Human Resource Development

Practising Learning and Development 3RD
EDITION
in South African Organisations

Practising Learning and Development
Practising Learning
3 RD EDITION
Practising Learning and Development in South African Organisations 3e offers an
and Development
outcomes-based, occupation-directed and work-based L&D approach to workplace
learning design. Integrating theoretical and practical perspectives, this book gives a
comprehensive overview of the National Skills Development Framework. It further

presents a new chapter on online learning design which caters to the needs of a
digital society.
KEY BENEFITS:
• An updated overview of skills development legislation and the 3RD EDITION
implications for workplace learning design, delivery, assessment, evaluation
and quality assurance in the South African context
• Insight into the psychology of adult learning, motivation and performance
• Guides students and L&D professionals through the classical Dynamic
Learning Cycle
• Practical guidelines for both modern online learning design and outcomes-
and work-based learning design, delivery, assessment and evaluation
• Explores the dynamics and methods of effective learning and development
needs analysis, and how a needs analysis informs the workplace skills plan
• Explores L&D management from an HRD strategic and value-adding perspective
• Guides L&D professionals regarding the profession, ethical standards and
values, and their continued professional development.
This text is a must-have for undergraduate students, and practising L&D and HRD
J Botha • J Kiley • K Truman

M Coetzee (Editor)
professionals alike.
Melinde Coetzee (Editor)

www.juta.co.za Jo-Anne Botha • Jerome Kiley • Kiru Truman
Practising Learning and Development in
South African Organisations
Third Edition
with
Jo-Anne Botha • Jerome Kiley • Kiru Truman
2600_Practising_Learning_and_Development_3e.indb 1 2018/11/30 1:58 PM

Practising Learning and Development in South African Organisations
First published as Practising Education, Training and Development in South African Organisations
First published 2007

Third edition 2019
Juta and Company Ltd

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CONTENTS
List of figures and tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv

About the authors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
Acknowledgements of figures and tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii
List of acronyms and abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii
Book layout. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvi
PART 1: L
EGISLATIVE AND THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF LEARNING
AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE WORKPLACE
CHAPTER 1
THE SOUTH AFRICAN LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT LANDSCAPE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Melinde Coetzee and Kiru Truman
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1 Local context challenges impacting human capital development in
South Africa................................................................................................. 3
1.2 Global and African trends impacting human capital development................ 8
2. THE SOUTH AFRICAN LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK FOR WORKFORCE SKILLS
DEVELOPMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1
National Qualifications Framework Act....................................................... 27
2.1.1 NQF objectives............................................................................... 27
2.1.2 Principles of the NQF..................................................................... 31
2.1.3 Sub-frameworks of the NQF........................................................... 31
2.1.4 NQF level descriptors...................................................................... 33
2.1.5 Contextual application of the level descriptors................................. 34
2.2 The White Paper on Post-school Education and Training in South Africa..... 36
2.3 The National Skills Development Plan 2030 ............................................... 40
2.3.1 Purpose and strategic intentions of the National Skills
Development Plan........................................................................... 40
2.3.2 Principles of the NSDP................................................................... 45
2.3.3 Levy grant funding within the NSDP.............................................. 46
3. OUTCOMES-BASED LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.1 Qualification, unit standard and credits........................................................ 58
3.2 Occupational qualifications.......................................................................... 59
3.3 Unit standards.............................................................................................. 59
3.4 Specific outcomes......................................................................................... 62
3.5 Assessment criteria....................................................................................... 62
3.6 Critical cross-field outcomes (CCFOs)......................................................... 62
3.7 Where to find unit standards?...................................................................... 64
3.8 Applied competence..................................................................................... 64
3.9 Recognition of prior learning (RPL)............................................................. 64
3.10 Quality assurance partners (QAPs)............................................................... 65
3.11 Accreditation of skills development providers............................................... 66

4. THE SOUTH AFRICAN OCCUPATIONAL LEARNING SYSTEM (OLS). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

4.1 Labour market intelligence system (LMIS)................................................... 68
4.2 Organising Framework for Occupations (OFO).......................................... 68
4.3 Occupational Qualifications Framework (OQF).......................................... 70
4.4 National Occupational Pathways Framework (NOPF)................................. 71
4.5 Communities of expert practice (CEPs)....................................................... 71
4.6 Occupational qualifications.......................................................................... 71
4.7 Progression................................................................................................... 73
4.8 Internal assessment or assessment against curriculum components............... 73
4.9 External integrated summative assessment of occupational qualifications or
part qualifications......................................................................................... 73
4.10 Assessment of foundational learning............................................................. 74
4.11 Development quality partners (DQP).......................................................... 74
4.12 Assessment quality partners (AQP).............................................................. 75
4.13 Occupational learning programmes.............................................................. 75
4.13.1 Learnerships.................................................................................... 76
4.13.2 Apprenticeships............................................................................... 77
4.13.3 Skills learning programmes.............................................................. 78
5. QUALITY ASSURANCE MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN OCCUPATIONAL

LEARNING SYSTEM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.1 Quality assurance of development and design of curricula............................ 85
5.2 Controlling the quality of provision, implementation and certification........ 85
5.3 Quality assurance of development and design of assessment processes.......... 86
5.4 Quality improvement through monitoring and evaluation........................... 86
5.5 Quality control mechanisms in the development of occupational
curricula and qualifications.......................................................................... 87
6. MANAGING QUALITY IN WORKPLACE LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Review and discussion questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
CHAPTER 2
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING, EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION AND PERFORMANCE
Jo-Anne Botha and Melinde Coetzee
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2. EMPLOYEE COMPETENCE AND PERFORMANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2.1 Competencies.............................................................................................. 101
2.2 Attitudes and beliefs..................................................................................... 102
2.3 Knowledge................................................................................................... 102
2.4 Skills............................................................................................................ 102
2.5 Learning and performance........................................................................... 103
3. THE NATURE OF LEARNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.1 Implicit learning.......................................................................................... 105
3.2 Explicit learning........................................................................................... 105
iv

Contents
3.3 Memorising.................................................................................................. 106

3.4 Problem-solving.............................................................................................. 107
3.5 Understanding................................................................................................ 108
4. ADULT LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5. THEORIES OF LEARNING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.1 Classical theories of learning........................................................................ 114
5.1.1 Behaviouristic perspective on the learning process............................ 114
5.1.2 Cognitive approach to learning........................................................ 115
5.1.3 Social learning................................................................................. 117
5.1.4 Humanist perspectives on learning.................................................. 118
6. MODERN THEORIES OF LEARNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.1 Experiential learning.................................................................................... 119
6.2 Action learning............................................................................................ 121
6.3 Preferred learning styles................................................................................ 121
6.3.1 The Kolb and Fry learning style inventory....................................... 121
6.3.2 Gregorc’s learning styles................................................................... 122
6.3.3 McCarthy’s 4MAT model................................................................ 123
6.3.4 Are learning style preferences valid? ................................................ 124
6.4 Mentoring and coaching.............................................................................. 125
6.5 Connectivist learning theory ....................................................................... 125
7. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.1 Practice and overlearning.............................................................................. 126
7.2 Identical elements (physical and psychological fidelity)................................ 127
7.3 Whole versus part learning........................................................................... 127
7.4 Massed versus distributed practice................................................................ 128
8. THE BRAIN AND LEARNING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
8.1 Accelerated learning..................................................................................... 128
8.2 Split-brain theory......................................................................................... 129
8.3 Regenerative brain theory............................................................................. 130
8.4 Triune brain theory...................................................................................... 130
9. HUMAN INTELLIGENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
9.1 Gardner’s multiple intelligences.................................................................... 131
9.2 Sternberg’s three intelligences....................................................................... 132
9.3 Emotional intelligence................................................................................. 133
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
PART 2: THE SYSTEMATIC LEARNING CYCLE

CHAPTER 3
CONDUCTING A LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT NEEDS ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
2. THE DYNAMIC LEARNING CYCLE AND NEEDS ANALYSIS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

