoroughly and keep the soil moist but not sogging.
*Heliconia needs an abundance of water.
*Fertilize at least once a month with an all - purpose fertilizer.
*Heliconia should be planted in a well-draining soil with the top sticking out of the ground.
*Heliconia flourishes well in loamy soil rich in humus.
*Heliconia bloom once or several times a year.
Growing Heliconias
*Typically, heliconia grow naturally in lowland to mid – elevation humid tropical areas.
*They are fast growing plants, which easily take advantage of soil fertility.
*In cultivation, a plant is often started from a rhizome division, which includes at least one erect
pseudostem.
*The pot is put in a warm, lightly shaded spot and watered regularly to keep it moist but not
perpetually soggy.
*If the season is cool or dry, the plant will be held until hot / wet weather condition is expected.
Review Questions
State whether the following statements are TRUE OR FALSE
1) Heliconia has 200 – 300 species of flowering plants.
2) Helilwnios is the origin word for heliconia.
3) Banana is in the same family as heliconia.
4) Heliconia plants should be fertilized with an all – purpose fertilizer.
5) Heliconia flourishes well in loamy soil rich in humus.
6) The plants grow best in moist and slightly shaded areas.
Home Work
Prepare a scrap book on ten species of heliconia.
References


Week 10
Lesson # 2
Subtopic: Fertilizing and Mulching
Objectives
-To understand the steps involved in fertilizing heliconia.
-To be aware the benefits of mulching.
-To appreciate the economic importance of heliconia.
Fertilizing
*Plant Heliconias 4-6 inches deeper than they are in their sprouting container.
*Place a slow releasing fertilizer directly to the planting hole.
*Planting tablets 13-5-13 give a practical boost to the newly planted heliconia.
*In addition to the fertilizer placed in the planting holes, the plants should be heavily fertilized
four times per year.
Mulching
*Maintaining a layer of organic mulch around the heliconia plants serves several purposes:
-Mulch helps to retain moisture around root zone.
-To mulch also helps to hold fertilizers for slower release to the plants.
-Nematodes are often a serious problem for plants growing in rocks or sandy soils.
-Mulches help to control weeds and maintain a tidier appearance around the plants.
Economic Importance
*They are wildly used as ornamentals.
*Heliconias are grown for their beautiful, brilliant colourful flowering bracts.
*Heliconia flowers are usually highly modified leaves and bracts.
*The flowering stems are mostly pendulous.
*A bract is a leaf structure at the base of a flower.
*Heliconia flowers are produced on long, erect or dropping panicles and consist of brightly
coloured waxy bracts with small true flower inside the bracts.
*Bracts which can be orange, purple, red, yellow, pink, green or their combinations.
Review Questions
FILL IN THE BLANKS.
1) The plants should be heavily fertilized _______ times per year.
2) Mulching helps to retain _______ around the root zone.
3) Heliconia is widely used as ____________.
4) Flowers are produced on long _____ or _____ panicles.
5) A bract is a _____ ______ at the base of a flower.
6) Heliconia plants are _______ feeders.
Homework
Write a short essay on the ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE of Heliconia in Guyana.
References


Week 10
Lesson # 3
Sub topic: Heliconia Disease
Objectives
-To identify the diseases based on their symptoms
-To be aware of the effects of disease infestation
- To understand the preventative and control measures of diseases
-To be aware of the factors affecting flower quality
Heliconia Diseases
Disorders Diseases Treatment

Aerial disorder
Leaf spots Bipolaris and Alternaria
Shoot rots Preicur and fongarid. Avoid
Emerging shoots Pythiummyriotylum water-logging
Basal rots No chemical control
Pseudostem at ground level Cyclindrocladiumfloridnum available. Usually attacks
weakened plants, so avoid
water-logging which can
cause other root
Soil borne plants disorder No chemical control
Wilt syndrome A form species of fusarium available. Clean knives when
oxysporum harvesting flowers, clean
planting materials. Never re-
plant on diseased ground.
Rhizome rot No chemical control
currently available. avoid
Root knot nematode Cyclindrocladium floridanum water –logging
Nematicides not
Meloidogyne recommended due to cost and
toxicity. Organic mulches,
e.g, green manures, forage
hay incorporated into beds at
planting.
Root rots caused by poor soil Recommended fungicidal
drainage grench, e.g, cropper
Fine- feeder roots Phytophthora and Pythium oxychlorride, fongarid .avoid
planting in wet season.
Incorporate gypsum in clay
soils to aid in water dispersal.
Do not plant rhizomes too
deep in beds.
Factors affecting flower Abrasion due to wind causes Incorporate wind breaks, e.g.,
quality brown superficial lesions on native timber, palms and/or
Physical peduncles and bracts. bahama grass.
Spray-damage due to Do not spray on windy days;
Biological herbicide drift can cause choose calm weather
discolouration of bracts. Poor conditions. Spray in early
spraying practices can cause morning or late evening,
scorch marks and reduce cooler parts of the day. Use
bloom quality. correct formulation,
concentrations recommended
Flower attacked by ants and on the label.
rodents are not salable. Aim to reduce pest
populations through
Curvularia and Alternaria can appropriate trash
cause severe spotting on management.
bracts. Regular spray program of
bravo. Improve aeration
Bipolarisincurvata can cause during wet season to avoid
flower bract spots. water build-up on leaves.
Regular spray of Mancozeb,
Rovral and tilt. improve
aeration during wet season to
avoid water build-up.
Review Questions
1) Explain why cut Heliconia should be kept cool.
Discuss the statements below
2)”Clean knives when harvesting flowers”
3) “Spray Heliconia early in the morning or late evening or cooler parts of the day.”
References


 Video- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dXVMCaMfAyg
January 2021
Week 11
Lesson # 1
Grade: 9
Topic: Fish Culture
Sub topic: Fish Products
Objectives
- To be cognizant of what is fish farming
-To be aware of the products of fish
-To classify fish into classes
-To identify the physical characteristics of a fish
Fish Culture
Fish farming or fish culture is a branch of agriculture involving the breeding, rearing and marketing
of fish. In Guyana and the Caribbean, fish farming is basically for food since fish is nutritious and
is a relatively cheap source of protein.
Fishing is a lucrative business and there are large firms that are engaged in fishing for fish and
prawns in the waters around us in the Caribbean.
Fish Products
Fish provides us with a valuable source of protein that is more easily digested than most other
forms of meat.
Some fishes are rich in oil e.g. Salmon. They also have a high content of vitamins A and D. Fish
is also a good source of minerals such as iodine, phosphorous and calcium.
Other products which are obtained from fish are fertilizers, glue, soap, linoleum, shortening, paint,
lubricant, ink, gelatin, artificial pearls, sharkskin, leather, Insulin and other medicine.
Fish catching is a popular sport as well as a leisure-time activity. Many people keep fish in
aquariums and for exhibition.
External features of a fish (Tilapia)

Classification of fish
Review Question
Complete the fish crossword puzzle below:
References


Week 11
Lesson # 2
Topic: Fish Culture
Sub topic: Types of fishing
Objectives
- To know the types of fishing
- To identify the methods used for fishing
- To be familiar with the fishes caught under each type of fishing
-To be knowledgeable of the advantages and disadvantages of each type of fishing
Fishing
Fishing is done by any one of these ways:
*Inland fishing
*Coastal or off-shore fishing
*Deep-sea fishing or Off-shore fishing
Inland fishing
Inland fishing is also called fresh-water fishing and is usually done in ponds, swamps, lakes, creeks
and rivers. Inland fishing has been the chief source of fish for domestic use in villages and interior
locations. The methods used for fishing are:
- Poisoning fish
- Shooting with bow and arrow
- Trapping by allowing the water to channel out leaving the fish behind
- Casting nets
- Hook and line
- Feeling by hand in shallow water
- Trapping seine.
Casting nets
Shooting with bow and arrow

Hook and line
Inshore fishing or coastal fishing
This is done by fishing in coastal water or along the shores in small open boats. Some fishermen
cast nets along the shore and catch such fishes as four –eye and mullet. Others throw out baited
hooks from small boats. These hooks are floated by corks or calabash. The lines are dragged slowly
through the water. Selected varieties of fish are caught by this method e.g. curass, catfish, snapper.
In Guyana this method is called “the cadell”.
Other fishermen use the pin scine method. In this method the net is cast and pinned in a shallow
area to trap the fishes when the water recedes.
Many fishes are caught in this way .They include queriman, mullet, snook, gail-barker, butter-
fish, shark, morocut, catfish, highwater, curass.The catch is loaded into boats and brought to
shore.
Deep- sea fishing or Off-shore fishing
This kind of fishing is done by fishermen who spend weeks or months at sea in trawlers.
Deep sea fishing is done by trawling fish pots, nets, heavy line or trawl-nets. These are pulled
mouth open through the water behind the ship.
Trawlers are equipped with sophisticated equipment to detect large shoals of fish under the sea.
Review Questions
Fill in the blanks
1) In land fishing is called________ _________ fishing.
2) Which method of fishing is the chief source of fish? ________________
3) Two examples of fishes caught using coastal fishing are _____ and______.
4) Large vessel called _______ are used for deep sea fishing
5) Trout, tuna and prawns are caught when______ _______ trawling is done
6) Casting nets, bow and arrow and dragging seines are methods of ________ fishing.
Home work
(a) State the most common method of fishing in your community
(b) List two advantages and two disadvantages of the method

