REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

In order to ensure the provision of comprehensive knowledge and insight to the

readers, the researcher conducted an extensive review of relevant literature, including

published books, scholarly articles, and unpublished materials sourced from both the

Philippines and other nations. This study incorporated a comprehensive review of

relevant literature, journals, and studies from both local and international sources. This

was done to provide a solid foundation and guidance for the researcher in presenting this

study.

Disaster

Disasters are sudden events that bring disruption to a society with human,

material, economic, and environmental losses or impacts that exceed the ability of the

affected community to cope by using their own resources (UN/ISDR, 2009). According

to a report from the United Nations (2015), the rate of weather-related disasters (such as

cyclones, typhoons, and droughts) is growing. Between 2005 and 2014, the annual

average of weather related disasters was 335, an increase of 14 percent from 1995 to

2004 and almost twice the average recorded from 1985 to 1995. In the past 20 years, 90

percent of major disasters have been caused by 6,457 recorded floods, storms, heat

waves, droughts, and other weather events. Indonesia, India, and the Philippines are

among the five countries hit by the highest number of disasters, besides the United States

and China (Child Fund International, 2013). Disasters present a challenge to the affected

community’s ability to problem-solve, organize, and act in its own best interest,

regardless of or together with local and government emergency agencies (Lippmann,

 12

2011). On a global scale, disasters have the most significant and diverse effects on human

beings, such as displaced populations, health risks, food scarcity, and emotional

aftershocks (Child Fund International, 2013). These adverse effects of disasters always

stem from hazards, either natural or man-made.

Hazard

Hazard is a situation where there is a threat to life, health, environment, or

property. Natural hazards, such as floods, typhoons, earthquakes, and landslides, have

been a part of human life for centuries, and people have developed their own methods of

protection. This knowledge is referred to as “indigenous knowledge” and is based on the

skills, resources, and experiences of the affected communities (Guarnizo, 1992).

Additionally, natural hazards have been found to cause extensive losses and damages to

human lives, physical facilities, and socio-economic conditions, as well as increasing the

stress and vulnerability of those affected and disempowering individuals and society (DO

No. 37, s. 2015). Thus, it is essential to better understand these hazards and how to

protect against them.

Safe Learning Facilities

Creating a safe and supportive learning environment is crucial for the overall

well-being and academic success of students (Fisher & Komosa-Hawkins, 2013).

Research has shown that students' perceptions of safety in schools are influenced not only

by physical safety indicators but also by factors such as bullying and substance use

(Bradshaw et al., 2014). In fact, the use of security measures like metal detectors and

digital surveillance technology has been found to have a negative impact on students'
 13

perceptions of school safety (Mori et al., 2021). Therefore, it is essential to consider a

holistic approach to school safety that addresses not only physical security but also

psychological and emotional well-being.

Furthermore, the availability and quality of learning facilities play a significant

role in students' productivity and academic achievement (Sobandi et al., 2020). Empirical

evidence suggests that well-equipped and safe school facilities positively impact students'

learning outcomes (Sobandi et al., 2020). Additionally, the perception of the school

environment and students' enjoyment in the learning process are closely linked to

academic achievement, highlighting the importance of creating a safe and enjoyable

school environment (Wingard et al., 2020).

In the context of school safety, it is important to consider the role of digital stories

in promoting safe school environments and addressing the perceptions of special

educational needs (Akdağ & Altinay, 2021). Moreover, assessing the environmental

health and safety of schools is crucial for crisis prevention and control, emphasizing the

need for comprehensive safety assessments that encompass various aspects of the school

environment (Poursadeghiyan et al., 2020).

The concept of safe schools extends beyond physical safety measures and

encompasses the creation of child-friendly and healthy environments that support optimal

learning experiences (Ambarsari & Harun, 2018). Additionally, well-equipped and safe

school laboratories are essential for promoting active practical exercises and enhancing

students' academic performance in science education (Issah et al., 2023).

 14

It is evident that school safety is a multifaceted concept that involves not only

physical security measures but also social and psychological factors. The perception of

safety in schools is influenced by the overall school climate, social cohesion, and the use

of security measures. Importantly, the implementation of school security measures should

be carefully evaluated, as excessive security measures may lead to decreased perceptions

of safety among both parents and students (Mowen & Freng, 2018).

School facilities are the plan or layout of the building or buildings collectively

used for instructional purposes (Australian Council for Educational Research, 2008). It is

about the structural and cosmetic conditions of the school with its overall building

condition, the age of the building, the windows, the lighting, the ventilation in the

instructional areas, and its compliance with the building code. According to Building

Educational Success Together (2005), it is the responsibility of educators in every state to

ensure that every child had school facilities that provide an educational setting suited for

teaching and learning. The poor condition of some schools raised serious concerns about

teacher and student safety. Further, Lacoe (2020) emphasizes that when students feel

safe, it is easier for them to be at ease, concentrate, analytical, creative, and reflective.

When students and teachers feel unsafe, their biological response to the perception of

threat compromises their ability to attend to and process information. Their body's

response to perceived and real threats to their life, person, or basic sense of safety, affects

their emotional regulation, cognition, and their ability to establish positive social

relationships as well as their physical health (through allostatic stress). These biological

and social-emotional factors are critical to school success. This is particularly the case

when trauma is chronic and experienced early in life (Cook et al., 2005; D'Andrea et al.,
 15

2012; Evans et al., 2013; Kaplow et al., 2006; McEwen, 1998; Perry & Pollard, 1998). It

is therefore essential that school facilities are in good condition in order to create an

environment that is conducive to teaching and learning. Poor school facilities can have a

detrimental effect on student’s physical and mental health, as well as their academic

success. Educators must take responsibility to ensure that every child has access to

quality education in safe and effective school facilities.

