COMPLEX VARIABLES

Mathematical Analysis
Mathematics (E)

Dr. Doaa M. Radi

 Chapter 2: Functions, Limits, and
Continuity
Variables and Functions
A symbol, such as 𝑧, which can stand for any one of a set of complex numbers is
called a complex variable. Suppose, to each value that a complex variable 𝑧 can
assume, there corresponds one or more values of a complex variable 𝑤. We then
say that 𝑤 is a function of 𝑧 and write 𝑤 = 𝑓 (𝑧). The variable 𝑧 is sometimes
called an independent variable, while 𝑤 is called a dependent variable. The value
of a function at 𝑧 = 𝑎 is often written 𝑓(𝑎). Thus, if 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 , then 𝑓 2𝑖 =
2𝑖 2 = −4.

Single and Multiple-Valued Functions:

(a) If w = 𝑧 2 , then to each value of 𝑧 there is only one value of 𝑤. Hence, 𝑤 =
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 is a single-valued function of 𝑧.
(b) If 𝑤 2 = z, then to each value of 𝑧 there are two values of 𝑤. Hence, 𝑤 2 =
z defines a multiple-valued (in this case two-valued) function of z.
If 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 (where 𝑢 and 𝑣 are real) is a single-valued function of 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
(where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real), we can write 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦). By equating real and
imaginary parts, this is seen to be equivalent to
𝑢 = 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 , 𝑣 = 𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦 .
Thus given a point (𝑥, 𝑦) in the 𝑧 plane, there corresponds a point (𝑢, 𝑣) in the 𝑤
plane. The set of equations 𝑢 = 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 , 𝑣 = 𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦 is called a transformation.

Example: If 𝑤 = 𝑧 2 , then 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑖 2𝑥𝑦 and the

transformation is 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 , 𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑦.
Example: If 𝑤 = 𝑧 2 , Find the values of w that correspond to
a) 𝑧 = −2 + 𝑖.
𝑤 = 𝑓 −2 + 𝑖 = −2 + 𝑖 2 = 4 − 4𝑖 + 𝑖 2 = 3 − 4𝑖.

b) 𝑧 = 1 − 3𝑖.
𝑤 = 𝑓 1 − 3𝑖 = 1 − 3𝑖 2 = 1 − 6𝑖 + 9𝑖 2 = −8 − 6𝑖.
 The Elementary Functions
1. Polynomial Functions are defined by
𝑤 = 𝑎0 𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑧 𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 𝑧 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑃 𝑧
where 𝑎0 ≠ 0, 𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝑛 are given complex numbers and 𝑛 is a positive
integer called the degree of the polynomial 𝑃 𝑧 .
2. Rational Algebraic Functions are defined by
𝑃(𝑧)
𝑤= ,
𝑄(𝑧)
where 𝑃(𝑧) and 𝑄(𝑧) are polynomials.
3. Exponential Functions are defined by
𝑤 = 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦 ,
where 𝑒 is the natural base of logarithms.
- Complex exponential functions have properties similar to those of
real exponential functions.
4. The complex trigonometric functions
Define the trigonometric or circular functions sin 𝑧 , cos 𝑧 , etc., in terms of
exponential functions as follows:
𝑒 𝑖𝑧 +𝑒 −𝑖𝑧
• 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑧 =
2
𝑒 −𝑒 −𝑖𝑧
𝑖𝑧
• 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑧 =
2𝑖
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑧 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 −𝑒 −𝑖𝑧
• 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑧 = = 𝑖𝑧 −𝑖𝑧
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑧 𝑖(𝑒 +𝑒 )
1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑧 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 +𝑒 −𝑖𝑧
• 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑧 = = = 𝑖 𝑖𝑧 −𝑖𝑧
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑧 𝑒 −𝑒
1 2
• 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑧 = = 𝑖𝑧 −𝑖𝑧
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑧 𝑒 +𝑒
1 2𝑖
• 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑧 = = 𝑖𝑧 −𝑖𝑧
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑧 𝑒 −𝑒

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Many of the properties familiar in the case of real trigonometric functions also
hold for the complex trigonometric functions. For example, we have:
• 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝒛 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝒛 = 𝟏
𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = sin2 𝑧 + cos 2 𝑧