3. PURPOSES OF NEEDS ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

3.1 Proactive and reactive needs analysis............................................................. 145
3.2 Identify existing or future performance gap(s).............................................. 148
3.3 Identifying causes of performance discrepancies........................................... 149
3.4 A lack of competence that indicates the implementation of an L&D
intervention................................................................................................. 152
3.5 Providing information for L&D interventions............................................. 154
3.6 Providing feedback on the effectiveness and impact of L&D interventions... 154
4. FOCUS AREAS OF L&D NEEDS ANALYSIS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
4.1 Focus area 1: Sectoral analysis...................................................................... 156
4.2 Focus area 2: Organisational analysis............................................................ 161
4.3 Focus area 3: Occupational/job task/role analysis......................................... 170
4.3.1 Applied competence ....................................................................... 172
4.3.2 Applied occupational competence.................................................... 173
4.4 Focus area 4: Person analysis........................................................................ 174
5. GATHERING DATA FOR L&D NEEDS ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
5.1 Questionnaires............................................................................................. 179
5.2 Observation................................................................................................. 180
5.3 Individual interviews.................................................................................... 180
5.4 Skill and knowledge tests.............................................................................. 181
5.5 Personal development plans.......................................................................... 181
5.6 Performance appraisal data........................................................................... 181
5.7 Critical incidents.......................................................................................... 182
5.8 The organisation’s human resource and workplace skills plans...................... 182
5.9 Which data collection method to use........................................................... 183
6. L&D NEEDS ANALYSIS AND THE ANNUAL SKILLS PLANNING PROCESS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
7. HUMAN RESOURCE INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN THE L&D NEEDS ANALYSIS. . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
7.1 Ethics and processing of employee information in an LDNA....................... 194
Review and discussion questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 196
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
CHAPTER 4
OUTCOMES-BASED WORKPLACE LEARNING DESIGN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Melinde Coetzee and Jo-Anne Botha
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
2.OUTCOMES-BASED, WORK-BASED LEARNING DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
2.1 Stage 1: Identifying job/occupational requirements and stakeholder
expectations.................................................................................. 203
2.2 Stage 2: Reviewing the L&D needs analysis versus the job/occupational
tasks.............................................................................................. 206
2.3 Stage 3: Analysing the job/occupational purpose and tasks in terms of
knowledge, practical skills and work experience............................ 207
2.3.1 Unpacking occupational/job tasks................................................. 207
2.3.2 Developing additional occupational/job tasks............................... 208
2.3.3 Defining required knowledge, skills and work experience.............. 208
vi

Contents
2.4 Stage 4:
Analysing the learners’ profile ...................................................... 212
2.5 Stage 5:
Defining the learning programme objective and outcomes............ 214
2.5.1
Determining the learning programme objective............................ 214
2.5.2
Formulating the learning outcomes.............................................. 216
2.5.3
Developing learning outcomes...................................................... 216
2.5.4
Classifying learning outcomes....................................................... 218
2.5.5
Critical cross-field outcomes......................................................... 224
2.6 Stage 6:
Determining, sourcing and sequencing the learning content......... 226
2.6.1
The type of subject presented in the learning programme............. 227
2.6.2
Learner differences........................................................................ 227
2.6.3
The ability of the learning facilitator............................................. 228
2.6.4
Sources of content........................................................................ 228
2.6.5
Sequencing the content of a learning programme......................... 229
2.7 Stage 7:
Designing learning activities......................................................... 231
2.8 Stage 8:
Developing a learning delivery and assessment strategy................. 233
2.9 Stage 9:
Choosing training and learning methods...................................... 240
2.10 Stage 10:
Designing learning support materials............................................ 243
3. THE L&D FACILITATOR GUIDE..................................................................................... 246
3.1 The learning facilitation and assessment process guide.................................. 247
3.2 General quality assurance documentation.................................................... 248
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
CHAPTER 5
ONLINE LEARNING DESIGN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
2. THE NATURE OF E-LEARNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
2.1 Self-paced e-learning.................................................................................... 270
2.2 Facilitated e-learning.................................................................................... 271
2.3 Blended learning ......................................................................................... 271
2.4 Learning management system...................................................................... 272
2.4.1 LMS asynchronous e-learning tools ................................................ 274
2.4.2 LMS online material........................................................................ 275
2.5 Evolution of e-learning design models.......................................................... 275
3. THE EVOLUTION OF E-LEARNING CONTEXTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
3.1 Behaviourism............................................................................................... 277
3.2 Cognitivism................................................................................................. 277
3.3 Constructivism............................................................................................. 277
3.4 Humanism................................................................................................... 279
3.5 Andragogy.................................................................................................... 279
3.6 Flexible learning........................................................................................... 279
4. WHEN TO DEVELOP E-LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
5. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF E-LEARNING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
vii

6. NEEDS ANALYSIS FOR E-LEARNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E-LEARNING DESIGN 282
7.1
Know the participants.................................................................................. 282
7.2
Identify learning goals (outcomes)................................................................ 282
7.3
Develop an e-learning strategy...................................................................... 283
7.4
Determining and sequencing learning content............................................. 284
7.5
Assess learner progress.................................................................................. 284
7.6
Provide meaningful feedback........................................................................ 285
7.7
Design the e-learning programme................................................................ 285
8. SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS FOR E-LEARNING PROGRAMME DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
9. E-LEARNING TRENDS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
10. BARRIERS TO E-LEARNING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
11. THE PROCESS OF THE ADOPTION OF E-LEARNING IN A WORKPLACE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
12. ORGANISATIONAL SUPPORT FOR E-LEARNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
13. VIRTUAL HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
14. THE COMPETENCIES REQUIRED FROM L&D PROFESSIONALS IN AN E-LEARNING
ENVIRONMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
CHAPTER 6
DELIVERING LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Jerome Kiley and Melinde Coetzee
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
2. LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT DELIVERY METHODS................................................ 297
2.1 Classroom training....................................................................................... 299
2.2 Selecting appropriate classroom training methods........................................ 300
2.3 Learning support materials in classroom training......................................... 300
(a) PowerPoint/Prezi or other electronic presentations................................ 301
(b) Handouts.............................................................................................. 302
(c) Flip charts............................................................................................. 302
(d) Whiteboards/chalkboards...................................................................... 303
(e) Videos/DVDs........................................................................................ 303
3. BLENDED LEARNING METHODS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
3.1 Programmed instruction.............................................................................. 305
3.2 Technology-based training........................................................................... 305
3.3 Internet-based programmed instruction or e-learning................................... 306
3.4 Workplace training methods........................................................................ 306
3.5 Team training............................................................................................... 307
4. MODERN LEARNING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
5. THE TRAINER AS LEARNING FACILITATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
5.1 Learning facilitation skills............................................................................. 312
5.2 Characteristics of effective learning facilitation............................................. 314
viii

Contents
6. DELIVERING CLASSROOM TRAINING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

6.1 Pre-class intervention................................................................................... 316
6.2 Learning facilitation..................................................................................... 318
(a) Introduction.......................................................................................... 318
(b) Techniques for starting off on a positive note......................................... 319
(c) Facilitating learning............................................................................... 320
(d) Concluding the classroom training........................................................ 320
(e) Post-class intervention........................................................................... 323
7. THE LEARNING FACILITATION PROCESS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
7.1 Group dynamics in the learning process....................................................... 325
7.2 Increasing learners’ participation by asking questions................................... 327
7.3 Giving and receiving feedback...................................................................... 327
7.4 Reading the body language of learners.......................................................... 328
7.5 Dealing with problem behaviour in the classroom........................................ 332
8. CREATING AN ENVIRONMENT CONDUCIVE TO LEARNING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
8.1 Creating an accepting and safe atmosphere................................................... 335
8.2 Arranging the physical learning environment............................................... 337
(a) The theatre or classroom........................................................................ 338
(b) The herringbone.................................................................................... 339
(c) The boardroom...................................................................................... 339
(d) The open boardroom or U-shape........................................................... 339
(e) The V-shape.......................................................................................... 339
(f ) The circle............................................................................................... 339
(g) Clusters/syndicates................................................................................ 339
9. PRINCIPLES OF CLASSROOM TRAINING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
(a) Meaningfulness.............................................................................................. 340
(b) Assumed learning........................................................................................... 341
(c) Open communication.................................................................................... 341
(d) Essential content............................................................................................ 341
(e) Provision of learning support material............................................................ 341
(f ) Novelty.......................................................................................................... 341
(g) Modelling...................................................................................................... 341
(h) Active and appropriate practice...................................................................... 342
(i) Goal setting................................................................................................... 343
(j) Pleasant conditions........................................................................................ 343
(k) Pleasant consequences.................................................................................... 343
(l) Knowledge of results (feedback)..................................................................... 344
10. TRANSFER OF LEARNING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
10.1 Self-management to maintain changes in behaviour..................................... 345
10.2 Adaptive guidance........................................................................................ 346
11. MANAGING CLASSROOM TRAINING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
ix

