Sub Module 11.8 Fire Protection (ATA 26)

PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 11A - TURBINE AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS
Category – B1.1 Sub Module 11.8 - Fire Protection
MODULE 11A
Sub Module 11.8
FIRE PROTECTION (ATA 26)
ISO 9001 - 2015 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M11A/03 Issue 04, Rev. 00
11.8 July 2022
Contents
(a)FIRE DETECTION AND WARNING SYSTEM ------------------------1

Fire-Detection / Overheat Systems -------------------------------------6
Smoke And Toxic Gas Detection And Warning Systems -------- 25
Fire Extinguishing Systems ---------------------------------------------- 31
System Tests----------------------------------------------------------------- 46
(b)PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS ----------------------------------- 48

11.8 - i July 2022
INTRODUCTION (a) FIRE DETECTION AND WARNING SYSTEM
Since fire is one of the most dangerous threats to the safe On early aircraft, the task of detecting smoke and fire was
operation of an aircraft, manufacturers and operators install a reasonably easy because the pilot could see most areas of the
variety of overheat, fire detection, smoke detection, and aircraft from the cockpit. However, as larger and more complex
extinguishing devices. Although the majority of aircraft fire- aircraft were built, it became nearly impossible for the crew to
protection systems are installed around the power plant section, observe all parts of an aircraft, and smoke and fire were often
it is typically the responsibility of an airframe technician to not detected until the hazard was beyond control.
maintain all fire-protection systems regardless of where they are
installed. To maintain the highest level of reliability from these To resolve this problem, modern aircraft have overheated and
systems, a technician must be familiar with the basic operating fire detection systems installed to provide an early warning of
principles, troubleshooting, and repair of the various types of fire hazards so the crew can take appropriate actions to reduce or
protection devices used on modern aircraft. eliminate them.
Overheat and fire-detection systems are designed with

components developed for specific tasks; so, compared to other
aircraft systems, maintenance requirements for fire detection
components are somewhat specialized. To be able to keep
these systems operating properly, a technician must understand
the basic operating principles and maintenance practices used
by various fire-detection system manufacturers.

11.8 - 1 July 2022
Principles of Fire-Detection Systems
For a fire to occur, three conditions must be met. There must be In the case of smoke and fire hazards aboard aircraft, the
emission of smoke or the presence of flames and heat makes it
 Fuel, reasonably easy for a person to physically detect a fire or
overheat condition. The smoke produced by combustion
 Oxygen, and produces strong odors and is readily visible in most
circumstances, so the crew of an aircraft can physically detect a
 Enough heat to raise the temperature of the fuel to its fire hazard in its early stages, provided they are in the same
ignition or kindling point. compartment or area of the aircraft where the fire occurs.
If any of these elements is missing or removed, fire will not be However, many aircraft areas are inaccessible to the crew and,
sustained. because of the design of the aircraft, airflow around and through
various compartments may prevent the hazard from being
Chemically, fire is a reaction between oxygen and fuel. This detected until it is too late to remedy the problem.
reaction reduces fuel to its basic chemical elements and in the
process, produces tremendous amounts of heat. To provide a more thorough means of monitoring remote
locations of an aircraft for smoke or fire, detection systems are
Paper, for example, is an organic material composed primarily mounted in areas the crew does not have access to in flight.
of carbon and hydrogen. When the paper is heated to its Some examples of areas where these systems may be installed
kindling temperature in the presence of air, the carbon and include engine nacelles, baggage compartments, electrical or
hydrogen will unite with oxygen to form carbon dioxide (CO2) electronic equipment bays and passenger lavatories.
and water (H2O). Other elements in the paper, and the products
of incomplete combustion, show up as ash and black carbon to Depending on the types of combustible materials that may
form smoke. smolder or ignite, the systems are designed to activate by
various means to provide the most accurate indication of an
actual hazard. These systems monitor areas, commonly called
fire zones, for heat, flames, the rate of temperature rise, or the
presence of smoke.

11.8 - 2 July 2022

11.8 - 3 July 2022
Classes of Fire Since operating temperatures within these areas can be

extreme, overheat detection systems, which sense the rate of
To understand how and why different types of fire detection temperature rise, are often used to monitor the zone for the
systems are better suited for certain applications, you need to presence of fire or overheat conditions. With these types of
be familiar with the classifications of fire as identified by the monitoring devices, false alarms are less likely than with other
National Fire Protection Association. These fires are identified in types of detection systems.
conjunction with the types of materials consumed by a fire and
are assigned different letter classifications as follows: Class C
Class A Class C fires are those that involve energized electrical

equipment. These fires require special care because of the
Class A fire is one in which solid combustible material burns, dangers from the electricity, in addition to those from the fire
such as wood, paper, or cloth. Control cabins or passenger itself. Such fires are generally confined to electrical and
compartments are examples of locations where Class A fires electronic equipment bays and to areas behind electrical control
are likely to occur. Since the interiors of the passenger panels. Since the initial stages of electrical equipment fires are
compartment and of the cockpit are readily accessible to the usually preceded by large amounts of smoke, these areas of an
crew, fire detection in these areas is generally accomplished by aircraft are generally monitored by smoke-detection systems.
visual surveillance.
Class D
On the other hand, such fires can also occur in baggage
compartments and lavatories, where crew access is limited or Class D fires involve burning metals such as magnesium, and
even impossible during flight. In these areas, monitoring is are difficult to extinguish. Using the wrong type of extinguishing
primarily accomplished with electrically powered smoke or flame agent with these may not only be ineffective, but may even
detector systems. cause the fire to spread. Although these types of fires are not
common in aircraft during flight, they can occur in maintenance
Class B shops, where metal shavings may ignite when exposed to
intense heat such as from a welding torch or high-voltage
Class B fires are composed of combustible liquids such as source.
gasoline, oil, jet fuel, and many of the paint thinners and
solvents used in aviation maintenance. On an aircraft, these
classes of fires typically occur in engine compartments or
nacelles and in compartments that house an auxiliary power
unit (APU).

11.8 - 4 July 2022

11.8 - 5 July 2022
Fire-Detection / Overheat Systems Thermo Switch Detector
Engine fire-detection systems generally fall into two categories: A thermo switch fire detection system is a spot-type detection
spot-detection type systems and continuous-loop type systems. system that uses a number of thermally activated switches.
With a spot-detection type system, individual fire detectors, or Each switch, or sensor, consists of a bimetallic thermoswitch
switches, are used to detect a fire. Such detectors must be that closes when heated to a predetermined temperature.
placed in locations where a fire is likely to occur, because with
this type of system a fire warning sounds only when a fire exists There are two basic types of thermoswitch systems. They are,
in the same location as the detector.
 The single loop
The continuous-loop type system works on the same basic
principle as the spot-type fire detectors except that a single  The double loop.
switch in the form of a long Inconel tube is used instead of
several individual switches. The small-diameter Inconel tube is
run completely around an engine nacelle or an area that
surrounds an auxiliary power unit thus allowing more complete
coverage than spot-type detection systems.
The most common types of fire detection systems found in

modern aircraft include Fenwal, the Kidde, the Lindberg, the
Systron-Donner, and the flame, smoke and noxious gas
detector systems.