References


Week 11
Lesson # 3
Topic: Fish Farming
Sub topic: Rearing fish-(Tilapia)
Objectives
-To know the techniques for setting up the pond
- To identify the diseases and predators that affect tilapia
- To be familiar with the method of harvesting tilapia
Pond Management
Pond management plays critical role before and after stocking the fish. Various measures should
be carried out as part of pond management. The following are the fish pond management activities.
Pre stocking:
In case of new ponds, pre-stocking starts with liming and filling the water. In case of existing
ponds, any unwanted weeds and fish should be cleared by manual, mechanical or chemical means.
Unwanted and predatory fishes and other animals should be removed by repeated netting or by
sun drying the pond bed for couple of days.
Liming:
The fish ponds which are acidic in nature are less productive than alkaline ponds. However, lime
is used to bring the pH to the desired level for better production. Apart from this, lime has other
benefits as mentioned below.
* Lime increases the pH level.
* Lime acts as buffer and avoids fluctuations of ph.
* Lime increases the resistance of soil to parasites.
* Lime toxic effect kills the parasites and lime speeds up organic decomposition.
* If you are planning to go for commercial fish farming, soil test should be tested. On an average,
225 to 250 kg/ha lime is required to cover the 1 hectare pond. However, actual dose depends on
pH of the soil and water.
* In case of new pond, the pond should be filled with water after liming application.
Fertilization:
Fertilization should be carried out depending on the soil quality in the pond. A combination of
both organic and inorganic fertilizers may be used for best results. The fertilization schedule has
to be prepared and can be modified depending on the growth of the fish.
Organic Application:
Organic manure to be applied after a gap of 3 days from the date of liming; Cow-dung at 5000
kg/ha may be applied; Requirement of nitrogenous and phosphate fertilizers would vary as per
the nature of the soil fertility indicated below.
Inorganic Application:
Stocking:
The fish pond will be ready for stocking after 2 weeks of application of fertilizers. Tilapia fry
(small fish) can be procured from the approved hatcheries.
Nursery Rearing:
The Tilapia fry should be reared in nursery ponds at least a month before they come to actual pond.
The nursery rearing can be done in nylon meshed hapas suspended in grow out ponds. 50 – 80 fry
may be reared in one square meter.
Feeding can be done using small floating pellets and the feeding can be reduced from 30% -20%
of the body weight as the fish grows and moved into the grow out pond.
Special feeds can be bought from the market. The Tilapia fry’s should be fed at least 3 – 4 times a
day based on the demand for feed to get good survival and growth.
The ‘hapa’ should be cleaned regularly to facilitate water flow.

After rearing one month in nursery ponds, Tilapia fingerlings can be released into actual growing
pond with a stocking density of 3-6 No’s /sq. meter for better development and survival.
Post Stocking:
- Supplementary Feeding: Generally, any fish needs much more feed than what is available in
the pond or tank. However, Tilapia fish can be fed with artificial feed and floating pelleted feed.
A commercial feed with Feed Conversion Rate of 1.25 to 1.5 is ideally preferred.
- Manuring: Organic Manuring may be applied in monthly installments @ 900-1000 kg/ha and
inorganic fertilization may be applied at monthly intervals alternating with organic Manuring.
However, the monthly rate of fertilization will depend on pond productivity and the growth of the
Tilapia fish. Make sure that excess fertilization does not take place which may result in
eutrophication.
- Monitoring: Periodical monitoring of the fish to be carried out for disease incidence and growth.
Records for day to day management of the pond to be kept for inspection.
- Harvest: Harvesting of the Tilapia fish is generally done at the end of 5 to 6 months, when the
fish attains an average weight of 500 to 600 grams in 5-6 months. A production of 8 – 10 tons/ha
can be obtained in one crop of 6 months.
Harvesting should be done by partial dewatering and repeated netting. Based on the market
demand fish farmers can sell the live fish to market or can be frozen and export to international
markets.
Review Question
Write an essay entitled ‘benefits of fish farming’ within 150 to 200 words
Home Work
Name the ways in which fish is sold in our local market and give examples. An example is done
for you.
Ways Fishes
Fresh Patwa, houri, catfish
References


 https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/guidance-tilapia-fish-farming-amisy-fish
 https://www.aquanet.com/small-scale-tilapia-farming
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FDWleeLgg3o
Week 12
Lesson # 1
Topic: Fish Management
Sub topic: Production Systems of rearing fish
Objectives
-To know the production systems of rearing fish
-To be familiar with the Hapa method of fingerling production
Production Systems
*Extensive System
Extensive systems involve fish being taken from a local river and placed in ponds. Animal manure
is used as a fertilizer to promote the growth of pondweed, which oxygenates the water and provides
food for the fish. This system is cheap as it does not require much labour or additional food for the
fish.
*Intensive Systems
Intensive systems involve tanks or ponds in which conditions are strictly controlled. The
temperature is kept within the optimum range for the type of fish, and the oxygen levels and pH
are carefully monitored to ensure maximum growth rate. Care is taken to ensure that organic matter
from farm sewage or silage does not get into the water. Organic matter promotes the growth of
blue-green algae, which can be toxic to fish. Algal blooms can also block pipes and waterways
Hapa Method of Fingerling Production
A hapa is a rectangular or square net cage placed in a pond for holding fish. They are made of fine
mesh netting material so the fry cannot escape. Hapa sizes vary but the ideal size measures 3 m
long, 3 m wide, and 1.5 m deep.
When using hapas to generate fingerlings:
 stock brooders used should be at a ratio of about 1 : 5 to 1 : 7 males to females with 4

brooders / m² (for tilapia)
 hapas should be inspected for fry every day
 the fry should be removed using a scoop net after two weeks and stocked in tanks, other
hapas or a rearing pond
 fry reared in a hapa should be fed four times per day until the fry reach the desired size (5
g for tilapia)
 a diet in powder form should be used at the rate of 5–10% of the total body weight of all
the fish per day
Red hybrid in a hapa net.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Hapa
Advantages of the hapa method Disadvantages of the hapa method

Fry and brooders are easily handled Management is more demanding compared
with open ponds
Production per unit of area is high Fish may die because of aggressiveness
during spawning.
Uniform fry of relatively similar age is Feeding is necessary
assured
The loss of fry is minimized. Hapas can be destroyed during stormy
weather.
Hapas can be set up in ponds stocked with Hapa material will degrade in sunlight and
fish need replacing.
Fish may easily escape if the hapa is
damaged.
Localized poor water quality may result from
uneaten feed and fish waste.
Hapa mesh will get clogged, limiting water
circulation and needing periodic scrubbing.
Review Questions
1) List and explain the conditions which are controlled in intensive fish farming systems
2) State why extensive system is cheaper than intensive system
3) Define the term Hapa
4) List three advantages and three disadvantages of the Hapa method
Home work
Research and record findings of the extent to which fish farming is carried out locally and
regionally.
Reference


Week 12
Lesson # 2
Sub topic: Fish Diseases and Parasites
Objectives
-To be cognizant of the types of diseases and parasites that affect fish
-To be familiar with the symptoms associated with disease and parasite infestation
Fish diseases
There are two broad categories of disease that affect fish, infectious and non-infectious diseases.
Infectious diseases are caused by pathogenic organisms present in the environment or carried by
other fish. They are contagious diseases. In contrast, non-infectious diseases are caused by
environmental problems, nutritional deficiencies, or genetic anomalies; they are not contagious
and usually cannot be cured by medications.
Many disease outbreaks of captive fish stocks are associated with stressful conditions such as poor
water quality, excessive crowding or inadequate nutrition.
Types of diseases
1) Infectious diseases are contagious diseases caused by parasites, bacteria, viruses, or fungi.
These often require some type of medication to help the fish recover.
2) Non-infectious diseases are broadly categorized as environmental, nutritional, or genetic.