In conclusion, creating safe and supportive learning facilities involves addressing

physical safety, social and psychological well-being, and the availability of quality

learning resources. A comprehensive approach to school safety should encompass

various aspects of the school environment to promote a holistic and conducive learning

environment for students.

School Disaster Management

Disaster management in elementary schools is a critical aspect of ensuring the

safety and well-being of young children during and after a disaster. Several studies have

highlighted the importance of parental worry and family-based disaster education in

influencing children's internalizing and externalizing problems during the COVID-19

pandemic (Li & Zhou, 2021). Additionally, effective communication strategies with

children pre- and post-disaster have been identified as crucial for disaster risk reduction

(Wisner et al., 2018). Furthermore, the evaluation of school infrastructure safety, risk

assessment, and the development of disaster prevention education strategies have been

emphasized as urgent measures following natural disasters (Chen & Lee, 2012).
 16

Moreover, it has been recognized that introducing coping emergency

preparedness gradually for elementary school students and improving the practice rate

and accuracy of emergency treatment are essential for enhancing disaster management in

schools (Kim et al., 2013). Additionally, the role of both state and non-state parties in

formulating and disseminating basic principles and practices of disaster prevention,

preparedness, and post-disaster therapy to schools has been underscored due to the

vulnerability of children to disasters (Bhebhe et al., 2019).

Furthermore, the need for enhancing the disaster literacy competency of teachers

and students in elementary schools has been highlighted, emphasizing the importance of

knowledge and skills related to disaster prevention teaching (Ajar, 2023). Assessing the

disaster management and pediatric first-aid-related knowledge, emotion, and attitude

levels of kindergarten and elementary school teachers has been identified as crucial,

given their role as first responders in the event of a disaster (Kaya & AYKER, 2022).

Additionally, the implementation of disaster education in schools, particularly for

young children, has been emphasized as important for better disaster management and the

future well-being of children (Ridha et al., 2022). It has also been found that teachers in

disaster-prone elementary schools generally have good knowledge of disaster education

and agree that it should be part of the curriculum (Atmojo, 2021). Furthermore, the

review of various learning activities for elementary school students in disaster areas,

including prevention and reducing the impacts of disasters, has been recognized as

essential (Rahmawati & Rasidi, 2023).

 17

DRRM is a systematic process of utilizing administrative directives,

organizations, and operational capacities to develop strategies, policies, and improved

coping mechanisms in order to reduce the negative effects of hazards and the likelihood

of disaster. This is in line with the definition stated in DO No. 37, s. 2015, which is

further reinforced by the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction

(UNISDR, 2015). It suggests that disaster management is the organization and

management of resources and responsibilities in order to address the humanitarian

aspects of emergencies, such as preparedness, response, and recovery. This is in contrast

to the traditional approach to disaster management, which focused primarily on

emergency response. There are 16 indicators that contribute to School DRRM. The

contingency plan provides an organized way to respond to disasters and emergencies,

while the tracking system and first aid kits ensure the safety of students and personnel

(Fischer et al., 2019). The pieces of equipment and hazard-specific drills are essential for

preparing for and responding to disasters. The early warning system and resumption

strategies provide further protection, as well as psychosocial interventions. The

evacuation plan and student-family reunification plan are essential for ensuring the safety

of students and personnel in the event of a disaster. Finally, participation in the different

DRRM/CCA/EiE activities and the completion of the Family Preparedness Plan together

provide additional resources and knowledge to the school to help manage potential

disasters. In the 21st century, it has become increasingly evident that disasters are not

caused by natural hazards alone (Ismail-Zadeh, 2022; Pearce, 2022). It is by reducing and

managing the conditions of hazard, exposure, and vulnerability that we can prevent losses

and minimize the impacts of disasters. Thus, we must focus on reducing vulnerability and
 18

exposure to hazards, which can be done by recognizing and addressing the underlying

risk drivers. These drivers, such as economic and urban development, environmental

degradation, poverty and inequality, and climate change, are the main sources of

vulnerability and exposure, and thus the main targets for risk reduction (Lal et al., 2009).

It is clear that the DepEd has made a strong commitment to ensuring a safe

learning environment and reducing disaster risk through the implementation of various

programs, such as the Gawad KALASAG. The Gawad KALASAG is designed to

encourage stakeholders to collaborate in crafting and implementing DRRM programs,

while also recognizing the exceptional contributions of DRRM practitioners and

promoting volunteerism to reduce the impact of risk. Therefore, it is taking a proactive

approach to ensure a safe learning environment for students. In response to this, the

Philippine government enacted Republic Act 10121 or the Philippine Disaster Risk

Reduction and Management (DRRM) Act of 2010. This Act seeks to promote a holistic,

comprehensive, integrated, and proactive approach to mitigating the socio-economic and

environmental impacts of disasters, including climate change, while also encouraging the

involvement and participation of all stakeholders - at all levels, particularly the local

community. This mandates the creation of policies and plans, implementation of actions

and measures pertaining to all aspects of disaster risk reduction and management, the

institutionalization of good governance, risk assessment and early warning, knowledge

building and awareness raising, reduction of underlying risk factors, and preparedness for

effective response and early recovery. Despite the efforts, natural disasters still cause

serious damage to properties and often claim lives, as seen in typhoon Yolanda in Ormoc

in 2013. Studies have shown that public hazard education and levels of preparedness
 19

remain low (Ballantyne et al., 2000; Lindell & Whitney, 2000; Paton et al., 2000; Paton

et al., 2001; Torani, 2019; Ozmen, 2006; Weber, 2018; Rostami-Moez, 2020).