11.8 - 6 July 2022

11.8 - 7 July 2022
Single-Loop System Double-Loop System
With a Fenwal single-loop system, all of the thermoswitches are In a double-loop system, all of the detectors are connected in
wired in parallel with each other, and the entire group of parallel between two complete loops of wiring. The system is
switches is connected in series with an indicator light. In this wired so that one leg of the circuit supplies current to the
arrangement, once a thermoswitch closes, the circuit is detectors while the other leg serves as a path to ground. With
completed and power flows to the warning light. [Figure 3] this double-loop arrangement the detection circuit can withstand
one fault, either an open or short circuit, without causing a false
To provide for circuit testing, a test switch is installed in the fire warning.
cockpit. Once the test switch is depressed, power flows to a
relay that provides a ground to the warning light, simulating a For example, if the ground loop should develop a short, a false
closed thermoswitch. Once grounded, the warning light fire warning will not occur, because the loop is already
illuminates only if there is no break in the warning circuit. grounded. On the other hand, if the powered loop shorts, the
rapid increase in current flow would trip a relay that causes the
In addition to the test feature, most fire-detection circuits include powered loop to become the ground and the grounded loop to
a dimming relay for night operations that, when activated, alters become powered. [Figure 4]
the warning circuit by increasing resistance. The increased
resistance reduces the amount of current flowing to the light. In
most airplanes, several circuits are wired through the dimming
relay so all the warning lights may be dimmed at the same time.

11.8 - 8 July 2022

11.8 - 9 July 2022
Differential Expansion Switch
This is also a point detector. It operates on the principle of the

difference in the co-efficient of linear expansion between
different metals (usually ‘Invar’ and ‘Steel’).
The sensitive bimetallic strip opens its contacts when the

temperature reaches an abnormally high threshold and sends a
signal to the flight compartment warning system.
During a slow temperature rise the insulated bimetallic strip

receives just as much heat as the unclad bimetallic strip in spite
of its insulation. Both metallic strips are distorted to the same
extent. Once the detection threshold is reached the clad
bimetallic strip contacts the stop whereas the unclad bimetallic
strip continues to be distorted. The contacts will then be
separated.
During a rapid temperature rise the bare bimetallic strip which

receives more heat than the clad strip is distorted more quickly.
Once the detection threshold is reached the contacts are
separated before the clad strip reaches its stop.

11.8 - 10 July 2022
Fig 5

11.8 - 11 July 2022
Thermocouple Detector
A thermocouple-type, Edison fire-detector system is similar to a

thermoswitch system in that they are both spot-type detection A typical relay box can contain from one to eight identical
systems. However, a thermocouple detector initiates a fire circuits, depending on the number of potential fire zones. The
warning when the temperature of the surrounding air rises too thermocouples control the operation of the relays, while the
rapidly (warms too fast, rate of temperature rise), rather than relays control the warning lights.
responding to a preset temperature, as does the thermoswitch
detector. The test circuit includes a special test thermocouple that is
wired into the detector circuit and a small electric heater. The
A thermocouple consists of a loop of two dissimilar metal wires test thermocouple and heater are mounted inside the relay
such as chromel and constantan that are joined at each end to housing and, when the test switch in the cockpit is closed,
form two junctions. When a temperature difference exists current flows through the heater, which heats the test
between the two junctions, electrical current flows and a thermocouple. The temperature difference between the test
warning light is activated. thermocouple and the reference thermocouple produces a
current flow that closes the sensitive relay and slave relay so
In a typical thermocouple system, one or more thermocouples, the warning light can illuminate.
called active thermocouples are placed in fire zones around an
engine while a separate thermocouple, called the reference The total number of thermocouples used in a particular detector
thermocouple, is placed in a dead-air space between two circuit depends on the size of the fire zone and the total circuit
insulated blocks. Under normal operations, the temperature of resistance. Typically, circuit resistance is less than five ohms. In
the air surrounding the reference thermocouple and the active addition, most thermocouple circuits contain a resistor
thermocouples are relatively even, and no current is produced connected across the slave relay terminals. This resistor
to activate a warning light. absorbs the coil's self-induced voltage when current ceases to
flow through the coil and the magnetic field collapses. If this
However, when a fire occurs, the air temperature around the self-induced voltage were not absorbed, arcing would occur
active thermocouples rises much faster than the air temperature across the sensitive relay contacts, causing them to burn or
around the reference thermocouple. The difference in weld.
temperature produces a current in the thermocouple circuit and
activates a warning light and horn.
In most thermocouple systems, the sensitive relay, slave relay,

and a thermal test unit are contained in a relay box.

11.8 - 12 July 2022

11.8 - 13 July 2022
Continuous Loop Detectors
Fenwal Continuous-Loop Detector
In addition to a thermoswitch detection system, Fenwal also The Fenwal system uses a magnetic amplifier control unit. This
produces a continuous-loop type system that consists of a unit is a non-averaging controller that supplies power to the
single fire or overheat-sensing element that varies in length, sensing element and sounds an alarm when the circuit to
depending on the size of the fire zone. A typical sensing ground is completed through the Inconel tube. [Figure 7c].
element can be anywhere from 1 foot to 15 feet long. As
mentioned earlier, the sensing element used in a continuous
loop fire detection system consists of a flexible, small-diameter
Inconel tube. [Figure a]
In the Fenwal system, the metal Inconel tube uses a single wire
electrode made with pure nickel. The pure-nickel electrode is
surrounded by ceramic beads to prevent the electrode and
conductor from touching each other. The beads in this system
are wetted with a eutectic salt, which has an electrical
resistance that varies with temperature. [Figure 7a]
The center conductor protrudes out each end of the Inconel

tube where an electric terminal is affixed to the electrode.
Current is then applied to the conductor while the outer tube is
grounded to the aircraft structure. At normal temperatures, the
eutectic salt core material prevents electrical current from
flowing between the center conductor and the tube.
However, when a fire or overheat condition occurs, the core

resistance drops and current flows between the center
conductor and ground, energizing the alarm system.(Figure 7b)

11.8 - 14 July 2022

11.8 - 15 July 2022
Kidde System
The Kidde system is also a continuous-loop type system

consisting of a single overheat-sensing element that varies in
length. The sensing element consists of a rigid, pre-shaped
Inconel tube with two internal wire conductors.
The conductors are embedded in a thermistor, or thermal

resistor material, to prevent the two electrodes from touching
each other and the exterior casing. Like the eutectic salt used in
the Fenwal system, the thermistor material has an electrical
resistance that decreases as the temperature increases. One of
the wires is electrically grounded to the outer tube at each end
and acts as an internal ground, while the second wire is a
positive lead.
When a fire or overheat occurs, the resistance of the thermistor Fig 8a

material drops, allowing current to flow between the two wires to
activate an alarm. In addition to constantly measuring the total
resistance of the full sensing loop, the dual control unit provides
for redundancy even if one side fails.
The sensing element assembly used in the Kidde fire and

overheat warning system consists of a pair of sensing elements
mounted on a pre-shaped rigid support tube. The two sensing
elements mounted on the support tube provide separate
sensing circuits, and each is connected to its own electronic
circuit mounted on a separate card.
Both the Fenwal and Kidde systems will detect a fire when one
sensing element is inoperative, even though the press-to-test
circuit does not function, indicating that there is a fault in system

11.8 - 16 July 2022
Engine Continuous Loop Detection System
Fig 8b

11.8 - 17 July 2022
Gas Based Detection System
Lindberg System
The Lindberg fire detection system is a pneumatic continuous-

length type system consisting of a stainless-steel tube filled with
an inert gas and a discrete material that is capable of absorbing
a portion of the gas. The amount of gas the material can absorb
varies with temperature. One end of the tube is connected to a
pneumatic pressure switch called a responder, which consists
of a diaphragm and a set of contacts. [Figure 9a]
When the temperature surrounding the sensing, element rises

because of a fire or overheats condition, the discrete material
within the tube also heats up and releases the absorbed gas. As
the gas is released, the gas pressure within the tube increases
and mechanically actuates the diaphragm switch in the
responder unit. Once the diaphragm switch closes, the warning
light illuminates and the alarm bell sounds. Because the
Lindberg system works on the principle of gas pressure, it is
sometimes referred to as a pneumatic system. [Figure 9b]
To test a Lindberg system, low-voltage alternating current is

sent through the element's outer casing. This current heat the
casing until the discrete material releases enough gas to close
the contacts in the diaphragm switch and initiate a fire warning.
When the test switch is released, the sensing element cools

allowing the discrete material to reabsorb the gas. Once
absorbed, the contacts in the diaphragm switch open and the
fire warning stops.