These problems are often corrected by changing management practices.
Fish disease outbreaks are often complex, involving both infectious and non-infectious
processes.
Diseases
Cotton mouth
This bacterial infection can affect cold-water and tropical fish. It’s sometimes confused with a
fungal infection because of the appearance of white or greyish white spots on the fish’s head,
though usually this infection starts as a pale area around the head and mouth. This may turn yellow/
brownish in colour with red-tinged edges.
Dropsy
Usually fatal to fish, Dropsy is characterized by a swelling of your fish’s abdomen, sometimes
causing their scales to stick out. Fish will appear listless and lose their appetite
Fin/tail rot
If you see that your fish’s fins or tail are frayed and the edges appear white, then they may be
rotting. Your fish may also settle at the bottom of the tank and stop eating. This can be caused by
poor water quality, but it can start with bullying from other fish.
Fungal infections
Fungal infections are one of the most common disorders for fish. Fungal spores naturally populate
fish tanks, but sick, stressed or injured fish can cause a dangerous increase. These infections
manifest as a white cotton-wool-like growth on the skin, mouth, fins or gills. This condition is
normally a secondary problem.
Hole in the head
Cichlids, and in particular Discus and Oscars are the fish breeds most commonly affected by this
disorder. Vitamin deficiencies, poor-quality food and unhealthy water conditions can contribute to
this ailment. You’ll notice lesions that appear as small pits in your fish’s head and on the lateral
line.
Slime disease
This parasitic disease is characterized by an overproduction of mucus coating, which appears as a

grey/white to blue mucus coating. You’ll also see rapid breathing if your fish has this ailment,
which is caused by fish feeling stressed.
The mucus covers the fish’s gills, they can suffocate. Stress can be increased by poor water
conditions, overcrowding or sudden changes in temperature.
Fish Parasites
Parasites are small animals that require one or more host animals in order to complete their life-
cycle. Generally they cannot survive outside of their host. Their presence may or may not cause
health effects in the host animal.
Types of parasites
There are three types of fish parasites of public health importance; roundworms (nematodes),
flatworms or flukes (trematodes) and tapeworms (cestodes).
The most common roundworms are from the family of Anisakidae and include Anisakis spp.,
Pseudoterranova spp., Phocascaris spp., and Contracaecum spp. The most common flatworms or
flukes involved in human infection are liver fluke worms belonging to the family Opisthorchiidae
and some species of intestinal fluke worms belonging to the Heterophyidae and Echinostomatidae
families.
Parasites
Anchor worms
Physical/Behavioral Signs/Symptoms:
- Scratching against objects by the affected fish
- A protuberance of whitish-green threads from the fish's skin
- Points of attachment are marked by inflammation
Cause:
Young anchor worms are small crustaceans that burrow into the fish’s skin and enter the
muscles. Here they begin to develop and release eggs before they die leaving behind damage,
which can become infected.
Body flukes
- Scratching against objects by the affected fish
- Layer of mucus covering gills or body
- Gills moving rapidly
- Chewed on or eaten-away gills or fins.
- Reddened skin
Cause:
Undesirable environmental conditions including poor water quality, overcrowding and/or stress
by incompatible species creates conditions that can lead to destructive outbreaks. Flukes are often
present in aquariums but remain harmless under ideal conditions. Avoiding stressful conditions is
a key to prevention, but once an outbreak occurs, prompt treatment is critical.
Note: Pale fish with drooping fins, rapid respiration and/or hollow bellies indicate more extensive
infestation.
Clamped fin
-Fins are folded against the body and not fanned out as they should be
-Listless behavior
Cause:
Not indicative of one specific disease. Can be a reflection of various problems, including bad water
quality and/or parasites. Important to first determine the specific problem in order to treat fish
properly.
Fungus
-Initially, you’ll notice a gray or whitish growth in and on the skin and/or fins
-Untreated fungus resembles a cottony growth
-Eventually, as fungus continues to eat away at the fish’s body, the fish will die
Cause:
Fish that develop fungus are already in a vulnerable state, the result of other serious health
problems or attacks, such as parasites, a physical injury or a bacterial infection.
Gill flukes
(Flatworms approximately 1 mm long)
-Infected gills and skin
-Similar to ick, but telltale sign is movement and possibly eyespots, something that is not found in
ick. Use magnification lens to observe
-Once gills are destroyed, fish will die
Cause:
Undesirable environmental conditions including poor water quality, overcrowding and/or stress
by incompatible species creates conditions that can lead to destructive outbreaks. Flukes are often
present in aquariums but remain harmless under ideal conditions. Avoiding stressful conditions is
a key to prevention, but once an outbreak occurs, prompt treatment is critical.
Gill mites
-Gasping at the water’s surface
-Gill covers that are partially open
Cause:
Fish that are already infested by gill mites are brought into aquariums. The tiny mites stay on the
fish’s gills, and attack the fish by feeding on blood and living flesh.
Review Question
Discuss three diseases and three parasites that affect fishes. Under the following headings:
- Name
- Cause
- Symptoms
- Control/ preventative measures
Home work
In 100-150 words explain how diseases and parasites affect the fishing industry
Reference


Week 12
Lesson # 3
Sub topic: The Economic Importance of fish farming
Objectives
-To be aware of the advantages of fish farming
Economic importance of fish farming
1. Sources of Food
The importance of aquaculture as a source of food is indescribable. Fish and other seafood are
great sources of protein for humans. They also have to a greater extent nutritional merit. We get
natural oils such as omega 3 fatty acids which is essential for our health form fish. It offers us
white meat which is good for the blood in reducing or controlling the cholesterol levels as opposed
to beef or other animal meat.
2. Sources of Fuel
Fish or aqua-cultural product is important for use as fuel for a long time. From the early time, it
was not commercially used but it is used today for commercial purpose as it is sustainable and eco-
friendly. Like, algae are tardily being formulated into substitute fuel sources by having them
produce fuels that can exchange present-day fossil fuels. Algae produce lipoids that if gleaned can
be cauterized as a substitute fuel source whose entirely spin-offs would be water when burnt.
3. Job Opportunities
Aquaculture is creating an increasing number of job opportunities. Potential jobs in the market is
created as well laborers are needed to keep up the pools and harvest the organisms grown.
4. Time is economized
Fishermen’s time is utilized efficiently as they do not need to spend their whole days at sea fishing.
It allows them spare time to engage in other economic activities such as employment in the
substitute business sector.
5. Reduce Trade Deficit
The most indescribable economic importance of aquaculture is reducing the trade deficit of
aquaculture developed countries.
6. Pollution Control
As we know the soil is the natural filter of the earth, mollusks or seaweed act in like manner.
Seaweed acts a lot like the grass of the sea in filtering water. Both these beings strain the water
that flows through them and clean the water as well.
7. Using Sea Resources Sustainably
Aquaculture provides alternatives resources for fishing from the sea. Enhanced demand for
nutrient or food sources and an increase in globalization has contributed to enhanced fishing. At
the same time, this has guided fishermen to become selfish and overfish the wanted or high-
demand species. Through the cultivation of fish or aquaculture, it allows for both an alternative
and a chance for wild stocks to refill over time.
8. Biodiversity Conservation
Artificial aquacultures help us to defend biodiversity by reducing the fishing activities on the wild
stock in their ecosystems. By creating alternatives to fishing, there is less attack on the wild fish
stock of the various species in the sea or any other natural reserves. Reduced activity of fishing
saves the variety of the aquatic ecosystem from extinction on account of overfishing.
9. Increased production
Another importance of aquaculture is increasing efficiency. Fish is more efficient in converting

feed into body protein more than any other protein-containing meat like cattle or chicken meat. It
is much more effective meaning that the fish companies make more food for less feed
comparatively. Such efficiency means that less food and energy is used to produce food, thus the
production process is more inexpensive as well. It economizes resources and even permits for more
food to be produced.
Review Questions
State whether the following statements are true/false
1. Fish provides natural oils such as omega 4 fatty acids

2. Algae when burnt provides liquids that can be used as substitute fuel
3. The soil is the natural filter of the earth
4. Over fishing does not cause extinction of the aquatic ecosystem
5. Fishes is less efficient to convert feed into body protein
6. The use of fishes as a source of protein is more inexpensive when compared to cattle or
chicken meat
Home work
Discuss the economic importance of fish farming in Guyana
Reference


Week 13
Lesson # 1
Topic: Soil Conservation
Sub topic: Soil Fertility
Objectives
- To know the factors which affect soil fertility
- To be aware of the types of rocks and their formation processes
Soil fertility
Soil fertility refers to the productive capacity of a soil in which the soil conditions, nutrient supply
and availability are favourable for the growth of crop plants.
A fertile soil has the following characteristics:
-It is moderately porous with good aeration and drainage.
-It retains adequate moisture.
-It contains a lot of organic matter and is rich in nutrient elements.
-It has adequate permeability for roots.
-It is slightly acidic (optimum pH 5.5 to 6.5).
-It is relatively free from toxins, pests and diseases.
Soil fertility is affected by climate, topography, soil factors such as the physical and chemical
conditions of the soil and the nature of the parent material, as well as fertilizers and soil
management.
Topography
Most Caribbean countries are hilly, which affects soil fertility. Soils on mountain slopes are
shallow and the most fertile soils are in the valleys. As accessibility is difficult in hilly areas,
farmers find it difficult to till the soil and improve soil fertility. Farmers are restricted in their
ability to use heavy farm machinery in the hills, preventing effective land preparation from being
done. Therefore, farming in the hilly areas is usually limited to small enterprises.
Nature of the parent material
The parent materials of soils are the rocks that make up the Earth’s crust. These rocks vary in size,
from large masses to small fragments such as boulders, gravel and stones. All rocks are made up
of inorganic minerals that have become consolidated and hardened geologically. They are
weathered by physical, chemical and biological forces to form soils.
Types of rocks
Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic
Examples: Examples: Examples:
• quartz • sandstone • quartzite
• micas • shale • slate
• feldspars • limestone • schist
Igneous
Igneous rocks are cooled and solidified molten rock. The major minerals in these rocks are
quartz, micas and feldspars.
Sedimentary
Sedimentary rocks are formed from other rocks that have been weathered, and the particles
transported and deposited. Over time, the overlying sediments add pressure, which gradually
hardens lower sediments into sedimentary rocks such as sandstone, shale and limestone.
Metamorphic
Metamorphic rocks result from changes that occur to igneous and sedimentary rocks when they
are subjected to intense heat, pressure and chemical processes within the Earth’s crust. In the case
of sedimentary rocks, sandstone is changed to quartzite, shale to slate and limestone to marble.
Igneous rocks are changed to gneisses and schists.
The fertility of soils depends on the nature and sizes of the particles derived from the rocks. Soils
derived from limestone tend to be alkaline and those derived from sandstone are usually acidic.
Review Questions
1) Define the term soil fertility
2) Soil fertility is affected by climate and topography