CHAPTER 7
ASSESSMENT AND MODERATION IN LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Kiru Truman and Melinde Coetzee
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
2. PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
3. ASSESSMENT REQUIREMENTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
3.1 Assessor competence........................................................................................ 358
3.2 The rights and special needs of learners........................................................... 359
4. TYPES OF ASSESSMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
4.1 Formative assessment................................................................................... 361
4.2 Dynamic assessment..................................................................................... 363
4.3 Summative assessment.................................................................................. 363
4.4 Integrated assessment................................................................................... 364
4.5 Diagnostic assessment.................................................................................. 366
4.6 Assessment for recognition of prior learning................................................. 366
4.7 Impact assessment........................................................................................ 366
5. ASSESSMENT METHODS AND INSTRUMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
5.1 Portfolio assessment..................................................................................... 373
5.2 Recognition of prior learning....................................................................... 374
6. THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS........................................................................................ 376
6.1 Planning the assessment............................................................................... 376
6.2 Preparing the learner for assessment ............................................................ 381
6.3 Conducting assessment................................................................................ 383
6.4 Gathering and documenting evidence.......................................................... 387
6.5 Evaluating evidence and making assessment judgements.............................. 390
6.6 Providing feedback to the relevant parties..................................................... 390
6.7 Reviewing the assessment process................................................................. 392
7. MODERATION OF ASSESSMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
7.1 Management structure................................................................................. 394
7.2 Functions of the moderation system............................................................. 394
7.3 Components of the moderation system........................................................ 395
7.3.1 Timing............................................................................................ 395
7.3.2 Extent.............................................................................................. 395
7.3.3 Materials.......................................................................................... 395
7.3.4 Personnel......................................................................................... 395
7.4 Methods....................................................................................................... 396
7.5 Moderation tools.......................................................................................... 396
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398

Contents
CHAPTER 8
EVALUATING LEARNING INTERVENTION EFFECTIVENESS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
2. LEARNING INTERVENTION EVALUATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
2.1 Diagnostic evaluation................................................................................... 402
2.2 Formative evaluation.................................................................................... 403
2.3 Summative and longitudinal evaluation....................................................... 403
3. STAKEHOLDERS IN LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT EVALUATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
4. COMPLIANCE EVALUATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
5. VALUE-ADDED EVALUATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
5.1 Evaluation criteria........................................................................................ 414
5.1.1 Learning design............................................................................... 415
5.1.2 Learning intervention delivery......................................................... 415
5.1.3 Competence.................................................................................... 416
5.1.4 Transfer of learning.......................................................................... 416
5.1.5 Impact on the performance of the organisation................................ 416
5.2 Measuring value added in L&D................................................................... 418
5.2.1 Cost................................................................................................. 420
5.2.2 Input analysis.................................................................................. 420
5.2.3 Change or outcome......................................................................... 420
5.2.4 Impact............................................................................................. 421
5.3 Measuring return on stakeholder expectations.............................................. 421
5.4 Levels of value-added evaluation................................................................... 422
6. EVALUATION MODELS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
6.1 Kirkpatrick’s taxonomy of training evaluation criteria................................... 422
6.1.1 Level 1: Reaction............................................................................. 423
6.1.2 Level 2: Learning............................................................................. 425
6.1.3 Level 3: Behaviour........................................................................... 425
6.1.4 Level 4: Results................................................................................ 426
6.2 Phillips’ return on investment model............................................................ 426
6.3 Nadler’s model of evaluation........................................................................ 427
6.4 Guba and Lincoln’s fourth generation evaluation......................................... 427
6.5 Predictive evaluation.................................................................................... 428
7. THE TRAINING EVALUATION PROCESS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
7.1 Step 1: Identifying stakeholders.................................................................... 430
7.2 Step 2: Collecting background information.................................................. 430
7.3 Step 3: Formulating research questions......................................................... 430
7.4 Step 4: Identifying the evaluation dimensions and criteria............................ 431
7.5 Step 5: Selecting and applying data collection tools...................................... 431
7.5.1 Questionnaires................................................................................. 431
7.5.2 Interviews........................................................................................ 432
7.5.3 Observations.................................................................................... 433
xi

7.5.4 Organisational records..................................................................... 433

7.5.5 Assessment instruments................................................................... 434
7.6 Step 6: Drawing up an evaluation plan......................................................... 434
7.7 Step 7: Analysing and interpreting the data.................................................. 436
7.8 Step 8: Making recommendations................................................................ 436
7.9 Step 9: Communicating the evaluation results.............................................. 436
8. FACTORS THAT DISCOURAGE EVALUATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
PART 3: SUSTAINING LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT CAPABILITY

CHAPTER 9
MANAGING LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE WORKPLACE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
2. HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . 447
2.1 Purpose and activities of HRD..................................................................... 449
2.2 HRD strategy............................................................................................... 451
3. L&D MANAGEMENT IN THE 21ST-CENTURY WORKPLACE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
4. THE NEW LEARNING ORGANISATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
4.1 Knowledge management.............................................................................. 458
4.2 Improving organisational flexibility and capability....................................... 459
5. THE L&D VALUE PROPOSITION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
5.1. Value is defined by the stakeholders.............................................................. 463
5.2 Create sustainable competitive advantage..................................................... 464
5.3 Alignment with stakeholder requirements.................................................... 464
5.4 Continued professional development........................................................... 465
5.5 Value the link between investors and stakeholders........................................ 465
6. THE L&D MANAGEMENT PROCESS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
6.1 Developing a holistic HRD strategy............................................................. 466
6.2 Considering external and internal forces....................................................... 467
6.3 Defining the L&D value proposition........................................................... 467
6.4 Conducting an L&D strategic skills gap analysis.......................................... 467
6.5 Conducting an organisational L&D needs analysis...................................... 467
6.6 Compiling the L&D plan............................................................................ 468
6.7 Specifying the execution strategy.................................................................. 468
6.8 Implementing the L&D plan....................................................................... 468
6.9 Evaluating the effectiveness of the L&D plan............................................... 469
6.10 Evaluating value added by L&D interventions............................................. 469
7. THE HRD MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
7.1 Defining the L&D value proposition........................................................... 471
7.2 Strategising.................................................................................................. 471
7.3 Organising................................................................................................... 472
xii

Contents
7.4 Leading........................................................................................................ 473

7.5 Assuring quality........................................................................................... 473
7.6 Evaluating.................................................................................................... 473
Principle 1: Vision and mission.................................................................... 476
Principle 2: Business objectives..................................................................... 476
Principle 3: Standards of engagement........................................................... 477
Principle 4: Intervention and execution strategy........................................... 477
Principle 5: Organisational alignment.......................................................... 477
Principle 6: Measurement and accountability............................................... 477
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
CHAPTER 10
PROFESSION AND PRACTICE OF LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Melinde Coetzee
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
2. ROLES OF THE L&D PROFESSIONAL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
3. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE L&D PROFESSIONAL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
3.1 Results driven............................................................................................... 486
3.2 Investigative................................................................................................. 486
3.3 Able to set and comply with quality standards.............................................. 486
3.4 Co-operative and collaborative..................................................................... 486
3.5 Willing and able to add value for stakeholders.............................................. 486
3.6 Flexible while maintaining important principles........................................... 487
3.7 Responsible for continuous professional development.................................. 487
3.8 Ethical and responsible................................................................................. 487
4. A COMPETENCY PROFILE OF EFFECTIVE L&D PROFESSIONALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
5. EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF L&D PROFESSIONALS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
6. CONTINUOUS PROFESSIONAL AND PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
7. ETHICAL ISSUES IN L&D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
8. CHALLENGES FOR THE L&D PROFESSION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
APPENDIX A: NQF level descriptors and QCTO LARF guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Glossary of terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
References................................................................................................................................. 545
Index........................................................................................................................................... 558
xiii

