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Acid Mine Drainage (AMD): an environmental concern generated by coal

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JOURNAL OF DEGRADED AND MINING LANDS MANAGEMENT
ISSN: 2339-076X (p); 2502-2458 (e), Volume 6, Number 4 (July 2019):1875-1881
DOI:10.15243/jdmlm.2019.064.1875

Review

Acid Mine Drainage (AMD): an environmental concern generated by

coal mining
Theophilus Ile Ojonimi1*, Ferdinand Asuke2, Martins Abu Onimisi3, Charles
Yunusa Onuh4
1 Department of Mining Engineering, University of Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria (t.ojonimi@gmail.com)
2 Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
(asukef@gmail.com)
3 Department of Mining Engineering, University of Rwanda, Kigali (matflo65@yahoo.com)
4 Department of Petroleum Engineering, Covenant University, Otta, Nigeria

(charles.onuh@covenantuniversity.edu.ng)
* corresponding author: t.ojonimi@gmail.com
Received 9 May 2019, Accepted 30 May 2019

Abstract: The impact of coal mining on the environment has been reviewed. The environmental
problem generated by this activity is due to the outflow of highly acidic and heavy metals-laden water
from a mine generally called Acid Mine Drainage (AMD). AMD is usually generated when a naturally
occurring sulphide mineral (e.g. pyrite) is exposed to air and water during the process of mining. Upon
oxidation, the sulphide decomposes to sulphuric acid which leaches out soluble metals in concentrations
higher than the permissible environmental limits. Heavy metals herein refer to those with densities greater
than 5g/cm3 and can be injurious to aquatic life of downstream waters and food crops planted on soils
around the mine which when consumed leads to severe health cases like cancer, high blood pressure and a
host of others. This article brings to bear an introduction to the AMD problem, the chemistry behind it,
factors that influence its formation, its severity, cost of treatment/mine reclamation, selected impacted
areas, a conclusion and an array of recommendations for action. The authors are persuaded that this
article would further contribute to the knowledge base of this global environmental phenomenon not just
for the purpose of learning but also as a contribution to the realisation of the United Nations Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs-6) of “clean water and sanitation”.
Keywords: AMD, coal, concern, environmental, mining
To cite this article: Ojonimi, I.T., Asuke, F., Onimisi, M.A. and Onuh, C.Y. 2019. Acid Mine Drainage (AMD): an
environmental concern generated by coal mining. J. Degrade. Min. Land Manage. 6(4): 1875-1881,
DOI:10.15243/jdmlm.2019.064.1875.