(i) List two other factors
(ii) Explain how topography affect soil fertility in the Caribbean
3) Complete the table below
Types of rocks Examples
1. (i)
(ii)
2. (i)
(ii)
3. (i)
(ii)
Home work
As an Extension officer, you are asked to inform a group of farmers via a zoom meeting
on the topic “characteristics of soil fertility”
Prepare your program, including the following
-Introduction
-Discussion on the main topic
-Questions and answer segment
-Conclusion of meeting
References


Week 13
Lesson # 2
Sub topic: Land management
Objectives
-To be knowledgeable of proper land management practices.
Land management
The way in which land is managed by farmers has an impact on soil fertility. Good management
benefits the soil and can bring about higher yields of crops.
Good management practices include:
- Agro-forestry, which conserves topsoil and water and also preserves the soil organisms
- Applying fertilizers, organic matter and lime to improve the nutrient status of the soil, maintain
fertility and promote crop growth
- Proper disposal of chemicals and containers and avoid burning of vegetation
- Pruning, tilling, draining, mulching, staking, cover cropping and planting shade trees on pastures
all these improve the condition of the soil.
Agro-forestry
Agro-forestry is a system of land use in which harvestable trees or shrubs are grown among or
around crops or on pastureland. Silviculture is the growing of forest trees.
Taking care with chemicals
The use of hazardous chemicals and the inefficient disposal of waste materials will pollute the
water and soil. There is also a risk that these chemicals will destroy the soil micro-organisms.
Inorganic and organic fertilizers
Inorganic fertilizers
Inorganic fertilizers include sulphate of ammonia, nitrate of potash (saltpetre) and NPK (consisting
of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium). These fertilizers are manufactured through chemical
processes. They are also known as artificial fertilizers.
Organic fertilizers
Organic fertilizers are derived from plant and animal remains. Organic fertilizers are referred to
as manures or compost. They improve the structure, aeration and drainage of soils in addition to
supplying nutrients.
Both manures and inorganic fertilizers supply nutrients. The manures maintain and improve the
soil’s structural properties and supply essential nutrients. The artificial fertilizers contribute a
concentrated supply of essential soil nutrients but do not affect the structural properties of the
soil.
Soil amendments
Soil amendments include substances such as lime, gypsum, sulphur, bagasse, coffee hulls, manure
and organic fertilizers, which may be used to improve soil properties. These substances make the
soil more productive, correct soil nutrient deficiencies and replace nutrient elements lost through
crop removal.
Fertiliser ratio
Simple fertilizers
Inorganic fertilizers can be simple fertilizers, supplying one of the major nutrient elements:
nitrogen, phosphorus or potassium. For example, urea provides nitrogen, single superphosphate
provides phosphorus and potassium chloride provides potassium.
Compound fertilizers
Mixed or compound fertilizers provide two or more nutrient elements in a fertilizer ratio. Low-
grade fertilizers contain less than 25% of the nutrient elements, medium-grade fertilizers contain
between 25% and 40% and high-grade fertilizers contain more than 40%.
Manufacturers of fertilizers normally use labels that indicate the percentage of nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P) and potassium (K), together with the ratio of these three elements, on their fertiliser
bags. Labelling indicates the type and grade of fertiliser that is offered for sale, as well as the
nutrient content and the nutrient ratio.
Review Questions
1. Define the following terms: - Argo-Forestry
- Silviculture
2. There is a risk that chemicals will destroy the soil micro-organisms Discuss
3. State the importance of the manufacturer’s labels bags of fertiliser
Home work
Describe how good land management practices can improve soil fertility.
References


Week 13
Lesson # 3
Sub topic: Maintaining soil fertility
Objectives
- To be knowledgeable of soil amendments

- To differentiate between the types of fertilizers
Soil amendments
Soil amendments include any materials that supply ingredients and nutrient elements, which
collectively improve soil structure and maintain soil fertility. They vary in type, but their main
functions are to improve soil structure, to increase water-holding capacity and permeability, to
supply nutrient elements, to ensure adequate drainage and aeration, and to neutralize soil acidity.
Soil amendments include:
-Inorganic fertilizers
-Organic matter
-Liming materials.
Manures
Manures are also known as organic fertilizers. There are five groups:
1. Pen manures are the partially decomposed solid materials derived from livestock pens. They
consist of dung / droppings, bedding or litter, and slurry from washing the pens of dairy cattle and
other farm animals.
2. Compost manure is derived from leaf litter and crop residues.

3. Green manure refers to a green crop, preferably a legume, which is ploughed into the soil at
its flowering stage. This manure adds nitrogen to the soil.
4. Guano is made from bird droppings and contains large amounts of nitrogen and potash.
5. Bone meal is made by grinding bones from meat-processing companies. It contains some
nitrogen but has large amounts of phosphate.
Manures, such as pen, guano and compost, are spread evenly over ploughed land and rotovated
into the soil. If the manure is liquid, as in the case of slurry, it is spread mechanically over ploughed
land and pasture using a slurry spreader.
Inorganic fertilizers
Inorganic fertilizers may be simple inorganic fertilizers, supplying one of the major nutrients, or
compound inorganic fertilizers, supplying two or more nutrients. Some examples of simple
fertilizers and the nutrients they supply are urea (nitrogen), potassium chloride (potassium), triple
superphosphate (phosphorus) and ammonium sulphate (nitrogen; also lowers the soil pH).
Compound fertilizers usually contain the three major nutrients nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium, and are referred to as NPK fertilizers. The ratios and percentages of these three nutrients
vary in different grades of NPK fertilizers.
There are several ways to apply fertilizers. The method used will depend on the type of fertiliser,
the area to be covered and the crop to which it is being applied. For large-scale applications, the
fertiliser is usually spread by machinery, but on small farms it is done by hand.
Farmers need to determine the fertiliser requirements of their crops. To do this, they need to
consider several factors.
Factor Consideration Fertiliser requirement
Type of soil • Determine whether soil is •May need to consider a mixture of organic
sandy, clay or loam; manures and inorganic fertilizers, depending on
nutrients leach easily from sandy soil type.
soils.
• Need to check pH of soil as
well.
Crop group • Consider whether crop is a leafy •Leafy vegetables and cereals need nitrogen and
vegetable, cereal, phosphorus.
legume, root crop, cucurbit or • Root crops need phosphate and potassium.
fruit. • Cucurbit and fruit crops need nitrogen and
potassium.
•Legumes are nitrogen-fixing so they reduce the
need
for nitrogen.
Crop stage • Crop has different nutrient •In their vegetative state, crops need large amounts
requirements at different of nitrogen.
stages of growth. •During the flowering and fruiting stages, they
need large amounts of phosphorus and potassium.
Weather • Consider whether it is wet or •If the soil is too wet, nutrients may leach out
conditions dry at the time of quickly.
application. •If it is too dry, nutrients may not be taken up by
the crop.
Methods of application depend on the:
-type, age and stage of development of the crop
-system of planting – distance apart of rows; distance apart of plants
-machinery and equipment available
-availability of labour
-weather conditions.
Organic matter
Organic matter, other than manures and compost, may be used on soils to improve the water-
holding capacity. Waste materials, such as bagasse from sugar cane processing, coffee hulls and
sawdust, may be used for this purpose. Sometimes they are used as ‘fillers’ in fertilizers, where
they add bulk and serve as inert substances.
Liming materials
Liming materials are usually applied to acidic soils to reduce soil acidity, increase calcium and
magnesium ions in the soil, reduce the concentrations of iron, aluminium and manganese, and
promote the activities of the soil micro-organisms.
Lime may be added to the soil as:
 calcium oxide [CaO], referred to as quicklime or burnt lime

 calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2], known as slaked lime
 calcium carbonate [(CaCO3)], also known as chalk or ground limestone
 calcium magnesium carbonate [CaMg(CO3)], also known as dolomitic limestone.
Lime is usually applied to acidic soil during the preparation of the land and before any crops have
been planted. Before it is done, the soil is tested in a laboratory to determine the recommended
rate of application. In the Caribbean, soil testing is carried out by the Ministry of Agriculture at no
cost to farmers.
The land to be limed is ploughed using a disc plough or a mould board plough. Lime is then spread
evenly over the ploughed area, at the recommended rate, either manually or mechanically. Using
a rotovator, the lime is mixed thoroughly within the top half of the furrow slice (7 – 10 cm).
Review Questions
1. Differentiate between organic and inorganic fertilizers
2. Advise a vegetable farmer on the factors he/she needs to consider before applying fertilizers.
Home work
List and discuss the best methods of fertilizer application for the cultivation of sugarcane in
Guyana
References


