UE College of Arts and Sciences

Language facilitates communication and clarifies meaning. It

allows people to express themselves and maintains their
identity.
Likewise, language bridges the gap among people from
varying origins and culture without prejudice to their
background and upbringing.
Characteristics of the language of Mathematics
1. Precise
2. Concise
3. Powerful
• An expression is the mathematical analogue of an
English noun.

• There are many types of expressions in mathematics.

(numbers, sets, functions, ordered pairs, matrices,
vectors, etc.)

• An expression does NOT state a complete thought; in a

particular, it does not make sense to ask if it true or
false.
• The most common type of mathematical expressions is
numbers.
• Numbers have lots of different names (look different)
but may represent the same number. (In English, these is
analogous to synonyms.)
• Common type to problem involving expressions:
simplify an expression.
• A mathematical sentence is the analogue of an English
sentences.

• It can be an equation, an inequality, etc.

• Equal sign and inequality signs are “verbs”, while

operations and logical symbols are “connectives”.
Mathematical sentences may either be true, false, sometimes true/false

Example: State whether the following statements are always true, false or
sometimes true/false.
1. 𝑥 + 2 < 𝑥 − 3
2. 𝑥 ! + 2𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑥 + 2
3. 𝑓 2 = 3
• If 𝑆 is a set, the notation 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆 means that “𝑥 is an
element of the set 𝑆”.
• Consider two sets A and B, if every elements present in
A are also present in B, then A is a subset of B. (𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵)
• Let A and B be sets. A is a proper subset of B, if all the
elements of A are in B, but B contains at least one
element that is not in A. (𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵)
§ The natural numbers (also called counting numbers
or positive integers), are the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and so
on, obtained by adding 1 over and over again. The set
of all natural numbers, denoted by the symbol ℕ.
§ The set of natural numbers together with zero is called
the set of whole numbers, denoted by 𝕎.
§ The set of numbers whose elements are the positive
integers, the negative integers and zero is called the
set of integers, denoted by ℤ.
§ Let p and q to be an integer and 𝑞 ≠ 0. The set of numbers that
!
are expressed a quotient of p and q, i.e., is called the set of
"
rational numbers, denoted by ℚ.
§ Any rational number can be written as a decimal: Terminating
decimals and Non-terminating but repeating decimals.
§ The set of numbers whose decimal representations are non-
terminating & non-repeating and cannot be expressed as ratio of
two integers is called the set of irrational numbers.
§ The union of the set of rational numbers and the set of irrational
numbers is the set of real numbers, denoted by ℝ.
Tell whether the following statements are always true or
false. Justify your answer.
1. 1 ⊆ ℕ
!
2. ∈ℤ
"
3. ℚ ⊂ ℝ
4. 2 ∉ℝ
5. ℕ ⊆ ℤ
1. A universal statement says that a certain property is
true (or false) for all elements in a set.
2. Given a property that may or may not be true, an
existential statement says that there is at least one
thing for which the property is true.
Quantifiers are used to described the variable/s in a statement.
1. Universal quantifier means “for all”, “for every”
(denoted by ∀)
2. Existential quantifier means “there exist”, “for some”
(denoted by ∃)
Let 𝑃 𝑥 be a statement and 𝑆 be a set.

The notation ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑃(𝑥) means

§ For all x in set S, P(x)
§ For all elements of set S x, P(x)
§Note: For each, for every, For any

§Example: ∀𝑥 ∈ ℕ, 𝑥 + 1 ≥ 2
§For all x in the set of natural numbers, 𝑥 + 1 ≥ 2
§For all natural numbers x, 𝑥 + 1 ≥ 2
§For all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑥 + 1 ≥ 2
Let 𝑃 𝑥 be a statement and 𝑆 be a set.

The notation ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑃(𝑥) means

§ There exists an x in set S such that P(x)
§ For at least one x in set S, P(x)
§ For some x in set S, P(x)

§Example:∃𝑥 ∈ ℕ, 𝑥 + 1 ≥ 2
§There exists an x in the set of natural numbers such that 𝑥 + 1 ≥ 2.
§There exists a natural number x such that 𝑥 + 1 ≥ 2.
§For at least one x in the set of natural numbers, 𝑥 + 1 ≥ 2
§For at least one natural number x, 𝑥 + 1 ≥ 2
§For some x in the set of natural numbers, 𝑥 + 1 ≥ 2
§For some natural number x, 𝑥 + 1 ≥ 2
1. If using same quantifiers, then the ordering doesn’t matter.
2. If using mixed quantifier, then the ordering does matter.
Example:
• For all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, there exists y ∈ ℝ such that
𝑥+𝑦 =5
• There exists a y ∈ ℝ, such that for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ,
𝑥+𝑦 =5
Example:
• For all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, there exists y ∈ ℝ such that 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 5