Furthermore, people have not fully internalized the importance of disaster preparedness,

making it not part of their usual practice. Thus, Republic Act 10121 serves as a crucial

step in the effort to reduce the risks posed by natural disasters, and to ensure that all

stakeholders are prepared for the eventuality of such occurrences. Despite the

government’s increased efforts to educate the public on disaster preparedness, there is

still a need to ensure that the public is able to internalize the concepts and fully

understand the importance of being prepared, in order to minimize the damages and

casualties should a disaster occur.

In conclusion, disaster management in elementary schools requires a multifaceted

approach, encompassing parental involvement, effective communication strategies,

infrastructure safety evaluation, teacher competency, and the implementation of disaster

education in the curriculum. These measures are crucial for ensuring the safety and well-

being of young children during and after disasters.

DRR in Education

Disaster risk reduction in education is a critical aspect of building resilience in

communities vulnerable to disasters. The Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015

emphasizes the importance of disaster recovery and community resilience, leading to the

integration of disaster risk education into school curricula in disaster-prone areas

(Manyena, 2006; Tuladhar et al., 2013). The effectiveness of disaster risk reduction

education in schools has been linked to increased community participation and

 20

engagement in disaster risk reduction measures, especially in areas with a higher

proportion of women with tertiary education (Witvorapong et al., 2015). Furthermore, the

Ministry of Education and Culture's Disaster Safe School Module in Indonesia

emphasizes the pillars of Disaster Safe School Facilities, Disaster Risk Management in

Schools, and Disaster Risk Reduction and Prevention Education, highlighting the

comprehensive approach to integrating disaster risk reduction into the education system

(Syahputri et al., 2022).

Critical thinking plays a significant role in disaster preparedness among students,

especially in the era of abundant information, where the educational community is

required to critically evaluate and analyze disaster-related information (Raisa et al.,

2022). Additionally, the low preparedness of School-Based Disaster Preparedness (SSB)

teachers in disaster risk reduction can lead to increased vulnerability in dealing with

disaster threats, emphasizing the importance of teacher training and preparedness

(Fathoni et al., 2019). The Bangkok Action Agenda on school education and disaster risk

reduction recommended the integration of disaster risk reduction into education policy

development and the extension of DRR education from schools to communities,

highlighting the broader scope of disaster risk reduction beyond the school environment

(Takahashi et al., 2015).

The Philippines is a nation at risk of natural disasters, with its location in the

Western Pacific exposed to typhoons, earthquakes, floods, and volcanic eruptions. In

recent years, the ISSN 2782-9227 (Print) 2782-9235 (Online) | 7 number and severity of

these disasters have increased, leading to an increase in the number of people affected

(World Bank, 2021). As a result, it is essential that the nation adopts effective Disaster
 21

Risk Reduction (DRR) strategies to protect its citizens and reduce the impacts of

disasters. DRR in Education in Emergencies is an attempt to systemically analyze and

reduce disaster risks in order to provide quality education to learners both during and

after emergencies. The National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council

(NDRRMC) of the Philippines aims to raise awareness of integrating DRR concerns into

education policies, programs, and plans and to advocate for changing practices in

schools. The primary objective of DRR in Education is to integrate disaster risk analysis

and mitigation measures into education sector development policies, planning, and

financing. To ensure that students are knowledgeable about the risks and how to respond

to them in their schools and communities, educational initiatives promoting Disaster Risk

Reduction in Education (DRR-E) should be implemented. Schools all over the country

should incorporate DRRM into their curricula by utilizing a variety of instructional

strategies. Textbooks should be utilized to provide students with knowledge of the

different concepts and issues related to natural hazards. Such initiatives should provide

students with the necessary knowledge and skills to identify what makes their school or

community unsafe, as well as the appropriate actions to take before, during, and after

natural disasters. Education is a key factor in building the nation’s resilience to disasters

and equipping the population with the skills, knowledge, and resources to respond to

disasters. It is evident in the study of Mamon et al. (2018) that the safety of children is a

priority during disasters, and that their active participation in DRRM is vital for its

success. DRR in education is of particular importance in the Philippines. Various studies

have highlighted the importance of DRR in education in the Philippines. For example, a

study conducted by the United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund

 22

(UNICEF) found that over 80% of schools in the Philippines lack adequate disaster risk

reduction measures. Similarly, a study by the Philippine Institute for Development

Studies found that only a small percentage of schools have evacuation plans or disaster

drills in place. DRR in education is essential in the Philippines, as it can help to reduce

the impacts of disasters and build resilience. The government should take steps to ensure

that DRR measures are in place in all schools, including providing training and resources

to teachers, developing evacuation plans, and raising public awareness. By doing so, the

nation can ensure that its citizens are adequately prepared for disasters and that the

learning environment is safe and secure.