Week 14
Lesson # 1
Topic: Maintaining soil fertility
Sub topic: Major cropping systems
Objectives
- To be aware of the different types of cropping systems

- To differentiate amongst the cropping system
Cropping systems
A cropping system is a way of growing a crop or a range of crops. The major cropping systems
used by crop farmers include:
-monoculture
-multiple cropping or mixed cropping
-intercropping
-crop rotation
-phased cropping
-strip cropping
-contour ploughing
-mixed farming
-cover cropping.
Sometimes a combination of cropping systems may be used. These depend on the land, the size of
the farm and the type of crop production. For example, a mixed farm on hilly terrain might use
contour cropping, mixed cropping and cover cropping.
Monoculture
Monoculture is the continuous cultivation and production of only one crop on a plot of land for
many years. A good example is the cultivation of sugar cane. This type of system can lead to the
build-up and rapid spread of pests and diseases that attack the crop, for example, froghopper
infestations and smut disease in sugar cane.
Monoculture is a risky business for the farmer because the farmer invests everything in one crop.
Crop failure can result in severe economic loss. However, some farmers have become specialized
in the cultivation of a specific crop, such as rice, pineapple or pawpaw. The farmer needs to invest
in the specific machinery required for the cultivation, harvesting and preparation for market of a
chosen crop, so it can be more economical for the farm to focus on a single crop. Sugar cane is a
popular monoculture crop, which demands high investment in specific machinery, for example, a
sugar cane combine harvester.
Multiple cropping
Multiple cropping (also called mixed cropping) refers to the cultivation of two or more crops
simultaneously on the same plot of land. It is generally practiced by smaller farmers. This type of
cropping system provides income on a regular and continuous basis for the farmer.
The crops are chosen carefully to:
-have a shorter growing period, while others have a longer growing period
-grow to different heights
-have a variety of root systems (deep-rooted and shallow-rooted)
-have a range of water and nutrient requirements.

The benefits of this type of cropping include:
-An improvement in, or maintenance of, soil fertility, irrigation and drainage
-Easier management of pest control and a reduction in pest infestations
-Easier management of fertiliser application and weed control
-Control of soil erosion, as different crops provide different forms of vegetative cover for the soil
-A smaller risk of total crop failure
-A variety of crops produced
-A reduction in pest infestations.
Crops suitable for this type of cropping are soybean and pigeon pea, root crops and cereals.
Intercropping
Intercropping is the cultivation of a short-term crop, for example, lettuce, between the plants of a
medium-term crop, such as sweet pepper. It helps the farmer earn quickly from the sale of the
lettuce crop while the main crop of sweet pepper develops. This is also known as a cash crop. The
crops chosen for intercropping need to be compatible so that one crop does not smother the other
with rapid growth or use all the soil nutrients.
This type of cropping system helps the farmer to use the space between plants of the main crop
more efficiently. Soil fertility is maintained and soil nitrogen may even increase, particularly if
one crop is a legume such as beans. The vegetative cover provided by two crops helps to control
soil erosion on sloping ground.
Crop rotation
Crop rotation is where crops are grown in succession (one after the other) on the same plot of land.
For example, a sequence of tomato, bean (a legume), lettuce and beetroot helps to maintain soil
fertility because the legume crop adds nitrogen to the soil.
In addition, the inclusion of deep-rooted and shallow-rooted crops helps to use soil nutrients from
different levels. The other benefit is that a build-up of pests and diseases in the soil is prevented
(pests and diseases are usually specific to one type of crop).
Phased cropping
Phased cropping is a system of continuous cropping and harvesting. A plot of land is divided into
four sections. The planting dates are sequenced so that there is continuous cropping and harvesting
of the produce, section by section. In this way, a farmer can maintain a regular supply of produce
to consumers and earn a steady income over time. This type of cropping prevents an oversupply,
or glut, of one crop, which would have the effect of lowering the price on the market.
Strip cropping and contour cropping
Both these cropping systems can be used for the cultivation of crops on sloping strip cropping
land.
Strip cropping
Strip cropping refers to planting different crops in strips of varying width on flat, undulating or
sloping land. It is normally used as a soil conservation measure on slopes. It has similar advantages
to multiple cropping.
Contour cropping
Contour cropping is another method of conserving soil on sloping land. The land is ploughed along
the contours and then crops are planted. In this way, soil erosion through heavy rainfall is
prevented.
Mixed farming
Mixed farms may be small, medium or large and produce both crops and livestock. A variety of
cropping systems may be used depending on the nature of the land and size of the farm. Many
organic farms are mixed farms.
Cover cropping
Cover cropping is used to improve soil fertility and to prevent soil erosion. It involves planting a
crop that grows rapidly and provides cover on bare soil. The cover crop is usually planted after the
main crop has been harvested and can be ploughed into the soil before the land is replanted. The
cover crop, often referred to as ‘green manure’, provides a cover of vegetation for the soil and adds
organic matter when it is ploughed in. If a legume, such as cowpea or vetch, is planted, then the
nitrogen content of the soil is increased. Cover crops may be sown between the rows of other crops,
and are often planted between rows of fruit trees in an orchard.
Review Question
Complete the table below
Types of cropping systems Advantages Disadvantages

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Home work
Discuss two reasons why contour cropping is practiced on sloping land.
References


 M. Perrent and R.Ramharack Singh, Agricultural Science for CSEC Examinations,2nd

edition, Macmillan Education,4 Crinan Street London NI 9XW
Week 14
Lesson # 2
Sub topic: Cultural Practices
Objectives
- To be knowledgeable of soil erosion

- To differentiate amongst the types of erosion
Soil erosion
Soil erosion is the process by which particles of soil are carried away from one area, by water
or wind, and deposited at another area. Soil erosion can also be caused by the actions of people
and animals. All soils undergo erosion, but if there has been no clearing or cultivation of the
land, the rate of erosion is slow and allows the processes of soil formation to continue. If
vegetative cover is removed, for example, when the land is cleared for agriculture, forestry or
grazing, then the soil is exposed to wind and water. Soil erosion is speeded up and can become
a problem.
Factors that control the amount of soil erosion are:
- The amount of rainfall

- The wind speed and intensity
- The type of rock
- The slope of the land
- The amount and type of vegetative cover
- The presence of grazing animals.
Different types of soil erosion
Soil erosion can be entirely due to natural causes or it can result from human activities.
Natural soil erosion
Natural soil erosion occurs in an undisturbed natural environment as a result of:
-Running water on steep slopes
-Running water on sloping areas with loose, friable soil
-Landslides of loose, saturated soil, overlaying an impervious layer, in hilly or mountainous areas
-Strong winds blowing over loose soil in dry, semi-arid or arid (desert) areas
-Sea waves pounding the land in coastal areas.
Accelerated soil erosion
Accelerated soil erosion occurs as a result of the activities of people who disturb the natural
environment, creating soil conditions that speed up soil erosion by water and wind.
These activities include:
-Burning the vegetation on the land, including ‘slash and burn’ agriculture
-Overgrazing of pastures by livestock
-Deforestation (the cutting down and removal of trees)
-Mining and quarrying operations
-Creating bare soil patches on the land by over weeding or brush cutting too closely
-Not using a ground cover, such as a cover crop or a mulch
-Unsuitable cultural or soil conservation practices on hilly terrain.

Causes of soil erosion
Water
In the Caribbean, soil erosion by water is a problem during the rainy season.
Type of erosion Cause Effects

Splash Impact of heavy Dislodges soil particles, which splash on to young
raindrops.
plants. Soil particles are carried away by running
water.
Sheet Running water Soil particles move downhill as a sheet of soil. Soil
dislodges soil gathers at the base of the hill.
particles.
Rill Water running down Creates many tiny channels, known as rills, where
a bare area of sloping soil has eroded away.
land.
Gully High-intensity Rills become more eroded. This leads to fewer,
rainfall and fast- wider and deeper channels, which are called
flowing water on a gullies.
sloping area of land.
Landslide Intensive rainfall on Loose soil slides away in this situation when it is
loose soil above a saturated with water.
sloping impervious
layer.
Loss of topsoil Running water in If soil is not protected by a cover crop, organic
hilly or mountainous matter or mulch, topsoil can be lost.
areas.
Silting up of Soil particles carried Causes silting up of streams and rivers, eventually
water courses away by running leading to flooding of a river basin.
water.
Alluvial soil Soil particles brought Alluvial soil deposits form at the mouths of rivers,
deposits down mountainous on riverbanks and on flood plains.
slopes by streams and
rivers.
Wind
Wind can also cause soil erosion. Strong winds can cause soil creep, which is the gradual
movement of loose soil particles, such as sand, on the soil surface towards the opposite direction
from which the wind is blowing.
Saltation
Saltation of soil particles occurs when strong winds cause loose soil particles to leap suddenly,
become airborne for a while and then eventually fall to the ground, forming heaped areas of soil.
Where mining, quarrying and land preparation operations are carried out under dry soil conditions,
soil particles in suspension are transported by winds and may be deposited many kilometres away.
Soil particles in the atmosphere can cause respiratory problems in people and in farm animals.
Burning vegetation
Burning vegetation as part of land clearing has positive and negative effects. Among the positive
effects are:
-Unwanted material, such as cane trash, is burned out, so cane-cutters work more efficiently
-Land clearing can be carried out more speedily
-Harmful plants, such as nettles, are destroyed
-Harmful animals, such as snakes, scorpions, centipedes and nests of wasps, are destroyed
-The ashes on the land add potash to the soil
-The soil is sterilized as a result of the intense heat.
However, burning vegetation is not recommended as it creates smoke pollution in the atmosphere.
It is recommended instead that harmful plants and crop residues are cut and stacked in an area
where they can decompose slowly.
Other negative effects of burning vegetation are:
-The destruction of organic matter that took many years to accumulate
- Humus in the soil is also destroyed
- Soil organisms are killed
- The soil surface becomes bare, with no plant cover so it is more exposed to soil erosion
- Soil water is lost more rapidly through evaporation
- Leaching of nutrients can occur more easily.
Animals
Any bare land exposed to heavy rainfall can lose nutrients through leaching and mineral particles
from runoff. The effects of animals, through grazing or trampling, can leave soil bare and open to
erosion, particularly in the rainy season
Review Question
1. (a) Define the term Erosion
(b) List the types of erosion
(c)Discuss any two types listed in ‘b’
2. State how wind and animals cause erosion
Home work
Explain two advantages and two disadvantages of burning vegetation when cleaning land for
crop production
References