11.8 - 18 July 2022

11.8 - 19 July 2022
Systron-Donner System
The Systron-Donner system is another pneumatic continuous- This increases the sensor's total gas pressure, which closes the
length system that utilizes a gas filled tube with a titanium wire diaphragm switch and trips the fire alarm. A typical Systron-
running through its center as a sensing element. The tube itself Donner system sensor activates a fire alarm when exposed to a
is made of stainless steel and is filled with helium gas. The 2 000°F flame for five seconds. This is the overheat function.
titanium wire, on the other hand, acts as a gas absorption
material that contains a quantity of hydrogen. For protection, the After a fire is extinguished, the sensor core material reabsorbs
wire is either wrapped with an inert metal tape or inserted in an the hydrogen gas and the responder automatically resets the
inert metal tube. One end of the sensor tube is connected to a system. [Figure 10a]
responder assembly containing a diaphragm switch that
provides a warning for both an overheat condition and a fire. To check system integrity, the responder unit of a Systron-
Donner system contains an integrity switch that is held closed
Like the Lindberg system, the Systron-Donner system's by the normal gas pressure exerted by the helium. When the
principle of operation is based on the gas law: integrity switch is closed, depressing the test switch results in a
fire warning. However, if the sensing element should become
“If the volume of a gas is held constant and the temperature cut or severely chafed, the helium gas will escape and the
increases, gas pressure also increases.” integrity switch remains open. In this situation, depressing the
test switch provides a "no test" indication.
The helium gases surrounding the titanium wires provide the
systems averaging or overheat function. At normal The continuous length sensor elements are quite durable and
temperatures, the helium pressure in the tube exerts an can be flattened, twisted, kinked, and dented without losing their
insufficient amount of force to close the overheat switch. overheat and fire detection abilities unlike continuous loop
However, when the average temperature along the length of the sensors. A typical sensing system consists of two separate
tube reaches an overheat level, the gas pressure increases sensing loops for redundancy. Both loops are required to sense
enough to close the diaphragm switch, which activates the a fire or overheat before an alarm will sound. However, if one
alarm. Once the source of the overheat condition is removed, loop fails, the system logic will isolate the defective loop and
the helium gas pressure drops and the diaphragm switch opens. reconfigure to a single loop operation using the good loop.
This is the averaging function. The system's fire detection, or
[Figure 10b]
discrete, function is provided by the gas-charged titanium wire.
When exposed to a localized high temperature, such as a fire or
turbine engine compressor bleed air leak, the titanium wire
releases hydrogen gas.

11.8 - 20 July 2022

11.8 - 21 July 2022
The continuous-loop (Kidde and Fenwal) and continuous-length

(Systron-Donner) types of fire detection mechanisms are
considered superior to the spot and thermocouple systems
where large areas must be covered such as around a jet engine.
The continuous-loop systems do have a disadvantage in that
damage to the tubing wall, which will cause it to be closer to the
center elements, may cause false fire signals to be generated.
The continuous-length sensor is not as sensitive to damage as

are the continuous-loop sensors. The outer tubing of these units
can be bent, dented, kinked, and otherwise distorted without
their effectiveness being affected. The wire inside the tube
prevents complete collapse so there is always room for gas to
flow. The only cause of failure is loss of the helium gas because
the tube is worn or cut sufficiently to allow the gas to escape.
Each of the different sensor mechanisms can be selected for

various operating temperatures. For example, the normal
temperatures surrounding the turbine-engine combustion
chamber will be much higher than the normal temperatures in
the area of the engine inlet. A sensor selected for the inlet area
of the engine should actuate the alarm system at a lower
temperature than the sensor used near the engine combustion
chamber. Different temperature rating detectors maybe included
in a common alarm system.

11.8 - 22 July 2022

11.8 - 23 July 2022
Flame Detectors
Another type of fire detection system that is used on an aircraft

is a flame detector system. Most flame detectors consist of a
photoelectric sensor that measures the amount of visible light or
infrared radiation in an enclosed area. The sensor is placed so it
can see the surrounding area, and anytime there is an increase
in the amount of light that strikes the cell, an electrical current is
produced. Once enough current is produced and channeled
through an amplifier a fire warning light and bell are activated.

11.8 - 24 July 2022
Smoke and Toxic Gas DetectionAnd Warning Systems
The smoke-detection system of the aircraft monitors certain

areas of the aircraft for the presence of smoke, which can be an
indication of an impending fire condition. These may include but
are not limited to cargo and baggage compartments and the
lavatories of transport category aircraft.
A smoke- detection system is used where the type of fire

anticipated is expected to generate a substantial amount of
smoke before temperature changes are sufficient to actuate an
overheat-detection system.
To be reliable, smoke detectors must be maintained so that

smoke in a compartment will be indicated as soon as it begins
to accumulate. In order for the detector to operate properly,
smoke detector louvers, vents, and ducts must not be
obstructed.
Smoke detection instruments are classified by method of

detection, and, in some cases, an aircraft will have different
types of detectors installed in various locations.
The presence of carbon monoxide gas (CO) or nitrous oxides

are dangerous to flight crews and passengers, and may indicate
a fire condition. Detection of the presence of either or both of
these gases could be the earliest warning of a dangerous
situation.

11.8 - 25 July 2022
Smoke Detectors Ionization Type
Solid-State Type Ionization-type smoke detectors use a small amount of

radioactive material to ionize some of the oxygen and nitrogen
Solid-state smoke or toxic gas warning systems operate by molecules in the air sample drawn into the detector cell. These
comparing signals from two detecting elements, one located in ions permit a small electrical current to flow through the detector
the area being monitored, the other exposed to outside air. chamber test circuit.
These detecting elements consist of a heating coil encased in a If smoke is present in the air sample being drawn through the
coating of semiconductor material. Carbon monoxide or nitrous detector, small particles of the smoke will attach themselves to
oxides, if present, will be absorbed into this coating and change the oxygen and nitrogen ions, reducing the electrical current
the electrical current-carrying capability of the detector. flow in the test circuit. If the current flow falls below a preset
value, the alarm circuit will activate visual and aural cockpit
These elements are connected into a type of bridge circuit so alarms. [Figure 14].
that when both elements are conducting evenly the bridge will
be balanced, and no warning signal will be present. If the
element in the area being monitored is subjected to CO gas or
nitrous oxides, an unbalanced condition will be created across
the bridge and the warning circuit will illuminate the cockpit-
warning lamp. [Figure 13]