Introduction mining. Mining of metal sulfides such as pyrite

Globally, the length of streams and land
contaminated by acid mine drainage is yet to be
quantified, but its uncontrolled release is perhaps
the most serious impact of mining on the
environment. Ordinarily, the processes that
initiate AMD are due to natural factors but can be
aggravated by mining. Thus, acid mine drainage
arises from the rapid oxidation of sulfide minerals
which occurs where such minerals are exposed to
the atmosphere by excavation from the earth's
crust during road construction, quarrying, or
www.jdmlm.ub.ac.id
(FeS2); chalcopyrite (CuFeS2); sphalerite (ZnS)
represents the primary source of AMD generation
(Ferguson and Erikson, 1988). Leal (2015)
reported that when the mine or rock drainage is in
an advanced state of acidification, the physico-
chemical process of oxidation of the iron
sulphides, such as pyrite, becomes secondary,
because it is displaced by microbiological
oxidation, where several groups of acidophiles
and chemolithotroph bacteria, such as
Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans, which gets its
1875
Acid Mine Drainage (AMD): an environmental concern generated by coal mining
energy from iron oxidation. This article looks at
coal mining which is characterised by two faces;
one, an old problem which arose as a result of the
industrial revolution; two, a new addition to the
negative impact of man’s activities on the planet.
Nowhere else embodies this problem more than
coal mining districts in nations of the world with
abundance of the sulphide mineral in their bowels
(Kirby, 2014). Although its extraction potentially
contributes to GDP of nations and serves as a
source of electricity, there are immediate and long
term impacts such as overburden removal,
deforestation and legacy problems that promote
climate change (Mamodu et al., 2017; Kirby,
2014). From the above perspectives, acid mine
drainage represents a legacy problem generated
by coal mining. As the name suggests, flowing
acidic drainage mixes with mine dumps and picks
up metals that pollute downstream waters to the
point of danger to ecosystems. It constitutes a
bigger problem in areas where there are
abandoned or artisanal mining. Drainage from
active mines, on the other hand, can be monitored
and treated at source or prevented from being
initiated.
The chemistry of Acid Mine Drainage
(AMD)
When a sulphur-rich rock is exposed as a result of
weathering or by the process of mining, the
sulphides in the presence of water react to form
sulphuric acid. The acid so formed further
dissolves and leaches out the metals present in the
ore promoting high concentrations. Heavy metals
herein refer to those metals with densities greater
than 5g/cm3 and mainly the transition elements
and metalloids. Many mine discharges contain
high levels of potentially toxic metals, namely
nickel, iron, copper, lead, cyanide, arsenic,
cadmium etc. These metals only get dissolved in
waters that have low pH, as is found in the acidic
waters produced by pyrite oxidation. This is more
evident in coal mines around the globe. The AMD
typically contains elevated concentrations of
dissolved and particulate Fe and dissolved SO4-1
produced by the oxidation of pyrite (FeS2) as
shown in equations 2-3.
FeS2 + 3.5O2 + H2O → Fe2+ + 2SO4-2 + 2H+ (2.1)
Fe2+ + 0.25O2 + H+ → Fe3+ + 0.5H2O ………(2.2)
Fe3+ + 3H2O → Fe (OH)3 (s) + 3H+ ………... (2.3)
The increased concentration of hydrogen ion
(Equation 2.3) is responsible for AMD high
acidity. Crovatta et al. (2004) noted that in spite of
the Stoichiometry indicated by Equation (1), the
molar ratio of dissolved SO4-2 to Fe [(SO4-2) ̸ (Fe2+
Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management
+ Fe3+)] in AMD containing O2 would in most
cases exceed 2 because of the relatively high
solubility of SO4-2 and low solubility of Fe3+
which tends to precipitate as Fe (OH)3 and related
solids in moderately acidic to neutral solutions
within the range (3.5≤pH≤7). Brady et al. (1994)
mentioned that AMD commonly generates where
the calcite (CaCO3) and dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2),
are absent or deficient compared to pyrite in coal
overburden. Thus, dissolution of calcite, which is
the principal constituent of limestone, can
neutralize acidity and increase pH in mine
discharge. Turta et al. (2017) described the
chemistry behind AMD thus; aqueous pyrite
(FeS2) oxidation; pyrite (e.g. the sulfide mineral)
oxidizes and produces dissolved iron (Fe2+),
sulfate (SO42−) and hydrogen (H+), that leads to