In conclusion, disaster risk reduction in education is multifaceted, involving

community participation, critical thinking, teacher preparedness, and a comprehensive

approach to integrating disaster risk reduction into the education system. The

effectiveness of disaster risk reduction education in schools has the potential to enhance

community resilience and reduce the impacts of future disasters.

Compliance to DRRM

The integration of disaster risk education into school curricula has been

emphasized by international organizations such as the UNISDR, which initiated the

"Disaster Risk Reduction Begins at School" campaign to promote this integration

(Tuladhar et al., 2013). The Ministry of Education and Culture's Disaster Safe School

Module in Indonesia contains pillars focused on disaster risk reduction and prevention

education, emphasizing the importance of DRRM in school settings (Syahputri et al.,

2022). Additionally, the Bangkok Action Agenda recommended the integration of DRR

into education policy development and the extension of DRR education from schools to
 23

communities, highlighting the broader scope of DRRM initiatives (Takahashi et al.,

2015).

Studies have shown that the knowledge and preparedness of teachers and school

managers play a crucial role in the effective implementation of DRRM in schools

(Fathoni et al., 2019; Munyiri et al., 2019). Furthermore, the level of compliance with

DRRM programs among public secondary schools has been assessed in various regions,

indicating the growing emphasis on evaluating and improving DRRM practices within

educational institutions (Lopez et al., 2018). The Disaster-Knowledge Matrix framework

aims to identify causes for knowledge fragmentation in disaster risk reduction and

strengthen individual and institutional learning, emphasizing the need for comprehensive

approaches to DRRM (Spiekermann et al., 2015).

Challenges to implementing DRRM in schools have been documented,

particularly in developing countries, where education is recognized as a significant

mechanism for children to participate in DRR (Rahman et al., 2020). The readiness and

practices of schools in disaster risk management have been evaluated, highlighting the

high level of implementation of DRRM practices for earthquakes, fires, and floods in

certain regions (Corpuz, 2019). However, issues such as the lack of school-community

partnerships for DRRM have been identified as major obstacles to effective DRRM

implementation (Sakurai, 2016).

Thus, the integration of disaster risk education into school curricula, the

knowledge and preparedness of teachers and school managers, and the level of

compliance with DRRM programs are crucial factors in assessing the effectiveness of
 24

DRRM in schools. Addressing challenges and promoting comprehensive approaches to

DRRM are essential for enhancing the resilience of educational institutions in the face of

natural disasters.

Implementation of DRRM

Disaster risk reduction (DRR) has gained significant attention in recent years,

particularly following the World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction (WCDRR) in

Sendai, Japan, and the subsequent establishment of the Sendai Framework for Disaster

Risk Reduction 2015–2030 (SFDRR) (Surianto et al., 2019). The SFDRR has set forth

renewed priorities for DRR, emphasizing the need for regional policies and strategies to

minimize vulnerabilities, hazards, and the unfolding of disaster impacts throughout

societies (Surianto et al., 2019; Gero et al., 2011). Furthermore, the SFDRR aims to

integrate risk-aware decision making in every phase of disaster risk management and all

national development programs, highlighting the importance of community-based

disaster risk reduction interventions (Holcinger & Šimac, 2021; Niekerk, 2015).

One crucial aspect of DRR is the integration of climate change considerations

within DRR frameworks to enhance resilience processes and reduce susceptibility to

climate-related disasters (Kelman et al., 2015; Kelman, 2017). This integration is

particularly relevant given the increasing impact of climate change on disaster risk.

Additionally, the SFDRR offers disaster risk reduction ideas and expertise to climate

change and sustainable development activities, emphasizing the interconnectedness of

these domains (Kelman, 2017).

 25

Community participation is also recognized as a key element in promoting

disaster risk reduction. Studies have emphasized the need for community-based disaster

risk reduction activities to strengthen the community's role in planning and implementing

DRR independently (Isni & Rahmatun, 2021; Mulyadi & Maulana, 2021). Moreover, the

involvement of local communities as the main actors in disaster management is supported

by international strategies for disaster risk reduction, highlighting the importance of a

bottom-up approach and multisectoral collaboration (Abejuela et al., 2021; Mulyadi &

Maulana, 2021).

The recent inclusion of mental health in the SFDRR marks a pivotal point in the

recognition of the significant burden of disasters on mental health and a global

commitment to reducing its impacts (Reifels, 2018). This highlights the evolving nature

of DRR, encompassing not only physical infrastructure and preparedness but also mental

health considerations in disaster planning and response.

In conclusion, the implementation of effective disaster risk reduction strategies

requires a comprehensive approach that integrates climate change considerations,

emphasizes community participation, and addresses mental health impacts. The SFDRR

provides a valuable framework for guiding these efforts and promoting resilience in the

face of evolving disaster risks.

Disaster risk reduction (DRR) in elementary schools

Disaster risk reduction (DRR) in elementary schools is crucial for nurturing

students' understanding, knowledge, and skills to prepare for and respond to disasters

(Winarni & Purwandari, 2018). The low level of School-Based Disaster Preparedness
 26

(SSB) can increase students' vulnerability during disasters (Sujarwo et al., 2018).