• There exists a y ∈ ℝ, such that for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 5

• Logic is the science of correct reasoning.
• Logic allows us to determine the validity of arguments in and out of mathematics.
• Illustrates the importance of precision and conciseness of the language of
mathematics.
A statement is a declarative sentence that is either true (T) or false (F) but NOT
both.
Example: Identify whether the following if it is a statement or not a statement.
1. 9 is a prime number
2. 4 + 6 = 10
3. 𝑥 + 𝑦 > 3
4. 10 < −4
5. 𝑥 = 10
1. A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single
idea.
2. A compound statement is a statement that conveys two
or more ideas.

• Use words/phrases such as “and”, “or”, “if-then” and “if

and only if” to create a compound statements.
 Statement Symbols Type

not P ~𝑷 Negation

P and Q 𝑷∧𝑸 Conjunction

P or Q 𝑷 ∨𝑸 Disjunction

If P, then Q 𝑷⟶𝑸 Conditional

P if and only if Q 𝑷⟷𝑸 Biconditional

 P
Q
R
S

1. It is not raining.
2. I am going to the basketball game.
3. It is raining or I am going to a movie.
4. Today is not Friday and I am not going to the basketball game.
5. I am going to a basketball game or I am going to a movie.
6. If it is raining, then I am going to a movie.
7. I am not going to the basketball game if and only if it is raining.
8. I am going to the basketball game and I am not going to a movie.
9. If today is Friday, then I am not going to a movie.
10. I am not going to a movie if and only if it is raining.
• The truth value of a simple statement is either true (T) or false (F).
• The truth value of a compound statement depends on the truth
values of its simple statements and connectives.
• A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound
statement for all possible truth values of its simple statements.
Say P is a statement.
• The negation of P means not 𝑃 and is denoted by ~𝑷.
• If the statement is false, its negation is true.
• If the statement is true, its negation is false.
• The negation of the negation of a statement is the original statement.

P ~𝑷
F T
T F
• Given a compound statement written in English, comma is
used to indicate which simple statements are grouped
together.

Examples:
1. 𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑅
2. 𝑃, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑅
3. 𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄, 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑅
4. 𝐼𝑓 𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑄, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑅 𝑜𝑟 𝑆.
5. 𝑃 𝑜𝑟 𝑄, 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑅
Say P and Q be statements.
• The conjuction denoted by 𝑷 ∧ 𝑸 is TRUE if and only if BOTH P and Q are true.
• The disjuction denoted by 𝑷 ∨ 𝑸 is TRUE if and only if P is TRUE, Q is TRUE, or
BOTH P and Q are true.

P Q 𝑷∧𝑸 𝑷∨𝑸
F F F F
F T F T
T F F T
T T T T
1.𝑃 ∨ ~𝑄 ∨ 𝑅
2. 𝑃 ∧ 𝑄 ∨ ~𝑃 ∧ ~𝑄
3. ~ 𝑃 ∧ ~𝑄 ∨ 𝑅 ∧ 𝑃 ∧ ~𝑅
4. 𝑃 ∧ ~𝑄 ∨ ~𝑅 ∧ 𝑄 ∧ 𝑅
5. 𝑃 ∧ 𝑄 ∧ 𝑅 ∨ [𝑃 ∨ (𝑄 ∧ ~𝑅)]
Recall:
A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a
compound statement for all possible truth values of its
simple statements.
Now, our goal is to construct a truth table for a statement
that involves negation, conjunction or disjunction.
If the given statement involves only two simple
statements, then start with four rows called the standard
truth table form.
1. 𝑃 ∧ ~(𝑃 ∨ 𝑄)
2. ~ ~𝑃 ∨ 𝑄 ∨ 𝑄
3. 𝑃 ∧ ~𝑄 ∨ ~𝑃 ∨ 𝑄
4. ~𝑃 ∧ 𝑅 ∨ 𝑄 ∧ ~𝑅
 the given statement has n simple statements, then start with a standard form that has 2! rows. Enter the truth
1. If
values for each simple statement and their negations.
2. Usethe truth values for each simple statement and their negations to enter the truth values under each
connective within a pair of grouping symbols—parentheses ( ), brackets [ ], braces { }.
3. If some grouping symbols are nested inside other grouping symbols, then work from the inside out.
4. In any situation in which grouping symbols have not been used, then we use the following order of
precedence agreement. First assign truth values to negations from left to right, followed by conjunctions from
left to right, followed by disjunctions from left to right, followed by conditionals from left to right, and finally by
biconditionals from left to right.
5. Thetruth values that are entered into the column under the connective for which truth values are assigned last
form the truth table for the given statement.
Write in symbols.
𝑰𝑭 𝑺 𝑨𝑵𝑫 𝑵𝑶𝑻 𝑸, 𝑻𝑯𝑬𝑵 𝑻.