the increase in the total dissolved solids and the
acidity of the water:
2FeS2(s) + 2H2O+7O2 → 4H+ + 4SO42- +2Fe2+
…………………………………………….. (2.4)
Where there is high oxygen (O2) and hydrogen
(H+) concentrations, ferrous iron (Fe2+) will
oxidize into ferric iron (Fe3+)
4Fe2++ O2+4H+→ 4Fe3+ + 2H2O ...………. (2.5)
Ferric iron may also oxidize pyrite into ferrous
iron, sulfate and hydrogen in the chemical
processes shown in equation 5
2FeS2 (s) +14Fe3+ + 8H2O → 15Fe2+ + 2SO42- +
16H+ ………………………………………. (2.6)
From equations 2.1 to 2.6, there is a confluence of
views as per the chemistry behind AMD. The
major concern then remains the complexity of the
phenomenon as it often leaves on the
environment, a landmark of an orange-yellow
substance which becomes more evident when the
solution begins to approach neutral pH conditions
when the previously dissolved iron precipitates.
Factors that promote Acid Mine Drainage
formation
No two mines have the same AMD characteristics
and as reported by (Natajaran, 2008): AMDs vary
widely as follows; pH (1 – 6), CaCO3 (0 – 50.000
mg/L), Fe (1 – 10,000 mg/L), Mn (1 – 50 mg/L),
SO4- (1 – 25,000 mg/L) aside from other metals
that could be present such as Cu, Zn, As, Cr .
Now, the primary factors that influence the
initiation and transport of AMD include; Oxygen
and water availability, pH, mine type, surface area
and particle size, microbial action. These outplay
1876
Acid Mine Drainage (AMD): an environmental concern generated by coal mining
of factors are described in the following sub-
sections;
Oxygen and water availability
The presence of water and oxygen are
prerequisites for acid mine drainage initiation as
water plays the role of reactant and medium (of
transport) for the progression of the oxidation
process: where extraction occurs beneath the
earth’s surface using the technique of sub-surface
mining, mines are usually below the water table
which requires pumping of water out of the mine
to stop flooding. When the mine is abandoned,
water will naturally fill in its position beneath the
surface again. This water is one of the necessary
factors responsible for pyrite oxidation leading to
the formation of AMD. Thus, exposing pyrite to
oxygen and water initiates an oxidation reaction,
where hydrogen and sulphate ions and soluble
metal cations are precipitated:
2FeS2 (s) + 7O2 (g) +2H2O (l) -----2F2+ (aq) +
4SO42- (aq) + 4H+ (aq) (Foster and Slonczewski,
2017). Oxygen on the other part, is particularly
important to maintain the rapid bacterially
catalyzed oxidation at pH values below 3.5.
Oxidation of sulfides insignificantly reduced
when the concentration of oxygen in the pore
spaces of mining waste units is less than 1 or 2
percent. Therefore, the supply of atmospheric
Figure 1. Influence of Mine type on AMD Chemistry. oc =open cast; ug=underground.
After: Pope et al. (2010).
Two reasons have been advanced for the high
Al:Fe ratio in open pit AMD; one, high
concentrations of Fe(II) are more likely to
precipitate in open pit mines. Second, Al release
reactions are more likely to occur at open pit
Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management
oxygen is required to drive the pyrite oxidation
reaction (Ferguson and Erickson, 1988).
pH
At a pH below 3.5, the rate of pyrite oxidation by
ferric iron (Fe+3) progresses faster than the rate of
its oxidation by dissolved oxygen. The solubility
of ferric iron (Fe+3) oxyhydroxides, however,
decreases at pH greater than 3.5 such that Fe+3
becomes a barrier for further pyrite oxidation and
the dissolved oxygen reaction becomes faster.
Based on the mentioned differences in rates,
pyrite reaction with dissolved oxygen has
insignificant dependence on pH (Williamson et
al., 2001). The surrounding solutions in the mine
environment have a near neutral pH prior
exposure of pyrite by mining such that ferric iron
concentration is minimal and reaction with
dissolved oxygen is the dominant pyrite oxidation
and as it progresses, acid generation is at a
relatively slow rate and the pH gradually falls
(Kleinmann et al. 1981).
Mine type
Mine type is an important factor responsible for
AMD formation. Pope et al. (2010) reported that
AMD samples from open pit mines have typically
a higher Al:Fe ratio than those from underground
mines as shown in (Figure 1).
mines. The major cause of Al precipitation in
AMD in mines is the reaction between the
produced H2SO4 as a result of pyrite oxidation and
alumino-silicate minerals associated with the coal.
These reactions (Pope et al., 2010) occur more
1877
Acid Mine Drainage (AMD): an environmental concern generated by coal mining