11.8 - 26 July 2022
Fig 13 Fig 14

11.8 - 27 July 2022
Light Refraction Type
This type of detector consists of a photoelectric cell a beacon

lamp, and a light trap, all mounted on a labyrinth. Air samples
are drawn through the detector unit, usually by a small
circulating fan. When smoke particles are present, they refract
light into the photoelectric cell.
An accumulation of 10% smoke in the air causes the

photoelectric cell to conduct current.
When activated by smoke the detector supplies a signal to a

smoke detector amplifier, which activates a warning light and
aural warning in the cockpit. [Figure 15]
A test switch permits checking the operation of the smoke

detector. Closing the switch connects 28 VDC electricity to the
test relay. When the test relay energizes, voltage is applied
through the beacon lamp and test lamp in series to ground. A
fire indication will be observed only if the beacon and test lamp
the photoelectric cell, the smoke detector amplifiers, and
associated circuits are all operable. [Figure 16]
With some light-refraction smoke detectors, the detector can be

functionally tested with a flashlight equipped with a red-colored
lens. Directing the light beam into the detector simulates the
light condition that would be produced with smoke.
However, when conducting a test in this manner, ambient light

must be shielded from entering the detector for the test to be
effective.

11.8 - 28 July 2022
Fig 15 Fig 16

11.8 - 29 July 2022
Toxic Gas Detectors

Such detectors are especially useful in reciprocating-engine
Carbon Monoxide Detectors aircraft that use either internal combustion heaters or shrouded
exhaust manifold systems for cabin heat.
CO detectors are used to sense the presence of deadly carbon
monoxide gas, and are primarily found in aircraft cabins or Such CO-detection systems electronically sample the cabin air,
cockpits. CO is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-irritating and sound an aural warning if CO is present in hazardous
gas that is a byproduct of incomplete combustion, and is found amounts. CO can be discharged into the cabin if the heater
in varying degrees in smoke and fumes from burning leaks from the combustion side of the system into the ventilating
substances. Exposure to even small amounts of the gas is airstreams.
dangerous. A concentration of 0.02% (2 parts in 10 000) may
produce headache, mental dullness, and some degree of Occasionally a manufacturer may require that an area of an
physical impairment within a few hours. Higher doses or aircraft be checked for the presence of CO after a repair. To
prolonged exposure may cause death. perform this testing, there are several types of portable GO
detectors, commonly called sniffers that are available for use.
Probably the simplest and least expensive CO indicator is a
button, worn as a badge or installed on the instrument panel or One type has a replaceable indicator tube that contains a yellow
cockpit wall. The button contains a tablet that changes from a silica gel. During operation, a sample of air is drawn through the
normal tan color to progressively darker shades of gray-to-black detector tube. When the air sample contains carbon monoxide,
when exposed to CO gas. The color transition time is relative to the yellow silica gel turns to a shade of green. The intensity of
the concentration of CO. At a concentration of 50 PPM the green color is proportional to the concentration of carbon
(0.005%), the rust discoloration will be apparent within 15 to 30 monoxide in the air sample at the time and location of the tests.
minutes, while a concentration of 100 PPM (0.01%) will change
the color of the tablet in 2 to 5 minutes and to dark gray or black
in 15 to 20 minutes.
The buttons are effective, but must be replaced at the

manufacturer's recommended intervals to keep them at the
highest level of performance.
Other types of CO detectors are installed to maintain a constant

sampling of the cabin and cockpit air when the aircraft is in
operation.

11.8 - 30 July 2022
Fire Extinguishing Systems Fire-Extinguishing Agents
Introduction As previously mentioned, the three elements that are needed to

support combustion are a combustible fuel, oxygen, and heat. If
Hand-held fire extinguishers and extinguishing systems are anyone of these elements is removed, a fire will not burn. The
installed in many aircraft to provide the flight crew and portable and fixed fire-extinguisher systems used in most
maintenance personnel with the ability to fight fires while the aircraft are designed to displace the oxygen with an inert agent
aircraft is operating on the ground or in flight. Portable that does not support combustion or to chemically combine with
extinguishers are commonly installed in the cockpit and oxygen to prevent combustion. Some additional extinguishing
passenger cabin of many aircraft. More elaborate extinguishing effect can occur by the low temperature at which it is discharged.
systems are installed in transport category and corporate The most common types of aircraft extinguishing agents that
airplanes to extinguish fires in the engine, auxiliary power unit, are used include carbon dioxide and Halogenated hydrocarbons.
baggage, and electronic equipment compartments. In addition, N2 is also an extinguishing agent but is primarily used as
many transport category airplanes have fire-extinguishing propellant for other chemicals.
systems located in trash receptacles to protect against fires that
may occur in the lavatories of passenger-carrying aircraft. Water
Water can only be used for Class A fires, such as aircraft cabin
fires, where electricity is not involved. Most modern water-type
extinguishers consist of a container of water in which an
antifreeze material has been mixed. The water is propelled from
the extinguisher by a charge of carbon dioxide or nitrogen.
Once the extinguisher is activated, all of the propellant is
discharged and a new cartridge must be installed when the
extinguisher is serviced.

11.8 - 31 July 2022
Dry-Powder However, the fire is actually extinguished by the CO 2 displacing

the oxygen in the atmosphere, interrupting the chemical
Bicarbonate of soda, ammonium phosphate, or potassium reaction between the fuel and the oxygen. Once the "snow"
bicarbonate is used as dry-powder extinguishants. They are warms, it evaporates, leaving almost no residue.
most effective on Class B and C fires where liquids and live
electric circuits are involved. In addition, they are the most Carbon dioxide is effective on both Class B and Class C fires. A
effective extinguishant for Class D metal fires. carbon dioxide hand held fire extinguisher can be used on an
electrical fire, provided the discharge horn is constructed of a
nonmetallic material. A metallic horn would tend to transfer an
In a typical unit, dry powder is expelled from the container by electrical charge back to the fire extinguisher and to ground
compressed nitrogen and blankets the fire, excluding oxygen through the person holding the extinguisher.
from the fuel. It also prevents a reflash that would re-ignite the
fuel after it has been extinguished. Dry powder extinguishers
are not recommended for aircraft because of the potential In addition, since carbon dioxide leaves almost no residue, it is
damage to system components from the loose powder. It is also well suited for engine intake and carburetor fires. Furthermore,
difficult to remove the residue after a dry powder extinguisher is carbon dioxide is nontoxic and does not promote corrosion.
discharged. Dry powder is corrosive and toxic.
However, if used improperly, carbon dioxide will dissipate
Carbon Dioxide oxygen uptake in the lungs, which can cause physiological
problems such as mental confusion and suffocation. Because of
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a colorless, odorless gas that is about its variation in vapor pressure with temperature, it is necessary
one and one-half times heavier than air. To be used as an to store CO2 in stronger containers than required for most other
extinguishing agent, carbon dioxide must be compressed and extinguishing agents.
cooled until it becomes a liquid that can be stored in steel
cylinders. When released into the atmosphere, carbon dioxide
expands and changes to a gas that cools to a temperature of
about -110°F. Because of the cooling effect, the water vapor in
the air immediately condenses to form "snow," which causes
the CO2 to appear to settle over the flames and smother them.