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
Figures
Figure 1.1 How the NQF is linked to the GFETQF, HEQF and OQF
Figure 1.2 The NQF Act and its three qualifications sub-frameworks
Figure 1.3 The role of quality councils in the South African education and training systems
Figure 1.4 SETA levy grant distribution
Figure 1.5 Roles of the skills development committee
Figure 1.6 A demand-driven occupational learning system in South Africa
Figure 1.7 Scope of qualification
Figure 1.8 QCTO model for quality management
Figure 1.9 Occupational curriculum development process managed by development
quality partner
Figure 1.10 Quality assurance partners in the new OLS
Figure 2.1 Components of employee performance
Figure 2.2 Kolb’s experiential learning cycle
Figure 3.1 The classical systematic dynamic learning cycle
Figure 3.2 Proactive and reactive needs analysis
Figure 3.3 The skills planning process
Figure 3.4 The skills planning support structure
Figure 4.1 The learning cycle
Figure 4.2 Steps in designing outcomes-based/workplace learning programmes
Figure 4.3 Aspects to consider when determining the learning programme objective
Figure 4.4 Cognitive domain (based on Bloom’s revised taxonomy of learning)
Figure 4.5 Links between the NQF level descriptors and Bloom’s revised taxonomy
(cognitive domain)
Figure 4.6 The affective domain
Figure 4.7 The psychomotor domain
Figure 4.8 An example of a course mind map
Figure 4.9 Planning the learning delivery and assessment strategy: example
Figure 4.10 Contents of the facilitator/trainer guide
Figure 5.1 The various design models of e-learning
Figure 5.2 The various scholarly generations of e-learning
Figure 5.3 Elements of the e-learning design process
Figure 5.4 The phases of e-learning adoption in an organisation
Figure 6.2 Experiential learning cycle (based on Kolb, 1985)
Figure 6.3 The layout of training venues
Figure 6.4 Principles of modelling
Figure 7.2 Steps and processes involved in the formative assessment of a task
Figure 7.3 Teaching, learning and assessing in an integrated manner
Figure 7.4 The RPL process

List of figures and tables
Figure 7.5 The RPL assessment process

Figure 8.2 Integrated L&D evaluation
Figure 8.3 The L&D value chain
Figure 8.4 The evaluation process
Figure 9.1 Overview of HRD activities
Figure 9.2 Link between the HRD strategy and the business strategy
Figure 9.3 The strategic L&D management process
Tables
Table 1.1 Overview of national legislation governing human capital skills development
in post-apartheid South Africa
Table 1.2 Statutory structures and supporting bodies created by the skills development
legislation
Table 1.3 The current SETA landscape
Table 1.4 The 10-level NQF structure
Table 1.5 Principles of the NQF
Table 1.6 Summary of key policy areas outlined in the White Paper on Post-school
Education and Training (WP PSET)
Table 1.7 The strategic intentions of the NSDS III
Table 1.8 NSDS III goals, outcomes and outputs
Table 1.9 Guideline criteria for ASDSA designations
Table 1.10 Examples of building up CPD points for SDFs registered as members of ASDSA
Table 1.11 Elements of a unit standard
Table 1.12 Elements of applied competence
Table 1.13 The OFO structure groupings
Table 1.14 Distinction between a learnership, an apprenticeship and a skills learning
programme
Table 1.15 Elements of the workplace L&D quality management system
Table 1.16 Checklist for setting up the L&D quality assurance system
Table 1.17 L&D intervention quality checklist: learning facilitation, administration and
quality assurance management
Table 2.1 Barriers to learning
Table 2.2 Kolb and Fry’s four learning styles
Table 2.3 Gregorc’s learning styles
Table 2.4 McCarthy’s 4MAT model
Table 2.5 Gardner’s eight intelligences
Table 2.6 Stimulation of intelligences
Table 3.1 The purposes of the L&D needs analysis
Table 3.2 Root causes of performance problems and suggested methods to address them
Table 3.3 Focus areas of L&D needs analysis
Table 3.4 Understanding scarce and critical skills
xv

Table 3.5 Examples of scarce and critical skills and occupations in high demand in the
ETDP SETA
Table 3.6 Planning a skills audit
Table 3.7 Example of typical information required in a workplace skills plan and annual
training report
Table 3.8 Example of a skills matrix
Table 3.9 Timeline for the annual L&D needs analysis and the skills development
planning process
Table 3.10 Role-players involved in the annual skills planning process
Table 3.11 Occupational tasks of skills development facilitators, L&D professionals and
trainers
Table 4.1 The LARF tool for aligning work-based learning programmes to the
appropriate NQF level
Table 4.2 An example of a knowledge, skills and work experience analysis: HR managers
(OFO version 6)
Table 4.3 Quality checklist for analysing learners’ profile
Table 4.4 Example of a learning programme objective and learning outcomes
Table 4.5 Taxonomy of learning outcomes
Table 4.6 The critical cross-field outcomes
Table 4.7 Categories of content
Table 4.8 The links between the training need, learning outcome and learning content
Table 4.9 Examples of learning resources
Table 4.10 An example of a course outline
Table 4.11 Guidelines on sequencing content
Table 4.12 Examples of learning activities
Table 4.13 Example 1: Develop the learning delivery and assessment strategy: HR
managers (OFO version 6: 1323)
Table 4.14 Example 2: Develop the learning delivery and assessment strategy: HR
managers (OFO version 6: 1323)
Table 4.15 Technology-based training methods
Table 4.16 Aspects to consider when choosing training methods
Table 4.17 Elements of well-designed outcomes-based learning material
Table 4.18 Characteristics of effective learning materials
Table 4.19 Example of a facilitator process guide
Table 4.20 Quality checklist: Skills programme design
Table 5.1 Synchronous and asynchronous e-learning
Table 5.2 Examples of learning management systems (LMS)
Table 5.3 Social collaboration preferences
Table 5.4 Advantages and disadvantages of e-learning
Table 5.5 Steps in designing e-learning programmes
Table 6.1 Advantages and limitations of classroom training
Table 6.2 Guidelines for designing blended learning classes
Table 6.3 On-the-job training methods
Table 6.4 Characteristics of effective learning facilitation
xvi

List of figures and tables
Table 6.5 Example of an agenda

Table 6.6 Elements of learning facilitation in the classroom
Table 6.7 Examples of behaviours to facilitate throughout the learning cycle
Table 6.8 Learning environment preferences of various generations
Table 6.9 Guidelines for asking questions
Table 6.10 Example of a feedback contract
Table 6.11 Reading body language
Table 6.12 Dysfunctional and emotionally intelligent L&D professional responses to
classroom behaviour
Table 6.13 Techniques for handling problem behaviours in the classroom
Table 6.14 Characteristics of emotionally warm and cold behavioural styles
Table 6.15 Quality checklist for the training environment
Table 6.16 Barriers to the transfer of learning
Table 6.17 Responsibilities in managing classroom training
Table 7.1 Role-players in assessment
Table 7.2 Formative and summative assessment
Table 7.3 Assessment methods and instruments
Table 7.4 Uses of assessment methods
Table 7.5 Uses of assessment instruments
Table 7.6 Assessment plan
Table 7.7 Example of an assessment strategy
Table 7.8 Example of candidate declaration of authenticity
Table 7.9 Example of a witness declaration of authenticity
Table 7.10 Principles of assessment
Table 7.11 Types of evidence
Table 7.12 Example of a summative assessment form
Table 7.13 The VACS analysis of evidence
Table 7.14 Example of candidate evaluation of the assessment process
Table 7.15 Example of a moderation report
Table 8.1 Timing of evaluation and its related purpose
Table 8.2 Example of formative classroom training evaluation
Table 8.3 Example of summative evaluation
Table 8.4 SAQA quality requirements for L&D providers
Table 8.5 Steps to establish an L&D quality assurance system
Table 8.6 Steps in conducting a compliance evaluation
Table 8.7 Tangible organisational results
Table 8.8 Intangible organisational results
Table 8.9 Example of a training cost spreadsheet
Table 8.10 Advantages and disadvantages of interviews as an evaluation technique
Table 8.11 Steps to follow in an interview process
Table 8.12 Example of an evaluation plan
Table 8.13 Quality checklist for an evaluation report
Table 9.1 Challenges of HRM in the 21st century and competencies required to deal
successfully with the challenges
xvii