Integrating DRR into education policy development and enhancing participatory

mechanisms for DRR education are recommended to improve DRR education in schools

and communities (Takahashi et al., 2015). Furthermore, the effectiveness of educational

methods, such as disaster-prevention seminars and comprehensive school safety modules,

has been assessed to improve children's awareness of natural disasters (Yasuda et al.,

2018; Syahputri et al., 2022). The role of teachers in implementing the curriculum of

School-Based Disaster Preparedness is essential, as their low preparedness can lead to

increased vulnerability in dealing with disaster threats (Fathoni et al., 2019).

The Disaster Preparedness School (DPS) program aims to help students identify

disaster resilience learning and face disasters by providing appropriate training, flexible

subject matter, and easy-to-understand modules related to disaster risk reduction

(Rahmawati & Rasidi, 2023). Moreover, the knowledge of prospective primary school

teachers about disaster mitigation is crucial in conveying high knowledge of disasters to

students, thereby increasing disaster resilience in vulnerable communities (Noviana et al.,

2021). Evaluating the implementation of DRRM programs in public elementary schools

is essential to assess disaster planning awareness and preparedness to respond during

hazards (Cruz & Ormilla, 2022).

Disaster risk reduction has been included in the school curriculum, and a cascade

teacher training model in disaster education has been proposed to enhance the planning,

development, implementation, and evaluation stages of DRR education for teachers

(Mulianingsih & Hardati, 2022; Gokmenoglu et al., 2021). Additionally, an integrated

model of school-based disaster risk reduction and management network has been
 27

proposed to emphasize a bottom-up approach, multisectoral collaboration, and inclusion

of DRRM in school curricula (Abejuela et al., 2021). The effectiveness of integrating

DRR with the Living Values Education approach in thematic learning in primary schools

has been researched to develop an integration model of DRR (Pambudi et al., 2020).

In conclusion, the synthesis of these references highlights the importance of DRR

in elementary schools, emphasizing the need for comprehensive DRR education, teacher

preparedness, and integration of DRR into school curricula to enhance students' and

teachers' understanding, knowledge, and skills in disaster preparedness and response.

Disaster risk reduction (DRR) education in elementary schools is crucial for

preparing students and teachers to effectively respond to disasters. The implementation of

DRR programs in schools involves integrating disaster risk reduction into the curriculum,

enhancing teachers' preparedness, and improving students' knowledge and attitudes

towards disaster preparedness (Winarni & Purwandari, 2018; Abejuela et al., 2021;

Prambudi, 2018). The Disaster Safe School Module emphasizes the pillars of disaster-

safe school facilities, disaster risk management, and disaster risk reduction and

prevention education, highlighting the importance of a comprehensive approach to DRR

in schools (Syahputri et al., 2022). Furthermore, the Bangkok Action Agenda

recommended the integration of DRR into education policy development and the

extension of DRR education from schools to communities, emphasizing the need for a

holistic approach to disaster education (Takahashi et al., 2015).

The role of teachers is critical in the successful implementation of school-based

disaster preparedness programs. However, studies have shown that the preparedness of
 28

teachers in disaster risk reduction can impact their vulnerability in dealing with disaster

threats (Fathoni et al., 2019). Therefore, it is essential to focus on enhancing teachers'

knowledge and skills in disaster risk reduction to ensure the effectiveness of DRR

programs in schools.

Moreover, the effectiveness of DRR education in schools can be further improved

through theory-based evaluation and systematic assessment of programs, which can

contribute to the generation of a cumulative body of knowledge on achieving disaster risk

reduction through curricular integration and children's programming (Johnson et al.,

2016). Additionally, integrating disaster mitigation education into the elementary school

curriculum through various activities and media can enhance students' understanding and

preparedness for disasters (Prambudi, 2018).

In conclusion, the successful implementation of disaster risk reduction in

elementary schools requires a comprehensive approach that includes curriculum

integration, teacher preparedness, and systematic evaluation of DRR programs. By

addressing these aspects, schools can effectively contribute to building a disaster-resilient

generation and communities.

Disaster risk reduction (DRR) is a critical aspect of ensuring the safety and well-

being of communities, particularly in disaster-prone areas such as the Philippines. The

Philippines has shown its commitment to promoting and implementing measures for

DRR through the passage of the Republic Act 10121, also known as the Philippine

Disaster Risk Reduction Management Act (Soriano, 2019). This act emphasizes the

importance of youth participation in DRR, aligning with the Hyogo Framework for
 29

Action (HFA) 2005-2015, which includes the establishment of School-Based Disaster

Preparedness (SSB) as a preparedness effort for facing disasters in schools (Sujarwo et

al., 2018). Furthermore, the effectiveness of integrating DRR with the Living Values

Education approach in thematic learning in primary schools has been highlighted as a

crucial strategy for enhancing sustainable disaster preparedness (Pambudi et al., 2020).

In the Philippines, the implementation of DRR mechanisms for school-aged

children in flood and landslide vulnerable areas has encountered challenges such as

inadequate training materials and a lack of training among school disaster risk reduction

management teams in public secondary schools (Abejuela et al., 2021). This underscores

the need for comprehensive and effective training programs to equip schools with the

necessary knowledge and resources for DRR. Additionally, a study aimed at determining

disaster-related knowledge, adaptation, preparedness, risk perception, and awareness

among senior high school students in the Philippines further emphasizes the importance

of assessing the readiness and awareness of students in facing potential disasters (Lapada,

2022).