 M. Perrent and R. Ramharack Singh, Agricultural Science for CSEC Examinations,2nd

Week 14
Lesson # 3
Sub topic: Soil and water conservation methods
Objectives
-To be cognizant of the methods implemented for soil and water conservation
Soil and water conservation methods
Soil conservation
Soil conservation refers to protecting the soil from erosion and maintaining its fertility. It is of
great importance to agriculture in the Caribbean region. Cultural practices, such as minimum
tillage, ridging and applying mulch, play a vital role in preventing soil erosion and maintaining
soil fertility.
Minimum tillage
Minimum tillage is where soil is only cultivated to provide the planting holes and rows for the
crops. It does not expose soil to rainwater and can therefore reduce erosion in hilly and
mountainous areas.
Ridging
Ridging is where ridges are built across a slope to prevent the rapid flow of water downhill. This
can reduce soil erosion and help to retain water in the soil.
Mulches
Organic matter, such as mulches or weeds that have been uprooted and left lying on the soil, will
reduce the direct impact of raindrops and allow water to filter slowly down into the soil. A mulch
is a protective covering over the soil surface, usually of organic matter.
Rotational grazing helps to conserve pasture, because the animals are moved around and the
formation of bare patches is avoided.
Importance of vegetative cover
Vegetative cover refers to a layer of vegetation covering the surface of the soil. Vegetation is used
to prevent soil erosion and includes the following practices.
-Cover crops, which grow and spread rapidly, are planted to provide a protective covering on the
ground. Legumes are often used as a cover crop.
-Contour cropping is carried out. In this system, crops are cultivated along the contours of sloping
land.
-Strip cropping is used. This is very similar to contour cropping. In this system, deep-rooted and
shallow-rooted crops are cultivated in strips, 1 – 1.5 m wide, across a hill slope.
-Grass barriers (normally included in a strip cropping system) are used. The grass is planted in line
with the contours of the land. The fibrous roots of the grass grow in thick clusters and bind the soil
particles together.
-Grassed drains, using matted grass such as Savanna or Bermuda, which is grown, cut and kept
low in box drains, are dug across or down gentle slopes.
Forests and soil conservation
Forests are vital in soil management and water management. The roots of trees and forest plants
grow in thick clusters, binding soil particles and controlling soil leaf litter erosion. The leaf litter
that builds up provides a thick layer of organic matter on the soil surface, covering and protecting
the soil and reducing evaporation.
This organic matter is then decomposed by soil micro-organisms and nutrients are released into
the soil. The activities of other soil organisms mix the upper and lower layers of the soil so the
nutrients are cycled. The forest canopy provides shade and helps to control the drying out of
streams.
The planting of forest trees in mountainous regions can control soil erosion. Forests may be
established as windbreaks in areas where the soil is loose and liable to wind erosion. Sometimes
forest trees are cultivated amongst food crops such as banana, cassava, citrus and avocado. This is
an example of agro-forestry. The trees stabilize the soil and provide vegetative cover and shade.
Wind breaks
In arid and semi-arid areas, wind erosion is a major problem and the most windbreaks common
method used to conserve the soil is the construction of windbreaks.
Rows of trees are planted along the edges of cultivated areas. The trees slow down the speed of
the wind and prevent large amounts of sand or soil being blown away to other areas.
Terracing and contour ploughing
Terracing
Terracing involves the construction of relatively flat strips of land along the contours of a hillside.
This process creates a number of steps, which are sometimes referred to as bench terraces. The
broad banks of earth prevent water running down the slope, thus controlling soil loss and soil
moisture.
Contour ploughing
On gentle slopes, contour ploughing is practiced. Land is cultivated along the contours, preventing
water flowing downhill. Before contour ploughing or terracing, the farmer needs to establish the
contour lines. This can be done using a simple A-frame and marking the lines with stones or sticks.
Water conservation
The Caribbean climate has a rainy season and a dry season, so water conservation is essential on
most Caribbean farms. Farmers depend on water-storage systems, drains and dry farming
techniques.
Water-storage systems
Water-storage systems used by farmers may include tanks, ponds, pools and wells. Storage tanks
can be made of galvanized iron, concrete reinforced with steel or rotoplastic (PVC). Water-holding
capacity varies and a farmer may have three or more large tanks each holding 4 500 litres,
depending on the nature and size of the farm.
Ponds and pools are normally constructed in the dry season, so that they are ready for the onset of
the rainy season. Often, fish are reared in ponds providing another source of income for the farmer.
Wells can be dug out from 3 to 10 m in depth. The water comes from underground springs and the
height to which it rises depends on the water table.
Gabions
Gabions are cages of wire mesh, filled with soil, rocks or sand. They are used in the construction
of dams and retaining walls or to direct the flow of floodwater. They have advantages over other
methods of construction as they can be arranged in various ways, are resistant to being washed
away and drain freely. In a gabion weir, the mesh baskets are arranged to form a channel down a
slope to direct the flow of water.
Drainage
Drainage channels are dug around fields and plots. These channels drain away excess water in the
rainy season and the water can be used for irrigation in the dry season. Contour drains are
constructed across the hill slope, along the contour, to prevent the rapid flow of water downhill.
Dry farming techniques
Dry farming techniques include any technique that conserves water or prevents the evaporation of
too much water from the soil surface in the dry season. These techniques include minimum tillage,
mulching, using manure and compost and growing cover crops. Controlled irrigation (using
manual systems, hoses or sprinklers) may be used to water crop plants in the dry season.
Review Questions
1. Define the following terms:
- Soil conservation
- Ridging
- Mulches
2. Discuss how vegetation cover is used to prevent erosion
3. Describe two ways that water can be conserved on a farm
Home work
Make a poster about local soil and water conservation techniques. Use photographs and diagrams
to enhance the poster.
References


 M .Perrent and R. Ramharack Singh, Agricultural Science for CSEC Examinations,2nd

Week 15
Lesson # 1
Topic: Challenges in Agriculture
Sub topic: Major challenges –Climate, topography, rural infrastructure and