Table 9.2 Organisation capabilities and HRD roles

Table 9.3 Implications of the L&D value proposition
Table 9.4 Criteria of an effective HRD function
Table 9.5 L&D resource questions
Table 9.6 Key functions of strategic L&D management
Table 10.1 Roles of the L&D professional
Table 10.2 Core values and principles of an L&D professional
Table 10.3 Core and advanced skills for L&D professionals
Table 10.4 SABPP professional levels of registration
Table 10.5 Checklist for being a proactive and ethical L&D professional
Table 10.6 Guidelines for dealing with ethical dilemmas in L&D
Table 10.7 Ethical standards in L&D
xviii

ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Contact details:
Cell: 083 500 8621 Tel: 012 429 8204
Email: coetzm1@unisa.ac.za
Melinde Coetzee (DLitt et Phil) is a professor in the Department of Industrial and
Organisational Psychology at the University of South Africa, Pretoria. She has extensive
experience in the corporate environment on psychological interventions pertaining to
organisational development, human capacity and career development and talent retention.
Professor Coetzee’s research interests include issues of employability, skills development and
career and retention psychology in multicultural work contexts. She is Chief Editor of the
South African Journal of Industrial Psychology and also the author, co-author and editor of a
number of academic books. She has published in numerous accredited academic journals,
co-authored and contributed chapters to books, both nationally and internationally,
and has presented numerous academic papers and posters at national and international
conferences. Professor Coetzee is a professionally registered Industrial Psychologist with
the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA) and a Master Human Resource
Practitioner with the South African Board for People Practice (SABPP).
Jo-Anne Botha
Contact details:
Cell: 074 215 9868 Tel: (012) 429 4318
Email: bothaj1@unisa.ac.za
Jo-Anne Botha (D.Com) is a lecturer in the Department of Human Resource Management
at the University of South Africa, Pretoria. She has 25 years’ experience in the learning
and development field, designing, developing and implementing learning programmes
on various topics in the business world, such as training supervisors, middle and senior
managers, team building, communication skills, time management and strategic planning.
Jo-Anne has been teaching at Unisa in the HRD field since 2006. She is co-author of various
study guides relating to human resource management, human resource development
and industrial and organisational psychology. She has contributed to chapters in various
prescribed books.
Jerome Kiley
Contact details:
Cell: 082 464 5521 Tel: (021) 959 6350
Email: kileyj@cput.ac.za
Jerome Kiley (MA, BA Hons HRD) is registered as a Master Personnel Practitioner
(Human Resource Development) with the South African Board for Personnel Practice. He
is currently a lecturer in the Department of Human Resource Development at the Cape
Peninsula University of Technology. Jerome also runs the first-year Industrial Psychology
xix

Programme at the University of the Western Cape and is an associate lecturer for the Open
University’s Business School. He has extensive experience in the field of skills development
and HRD management, in both the public and private sectors. Jerome is a registered
assessor and moderator and serves in this capacity for a number of institutions. He has co-
authored a number of books in the fields of management and organisational psychology.
Kiru Truman
Contact details:
Cell: 082 787 7716
Email: kiru@trumanconsulting.co.za
Kiru Truman has more than twenty-five years of experience in the education sector. She has
worked as a lecturer/facilitator, assessor and moderator at both further education and higher
education levels in the Western Cape, Gauteng, Eastern Cape and KwaZulu Natal. She
holds a Master’s Degree in Education and Training in Lifelong Learning from Stellenbosch
University and is currently working on her PhD with IPSS. She is also a qualified verifier,
skills development facilitator, moderator, assessor and curriculum designer. Kiru is a voice
coach who has published more than thirty student textbooks and lecturer guides and has
extensive experience as both a teacher and writer. As a skills development specialist, she
works with various SETAs where she assists numerous companies to participate in various
aspects of skills development, providing them with advice and assistance to maximise their
skills development benefits and opportunities. She teaches at the Retail Academy at Cape
University of Technology and is a researcher at the WRLC. She was also the lead researcher
on the journal article on WIL, research and the operations of a retail store on a university
campus, recently published in the International Asian Pacific Journal for Cooperative
Education (2017).
xx

PREFACE
We have come to believe that an effective L&D professional is a great artist and that there are
as few as there are any other great artists. Helping adults develop their skills in Workplace 4.0
might even be the greatest of the arts since the medium is the human mind and spirit.
The authors
In today’s Fourth Industrial Revolution (Second Machine Age or digital era of rapid
technological advancement), learning and development (L&D) professionals have become
key role-players in helping business and human resource (HR) leaders to embrace new ways
of thinking about their companies and the development of human capabilities. Employees’
increasing interaction with the digital environment and smart information technology,
such as computers and smartphones, is changing how they think and process information.
L&D professionals therefore need to consider the impact of the smart digital era on
their approaches to L&D design in Workplace 4.0. They have to adopt modern learning
approaches, especially when the L&D intervention involves the younger generation of
employees (Millennials and the post-Millennials or Generation Z/iGeneration) who are
digital natives.
Positioned within a global VUCA (volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous) global
business landscape, the South African L&D landscape continues to evolve with an increased
emphasis on outcomes- and workplace-based learning design, which, along with the
emergence of modern digital learning, requires innovative and creative L&D methods that
address the diverse needs of all generations in the workplace. L&D professionals working
within the South African workplace context should also recognise the unique developing
needs of the learner on the African continent, who may not always have access to smart
technologies. Innovative blended learning design and delivery methods are, therefore,
required to help raise the skills profile of the South African workforce.
As a new technological progressive generation of L&D professionals enters the field,
we believe that it is time to review what we have learned and to determine what we need
to learn. To this end, in this book an eclectic group of experienced L&D professionals
share their experience and wisdom by offering insights on practising L&D in the digital
era of Workplace 4.0 from a sound theoretical base, blended with practical applications.
Practising Learning and Development in South African Organisations has been designed for
undergraduate students, as well as practising L&D professional and HRD practitioners.
Students new to the HRD/L&D field, as well those who have been practising L&D for
years, will benefit from this book.
Given how expensive and important learning and development initiatives are, it is
important for L&D professionals to use a systematic approach in the design and delivery
of their L&D interventions. This book aims to guide L&D professionals through the
dynamic learning cycle by offering practical guidelines for the planning, design, delivery
and evaluation of both online and work-based learning programmes in the South African
workplace context. In addition, it aims to provide clarity on the outcomes-based approach to
workplace learning in the context of the national skills development legislative framework.