rapidly in open cast mines since coal sediments Microbial action

have a higher reactive surface area in mine dumps
The pyrite weathering process consists of a series
compared to underground mines. At underground
of chemical reactions but also has an important
mines, there is a limited reaction between the
microbiological component.ie Interactions
formed H2SO4 from pyrite oxidation and coal
between members of microbial elements play a
measure sediment resulting in relatively higher Fe
critical role in AMD generation. Detailed AMD
compared to Al.
reactions shown in equations 2.1 and 2.3 (section
Ore particle size/surface area 2) often are biologically catalysed by
microorganisms such as Thiobacillus thiooxidans
In an undisturbed rock, Pyrite Oxidation
and T. ferrooxidans which proceed by utilizing
progresses naturally at a slow rate. The little
iron sulphide as source of energy, thereby
quantity of acid generated in the slow process is
oxidizing the sulphide mineral (Singer and
buffered by water. Now, because more surface
Stumm, 1970; Evangelou, 1996; Pope et al.,
area of these sulphides-rich rocks is exposed by
2014). These bacteria which are widespread in the
mining, additional acid is produced beyond the
environment remove barriers on pyrite weathering
buffering capacity of water. When oxygen is
by their catalyzing effect and allow the reactions
sufficiently available either from dissolved
to rapidly progress. For instance, Natarajan (2019)
oxygen in the water or the atmosphere, oxidation
reported that T. ferroxidans causes the rate of iron
of ferrous iron to ferric iron progresses further:
conversion reaction to proceed by a factor of as
4Fe2+ (aq) + O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) == 4Fe3+ (aq) +
much as a hundred to one million times.
2H2O (l). Ferric iron can either precipitate as
Acidophilic chemolithotrophs such as
Ochre (Fe (OH)3) which is reddish-orange
Acidithiobacillus promotes acid mine drainage
precipitate observed in acid mine impacted
formation at abandoned mines and at waste rock
waters: 2Fe3+ (aq) +6H2O (l) + 2Fe(OH)3 (s) +
and processed tailings dumps. This also depends
6H+ (aq) or again directly react with pyrite to
on pH of the solution. At a pH below 4, ferrous
generate more ferrous iron and hydrogen irons:
iron (Fe+2) oxidation by microorganisms can
FeS (s) + 14Fe3+ (aq) + 8H2O (l) ==15Fe2+ (aq) +
generate sufficient ferric iron (Fe3+) that
2SO2- (aq) + 16H+ (aq) (Murr, 2006; Foster and
significantly oxidises pyrite such that under these
Slonczewski, 2017). Thus, the rate of AMD
conditions, the hydrogen ions (H+) is rapidly
generation is directly proportional to the surface
produced leading to higher acidity. There are
area of the pyrite ore. Again, the surface area has
established methods for measurement of various
an inverse relationship with particle size: as
inorganic AMD parameters but quantification of
particle size decreases, individual minerals tend to
microbial activity is complex; Fe-oxidizing
be liberated from the rock matrix. The contrary
bacteria counting from field sites using the most
occurs if the ore particles are larger. Thus, particle
probable number (MPN) method was reported by
size and permeability are fundamental factors
Pesic et al. (1989) and Kirby et al. (1999) as
responsible for AMD generation since they affect
complex.
the surface area exposed to oxidation (Skouen et
al., 2002; Guzide et al., 2014). As found in waste
dumps, coarse particles favour less exposure of The severity of Acid Mine Drainage
the ore surface but may however allow the problem
penetration of air and water thereby exposing
more material to localised oxidation and acid It is imperative to discuss the weight of the health,
generation at the base. Wind, barometric pressure safety and environmental problem posed by Acid
changes as well as possible convective gas flow Mine Drainage and/or abandoned mines on the
aided by heat generated by the oxidation reaction society. Many scholars think that the prevention
facilitate air circulation in coarse materials. On of acid mine drainage which is almost impossible
the contrary, fine-grain material may inhibit air from the perspectives of the miner and/or
penetration while very fine particles may restrict government who must invest on one hand and of
in-flow of water; yet finer particles, however, nature (environmental forces) such as weather that
expose more surface area of the ore to oxidation. influence the exposure of the sulphur-bearing rock
With time, particle size reduces due to weathering on the other hand, is better than its treatment
thereby exposing more surfaces of the ore to owing to the fact that once initiated, it occurs
oxygen. Particle size, surface area and oxidation, almost in perpetuity- hundreds of years after the
therefore, constitute factors taken into mine closure. For instance, Krill (2018) reported
consideration in acid prediction although they are that there are no technologies in existence today
difficult to measure (Ferguson and Erickson, that can demonstrate that acid drainage from coal
1988). mines can be stopped once it has been initiated on