The role of elementary schools in disaster-prone areas of the Philippines, such as

Merapi, has been crucial in developing disaster preparedness initiatives (Pambudi &

Ashari, 2019). However, it is essential to address the challenges faced by these schools,

including the need for training and assistance in disaster risk reduction. Moreover, the

review of the Presidential Decree 1566 of 1978 and Republic Act 10121 highlights the

evolution of policies in the Philippines, specifically mentioning the importance of youth

participation in DRR (Fernandez & Shaw, 2013).

 30

Ultimately, the Philippines has made notable strides in advancing DRR, namely in

the realm of school-based disaster preparedness and the active involvement of young

people. Nevertheless, the presence of insufficient training resources and the requirement

for comprehensive training programs in schools emphasize the significance of ongoing

endeavors to improve disaster risk reduction (DRR) activities in the country.

Problems and Challenges in the implementation of DRRM

The implementation of Disaster Risk Reduction and Management (DRRM) faces

various challenges and limitations. These include problems related to data access, policy

creation, budget constraints, lack of personnel, education, and information, as well as

minimal fund allocations and support for training, equipment, and livelihood programs

(Acierto et al., 2023; Rodrigez-Lirios, 2023; Alipo-On & Mejica, 2022). Additionally, the

extent of community participation in DRRM and Climate Change Adaptation (CCA)

programs is often limited, with issues such as lack of access to effective disaster risk

financing and insurance and insufficient initiative from the community to rebuild and

repair houses/buildings after a disaster being prevalent (Patungan et al., 2019).

Furthermore, the new legislative framework for managing disasters, as outlined in the

Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act, is still in the early stages of

implementation (Slater et al., 2018).

To address these challenges, studies have proposed various solutions. For

instance, an integrated model of school-based disaster risk reduction and management

(SBDRRM) network was suggested, emphasizing a bottom-up approach, multisectoral

collaboration, and the inclusion of DRRM in school curricula (Abejuela et al., 2021).

Moreover, the Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act in Nepal has emphasized
 31

evidence-based decision-making processes, signaling a shift from response-centric to

anticipative and prevention-based approaches (Adhikari & Gautam, 2022).

In the context of disaster displacement, national DRRM frameworks often do not

explicitly focus on displacement in relation to disasters, highlighting a gap in addressing

this aspect (Mosneaga, 2023). Additionally, the challenges in mainstreaming Climate

Change Adaptation (CCA) into local land-use planning in the Philippines are attributed to

the lack of formally issued implementing policies outlining clear methodologies,

procedures, and standards for integration (Cuevas, n.d.).

Thus, the challenges in the implementation of DRRM encompass issues related to

data access, policy creation, budget constraints, community participation, and

mainstreaming CCA into local plans. Addressing these challenges requires a multi-

faceted approach, including the integration of DRRM in school curricula, evidence-based

decision-making processes, and the development of clear methodologies and standards

for integrating CCA into local plans.

Additionally, the implementation of Disaster Risk Reduction and Management

(DRRM) measures faces various challenges, including budgetary constraints, lack of

community participation, and inadequate legislative frameworks (Alipo-On & Mejica,

2022; , Patungan et al., 2019; , Slater et al., 2018). Studies have shown that the post-

disaster period is marked by multiple disruptions to society, making it difficult to

implement DRRM activities effectively (Monteil et al., 2020). Additionally, the lack of

access to effective disaster risk financing and insurance, as well as the absence of

community initiative to rebuild and repair damaged infrastructure, further hinder the
 32

successful implementation of DRRM programs (Patungan et al., 2019). Furthermore, the

integration of DRRM into local government systems remains a significant challenge,

posing obstacles to creating a resilient built environment in cities (Malalgoda et al., 2016;

, Niekerk, 2014).

The involvement of stakeholders and the strength of institutional factors within

regional disaster management agencies are crucial for effective disaster management

(Mulyadi & Maulana, 2021). Moreover, the role of community-based disaster

preparedness (CBDP) approaches has been emphasized as an increasingly important

element in reducing vulnerability and enhancing disaster management strategies (Allen,

2006). However, the level of compliance with risk reduction and disaster preparedness

programs among public secondary schools has been found to be inadequate, highlighting

the need for improved DRRM education and disaster-prepared societies (Lopez et al.,

2018).

Legislative frameworks, such as the Disaster Risk Reduction and Management

Act, play a pivotal role in shifting the focus from response-centric to anticipative and

prevention-based approaches, thereby contributing to effective disaster policy

implementation (Adhikari & Gautam, 2022; , Monteil et al., 2020). Furthermore, the use

of advanced technologies, such as Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data and

machine learning algorithms, has been identified as a means to address challenges and

limitations in DRRM operations, particularly in terms of data access and availability

(Santos & Principe, 2021).

 33

Therefore, the challenges of DRRM implementation are multifaceted,

encompassing financial, legislative, community participation, and technological aspects.

Addressing these challenges requires a comprehensive approach that involves stakeholder

collaboration, legislative reforms, community engagement, and the integration of

advanced technologies to enhance the effectiveness of DRRM activities.

The implementation of Disaster Risk Reduction Management (DRRM) in

elementary schools in the Philippines faces several challenges. A study by Acierto et al.

(2023) assessed the extent of DRRM implementation in selected elementary schools in

the Philippines and found that the schools were evaluated using the Gawad Kalasag

criteria, providing insights into the specific measures and criteria used in evaluating

DRRM implementation in elementary schools (Acierto et al., 2023).