To this end, issues such as the assessment and moderation of learners’ achievements and
quality assurance of work-based L&D design, delivery and management are also addressed.
Finally, in exploring L&D as a profession and practice, L&D professionals are guided
towards continuing their professional and personal development as lifelong learners. The
importance of considering the ethical implications of L&D activities, such as conducting
needs analyses, designing work-based learning, delivering training, assessing learner
achievements and evaluating the effectiveness of learning programmes in the workplace,
are also reviewed.
Part 1 of this book provides information on the legislative (Chapter 1: The South
African learning and development landscape) and the theoretical foundations of learning and
development in the workplace (Chapter 2: The psychology of learning, employee motivation
and performance).
Part 2 addresses the systematic learning cycle in Chapter 3 (Conducting a learning and
development needs analysis), Chapter 4 (Outcomes-based workplace learning design), Chapter
5 (Online learning design), Chapter 6 (Delivering learning and development interventions),
Chapter 7 (Assessment and moderation in learning and development) and Chapter 8
(Evaluating learning intervention effectiveness).
Part 3 discusses approaches to sustaining learning and development capability in
Chapter 9 (Managing learning and development in the workplace) and Chapter 10 (Profession
and practice of learning and development).
Finally, just as concepts and practices of HRD, and in particular L&D, have evolved
over time, our understanding of these has been shaped by many friends, colleagues, clients
and students in the South African and international multicultural workplace contexts. We
are truly grateful for these wonderful people who have shared their practices, wisdom and
insights with us in person and in the professional literature.
We trust that this edition of Practising Learning and Development in South African
Organisations will provide the HRD and L&D fraternity, and students new to the field,
with the foundation needed for independent practice in the challenging and exciting arena
of quality outcomes-based/work-based L&D provision in the rapidly evolving, digital,
Workplace 4.0.
March 2018
Jo-Anne Botha
Jerome Kiley
Kiru Truman
xxii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS OF FIGURES AND TABLES
Figure 1.6. A demand-driven occupational learning system in South Africa. ‘A demand-
driven occupational learning system in South Africa’. © and permission of Christoph
Vorwerk.
Figure 1.7. Scope of qualification. ‘Scope of qualification’. (DHET, 2010c, p. 6; Vorwerk,
2010a, p. 15) Used by permission of Chris Vorwerk..
Figure 1.8. QCTO model for quality management. FAIR USE. The QCTO website
(Quality Council for Trades and Occupations) http://www.qcto.org.za/index.php/
disclaimer.
Figure 1.9. Occupational curriculum development process managed by development
quality partner. FAIR USE. The QCTO website (Quality Council for Trades and
Occupations) http://www.qcto.org.za/index.php/disclaimer.
Figure 1.10. Quality assurance partners in the new OLS. ‘Quality assurance partners
in the new OLS’. (DoL, 2008b; DoL, 2009a) © and permission of The Department of
Labour.
Table 1.3: The current SETA landscape. NSA, (National Skills Authority) 2011 DHET
© and permission of Govt Printing Works, and Department of Higher Education &
Training.
Table 1.5. Principles of the NQF. ‘Principles of the NQF’. SAQA 2000. The National
Qualifications Framework and Quality Assurance.
Table 1.12. Elements of a unit standard. ‘Elements of a unit standard’. Fasset, 2009.
Used with permission.
Table 2.2. Kolb and Fry’s four learning styles. ‘Kolb and Fry’s learning styles’, page
89. (adapted from Kolb & Fry 1975) Psychology and Adult Learning, 3rd edition. Mark
Tennant. Used by permission of Professor Tennant.
Table 2.3: Gregorc’s learning styles. ‘Gregorc’s learning styles’. © and permission of
Anthony F. Gregorc, Ph.D. President Gregorc Associates, Inc.
Table 3.9. Timeline for the annual L&D needs analysis and the skills development
planning process. ‘Timeline for the annual L&D needs analysis and the skills development
planning process’. Skills Planning for Improved Performance. Author: Suzanne Hattingh.
Used with permission. https://www.skillsportal.co.za/sites/default/files/company-files/
Learning%20for%20Performance%20Improvement%20/LPI%20publications%20
catalogue_2015_0.pdf .
Table 3.10. Role-players involved in the annual skills planning process. ‘Role players
involved in the annual skills planning process’. Hattingh, 2010b. Used with permission.
Table 4.1. The LARF tool for aligning work-based learning programmes to the
appropriate NQF level. FAIR USE. The QCTO website (Quality Council for Trades and
Occupations) http://www.qcto.org.za/index.php/disclaimer.
xxiii

Figure 1.5. Roles of the skills development committee. ‘Roles of the Skills Development
Committee’. Fasset, 2009. Used with permission.
Video activity. E-learning strategy secrets. © DeakinCo. Published on Oct 8, 2013https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=u29ZjZvSG2o. DeakinCo. 2018, E-learning Strategy Secrets.
Published on Oct 8, 2013. Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u29ZjZvSG2o ©
DeakinCo. Reproduced by permission.
Video activity. Storyboard and Narration Scriptwriting. eLearning Storyboard & Script
Writing. © The eLearning Network. Used by permission of Stephen (Magic) Johnson.
Founder & CEO - eLearning, Inc. http://eLearning.net. Published on Jul 10, 2014.
Video activity. e-Learning trends. ‘6 Trends in E-learning Design & Development
- eLearning Video’. CommLab India. Published on Aug 14, 2015. CommLab India –
Global Learning Solutions Company.
xxiv

LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
Throughout this book, repeated reference is made to certain bodies and terms. Thus, it is
easier to use the acronyms and abbreviations. Until you are familiar with all the meanings,
you may need to refer to this page for clarification.
ABET Adult basic education and training

AGRISETA Agriculture Sector Education and Training Authority
AI Artificial intelligence
APP Annual Performance Plan (SETA)
AQP Assurance quality partner
ASDSA Association for Skills Development in South Africa
ATR Annual training report
BANKSETA Banking Sector Education and Training Authority
BEE Black Economic Empowerment
CATHSSETA Culture, Arts, Tourism, Hospitality and Sports Sector Education and
Training Authority
CCFOs Critical cross-field outcomes
CEO Chief executive officer
CEP Community of expert practice
CETA Construction Sector Education and Training Authority
CHET Council on Higher Education and Training
CHIETA Chemical Industries Education and Training Authority
CPD Continuous professional development
DHET Department of Higher Education and Training
DoL Department of Labour
DQP Development quality partner
EE Employment equity
ESETA Energy and Water Sector Education and Training Authority
ESSA Employment Services South Africa
ETD Education, training and development
ETDP-SETA Education, Training and Development Practice Sector Education and
Training Authority
ETQA Education and Training Quality Assurance bodies
FASSET Financial and Accounting Services Sector Education and Training
Authority
FET Further education and training
FL Foundational learning
FLC Foundational learning competence
FOODBEV Food and Beverages Sector Education and Training Authority
FP&M SETA Fibre Processing and Manufacturing Sector Education and Training
Authority
GCI Global Competitiveness Index

GFETQSF General and Further Education and Training Qualifications

sub-Framework
GTCI Global Talent Competitiveness Index
HEQSF Higher Education Qualifications sub-Framework
HIHSS National Institute for Humanities and Social Sciences
HPCSA Health Professions Council of South Africa
HR Human resources
HRD Human resource development
HRDSSA Human Resource Development Strategy for South Africa
HRIS Human resources information system
HWSETA Health and Welfare Sector Education and Training Authority
ICT Information communication technology
IMS Instructional management systems
INSETA Insurance Sector Education and Training Authority
IPAP Industrial Policy Action Plan
IPM Institute for People Management
ISCO International Standard Classification of Occupations
KSAOs Knowledge, skills, abilities, other attributes
LARF Level, activities, role, focus and time (span of discretion)
L&D Learning and development
LCMS Learning content management system
LDNA Learning and development needs analysis
LGSETA Local Government Sector Education and Training Authority
LMIS Labour market intelligence system
LMS Learning management system
MerSETA Manufacturing, Engineering and Related Services Sector Education
and Training Authority
MICT‑SETA Media, Advertising, Information and Communication Technologies
Sector Education and Training Authority
Moodle Modular Object Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment
MoU Memorandum of Understanding
MQA Mining Qualifications Authority
NAMB National Artisan Moderating Body
NLRD National Learner Record Database
NOPF National Occupational Pathway Framework
NQF National Qualifications Framework
NSA National Skills Authority
NSB National Standards Body
NSDS National Skills Development Strategy
NSDP National Skills Development Plan
NSF National Skills Fund
NSP National Skills Plan
OER Open education resources
OFO Organising Framework for Occupations
xxvi

List of acronyms and abbreviations
OLS Occupational Learning System

OQSF Occupational Qualifications Sub-Framework
PFMA Public Finance Management Act
PIVOTAL Professional, vocational, technical and academic learning
PP PIVOTAL Plan
PR PIVOTAL Report
PSET Post-school education and training system
PSETA Public Services Sector Education and Training Authority
PTP Private training providers
QA Quality assurance
QC Quality Council
QCTO Quality Council for Trades and Occupations
QDF Qualifications development facilitator
QMS Quality management system
PIVOTAL Occupational-directed Professional, Vocational, Technical and Academic
Learning programme that is linked to a qualification
ROE Return on stakeholder expectations
ROI Return on investment
RPL Recognition of prior learning
SABPP South African Board for Personnel Practice
SABS South African Bureau for Standards
SAQA South African Qualifications Authority
SASCO South African Standards Classification of Occupations
SASSETA Safety and Security Sector Education and Training Authority
SCORM Support Sharable Content Object Reference Model
SDA Skills Development Act
SDF Skills development facilitator
SDLA Skills Development Levies Act
SDPs Skills development providers
SERVICE SETA Services Sector Education and Training Authority
SETA Sector Education and Training Authority
SGB Standards Generating Body
SLA Service level agreement
SMMEs Small, medium and micro enterprises
SPU Skills Planning Unit
SSP Sector skills plan
StatsSA Statistics South Africa
TETA Transport Education and Training Authority
TVET Technical and vocational education and training
VHRD Virtual human resource development
VUCA Volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous
W&R SETA Wholesale and Retail Sector Education and Training authority
WIL Work-integrated learning
WSP Workplace skills plan
xxvii