11.8 - 32 July 2022
Halogenated Hydrocarbons
Halogenated hydrocarbons are numbered according to their
A halogen element is one of the groups that consist of chlorine, chemical formulas with five-digit Halon numbers, which identify
fluorine, bromine, or iodine. Some hydrocarbons combine with the chemical makeup of the agent. The first digit represents the
halogens to produce very effective fire-extinguishing agents that number of carbon atoms in the compound molecule; the second
work by excluding oxygen from the fire source and by digit, the number of fluorine atoms; the third digit, the number of
chemically interfering with the combustion process. chlorine atoms; the fourth digit, the number of bromine atoms;
and the fifth digit, the number of iodine atoms, if any. If there is
The probable extinguishing mechanism of halogenated agents no iodine present the fifth digit does not appear.
is a chemical interference in the combustion process between
fuel and oxidizer. Experimental evidence indicates that the most For example, bromo-tri-flouro-methane CF3Br is referred to as
likely method of transferring energy in the combustion process Halon 1301, or sometimes by the trade name Freon 13TM.
is by molecule fragments resulting from the chemical reaction of
the constituents. If these fragments are blocked from Halon 1301 is extremely effective for extinguishing fires in
transferring their energy to the unburned fuel molecules, the engine compartments of both piston and turbine powered
combustion process may be slowed, or stopped completely aircraft and is also considered to be one of the best
(extinguished). It is believed that the halogenated agents react extinguishing agents for aircraft interior fires. In engine
with the molecular fragments, thus preventing the energy compartment installations, the Halon 1301 container is
transfer. This may be termed chemical cooling or energy pressurized by compressed nitrogen and is discharged through
transfer blocking. This extinguishing mechanism is much more spray nozzles. Halon 1301 is also widely used as the agent for
effective than oxygen dilution and cooling. portable fire extinguishers.
Halogenated hydrocarbon fire-extinguishing agents are most A number of halogenated hydrocarbon agents have been used
effective on Class B and C fires but can be used on Class A and in the past but are no longer in production. The reason for this is
D fires as well. However, their effectiveness on Class A and D that some early Halon extinguishing agents produced toxic or
fires is somewhat limited. corrosive gases when exposed to fire.
For example, carbon tetrachloride (Halon 104) was the first

generally accepted Halon extinguishing agent and was very
popular for electrical hazards. However, when exposed to heat,
its vapors formed a deadly phosgene gas, which is a form of
nerve gas.

11.8 - 33 July 2022
Another once-popular agent was methyl bromide (Halon 1001). For example, Dupont FE-25TM has proven to be an acceptable
However, methyl bromide is toxic to personnel and corrosive to substitute for Halon 1301 as an extinguishing agent and has no
aluminum alloys, magnesium, and zinc. Of all the halogenated harmful affect on the earth's ozone layer.
hydrocarbon extinguishing agents, Halon 1301 is the safest to
use from the standpoint of toxicity and corrosion hazards. In Other replacement extinguishing agents being researched
small dosage amounts, the gas has a low toxicity, but has include water mist sprays, which have been proven to be
similar effects of depriving oxygen from the lungs. effective in combating many A, B, and C class fires.
Because of changing regulations and developing environmental As an aviation maintenance technician, it is important to be
impact data, you should keep abreast of current developments aware of airworthiness and environmental regulations governing
pertaining to the use of halogenated hydrocarbons as fire- the use and disposal of CFCs. Improper handling or disposal of
extinguishing agents. halogenated hydrocarbons can lead to civil and criminal
penalties.
For example, several studies suggest that chloro-flouro-carbons
(CFCs), such as Halon, damage the ozone layer in the The Freon and Halon are in a liquid state when under sufficient
stratosphere, allowing higher levels of ultraviolet radiation to pressure but become gaseous when released to atmospheric
reach the earth. To reduce damage to the ozone layer, the pressure. Liquid Freon or Halon must not be allowed to come
Environmental Protection Agency banned the production of into contact with the skin because they will cause frostbite due
CFCs after December 31, 1995. However, existing stocks of to extremely low temperatures attained when the liquid
CFCs are still allowed to be used after this date. evaporates.
Several alternatives to CFCs have recently been developed and

will most likely find applications as aviation fire-extinguishing
agents.

11.8 - 34 July 2022
Figure 17 Fire Extinguisher Use

11.8 - 35 July 2022
NOTE: The use of highly toxic extinguishants such as methyl

bromide or carbon tetrachloride is prohibited in either crew or
passenger compartments. However, in the case of a fire
occurring during servicing or maintenance, the toxicity of the
extinguishant may be less important, particularly if it is possible
to direct the extinguisher through an open door or window into
the fuselage.

11.8 - 36 July 2022
Fixed Fire-Extinguishing Systems
In an aircraft, it is important that the type of fire extinguishing

system be appropriate for the class of fire that is likely to occur.
There are two basic categories of fixed fire-extinguishing
systems:
 Conventional systems, and
 High-rate-of-discharge (HRD) systems
Both systems utilize one or more containers of extinguishing

agent and a distribution system that releases the extinguishing
agent through perforated tubing or discharge nozzles.
As a general rule, the type of system installed can be identified

by the type of extinguishing agent used. For example,
conventional systems usually employ carbon dioxide as the
extinguishing agent while HRD systems typically utilize
halogenated hydrocarbons.

11.8 - 37 July 2022
Conventional Systems
Once past the control valve, the CO 2 proceeds to the fire zone
The fire-extinguishing installations used in older aircraft are via solid tubing installed in the fuselage or wing. Inside the fire
referred to as conventional systems. Many of these systems are zone, the tubing is perforated so the carbon dioxide can be
still used in some aircraft and satisfactory for their intended use. discharged.
A conventional fire-extinguisher system consists of a cylinder To operate a conventional fire extinguisher system used to
that stores carbon dioxide under pressure and a remotely protect an engine compartment, a selector valve in the cockpit
controlled valve assembly that distributes extinguishing agent. must be manually set for the engine that is on fire. Once this is
done, a T-shaped control handle located next to the selector
Carbon dioxide cylinders come in various sizes, are made of valve is pulled upward to actuate the release lever in the CO 2
stainless steel, and are typically wrapped with steel wire to cylinder valve. Once released, the compressed carbon dioxide
make them shatter proof. In addition, the normal gas storage flows in one rapid burst to the outlets in the distribution line of
pressure ranges from 700 to 1 000 psi. the affected engine compartment. Contact with the air converts
the liquid CO2 into a visible gas, which extinguishes the flames
Since the freezing point of carbon dioxide is so low, a storage by displacing oxygen.
cylinder does not have to be protected against cold weather.
However, cylinders can discharge prematurely in hot climates. Some CO2 systems designed to protect engine fire zones have
To prevent this, manufacturers sometimes charge a cylinder multiple bottles, which gives the system capability of delivering
with about 200 psi of dry nitrogen before they fill the cylinder extinguishing agent twice to any of engine compartments.
with carbon dioxide. When treated in this manner, most CO2
cylinders are protected against premature discharge up to Each bank of CO2 bottles is equipped with a red thermo-
160°F. The nitrogen also provides additional pressure during discharge indicator disk and a yellow system-discharge
normal release of the agent. indicator disk. The red thermo-discharge disc is set to rupture
and discharge the carbon dioxide overboard if the cylinder
Carbon dioxide cylinders are equipped internally with one of pressure becomes excessively high (about 2,650 psi). On the
three types of siphon tubes. The cylinders used in aircraft other hand, the yellow system-discharge disk ruptures
typically utilize either a straight rigid, or a short-flexible siphon whenever a bank of bottles has been emptied by a normal
tube. The type of siphon tube installed in the cylinder is discharge.
determined by the cylinder's mounting position.
These disks are mounted so that they are visible on the outside
The CO2 within a cylinder is distributed through tubing from the of the fuselage. This way, during a preflight inspection, the flight
CO2 cylinder valve to the control valve assembly in the cockpit. crew can identify the condition of the system.