Furthermore, Abejuela et al. (2021) highlighted budgetary constraints as a

significant challenge in DRRM implementation, affirming the findings of previous

studies. This emphasizes the financial limitations that hinder effective DRRM activities

in schools, shedding light on a critical obstacle that needs to be addressed (Abejuela et

al., 2021).

(Abejuela et al., 2021) also proposed an integrated model of school-based disaster

risk reduction and management (SBDRRM) network for vulnerable communities in flood

and landslide-prone areas in the Province of Bukidnon. The study emphasized a bottom-

up approach, multisectoral collaboration, and the inclusion of DRRM in school curricula,

suggesting the importance of a comprehensive and inclusive approach to DRRM,

 34

integrating it into the educational system and involving various stakeholders for effective

implementation (Abejuela et al., 2021).

Conceptual Framework of the Study

Figure 1 presents the paradigm of the study. The variables are categorized into

three elements: demographic profile of the respondents, respondents’ perceptions of the

disaster risk reduction program's level of implementation and compliance with regard to

safe learning environments, school disaster management, and disaster risk reduction in

education, problems and challenges faced by implementers and stakeholders in

implementing the School Disaster Risk Reduction Management among public elementary

schools.

Generally, the profiles of respondents categorized as independent variable which

includes the implementers and stakeholders. On the other hand, the dependent variables

are respondents’ perceptions of the disaster risk reduction program's level of

implementation and compliance with regard to safe learning environments, school

disaster management, and disaster risk reduction in education, and challenges faced by

teachers in implementing the School Disaster Risk Reduction Management Program.

Synthesis

Disasters are sudden events that disrupt societies, causing significant losses and

impacts. The rate of weather-related disasters is growing, with Indonesia, India, and the

Philippines being among the five countries hit by the highest number of disasters. These

disasters have adverse effects on human beings, including displaced populations, health

risks, food scarcity, and emotional aftershocks.

 35

Hazards, such as natural hazards, pose threats to life, health, the environment, or

property. Understanding these hazards and protecting against them is crucial. A safe

learning environment is essential for students' well-being and academic success. Factors

such as bullying and substance use can negatively impact students' perceptions of school

safety. A holistic approach to school safety should address not only physical security but

also psychological and emotional well-being.

The availability and quality of learning facilities play a significant role in

students' productivity and academic achievement. Empirical evidence suggests that well-

equipped and safe school facilities positively impact students' learning outcomes. Digital

stories can promote safe school environments and address special educational needs.

Assessment of environmental health and safety is crucial for crisis prevention and

control.

School safety is a multifaceted concept that involves physical security measures,

social and psychological factors, and the overall school climate. It is the responsibility of

educators to ensure every child has access to quality education in safe and effective

school facilities. Poor school facilities can have a detrimental effect on students' physical

and mental health, as well as their academic success.

Disaster Risk Reduction and Management (DRRM) is a crucial aspect of school disaster

management, focusing on the safety and well-being of young children during and after

disasters. Effective communication strategies with children pre- and post-disaster are

essential for disaster risk reduction. The role of both state and non-state parties in

formulating and disseminating basic principles and practices of disaster prevention,

 36

preparedness, and post-disaster therapy to schools has been underscored due to the

vulnerability of children to disasters.

Enhancing the disaster literacy competency of teachers and students in elementary

schools is also essential for better disaster management and future well-being. Teachers

in disaster-prone elementary schools generally have good knowledge of disaster

education and agree that it should be part of the curriculum. The implementation of

disaster education in schools, particularly for young children, is essential for better

disaster management and the future well-being of children.

DRRM is a systematic process of utilizing administrative directives,

organizations, and operational capacities to develop strategies, policies, and improved

coping mechanisms to reduce the negative effects of hazards and the likelihood of

disaster. There are 16 indicators contributing to school DRRM, such as contingency

plans, tracking systems, first aid kits, equipment, hazard-specific drills, early warning

systems, resumption strategies, evacuation plans, and participation in DRRM/CCA/EiE

activities.

The Philippine government has enacted Republic Act 10121, or the Philippine

Disaster Risk Reduction and Management (DRRM) Act of 2010, which promotes a

holistic, comprehensive, integrated, and proactive approach to mitigating the socio-

economic and environmental impacts of disasters, including climate change. However,

public hazard education and levels of preparedness remain low, and there is still a need to

ensure that the public is able to fully understand the importance of being prepared to

minimize damages and casualties should a disaster occur.

 37

Disaster risk reduction (DRR) is a critical aspect of building resilience in

communities vulnerable to disasters. The Hyogo Framework for Action 2005–2015

emphasizes the importance of disaster recovery and community resilience, leading to the

integration of disaster risk education into school curricula in disaster-prone areas. The

effectiveness of disaster risk reduction education in schools has been linked to increased

community participation and engagement in disaster risk reduction measures, especially

in areas with a higher proportion of women with tertiary education.

Critical thinking plays a significant role in disaster preparedness among students,

especially in the era of abundant information. The low preparedness of school-based

disaster preparedness (SSB) teachers in disaster risk reduction can lead to increased

vulnerability in dealing with disaster threats. The Bangkok Action Agenda on school

education and disaster risk reduction recommended the integration of disaster risk

reduction into education policy development and the extension of DRR education from

schools to communities.