BOOK LAYOUT
PART 1
LEGISLATIVE AND THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF
LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE WORKPLACE
CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2
THE SOUTH AFRICAN LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING, EMPLOYEE
LANDSCAPE MOTIVATION AND PERFORMANCE
PART 2
THE SYSTEMATIC LEARNING CYCLE
CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 5

CONDUCTING A LEARNING AND OUTCOMES-BASED WORKPLACE ONLINE LEARNING
DEVELOPMENT NEEDS ANALYSIS LEARNING DESIGN DESIGN
CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 7 CHAPTER 8

DELIVERING LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT AND MODERATION EVALUATING LEARNING
DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS IN LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION EFFECTIVENESS
PART 3
SUSTAINING LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT
CAPABILITY
CHAPTER 9 CHAPTER 10
MANAGING LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE PROFESSION AND PRACTICE OF LEARNING AND
WORKPLACE DEVELOPMENT
xxvii

PART
1
LEGISLATIVE AND THEORETICAL
FOUNDATIONS OF LEARNING
AND DEVELOPMENT IN
THE WORKPLACE

CHAPTER THE SOUTH AFRICAN LEARNING AND
1 DEVELOPMENT LANDSCAPE
Melinde Coetzee and Kiru Truman
Key points of learning and development in the South African context

•• Learning and development in the South African context has become a national imperative to raise the
skills profile of the nation’s human capital through formalised national legislative skills development
structures.
•• Companies (employers) and Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) must embark on human
resource strategies to attract and develop qualified, skilled people listed in the national scarce-skills
list (occupations in high demand list; see DHET website).
•• National skills development legislation created an integrated education and training (learning and
development) system to raise the skills profile of the country.
•• The national legislative structure ensures investment in skills development and improving the quality
and relevance of education and training (learning and development) to the economy.
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

•• Explain the national skills dilemma and the national legislative structures established to help raise
the country’s skills profile
•• Differentiate between the various pieces of skills development legislation and explain their purpose
and contribution to skills development
•• Explain the purpose and strategic intent of the National Skills Development Plan 2030
•• Explain the concept of outcomes-based learning and development in South Africa
•• Explain the elements of the occupational learning system
•• Explain quality assurance mechanisms that govern learning and development in workplaces
1. INTRODUCTION
The education, training and development of a workforce is essential to raise the human
capital of an organisation and a nation. The economic success of a country relies on the
standard and quality of its human capital (i.e. the educational level, knowledge, skills,
competencies and attributes of people). The Global Competitiveness Index (GCI)
identifies health, primary and higher education and training, labour market efficiency and
innovation as important elements of a country’s human capital. This clearly highlights the
importance of focusing on the consistent development and upgrading of human capital on
a national level (Crous & Attlee, 2016). Learning (including formal training and lifelong
learning) and development in the South African context has become a national imperative
to raise the skills profile of the nation’s human capital and capabilities through formalised
national legislative skills development structures.

Chapter 1 | The South African learning and development landscape
The South African economic growth rate is generally low and has resulted in poor employment
growth and an escalating unemployment rate. Although sustainable job creation in South Africa
continues to be constrained by the structural mismatch between labour demand and supply,
economic growth continues to favour high-skilled workers, despite the fact that the majority of
the employed and the unemployed have low level skills (Reddy et al., 2016). According to the
Department of Higher Education and Training’s (DHET) report on skills supply and demand
in South Africa (Reddy et al., 2016), ‘the South African labour force comprises 15 million
employed and 7.5 million unemployed people. Three-quarters of the employed and 90% of the
unemployed are from the African population group. Youth unemployment is particularly high
and increasing as more young people join the labour force. 11.75 million persons of the labour
force have less than a grade 12 certificate’ (2016: 8).
The South African labour force comprises 15 million employed and 7.5 million unemployed
people.
Youth unemployment is particularly high and increasing … 11.75 million persons of the
labour force have less than a grade 12 certificate (Reddy et al., 2016).
This clearly highlights the critical need for formal learning (training) and development in
South Africa. The Global Talent Competitiveness Index (GTCI: 2015–2016) indicates
that although South Africa is currently the highest-placed African nation on the index, the
country still ranks below Malaysia, China and the Philippines. The low ranking of various
African nations points to the importance of investing in the training and development and
overall skills development of the nation’s human capital (Crous & Attlee, 2016). Although
the South African jobs and skills history profile is different from the East Asian or European
contexts, the challenge of developing the nation’s human capital for economic growth
remains complex. Apart from having to participate in a globally competitive environment
(see point 1.1.2), which requires a high skills base, South Africa also faces the challenge of
a local context that creates low-wage, low-skilled jobs and the realities of poverty, inequality
and unemployment (Reddy et al., 2016).
The Global Talent Competitiveness Index (2015–2016) indicates that although SA is the
highest-placed African nation on the index, it still ranks below Malaysia, China and the
Philippines.
1.1 Local context challenges impacting human capital

development in South Africa
The DHET’s report on skills supply and demand in South Africa (Reddy et al., 2016),
along with the challenges identified by the National Skills Development Strategy (NSDS)
III, highlight, inter alia, the following challenges for raising the skills profile of the nation’s
human capital:

•• The education level and skill base of the labour force is lower than that of many other
productive economies. South Africa is challenged by low productivity in the workplace,
as well as by the slow transformation of the labour market and a lack of mobility of
the workforce, which is largely the result of inadequate training for those already in the
labour market.
SA is challenged by low productivity, slow transformation of the labour market and a lack
of mobility of the workforce, largely due to inadequate training of those already in the
labour market.
•• Language, literacy and numeracy skills are fundamental to improved economic and
social participation, productivity and social inclusion. A high proportion of young
people who exit school before completing a senior secondary qualification stand little
chance of participating productively in the economy.
•• The employment rate in South Africa is very low.
•• The shifting trend towards a service economy has resulted in a high dependence on
high-skilled knowledge workers and financial services. Although the financial services
sector contributes to growing the GDP (Gross Domestic Product: market value of
final goods and services from a nation in a given year) of the country, this sector offers
negligible opportunities for employment growth. Nearly half of the higher education
graduates are employed in the community, social and personal services sector. A high
proportion of the science and engineering graduates, from both higher and technical
vocational education sectors, prefer to work in the financial services sector, as opposed
to the manufacturing sector.
•• The university and FET (further education and training) now referred to as TVET (technical
and vocational education and training, college sub-systems are the largest components of
the post-school education and training system. Although access to schools, universities and
TVET colleges has improved, progression through programmes in all types of educational
institutions (including low completion rates from schools) remain low.
•• The public TVET institutions, as well as universities and universities of technology,
should have the capacity to deliver skills for the new economy. The current problem,
however, is that although many lecturers have education qualifications, they lack
occupational qualifications, relevant occupational work experience and industry
contacts. Such a situation creates serious difficulties for TVET colleges’ efforts to align
learning programmes to industry needs.
•• The pool of students who can potentially access university and science-based TVET
programmes is very small, in comparison to the skill demands in the country.
•• In both the university and TVET sectors, the share of female enrolments is higher than the
male enrolments. Research (Reddy et al., 2016) suggests that females are generally focused on
so-called feminine subjects, such as health, education and social sciences, while males are likely
to study for the so-called masculine science, that is, technology and engineering-based subjects.
•• There is an under supply of engineering technicians and associated professionals, as well as
building and construction, metal, machinery, electronic and electrical, and related trades.