Access to finance
Objectives
-To be knowledgeable of major challenges in Agriculture
-To be aware of the impacts of these challenges.
Topography
Topography is the physical shape of an area. Farmers prefer to cultivate land that is flat because it
is easier to move machinery and equipment across it for land preparation, crop harvesting and
transportation of produce. However, most of the Caribbean is hilly or mountainous, so farmers
have no alternative but to use manual methods for most field operations.
Mountainous areas have shallow topsoil and are prone to soil erosion and landslides. Farmers can
carry out strip cropping, cover cropping, contouring and terracing (see Unit 5). Erecting barriers
of stone, wood or grass can help to control soil erosion, but this process is expensive.
Mechanization in hilly areas
Mechanization allows farmers to complete agricultural tasks more speedily and efficiently. This
increases the production and profitability of farms. However, in the Caribbean there is limited use
of machinery because of the steep slopes. The use of machinery has improved in areas where the
terrain permits it. This is particularly true in the sugar cane industry in Jamaica and Trinidad.
Some machinery is used for preparing land, milking cows, plucking chickens, applying pesticides,
controlling weeds and irrigating crops throughout the Caribbean. More mechanization needs to be
developed for use in the Caribbean, specifically in hilly terrain, and be reasonably priced for
farmers. The governments of Jamaica and Grenada provide tractors and implements to small
farmers at a minimal cost for lease or hire.
Rural infrastructure
In the Caribbean, some rural communities develop from a collection of farms. In some areas,
infrastructure such as transport, communication systems, water supplies, power lines, schools and
medical facilities are developed to help farming communities. However, many rural areas still lack
essential infrastructure. There is often no incentive for farmers to continue living in these areas
because of the community need to provide a difficulties they face without amenities. Many rural
areas also lack shops and public transport systems.
Farmers want their families to have a good quality of life, and their children often enter different
careers. As the children of farmers migrate to urban areas,
Rural-to-urban drift - this rural-to-urban drift (where the rural population migrates to more urban
areas for employment) causes abandonment of agricultural land, absentee farmers, a shortage of
agricultural labour and a reduction in agricultural production. Investment in rural infrastructure is
the only way to increase agricultural production and food security. This investment needs to come
from the governments of Caribbean countries, and should include more incentives for young
people to take up farming, and better access to extension services to help reduce rural-to-urban
drift.
Extension services
The Caribbean has a pool of technical knowledge about agriculture, gained from developments in
science from around the world, but applied to Caribbean territories. A number of regional
territories have websites where farmers can access technical agricultural information. Throughout
the Caribbean, extension officers make farmers aware of the latest developments in agriculture and
encourage them to adopt appropriate technology.
Access to finance
If a farmer needs to finance an agricultural enterprise and has no family money, he or she may
look for a low-interest loan. The farmer may have to offer capital assets as collateral to the bank
or lender. Collateral is property that you agree to give to a bank if you fail to pay back money that
you have borrowed. Having capital helps to make the farmer self-reliant. Farmers with larger farms
will find it easier to borrow money because larger farms have many assets, which means that larger
farms will have greater profits and the farmers will repay their loans more quickly. Loans can be
obtained from commercial banks, agricultural banks, cooperatives, credit unions and micro-
financing organizations.
Commercial banks
Some commercial banks have agricultural advisors who understand farming problems and can
give advice. However, these banks make loans only to large farms. Commercial banks do not judge
small farmers as a good risk because small farmers may not be able to repay a loan promptly if
their profits are affected by a bad harvest, hurricane or other disaster. The Caribbean Development
Bank is committed to financing projects in the region and has departments that lend money with
long-term repayment plans to farmers.
Cooperatives
A cooperative is a group of several farmers who work together to apply for a loan. Banks tend to
look more favourably at these applications.
Credit union
A credit union is a cooperative financial institution that is owned and controlled by its members,
which makes it different from a conventional bank. Credit unions offer savings accounts and
usually lend money at lower rates of interest than commercial banks.
Review Question
1. State two strategies for coping with climate
2. Explain the term rural-to-Urban drift
3. Why are the Extension officers important to farmers?
Home work
Discuss how farmers in Guyana can easily access finance
References



Week 15
Lesson # 2
Sub topic: Major challenges –Praedial larceny, Land tenure systems and loss
of agricultural land
Objectives
-To be aware of the impacts of praedial larceny in agriculture
- To be knowledgeable of the systems of land tenure
Praedial larceny
Praedial larceny is the stealing of agricultural produce, such as crops and livestock, which causes
severe economic loss to farmers. This crime deprives farmers of the opportunity to harvest what
they have planted and nurtured. It is mainly a problem for farmers who cultivate crops that are
easy to harvest, for example, bananas, watermelons, pumpkins, cabbages, corn and cucumbers.
Security measures range from placing shells on the soil at the foot of trees to alert the farmer to a
burglar to using dogs, lighting and fencing. Many farmers use family members to guard the land
at night, especially close to harvest. Countries throughout the Caribbean have different police
initiatives to help prevent praedial larceny. In Grenada, for example, there is a Police Farm Watch
programme. In Jamaica, some of the strategies that the government and agricultural society have
put in place are fines, a praedial larceny unit in the Jamaica Police Force and a receipt system. In
the receipt system, if a person is caught transporting agricultural produce without a receipt, the
person will be arrested, charged and prosecuted. However, the culprits are not always caught. It
may be difficult to identify offenders and bring them to justice. The few people who have been
caught in the act have had low fines imposed by the courts. As a result, some farmers, especially
those targeted regularly, have given up commercial farming.
Regional governments need to address the problem with strategies such as:
-Vendors showing proof of purchase
-Hiring security for estates or encouraging farmers’ cooperatives to hire security officers
-Ensuring a higher police presence in rural districts
-Imposing more severe fines on offenders
-Raising public awareness of praedial larceny and the impact it has on farmers and local food
production.
Land tenure systems
Land tenure refers to the rights and conditions under which people hold, own, use and control
property (land). For the farmer, land is necessary for agricultural production and is a vital resource.
Traditionally, parents have handed down land as a legacy to their children. With each generation,
subdivision of the land has resulted in fragmentation. These smaller units are often too small to be
run as economically viable farms.
Some landowners are not interested in farming the land themselves. They allow farmers to rent the
land or enter into a share-cropping arrangement. The farmers who rent the land are known as tenant
farmers. As the land is not their own, the farmers can be evicted so tenant farmers do not always
work on improving the soil or manage the land sustainably.
Loss of agricultural land
In the Caribbean, land is a symbol of economic power. Land often rises in value over time and
may be used for housing or business, provided that approval is granted by the government.
However, land is scarce on islands and needs to be used carefully. Governments need to reform
policies for state lands and areas that have been abandoned by their owners. Each Caribbean state
needs to ensure that agricultural lands are identified and allocated by a land tenure system to
farmers for agricultural production and national food security. In some countries, tougher measures
are needed to ensure that good agricultural land is not used for the development of residential
areas.
Review Questions
1. Differentiate between land owners and tenant farmers
2. “Land is a symbol of economic power”. Discuss
3. What is sustainable land use?
Home work
Suggest three ways in which praedial larceny can be reduced in Guyana.
References


 M.Perrent and R.Ramharack Singh, Agricultural Science for CSEC Examinations,2nd

Week 15
Lesson # 3
Sub topic: Major Challenges –Environmental issues, availability of labour,

Food safety and natural diseases
Objectives
-To be aware of other challenges in Agriculture
Environmental issues
Farmers interact with the natural environment by removing vegetation, tilling the soil, introducing
new plant species, spraying crops with pesticides and modifying micro-climatic conditions.
Although these farming practices are necessary for food production, environmentalists worry
about the harmful effects of these practices.
The major concerns about the effect agriculture can have on the environment are:
-The destruction of ecosystems
-The loss of biodiversity
-The threat of air, land and water pollution
-The pests becoming resistant to pesticides.
Environmental degradation
Environmental degradation refers to the environment being damaged in some way. Environmental
degradation is brought about by the following factors.
Atmospheric pollution
Pollution occurs when the environment is contaminated by toxic substances.