11.8 - 38 July 2022
Fig 18

11.8 - 39 July 2022
High-Rate Discharge Systems As a safety feature, each extinguishing container is equipped

with a thermal fuse that melts and releases the extinguishing
High-rate-of-discharge (HRD) is the term applied to the fire- agent if the bottle is subjected to high temperatures. If a bottle is
extinguishing systems found in most modern turbine engine emptied in this way, the extinguishing agent will blowout a red
aircraft. A typical HRD system consists of a container to hold indicator disk as it vents to the atmosphere. On the other hand,
the extinguishing agent, at least one bonnet assembly, and a if the bottle is discharged normally, a yellow indicator disk blows
series of high-pressure feed lines. out. Like a conventional system, the indicator disks are visible
from the outside of the fuselage for easy reference. [Fig b] or
The containers used in an HRD system are typically made of alternately a gauge maybe installed which indicates bottle
steel and spherically shaped. There are four sizes commonly in pressure.
use today, ranging from 224 cubic inches to 945 cubic inches.
The smaller containers generally have two openings, one for the
bonnet assembly or operating head, and the other for a fusible
safety plug. The larger containers are usually equipped with two
bonnet assemblies.
Each container is partially filled with an extinguishing agent,

such as Halon 1301, and sealed with a frangible disk. Once
sealed, the container is pressurized with dry nitrogen. A
container pressure gauge is provided so you can quickly
reference the container pressure.
The bonnet assembly contains an electrically ignited discharge

cartridge, or squib, which fires a projectile into the frangible disk.
Once the disk brakes, the pressurized nitrogen forces the
extinguishing agent out of the sphere. A strainer is installed in
the bonnet assembly to prevent the broken disk fragments from
getting into the distribution lines. [Figure 19]
The advantage of this system over conventional systems is that

it is able to flood a compartment much quickly to eliminate the Fig 19
fire(Rapid release of agent into the area).

11.8 - 40 July 2022
Fig 20

11.8 - 41 July 2022
In addition to the discussed methods most modern aircraft are
When installed on a multi-engine aircraft, the fire extinguishing- protected against fire by selective use of materials. For an
agent containers are typically equipped with two firing bonnets. example all seat covers are made of fire resistant materials,
The two discharge ports allow one container to serve both cargo linings (ceiling and sidewall) are made of fire resistant
engines. [Figure 22] materials. it is important that any gaps or crevices in the flooring
and at the free edges of paneling should be sealed. All control
On large, multi-engine aircraft, two extinguishing agent cables fluid lines, which run through potentially fire hazardous
containers are generally installed, each with two firing bonnets. areas, are made of materials that can withstand high
The bonnet assembly contains an electrically ignited discharge temperatures or suitably protected such as sheathing.
cartridge, or squib, which fires a projectile into the frangible disk. Furnishing materials should also be inspected for grease or oil
This allows twin-engine aircraft to have a dedicated container stains, which may tend to propagate a fire and loose covers
for each engine. In addition, the two discharge ports on each which have been laundered or dry-cleaned should be re-proofed
bottle provide a means of discharging both containers into one as necessary. Ashtrays must be fitted.
engine compartment. [Figure 22]
Both conventional and HRD systems may be designed to allow

only one extinguishing agent to discharge into a fire area, or
they may be designed to allow several discharges into an area
in an attempt to extinguish the fire. In most aircraft only two
discharges are possible for anyone location. The exact
configuration of a system is determined by the aircraft
manufacturer.
The system is acting when a member of the crew closes the fire
switch to direct extinguishing agent to the area where a fire is
indicated. When the fire-extinguishing switch is closed, an ex-
plosive charge at the neck of the selected agent container is
detonated and a cutter is driven through the ceiling disk in the Fig 21
neck of the container. This release- the extinguishing agent
from the container instantly and permits it to flow to the area
selected. The pilot or other crewmember will have selected the
appropriate area by operating a switch on the fire control panel.
This will direct the agent through the correct deployment line.

11.8 - 42 July 2022
Fig 22

11.8 - 43 July 2022
Inspection and Servicing Container Pressure Check
Regular maintenance of fire-extinguishing systems includes A pressure check of fire-extinguisher containers is made
inspecting and servicing the fire-extinguisher bottles, removing periodically to determine that the pressure is between the
and reinstalling discharge cartridges, testing the discharge minimum and maximum limits prescribed by the manufacturer.
tubing for leaks, and testing electrical wiring for continuity. Aircraft service manuals contain pressure/temperature curves or
charts that provide the permissible gauge readings corrected for
The following discussion looks at some of these common temperature. If the pressure does not fall within the appropriate
maintenance procedures to provide an understanding of the limits, the container must be removed and replaced with a
operations involved. However, as an aviation maintenance properly charged container.
technician, you must understand that fire-extinguishing-system
maintenance procedures vary substantially, depending on the Once it has been determined that a bottle is properly charged,
design and construction of the particular unit being serviced. check to make certain that the glass on the pressure gauge is
not broken. In addition, verify that the bottle is securely mounted
Therefore, the detailed procedures outlined by the airframe or to the airframe.
system manufacturer should always be followed when
performing maintenance. The only way to determine if the appropriate amount of
extinguishing agent is in a given container is to weigh the
container. Therefore, most fire-extinguishing containers require
re-weighing at frequent intervals. In addition to the weight check,
fire-extinguisher containers must be hydrostatically tested at
five-year intervals.

11.8 - 44 July 2022
Fig 23

11.8 - 45 July 2022
Discharge Cartridges System Tests
The discharge cartridges used with HRD containers are life- All extinguishing systems have a method of testing their
limited and the service life is calculated from the manufacturer's serviceability. This can vary from weighing the complete
date stamped on the cartridge. The manufacturer's service life is cylinder off-aircraft, (which will have the correct 'full' weight
usually expressed in terms of hours and is valid as long as the marked on it), through to the bottle having a gauge with
cartridge has not exceeded a predetermined temperature limit.
safe and low-pressure sectors marked on it.
To determine a cartridge's service life, it is necessary to remove
the electrical leads and discharge hose from the bonnet Figure 24 shows an engine extinguisher with a fitted
assembly. Once this is done, the bonnet assembly can be gauge. Other more sophisticated systems have internal
removed from the extinguisher container so the date stamped pressure switches fitted to the bottle, which will notify the
on the cartridge can be seen. flight deck of the loss of bottle pressure, (or discharge), via
a warning light, magnetic indicator etc.
Most new extinguisher containers are supplied with their
cartridge and bonnet assembly disassembled. Therefore, care Regardless of the system, all bottles and squibs have a life,
must be taken in assembling or replacing cartridges and bonnet after which they have to be removed and returned to the
assemblies. Before installation on an aircraft, the cartridge must
manufacturer for maintenance.
be properly assembled into the bonnet and the entire assembly
connected to the container.
If a discharge cartridge is removed from a bonnet assembly, it

should not be used in another bonnet assembly. In addition,
since discharge cartridges are fired electrically, they should be
properly grounded or shorted to prevent accidental firing.
Wrapping a piece of safety wire between the two electrical
terminals of the discharge cartridge is sometimes done to keep
both terminals electrically neutral. Shunt plugs are also used for
this purpose.