In the Philippines, the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management

Council (NDRRMC) aims to raise awareness about integrating disaster risk concerns into

education policies, programs, and plans. Educational initiatives promoting disaster risk

reduction in education (DRR-E) should be implemented to ensure students are

knowledgeable about the risks and how to respond to them in their schools and

communities.
 38

In conclusion, disaster risk reduction in education is multifaceted, involving community

participation, critical thinking, teacher preparedness, and a comprehensive approach to

integrating disaster risk reduction into the education system.

Disaster risk reduction (DRRM) is a crucial aspect of education and has been

emphasized by international organizations like UNISDR and the Ministry of Education

and Culture in Indonesia. The Bangkok Action Agenda recommends integrating DRR

into education policy development and extending DRR education from schools to

communities. The knowledge and preparedness of teachers and school managers play a

crucial role in the effective implementation of DRRM in schools. However, challenges to

implementing DRRM in schools, particularly in developing countries, have been

documented. The level of compliance with DRRM programs among public secondary

schools has been assessed in various regions, indicating the growing emphasis on

evaluating and improving DRRM practices within educational institutions. The Disaster-

Knowledge Matrix framework aims to identify causes for knowledge fragmentation in

disaster risk reduction and strengthen individual and institutional learning.

The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 (SFDRR) has set

renewed priorities for DRR, emphasizing the need for regional policies and strategies to

minimize vulnerabilities, hazards, and the unfolding of disaster impacts throughout

societies. Community participation is also recognized as a key element in promoting

disaster risk reduction, with the recent inclusion of mental health in the SFDRR

highlighting the significant burden of disasters on mental health and a global commitment

to reducing its impacts.

 39

Disaster risk reduction (DRR) is a critical aspect of ensuring the safety and well-

being of communities, particularly in disaster-prone areas like the Philippines. The low

level of school-based disaster preparedness (SSB) can increase students' vulnerability

during disasters, necessitating the integration of DRR into education policy development

and enhancing participatory mechanisms for DRR education. Educational methods such

as disaster-prevention seminars and comprehensive school safety modules have been

assessed to improve children's awareness of natural disasters.

The role of teachers in implementing the curriculum of school-based disaster

preparedness is essential, as their low preparedness can lead to increased vulnerability in

dealing with disaster threats. The Disaster Preparedness School (DPS) program aims to

help students identify disaster resilience learning and face disasters by providing

appropriate training, flexible subject matter, and easy-to-understand modules related to

disaster risk reduction. Evaluating the implementation of DRRM programs in public

elementary schools is essential to assessing disaster planning awareness and preparedness

to respond to hazards.

A cascade teacher training model in disaster education has been proposed to

enhance the planning, development, implementation, and evaluation stages of DRR

education for teachers. An integrated model of school-based disaster risk reduction and

management networks has been proposed to emphasize a bottom-up approach,

multisectoral collaboration, and the inclusion of DRRM in school curricula.

In conclusion, the successful implementation of disaster risk reduction in

elementary schools requires a comprehensive approach that includes curriculum

 40

integration, teacher preparedness, and systematic evaluation of DRR programs. By

addressing these aspects, schools can effectively contribute to building a disaster-resilient

generation and communities.

Disaster Risk Reduction and Management (DRRM) is a crucial tool for

addressing the challenges faced by disaster management. It involves a multifaceted

approach that includes data access, policy creation, budget constraints, a lack of

community participation, and inadequate legislative frameworks. These challenges can be

addressed through an integrated model of school-based disaster risk reduction and

management (SBDRRM) networks, evidence-based decision-making processes, and the

development of clear methodologies and standards for integrating Climate Change

Adaptation (CCA) into local plans.

In the Philippines, the lack of formally issued implementing policies outlining

clear methodologies and procedures for integration further complicates the

implementation of DRRM measures. The involvement of stakeholders and the strength of

institutional factors within regional disaster management agencies are crucial for

effective disaster management. The role of community-based disaster preparedness

(CBDP) approaches has been emphasized as an increasingly important element in

reducing vulnerability and enhancing disaster management strategies.

Legislative frameworks, such as the Disaster Risk Reduction and Management

Act, play a pivotal role in shifting the focus from response-centric to anticipative and

prevention-based approaches. The use of advanced technologies, such as Light Detection

 41

and Ranging (LiDAR) data and machine learning algorithms, has been identified as a

means to address challenges and limitations in DRRM operations.

The implementation of DRRM in elementary schools in the Philippines faces

several challenges, including financial constraints, a lack of community participation, and

inadequate compliance with risk reduction and disaster preparedness programs. To

address these challenges, a comprehensive approach that involves stakeholder

collaboration, legislative reforms, community engagement, and the integration of

advanced technologies is needed.

Figure 1. Research Paradigm

Dependent Variables (DV)

1. Perceptions of the disaster
risk reduction program's level
of implementation and
compliance with regard to safe
Independent Variable (IV)
learning environments, school
1. Implementers disaster management, and
2. Stakeholders disaster risk reduction in
education
2. challenges faced by
teachers in implementing the
School Risk Reduction and
Disaster Preparedness
Program

Hypothesis of the study

The study will test the null hypothesis below:

1. There is no significant difference in the perceptions of implementers and

 42

stakeholders in the compliance of the DRR program in Isabela's Legislative

District III elementary schools.

2. There is no significant difference in the perceptions of implementers and

stakeholders on the implementation of the DRR program in Isabela's Legislative

District III elementary schools.