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 1878

Acid Mine Drainage (AMD): an environmental concern generated by coal mining
a large scale. In rural agrarian communities of
developing nations, waters from abandoned mines
have been used for irrigation. This is capable of
setting an entire generation of the produced crop
consumers on the path of severe health
challenges. The United States Bureau of Land
Management (2007) reported that abandoned
mines can produce AMD for more than 100 years
which will result in significant risks to surface and
groundwater. This is a generation-long problem.
The US Bureau of Land Management (2019) also
reported that finding solution to this problem has
become increasingly important due to the increase
in peoples’ exposure to risks of accidents, injuries
as over 500 thousand abandoned mines have been
identified in the nation. The problem becomes
even more severe as increased demand for
outdoor recreation exposes people to hazards like
radiation, contaminated soil water and poisoned
aquatic life. Increased population growth also
promotes higher demand for land and water for
crop production. Thus, available water and land
may amount to significant uptake of contaminants
when food crops are consumed. The severity of
AMDs and/or abandoned mines on the
environment is further complicated by surface
runoff which results in stream clogging. Surface
runoff is said to occur when rainfall exceeds a
soil's maximum saturation level. A condition in
which all drained pores between soil particles are
temporarily or permanently filled with water and
the rate of runoff flow depends on the ratio of rain
intensity to the infiltration rate (FAO, 2003;
Janae, 2019). Low infiltration rate promotes soil
crusting or compaction while the runoff rate will
be high. In form of suspended solids, high surface
runoff rates separate and transport large amounts
of heavy metal contaminated soil from abandoned
mines and deposit in rivers, recreational facilities
and farm lands. These deposits further constitute
blockage to streams flow and can cause flooding
of roads and houses which exposing the people to
emergencies (Muehlbauer et al., 2017)
Selected cases of AMD impacted areas
Measuring the total impact of AMD on the
environment is almost impossible (Williamson et
al., 2006) This article mentions two cases of
AMD impacted areas;
Odagbo Coal Mine, Kogi State, Nigeria
Recent artisanal mining operations combined with
past mining activities in the area have led to AMD
generation. Ameh et al. (2013) studied the
geochemistry and environmental approaches with
a view to eliminating pollution impacts on soils
around the coal mine. They reported that lead,
Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management
nickel and copper as metals that have mostly
impacted the soils negatively. The authors further
recommended total remediation of ponds/mines in
all affected area. Momoh et al. (2017) also
collected composite AMD samples from active
and abandoned mining pits in the Coal mine and
were analysed for lead, nickel, cobalt, chromium,
mercury, zinc, arsenic and iron. They reported
that “Nickel, chromium and iron were above the
permissible concentration range for heavy metals.
Thus, the acid mine drainage from the coal mine
is capable of polluting waters and farm lands
around the agrarian community. This report is in
agreement with the findings of the studies of
Ameh et al. (2013)
Appalachian coal fields, USA
It is on recorded that 30 years ago, of a total of
186,730 miles, 10,516 miles (5.6%) of all streams
in the Appalachian coal fields were noticeably
affected by AMD (Herlihy et al., 2000). A more
recent survey (Faulkner and Skousen, 2003;
Summi and Gestring, 2013) showed that 2519
miles of streams in this region contained no fish
and an additional 2569 miles of streams have
reduced fish diversity or populations. In addition,
many miles of streams in the western U.S. are
affected by AMD from metal mining.
Cost of AMD-influenced water
treatment/mine reclamation
The concern of environmental activists,
governments, communities and other stakeholders
in the mining industry is the high cost AMD
influenced water treatment and/or mine
reclamation. Many hard rocks in the United
States, South America, Australia and Africa
would require water treatments for centuries in
perpetuity as a result of acid mine drainage. The
tax payers would have to bear the burden of water
treatment in cases where the mining company
fails to take responsibility of cleaning up the
environment of toxic contaminants which might
be centuries long after the expected lifetime of the
investor. Water treatment costs per annum at
some mines in the United State alone, are
estimated to be as high as 57-67 billion dollars
(Krill, 2019). This will continue to add weight to
the economic burdens of citizens if they must live
on clean water. From the perspective of
governments, treatment of AMD-polluted water
can constitute a huge economic burden, especially
if before the commencement of mine; the
company refuses to bear the cost of treatment or
that in the course of the project, the company
changes ownership. AMD complexity in Africa
1879
Acid Mine Drainage (AMD): an environmental concern generated by coal mining
continues to grow in places where artisans who
lack the basic technologies and environmental
orientation are involved in mining. For instance,
Salaam (2017) reported that Nigeria’s Federal
Ministry of Mines and Steel was to spend five
billion dollars to reclaim over 1,600 abandoned
mine sites which are sources of AMDs across the
country. The sites were said to have been
generated during the colonial era, a time when the
country had no laws regulating mining operations.
10 years earlier (2007), a National
Implementation plan which captured 100 sites for
reclamation at the cost of six billion naira was
drawn by the ministry but 20 sites have been fully
reclaimed with some being used for recreation.
(https://www.vanguardngr.com/2017/01/reclamati
on-abandoned-mining-sites-cost-5bn-official/).
Conclusion
The environmental menace of coal mining is not
peculiar with the few areas mentioned in this
article but a global phenomenon. In mining
districts all over the world, uncontrolled acid mine
flow into the water bodies would undoubtedly
affect local marine life. It could cause coral
mortality and the depletion of bottom dwelling
organisms, which would have negative ripple
effects on the ecosystem: the marine food chain
could take up the toxic metals associated with the
drain thereby causing long term health effects.
Acid Mine drainage remains a global
environmental challenge to which all stakeholders
in the solid minerals sector must proffer solution.
Recommendations
The authors advance the following
recommendations;
1. Governments should establish water
treatment Trust Fund (WTTF) for her mine
districts from 2 percent on the assessable
profit of all registered coal mining
companies.
2. Governments and relevant partners should
promote acid mine drainage
prevention/remediation research by
establishing such centres around the coal
mine districts.
3. The relevant UN bodies and their partners all
over the globe should promote water and
sanitation advocacy among the populace
around sulphur-rich mines
4. There should be continuous education of the
populace in abandoned mines districts on the
harmful effects of consuming water (rivers,
hand dug wells, boreholes) around the mines
Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management
5. Governments and other relevant bodies
should provide alternative sources of drinking
water for communities around abandoned
mines: conveyance of safe water through
pipelines from other areas that have not been
contaminated could help.
6. Alternative sources of livelihood must be
provided for the locals involved in artisanal
coal mining since their activities further
contaminate the environment.
7. Mine closure efforts in terms of tree planting
should be intensified
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