11.8 - 46 July 2022
 Fire System Test Switch
A test switch is available for each system. When pressed

all warning lights and audio warnings are checked. If a
light fails to illuminate it will normally indicate a bulb
filament failure.
 Fire Wire Loop Test
A test switch on the cockpit fire panel is available to test

each sensing element loop. When selected the continuity
of each circuit is checked. If the system is serviceable the
Loop caption(s) will illuminate. If the caption(s) do not
illuminate there is a fault in the system.
 Squib-Test.
A squib test button is available to check the continuity of

the discharge heads for each of the fire extinguisher
Fire Bottle with Pressure Gauge bottles. When pressed a squib warning light or magnetic
Figure 24 indicator will illuminate if the system is serviceable. No
illumination means that there is a fault in the system. The
current used during the squib test is at a much lower value
than that required to fire the squib.
.

11.8 - 47 July 2022
(b)PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
Portable, or hand-held, fire extinguishers are installed in many

aircraft inside the cockpit and passenger compartments where
they can be readily accessed in the event of a fire. For
installations on commercial passenger-carrying aircraft, the
number and location of extinguishers may be mandated by
regulatory requirements, while the owners of smaller general
aviation airplanes are given the option to have portable
extinguishers installed.
The fire extinguishers must be of approved types and must be

appropriate for the kinds of fires that are likely to occur in the
areas concerned. For example, if electrical fires are most likely,
the fire extinguisher must be of the dry-chemical type, a dry gas
type (CO2), or a Halon 1301 type. Extinguishing agents
containing water must not be used because water increases
electrical conductivity and may cause more damage than good.
Oil or fuel fires should be smothered with a foam-type agent or
a dry-chemical agent. Each extinguisher for use in cabins must
be designed to minimize the hazard of toxic gas concentrations.
The three most common types of fire extinguishers used on

aircraft are the carbon dioxide, the nitrogen-pressurized dry
powder, and the Halogenated hydrocarbon extinguishers.

11.8 - 48 July 2022
Portable Fire Extinguisher Installations
In most cases, these extinguishers are mounted in brackets the occupants if struck by the extinguisher. When
supplied by the extinguisher manufacturer and can tolerate the evaluating the mounting bracket installation verify that it
inertia forces that may be encountered during flight or due to an does not obstruct or damage the aircraft structure. For
accident. When evaluating the installation of a new or previously example, make sure the mounting hardware does not
installed portable extinguisher, consideration should be given to penetrate into electric cables, control cables or fluid
the following items: carrying hoses
 Portable extinguishers should be mounted as near as  Verify that all maintenance documentation detailing the
possible to the hazardous areas they are intended to installation is complete. Required record entries include
protect. If no obvious hazard areas exist, the amended empty weight and empty weight C.G. data as
extinguisher should be mounted near the passenger well as the equipment list and permanent maintenance
entrance door or in a flight-attendant station, if one is records.
provided.
 When two or more extinguishers are installed, they

should be located with one at each end of the passenger
compartment and spaced uniformly throughout the
remainder of the cabin.
 The extinguisher should be positioned in a location that

makes it readily visible and accessible. When this is not
possible, a placard may be installed with letters at least
3/8-inch high indicating the location of the extinguisher.
 The extinguisher manufacturer's mounting bracket

should be used only after determining that it is capable
of sustaining the inertia force requirements Meeting
these requirements helps to ensure that the extinguisher
will not become dislodged while in flight or during a hard
landing or accident, which could cause severe injuries to

11.8 - 49 July 2022
Portable Extinguisher Maintenance
Most portable fire extinguishers are vendor supplied Any servicing or maintenance performed on the extinguisher
components and may not be covered in the aircraft must be recorded in the aircraft's permanent maintenance
manufacturer's maintenance instructions. In these situations, records and is often also indicated directly on the extinguisher
the best resource for servicing and maintenance information container as shown in figure 25.
may be directly from the extinguisher manufacturer. However,
for extinguishers installed in aircraft that are used in commercial Additional items to check include releasing the extinguisher
operations, the maintenance requirements for portable from its mounting bracket to determine its ease of removal and
extinguishers are often detailed in the carrier's individual checking that the activation-trigger safety pin is properly
operating specifications. installed.
In some situations, the extinguisher manufacturer may provide If there is any doubt as to the integrity of the extinguisher's
basic servicing and maintenance information on the condition, it should be replaced or sent to a certified repair
identification label. This information should be reviewed during station that is authorized to perform full servicing and
any inspection. Items that are typically checked include: maintenance on portable fire extinguishers.
 Weighing the container to determine the quantity of

extinguishing agent, and checking a pressure gauge
to determine the propellant charge.
 The information on the label may also indicate any

time or life limits on the serviceability of the
extinguisher or the requirements for hydrostatic
testing, If required
 Nitrogen-pressurized extinguishers have pressure

gauges on them with red and green arcs on their dial.
As long as the gauge is indicating in the green arc,
the gas pressure is sufficient.

11.8 - 50 July 2022
Fig 25

11.8 - 51 July 2022
TYPES OF FIRE EXTINGUISHER

There are 5 main fire extinguisher types – Water, Foam, Dry – Water
Powder, CO2 and Wet Chemical. You should have the right
types of fire extinguisher for your premises, or you may not – Water Mist
meet current regulations.
– Water Spray
The various types of fire extinguisher put out fires started with
different types of fuel – these are called ‘classes’ of fire. The
fire risk from the different classes of fire in your business – Foam
premises will determine which fire extinguisher types you need.
– Dry Powder – Standard
You will also need to make sure that you have the right size and
weight of fire extinguisher as well as the right kind. You can
read more about the current UK extinguisher regulations. – Carbon Dioxide (‘CO2’)
Whilst there are 5 main types of fire extinguisher, there are
different versions of both the Water and Dry Powder
– Wet Chemical
extinguishers, meaning there are a total of 8 fire extinguisher
types to choose from. The 8 types of fire extinguisher are:
There is no one extinguisher type which works on all classes of
fire.
Below is a summary of the classes of fire, and a quick reference

chart showing which types of extinguisher should be used on
each. We then provide a detailed explanation of each type of
fire extinguisher below.

11.8 - 52 July 2022
The classes of fire

There are six classes of fire: Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D,
‘Electrical’, and Class F.
Class A fires – combustible materials: caused by

flammable solids, such as wood, paper, and fabric
Class B fires – flammable liquids: such as petrol,

turpentine or paint
Class C fires – flammable gases: like hydrogen, butane or

methane
Class D fires – combustible metals: chemicals such as

magnesium, aluminum or potassium
Electrical fires – electrical equipment: once the electrical

item is removed, the fire changes class
Class F fires – cooking oils: typically, a chip-pan fire

11.8 - 53 July 2022
Which fire extinguisher types are used for each class of fire?
The different types of extinguisher tackle different types of fire

11.8 - 54 July 2022
Use for:
– Organic materials such as:
TYPES OF FIRE EXTINGUISHER o Paper and cardboard
o Fabrics and textiles
o Wood and coal
WATER EXTINGUISHERS
Do not use for:
– Fires involving electrical equipment
– Kitchen fires
– Flammable gas and liquids
How water extinguishers work:

The water has a cooling effect on the fuel, causing it to burn
much more slowly until the flames are eventually extinguished.
Overview:
Water extinguishers are the most common fire extinguisher type
for class A fire risk. Most premises will require either water or
foam extinguishers.
Label Color:
– Bright Red

11.8 - 55 July 2022
Types of premises/business who may need water

extinguishers:
– Buildings constructed of wood or other organic materials

– Premises where there are organic materials to be found such
as:
o Offices
o Schools
o Hospitals
o Residential properties
o Warehouses
In fact, most buildings need either water or foam extinguishers.
Where to locate water extinguishers:
– By the exits on a floor where a Class A fire risk has been

identified.
Water spray extinguishers – what’s the difference?
Water spray extinguishers are equipped with a spray nozzle,

rather than a jet nozzle, meaning a greater surface area can be
covered more quickly and the fire put out more rapidly.
Water mist extinguishers – what’s the difference?
Water mist extinguishers have a different type of nozzle again

which releases microscopic water particles. These particles
‘suffocate’ the fire and also create a wall of mist between the fire
and the person using the extinguisher, reducing the feeling of
heat.
11.8 - 56 July 2022
FOAM EXTINGUISHERS
Use for:

o Paper and cardboard
o Wood and coal
Plus:
– Flammable liquids, like paint and petrol
Do not use for:
– Kitchen fires
– Fires involving electrical equipment
– Flammable metals
How foam extinguishers work:
As with water extinguishers, foam extinguishers have a cooling

Overview: effect on the fuel. On burning liquids, the foaming agent creates
a barrier between the flame and the fuel, extinguishing the fire.
Foam extinguishers are most common type of fire extinguisher Types of premises/business who may need Foam
for Class B fires, but also work on Class A fires as they are extinguishers:
water-based.
– Buildings constructed of wood or other organic materials

Label Color: – Premises where there are organic materials to be found such
as:
– Cream o Offices

11.8 - 57 July 2022
o Schools
o Hospitals
o Residential properties
o Warehouses
– Buildings where flammable liquids are stored
In fact, most buildings need either water or foam extinguishers
Where to locate foam extinguishers:

– By the exits on a floor where a Class A or Class B fire risk has
been identified.

11.8 - 58 July 2022
DRY POWDER EXTINGUISHERS Use for:

o Wood and coal
Plus:
Plus:
– Flammable gases, like liquid petroleum gas (LPG) and
acetylene
Plus:
– Fires involving electrical equipment up to 1000v
Specialist dry powder extinguishers are only used on flammable
metals, such as titanium and magnesium.
Do not use for:
– Fires involving cooking oil

Overview: – Fires involving electrical equipment over 1000v
Standard dry powder extinguishers are also called ‘ABC’ – or in enclosed spaces, such as offices or residential properties
extinguishers because they tackle class A, B and C fires,
however they are not recommended for use in enclosed spaces. How dry powder extinguishers work:
This is because the powder can be easily inhaled, and also the
residue is very difficult to clean up after. ABC powder Dry powder extinguishers smother fires by forming a barrier
extinguishers can also be used on some electrical fires. between the fuel and the source of oxygen.
Specialist dry powder extinguishers are used for flammable
metals.
Types of premises/business who may need Dry
Powder extinguishers:
Label Color: – Businesses using flammable gases for chemical processes
– Blue – Premises where welding and flame cutting takes place
– Garage forecourts

11.8 - 59 July 2022
– Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) dispensing plants
– Premises with large, commercial boiler rooms
Where to locate Dry Powder extinguishers:
– Place dry powder extinguishers near to the source of the fire

risk.

11.8 - 60 July 2022
CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) EXTINGUISHERS
Do not use for:
– Kitchen fires – especially chip-pan fires
– Combustible materials like paper, wood or textiles
How CO2 extinguishers work:

CO2 extinguishers suffocate fires by displacing the oxygen the
fire needs to burn.
Types of premises/business who may need CO2

extinguishers:
– Premises with electrical equipment, such as:
o Offices
o Kitchens
o Construction sites
o Server rooms
All work vehicles should also carry a smaller 2kg CO2
Overview: extinguisher.
CO2 extinguishers are predominantly used for electrical fire Where to locate CO2 extinguishers:
risks and are usually the main fire extinguisher type provided in – Place near to the source of the fire risk and/or near the fire
computer server rooms. They also put out Class B fires exits.
(flammable liquids, such as paint and petroleum).
Label Color:
– Black
Use for:
– Electrical fires

11.8 - 61 July 2022
WET CHEMICAL EXTINGUISHERS o Fabrics and textiles
o Wood and coal
Do not use for:

– Flammable liquid or gas fires
– Electrical fires
How wet chemical extinguishers work:
Wet chemical extinguishers create a layer of foam on the

surface of the burning oil or fat, preventing oxygen from fueling
the fire any further. The spray also has a cooling effect.
Types of premises/business who may need CO2

extinguishers:
– Commercial kitchens
– Canteens
Overview: Where to locate CO2 extinguishers:

Wet chemical extinguishers are designed for use on Class F
fires, involving cooking oils and fats. They can also be used on – Place near to the source of the fire risk.
Class A fires although it is more usual to have a foam or water
extinguisher for this type of fire risk.
Label Color:
– Yellow
Use for:
– Cooking oil/fat fires

11.8 - 62 July 2022

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PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 11A - TURBINE AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS

Category – B1.1 Sub Module 11.8 - Fire Protection

FIRE PROTECTION (ATA 26)

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(a)FIRE DETECTION AND WARNING SYSTEM ------------------------1

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INTRODUCTION (a) FIRE DETECTION AND WARNING SYSTEM

Overheat and fire-detection systems are designed with

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Principles of Fire-Detection Systems

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ISO 9001 - 2015 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Classes of Fire Since operating temperatures within these areas can be

Class A Class C fires are those that involve energized electrical

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ISO 9001 - 2015 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Fire-Detection / Overheat Systems Thermo Switch Detector

The most common types of fire detection systems found in

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ISO 9001 - 2015 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Single-Loop System Double-Loop System

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ISO 9001 - 2015 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Differential Expansion Switch

This is also a point detector. It operates on the principle of the

The sensitive bimetallic strip opens its contacts when the

During a slow temperature rise the insulated bimetallic strip

During a rapid temperature rise the bare bimetallic strip which

ISO 9001 - 2015 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001 - 2015 Certified For Training Purpose Only

A thermocouple-type, Edison fire-detector system is similar to a

In most thermocouple systems, the sensitive relay, slave relay,

ISO 9001 - 2015 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001 - 2015 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Continuous Loop Detectors

Fenwal Continuous-Loop Detector

The center conductor protrudes out each end of the Inconel

However, when a fire or overheat condition occurs, the core

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ISO 9001 - 2015 Certified For Training Purpose Only

The Kidde system is also a continuous-loop type system

The conductors are embedded in a thermistor, or thermal

When a fire or overheat occurs, the resistance of the thermistor Fig 8a

The sensing element assembly used in the Kidde fire and

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Engine Continuous Loop Detection System

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Gas Based Detection System

The Lindberg fire detection system is a pneumatic continuous-

When the temperature surrounding the sensing, element rises

To test a Lindberg system, low-voltage alternating current is

When the test switch is released, the sensing element cools

ISO 9001 - 2015 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001 - 2015 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001 - 2015 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001 - 2015 Certified For Training Purpose Only

The continuous-loop (Kidde and Fenwal) and continuous-length

The continuous-length sensor is not as sensitive to damage as