2 2
𝑒 𝑖𝑧 −𝑒 −𝑖𝑧 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧
= +
2𝑖 2

𝑒 2𝑖𝑧 − 2 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝑧 𝑒 2𝑖𝑧 + 2 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝑧

= +
−4 4

−𝑒 2𝑖𝑧 + 2 − 𝑒 −2𝑖𝑧 + 𝑒 2𝑖𝑧 + 2 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝑧 4

= = =1
4 4
= 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆. #
7
• 𝟏 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝒛 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒛

𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 1 + tan2 𝑧
2
𝑒 𝑖𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧 𝑒 2𝑖𝑧 − 2 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝑧
=1+ = 1 − 2𝑖𝑧
𝑖 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧 𝑒 + 2 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝑧
𝑒 2𝑖𝑧 + 2 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝑧 − 𝑒 2𝑖𝑧 + 2 − 𝑒 −2𝑖𝑧 4
= 𝑖𝑧 −𝑖𝑧 2
= 𝑖𝑧
𝑒 +𝑒 𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧 2
2
2
= 𝑖𝑧 = sec 2 𝑧 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆. #
𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧

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• 𝟏 + 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝟐 𝐳 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝐳
𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 1 + cot 2 𝑧
2
𝑖 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧 𝑒 2𝑖𝑧 + 2 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝑧
=1+ = 1 − 2𝑖𝑧
𝑒 𝑖𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧 𝑒 − 2 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝑧
𝑒 2𝑖𝑧 − 2 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝑧 − 𝑒 2𝑖𝑧 − 2 − 𝑒 −2𝑖𝑧
=
𝑒 𝑖𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧 2
2
−4 2𝑖
= 𝑖𝑧 −𝑖𝑧 2
= 𝑖𝑧
𝑒 −𝑒 𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧
1 2 𝑧 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆.
= = cosec #
sin2 𝑧

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• 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒛𝟏 + 𝒛𝟐 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒛𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒛𝟐 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒛𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒛𝟐
𝑒 𝑖𝑧1 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧1 𝑒 𝑖𝑧2 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧2 𝑒 𝑖𝑧1 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧1 𝑒 𝑖𝑧2 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧2
𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆. = ∗ + ∗
2𝑖 2 2 2𝑖
𝑒 𝑖𝑧1 𝑒 𝑖𝑧2 + 𝑒 𝑖𝑧1 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧2 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧1 𝑒 𝑖𝑧2 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧1 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧2
=
4𝑖
𝑒 𝑖𝑧1 𝑒 𝑖𝑧2 − 𝑒 𝑖𝑧1 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧2 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧1 𝑒 𝑖𝑧2 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧1 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧2
+
4𝑖
𝑒 𝑖 𝑧1 +𝑧2 + 𝑒 𝑖 𝑧1 −𝑧2 − 𝑒 𝑖 𝑧2 −𝑧1 − 𝑒 −𝑖 𝑧2 +𝑧1
=
4𝑖

𝑒𝑖 𝑧1 +𝑧2
− 𝑒𝑖 𝑧1 −𝑧2
+ 𝑒𝑖 𝑧2 −𝑧1
− 𝑒 −𝑖 𝑧1 +𝑧2
+
4𝑖
2𝑒 𝑖 𝑧1 +𝑧2
− 2𝑒 −𝑖 𝑧1 +𝑧2 𝑒𝑖 𝑧1 +𝑧2 − 𝑒 −𝑖 𝑧1 +𝑧2
= =
4𝑖 2𝑖
= sin 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆. #
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• 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒛𝟏 − 𝒛𝟐 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒛𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒛𝟐 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒛𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒛𝟐

• 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒛𝟏 ± 𝒛𝟐 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒛𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒛𝟐 ∓ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒛𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒛𝟐

• 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒛 = 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒛 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒛

𝑒 𝑖𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧
𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆. = 2 ∗
2𝑖 2
𝑒 2𝑖𝑧 + 𝑒 𝑖𝑧−𝑖𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧+𝑖𝑧 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝑧 𝑒 2𝑖𝑧 − 𝑒 −2𝑖𝑧
=2 =2
4𝑖 4𝑖
𝑒 2𝑖𝑧 − 𝑒 −2𝑖𝑧
= = sin 2𝑧 = 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆. #
2𝑖

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 𝟏
• 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝒛 = 𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝒛
𝟐