A. 𝑺 ∧ ∼ 𝑸 → 𝑻
B. (𝑺 ∧ ∼ 𝑸) → 𝑻
C. 𝑺 ∧ ∼ 𝑸 → 𝑻
D. NONE OF THE ABOVE
Given that Q is a TRUE statement, what can be said
about
𝑸 ∨∼ 𝑷
§𝑻𝑹𝑼𝑬
§𝑭𝑨𝑳𝑺𝑬
§𝑺𝑶𝑴𝑬𝑻𝑰𝑴𝑬𝑺 𝑻/𝑭
Determine the truth value of the compound
statement given that P is TRUE, Q is FALSE, and R is
TRUE.
[(𝑹 ∨ 𝑷) ∧ 𝑸] ∧ (𝑹 ∨∼ 𝑷)
§𝑻𝑹𝑼𝑬
§𝑭𝑨𝑳𝑺𝑬
§𝑺𝑶𝑴𝑬𝑻𝑰𝑴𝑬𝑺 𝑻/𝑭
Definition:
Two statements are equivalent if they both have the same truth value for all possible
truth values of their simple statements.
The notation 𝑴 ≡ 𝑵 is used to indicate that statements M and N are equivalent.
Example: Show that ~𝑃 ∧ ~𝑄 and ~ 𝑃 ∨ 𝑄 are equivalent statements.
Definition:
A tautology is a statement that is always true.
A self-contradiction is a statement that is always false.
A statement that is neither a tautology nor self-contradiction
is called a contingency.
Say P and Q are statement.
• The statement 𝑃 ⟶ 𝑄 (“If P, then Q” or “P implies Q”) is called a conditional statement (implication).
• P is called the antecedent (hypothesis), and Q is called the consequent (conclusion).
• The conditional is FALSE only if the antecedent P is true and the consequent Q is false. It is true in all
other cases.

P Q 𝑃⟶𝑄
F F T
F T T
T F F
T T T
Example: Construct a truth table for [𝑷 ∧ (𝑷 → 𝑸)] → 𝑸.
Say P and Q are propositions. Given the implication 𝑃 → 𝑄,
§ its inverse is ~𝑃 → ~𝑄,
§ the converse is 𝑄 → 𝑃,
§ its contrapositive is ~𝑄 → ~𝑃

P Q 𝑃→𝑄 ~𝑃 → ~𝑄 𝑄→𝑃 ~𝑄 → ~𝑃
F F T T T T
F T T F F T
T F F T T F
T T T T T T
Say P and Q are propositions. Given the impication 𝑃 → 𝑄,
§ its inverse is ~𝑃 → ~𝑄,
§ the converse is 𝑄 → 𝑃,
§ its contrapositive is ~𝑄 → ~𝑃

Give the inverse, converse and contrapositive of the following implication:

1. If the number ends with a 5, then the number is divisible by 5.
Inverse:
If the number does not end with a 5, then the number is not divisible by 5.
Converse:
If the number is divisible by 5, then the number ends with a 5.
Contrapositive:
If the number is not divisible by 5, then the number does not end with a 5.
Say P and Q are propositions. Given the impication 𝑃 → 𝑄,
§ its inverse is ~𝑃 → ~𝑄,
§ the converse is 𝑄 → 𝑃,
§ its contrapositive is ~𝑄 → ~𝑃

Give the inverse, converse and contrapositive of the following implication:

1. If this book is interesting, then I am staying at home.
2. If you are more than 60 years old, then you are entitled to a senior citizen’s
card.
Say P and Q are statements.
The statement 𝑃 ⟷ 𝑄 (P if and only Q) is called a biconditional statement.
It is equivalent to (𝑃 → 𝑄) ∧ (𝑄 → 𝑃)

P Q 𝑃→𝑄 𝑄→𝑃 𝑃↔𝑄

F F T T T
F T T F F
T F F T F
T T T T T
Example: Construct a truth table for 𝑷 →∼ 𝑸 ↔ ∼ (𝑷 ∨ 𝑸).