Atmospheric pollution
Atmospheric pollution is pollution of the air. It is caused mainly by burning fossil fuels, often to
generate electricity. Smoke, dust particles and gases (carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen)
are released. Sulphur dioxide is poisonous and dissolves in rainwater to form acid rain, which
damages crops. An increase in carbon dioxide contributes to global warming. Atmospheric
pollution is difficult to control, other than by reducing dependence on fossil fuels and reducing
carbon footprints.
Water pollution
Water pollution describes toxic substances getting into streams, rivers and oceans. Some of these
substances come from pollutants in the atmosphere. Others result from sewage, excessive use of
fertilizers and pesticide runoff. Organic matter and nutrients in fresh water can cause algae to grow
rapidly and crowd out other water plants. When the algae die, they are broken down by bacteria,
and the process uses up oxygen in the water. The result in death of other aquatic organisms.
Land pollution
Land pollution can be caused by agricultural activities, urban waste disposal and mineral
extraction. Land that is severely polluted cannot revert to productive agricultural land to grow
crops without great cost. This land will be lost, and will poison flora and fauna, thus reducing the
biodiversity of the Caribbean. Waste from crops and animals should be composted and recycled
for use as fertiliser. Pesticides should be the last resort in managing pests, after cultural methods,
so that excessive runoff from fertilizers and pesticides is minimized.
Global warming
The Earth is surrounded by the atmosphere, which is a blanket of air made up of many gases. Two
of these gases, carbon dioxide and methane, are called greenhouse gases. In a greenhouse, the glass
roof and walls trap the heat energy of the sun and keep it within the greenhouse. This process
maintains a warm temperature in the greenhouse and the enclosed plants thrive.
Greenhouse effect
Carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere act rather like a greenhouse, producing what is
known as the greenhouse effect. When the sun’s rays strike the Earth, some heat energy is absorbed
and some is radiated back into space. The greenhouse gases in the atmosphere trap the energy and
keep it in, warming the air and enabling all forms of life to survive. If this energy was not trapped,
it would be too cold to sustain life on Earth.
Within the last century, there has been an increase in the production of greenhouse gases due to
human activity. Industrialization, motorized transport, aeroplanes, the burning of waste, bush fires
and deforestation all lead to increased levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This means
that more heat energy is trapped within the Earth’s atmosphere, which results in global warming.
Global warming can produce these effects:
-A rise in sea level, causing loss of coastal land areas and affecting agriculture, fishing and
community life
-Increased temperatures, which help some crops to grow, but prevent optimum growth in other
crops
-More frequent droughts, affecting water availability for both domestic and agricultural use
-More powerful storms and hurricanes, which can ruin crops and livestock, and destroy habitats
and biodiversity
-A rise in sea temperature, which kills coral reefs and affects the ecosystem of marine fisheries.
Coral reef destruction
Coral reefs are fragile ecosystems and are easily damaged by pollution. Polluted water runs off the
land, enters the sea and increases the growth of algae that live on reefs. This kills the coral
underneath the algae. Corals can be smothered by sediments washed into the sea from rivers and
coastal dredging activities. Overfishing and tourist activities upset the ecological balance so that
the physical structure of the reefs, as well as the plants and animals that live in them, suffer
significant damage.
When sea temperatures rise, the coral dies and loses its colour. Weakened coral can be attacked by
bacterial and viral diseases. The invasion of coral reefs in the Caribbean by species such as the
Indo-Pacific lionfish could also alter the shoreline ecosystem of mangroves, as well as cause
further damage to the reefs.
Deforestation
Five hundred years ago, most of the Caribbean was covered in dense tropical forest. There are still
many areas covered in natural forest, but an increasing population means that there is pressure to
clear land for crop production, industry and housing (deforestation). Forests are cleared and wood
is used for fuel, but there are few policies for replanting trees. The forested areas that remain are
in mountainous regions with high rainfall. These regions are less accessible to the machinery
needed to clear the land for farming.
Natural hazards such as forest fires and tropical storms also destroy forests. Hurricanes uproot
forests and strip leaves, leaving trees bare. Volcanic activity produces poisonous gases and hot
lava, which has affected forests in Montserrat and St Vincent.
It is important to retain forests as they:
-Provide areas for recreation, for example, nature reserves and national parks, which have facilities
for hiking and other forms of relaxation
-Control soil erosion by providing cover to break up the force of the rain on the soil
-Absorb carbon dioxide and provide oxygen through photosynthesis
-Are an important source of timber for building and furniture.
Within protected areas of forest, replanting and maintenance work can be carried out to avoid over-
exploitation.
Availability of labour
Movement away from rural areas
There is a global shortage of labour for agricultural work. Farming is done in rural areas but people
in these areas are moving to urban areas for better services and infrastructure. Around the world,
as people sell their farms and move to cities for easier lives, the land is being bought up. Sometimes
this is for housing development, but often small farms are being consolidated into larger land
holdings. Globally there has been an increase in mechanization, which has led to more stable food
security, despite the reduction in farmers.
Ageing farming population
As young people are choosing the better services and infrastructure of urban areas, along with
the opportunities for continuing education and entertainment that cities can offer, fewer people
remain in the rural areas to work on farms. This means that the currently active farmers in the
Caribbean are ageing. This is causing difficulties as farming is physical work and tasks that a
young person could easily complete will challenge an older person.
Limited participation of youth
Population movements are complex. It is possible that younger people will return to rural areas to
manage family farms later in life. However, fewer young people are training in agriculture and
becoming farmers, particularly in areas where there is less opportunity to use technology. This is
unfortunate, as more young farming entrepreneurs are required for new ideas and the development
of innovations to solve agricultural challenges.
Food safety
More people now travel within the Caribbean region and around the world for business and
pleasure. Some may visit farms abroad and inadvertently bring seed, plant, soil or animal materials
into Caribbean territories. These materials may contain pests and diseases, which can spread
rapidly and cause damage to domestic agriculture.
Sanitary and phyto-sanitary (SPS) certification procedures govern the import and export of plants,
animals and their products. This happens both nationally and regionally. Normally, licences are
issued for import and export purposes. Incoming plants and animals need to be quarantined and
tested for diseases and then require a certificate declaring them disease-free before they will be
released for propagation into the country.
Governments sometimes impose restrictions on the import of certain agricultural products, for
example, poultry (chickens, eggs) and beef, from countries that have experienced ‘bird flu’ or
‘mad cow’ disease. Agricultural workers associated with these outbreaks are also monitored to
ensure that diseases are not transmitted to other farms and that no agricultural pests or diseases
are brought into the workers’ home countries.
Natural disasters
Each year, Caribbean countries are threatened by loss of life, property damage and social
disruption as a result of natural disasters. Tropical storms, hurricanes, tidal waves, heavy rains and
droughts have all occurred in the last 30 years. Disasters have cost the region billions of dollars
and have damaged economic health and development.
The Caribbean, despite landfalls in Antigua and Barbuda, St Martin, the Bahamas and Cuba, the
number of deaths was low. However, due to the destruction caused by Hurricane Irma, it is the
costliest Caribbean hurricane on record after Hurricane Maria (which occurred later in September
2017).
The Caribbean Disaster Emergency Response Agency (CDERA) has developed a strategy for the
management of such disasters, known as the Comprehensive Disaster Management (CDM)
strategy. This places emphasis on the benefits of strengthening the infrastructure so that
installations are as storm-resistant as possible. Investment in roads, drainage systems, electrical
and water services, schools and hospitals saves money in the long term, as the cost of clean-up
procedures is usually greater and involves rehabilitation and total rebuilding. This strategy depends
on persuading individual governments to make investments.
Natural hazards
Natural hazards are hazards that are not caused by people. They occur at, or below, the surface of
the Earth, and can cause loss of life and damage to property and land. They can cause short-term
or long-term changes to an environment.
The most common natural hazards in the Caribbean are volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, floods
and hurricanes.
Natural hazard Effect on the environment

Volcanic eruption Eruptions deposit ash on the surrounding countryside, and fires caused
by burning gas and hot lava destroy vegetation. Deposits of debris are
left on land. The most recent eruptions on Montserrat have left much of
the island uninhabitable.
Earthquake Minor earthquakes are not uncommon in the eastern Caribbean, and
Jamaica lies on an active fault zone. Modern Kingston dates from the
destruction of Port Royal in 1907. Submarine earthquakes may trigger
tsunamis that flood coastal areas and destroy buildings and
infrastructure.
Flood Flooding is widespread as storms bring torrential rainfall in a short
time. Mountainous islands are most vulnerable because low-lying land
floods to several meters as water drains from high ground. Water
destroys crops, kills animals and brings about soil erosion. Areas at risk
have been identified and early warnings can be given. Apart from
tropical storms, flooding can be caused by deforestation, mining and
silting up of rivers.
Hurricane Hurricanes, such as Irma in 2017, cause wind damage, wave damage,
storm surges in coastal areas and flooding. Crops damaged by high
winds and storm surges pollute inland areas with seawater. Seawater is
poisonous to plants and livestock, and the soil remains contaminated
until the salt is removed by rainwater.
Review Questions
1. (a) List three environmental issues
(b) Explain any one listed in’a’
2. What are the consequences of sewage leaking into fresh water?
3. State three benefits of retaining a forest.
4. Why incoming plants and animals need to be quarantined before entering the country.
Home work
Explain how farmers are affected by one natural hazards in Guyana
References




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Ministry on Education

Secondary Engagement Programme

Subject: Agricultural Science

Topic: Preparation and Marketing of Livestock Produce

Subtopic: Preparation of Meat

-To be knowledgeable of the stages of meat preparation

-To be familiar with the popular cuts of meat on the market

Classes of animals, meat and approximate age and weight at slaughter

Name of animal Name of meat Approximate age at Approximate weight

-Animals for slaughter are examined by a qualified Animal Health Inspector

-The popular method of slaughtering meat animals is “sticking”.

-Pigs are positioned on their sides on large concrete tables

-The electrical knife is used on birds

-After slaughter, ruminants and rabbits are skinned.

-This stage of preparation is dressing the carcass.

-Care must be taken not to cut the intestine.

-Meat acceptable for human consumption is stamped after inspection.

-Chilling is the cooling of carcasses to a temperature of about 2.2°c-4.5°c (37°F-40°F).

Answer the following question

1) List four classes of animals and the names of their meat

2) State the main objective of preparation of livestock meat

3) In one paragraph explain the duties of the Public Health Inspector.

4) Compare traditional slaughtering to modernized slaughtering of livestock.

 F. Weever et al (2014) Agricultural Science for Secondary Schools in Guyana, Book 3,

 S. Ragoonanan (1991) CXC Agriculture- A Revision Course, Caribbean Educational

Topic: Preparation and Marketing of livestock produce

Subtopic: Marketing meat

-To be cognizant of the factors that influence market price of meat

-To be aware of the cuts of meat per animal

Reasons for the demand of meat

-The demand for meat is increasing due to

*Nutritional needs of people

*Higher earing capacity of people

*Improved breeding stock

*Better husbandry practices

*The injection of capital

-Meat is considered to be the most important protein food of all.

Whole cuts Retail cuts

-Shoulder -Fore shank

-Clear plate -Spare ribs and belly

-Loin and back fat -Jowl

-Neck bone -Ham

Wholesale and retail cuts of pork

Factors which cause

-Dark colour of meat (sticky and labby).

-Too many connective tissues (stringy)

-Old animals (tough muscle fibres)

After cutting, meat is package for storage at a temperature of 9.4°F.

Answer the following questions

1. List three reasons why the demand for meat is increasing.

2. Meat is considered to be the most important ___________ _________ of all.

3. State three cuts of market chicken

4. Discuss three factors that cause the price of meat to be lowered

Investigate the reasons for choices of meat used in your household.

 F.Weever et al (2014) Agricultural Science for Secondary Schools in Guyana, Book 3,

 S. Ragoonanan (1991) CXC Agriculture- A Revision Course, Caribbean Educational

Topic: Preparation and Marketing of livestock produce

Subtopic: Methods of cooking

2. Meat is considered to be the most important ___ _ of all.