• 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝒛 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝒛 −𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝒛

2 2
𝑒 𝑖𝑧 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 −𝑒 −𝑖𝑧
𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆. = cos 2 𝑧 −sin2 𝑧 = −
2 2𝑖
𝑒 2𝑖𝑧 + 2 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝑧 𝑒 2𝑖𝑧 − 2 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝑧
= −
4 −4
2𝑒 2𝑖𝑧 + 2𝑒 −2𝑖𝑧 𝑒 2𝑖𝑧 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝑧
= = = cos 2𝑧 = 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆. #
4 2

12
5. The Complex Hyperbolic Functions
are defined as follows:
𝑒 𝑧 +𝑒 −𝑧
• cosh 𝑧 =
2
𝑒 𝑧 −𝑒 −𝑧
• sinh 𝑧 =
2
sinh 𝑧 𝑒 𝑧 −𝑒 −𝑧
• tanh 𝑧 = = 𝑧 −𝑧
cosh 𝑧 𝑒 +𝑒
1 cosh 𝑧 𝑒 𝑧 +𝑒 −𝑧
• coth 𝑧 = = =
tanh 𝑧 sinh 𝑧 𝑒 𝑧 −𝑒 −𝑧
1 2
• sech 𝑧 = = 𝑧 −𝑧
cosh 𝑧 𝑒 +𝑒
1 2
• csch 𝑧 = = 𝑧 −𝑧
sinh 𝑧 𝑒 −𝑒
The following properties hold:
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• 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡𝟐 𝒛 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡𝟐 𝒛 = 𝟏
2 2
𝑒𝑧 +𝑒 −𝑧 𝑒𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑧
𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = cosh2 𝑧 − sinh2 𝑧 = −
2 2
𝑒 2𝑧 + 2 + 𝑒 −2𝑧 𝑒 2𝑧 − 2 + 𝑒 −2𝑧 4
= − = = 1. #
4 4 4
• 𝟏 − 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡𝟐 𝐳 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐡𝟐 𝐳
• 𝐜𝐨𝐭𝐡𝟐 𝐳 − 𝟏 = 𝐜𝐬𝐜𝐡𝟐 𝐳
• 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝐳𝟏 ± 𝐳𝟐 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝐳𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝐳𝟐 ± 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝐳𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝐳𝟐
• 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒛𝟏 ± 𝒛𝟐 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒛𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒛𝟐 ± 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒛𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒛𝟐
𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒛𝟏 ±𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒛𝟐
• 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒛𝟏 ± 𝒛𝟐 =
𝟏±𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒛𝟏 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒛𝟐
14
Relations Between the Complex Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions

𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡(𝒊𝒛) = 𝒊 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒛
𝑒 𝑖𝑧 −𝑒 −𝑖𝑧
sinh 𝑖𝑧 = Multiplying by ∗ 𝑖Τ𝑖 , we get
2
𝑒 𝑖𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧
sinh 𝑖𝑧 = 𝑖 = 𝑖 sin 𝑧 #
2𝑖

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊𝒛 = 𝒊 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒛
𝑒𝑖 𝑖𝑧
− 𝑒 −𝑖 𝑖𝑧 𝑒 −𝑧 − 𝑒 𝑧
sin 𝑖𝑧 = = ∗ 𝑖ൗ𝑖
2𝑖 2𝑖
𝑒 −𝑧 − 𝑒 𝑧 𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑧
=𝑖 =𝑖 = 𝑖 sinh 𝑧 #
−2 2

15
𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝒊𝒛) = 𝒊 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒛
𝑒 𝑖 𝑖𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑖 𝑖𝑧 𝑒 −𝑧 − 𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑧
tan 𝑖𝑧 = = −𝑧 𝑧
= ∗ 𝑖ൗ𝑖
𝑖 𝑒 𝑖 𝑖𝑧 + 𝑒 −𝑖 𝑖𝑧 𝑖 𝑒 +𝑒 𝑖 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑒 −𝑧
−𝑖 𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑧 𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑧
= 𝑧 −𝑧
=𝑖 𝑧 −𝑧
= 𝑖 tanh z #
−1 𝑒 + 𝑒 𝑒 +𝑒

• 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒊𝒛 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒛
• 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒊𝒛 = 𝒊 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒛
• 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒊𝒛 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐡 𝐳
• 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐡 𝒊𝒛 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝐳

17