•• There is a general trend towards qualification–job mismatch (that is, the match between the
type of qualifications required by workers in medium and higher level occupations to perform
their job effectively, and the actual type of qualifications held by those in such occupations).
•• The high numbers of both the employed and unemployed with less than a grade 12
education will require training and development strategies from SETAs, such as facilitating
occupationally directed learning programmes.
•• Given the high numbers of the employed and unemployed with less than a grade 12
education, SETAs must play a role in facilitating occupationally directed learning
programmes that target this group.
•• The post-school education and training sector must focus on increasing the supply of
science, engineering and technology graduates, as well as teachers, especially secondary
school mathematics and science teachers.
South Africa’s pool of intermediate skills, especially artisan skills, is too low to support
national and sector development and growth.
•• South Africa’s pool of intermediate skills, especially artisan skills, is too low to support
national and sector development and growth. The workforce is not keeping up with
the skills needed to remain competitive in an increasingly knowledge-based economy.
The workforce is not keeping up with the skills needed to remain competitive in an
increasingly knowledge-based economy.
•• There is a need to ensure the continuous upgrading of skills in the workforce, to help
ensure a measurable increase in the intermediate skills pool, especially in artisan,
technician and related occupations, attributable to increased capacity at education
and training institutions and increased workplace experiential learning opportunities.
SETAs should play a prominent role in contributing to these goals, especially through
their discretionary funds.
•• Workplace-based learning and development should be an integral part of all vocational
programmes. Establishing effective partnerships between education and training
systems and employers to provide for workplace training would ensure that skills have
real labour market relevance and that young people have an early appreciation of, and
exposure to, the world of work.
•• Whereas the enrolment and participation rate in our university sector is higher than
that of the vocational education and training sector, it is still not producing sufficient
appropriately skilled and qualified people in disciplines central to social and economic
development.
•• Access is a challenge. Access relates to the availability of places in relevant programmes,
on the one hand, and to the constraints (social, academic, geographical and financial)
facing the majority of disadvantaged university applicants, on the other.

•• The stakeholders will need to address the challenge of the low number of National
Senior Certificate holders/high school graduates and those qualifying with a National
Certificate (Vocational) at NQF Level 4, who attain the required levels of competence in
the identified priority areas. Post-school educational opportunities, including bridging
programmes and other options, require special attention.
•• Our skills levy resources, especially the National Skills Fund (NSF), must strategically and
programmatically support the production of priority skills in high-level occupationally
directed programmes in the entire skills development pipeline, from universities and
colleges to the workplace. In addition, the university sector must also find a way of
systemically engaging in the identification of national development and economic
needs, including engaging in other government processes such as the National Human
Resource Development (HRD) Strategy and the National Skills Development Strategy
(NSDS) and Plan.
The extent to which employers and workers will benefit from the knowledge-based economy
will depend on our capacity to conduct innovative research and apply new knowledge in
the workplace.
•• It is important to recognise the changing nature of work in what is becoming a global

knowledge-based economy, within which South African enterprises are operating. The
extent to which employers and workers benefit from the knowledge-based economy
will be determined by our capacity to conduct innovative research and apply new
knowledge in the workplace. This requires the development of research capacity,
particularly research relating to building new knowledge linked to sector and national
industrial plans. The DHET, in collaboration with HEIs (higher education institutions)
and SETAs, will be encouraging increased capacity to conduct research, as well as the
establishment of sector-relevant research projects.
•• Companies (employers) and SETAs must embark on human resource strategies to attract
and develop qualified, skilled people listed in the national scarce skills list (occupations
in high demand list). An overview of the latest South African list of occupations in high
demand, as reported by the DHET is available from the DHET website: http://www./
dhet.gov.za.
Skills development is not only about training people for employment, but should also
empower people to create opportunities to make a living for themselves.
•• Skills development is not only about training people for employment, but should also
empower people to create opportunities to make a living for themselves. Low levels of
education and training, as well as the lack of standardised, appropriate and accredited
training, are key constraints to enabling people to create their own opportunities. There
are also constraints in upscaling the contribution of co-operatives, which historically
have played and continue to play a key role in providing sustainable livelihoods for the

majority of South Africans. These co-operatives range from stokvels and burial societies
to financial, trade and production co-operatives. The annual turnover of these co-
operatives is estimated to run into billions of rand. Properly supported with adequate
skills, these co-operatives could play a vital role, not only in the margins, but also in the
very mainstream of the South African economy.
•• Trade unions, their education programmes, as well as other worker-initiated training
programmes and NGOs (non-government organisations), play a crucial role in the further
education and training of workers in broader sectoral policy and capacity to effectively
engage in the workplace and broader economy. Trade unions and worker education and
training initiatives are able to use the critical networks of their organisations (for example,
shop stewards and union officials) to educate their members and other workers to suit
their needs in a manner that is also beneficial to the economy as a whole.
Worker-initiated L&D can contribute to a workforce that is better able to understand the
challenges facing their sectors, thus benefiting the economy and the developmental objectives
of the country.
•• Worker-initiated education and training can contribute to a workforce that is better

able to understand the challenges facing the economic sectors in which they operate.
This would benefit the workplace, our economy and the developmental objectives of
the country.
•• The NSDS III supported NGO, community and worker-initiated skills development
and training programmes. Likewise, the NSF will endeavour to support credible and
quality worker skills development, education and training programmes.
•• Historically and internationally, the public sector has played a significant role in
education and training. For example, many state entities offered large numbers of
apprenticeships. In many countries, municipalities also offer apprenticeships on a
large scale. Similar observations can be made about the provision of ABET (adult basic
education and training) and for the development of high-level skills, such as planning,
environmental management and engineering. However, in recent times in South Africa,
the role of the state in driving skills development in these and other important areas has
been below what is needed and is inconsistent. It is essential for government to fulfil a
key role in building skills for national development.
•• There has not been much emphasis, particularly at school level, on career and vocational
guidance for our youth. The result is that young people in particular may opt for
a programme because it is well-marketed or there is financial aid. There is a lack of
guidance in directing young people to programmes for which they have an aptitude,
and which will provide training in areas needed in the economy. South Africa’s entire
skills development system must dedicate the necessary resources to support career and
vocational guidance, because this has proven to be a critical component in successful
skills development initiatives worldwide. Both the SETAs and the NSF, respectively,
must seek to build career-guidance initiatives in their sectors and generally as a key
component of the NSDS III.

The complexities of the local context challenges regarding human capital development
facing South Africa are compounded by fast emerging global trends that companies and
nations globally must strategically address to ensure sustained economic growth and
competitiveness. The following section outlines some of the most general trends that need
to be considered in human capital development.
1.2 Global and African trends impacting human capital

development
The 21st-century environment is labelled as a new era of rapid technological advancement,
often called the Fourth Industrial Revolution (Second Machine Age) or digital era that has
fundamentally transformed the broader economy and world of work, society and business
(Deloitte, 2017). Business and human resource (HR) leaders have to embrace new ways of
thinking about their companies, human capital talent and their role in the broader society.
Deloitte’s 2017 report on global human trends highlights the following challenges and
trends that managers and HR practitioners will have to face in drafting their human capital
development strategies (Deloitte, 2017):
•• The pace of technological advancement is unprecedented with new smart technologies
(that is, artificial intelligence, mobile platforms, sensors and social collaboration
systems) revolutionising the way people live, work and communicate. However, despite
new technologies, business productivity growth seems to remain low, that is, business
productivity does not seem to keep pace with technological progress.
The pace of technological advancement is unprecedented with new technologies

revolutionising the way people live, work and communicate.
•• The business environment (Workplace 4.0), has become more volatile and disruptive
with many companies going out of business due to increasing competitiveness and
demand for flexibility and scarce and critical skills.
•• Business practices of corporate planning, organisational structure, job design, goal-
setting, management, performance management, and human capital attraction and
development were largely developed in the ‘First Industrial Age’, and companies seem
to lag behind in revising and updating their strategies to keep pace with technological
and knowledge advancements. The result is an ever-increasing gap between
technological sophistication and the amount of work actually performed, which leads
to issues of income inequality, wage stagnation, and social and political unrest around
the world. Most stock market valuations are driven by IP (internet provider) services,
not by physical or capital goods, and, therefore, companies with low productivity lose
quickly to competitors. Public policy (for example, around income inequality, skills
development, unemployment, immigration and trade) is slow to adapt to digital and
knowledge advancement, which directly affects businesses through regulation, taxes
and legislation. Laws and policies on topics such as minimum wage, trade tariffs,
immigration and education shift only after years of public debate, which results in
imbalances and challenges for business and HR leaders.

Organisations recognise the importance of talent mobility and acquisition, and they use
social networking, HR data analytics and cognitive technologies to source talent.
•• The digital era that heralds the 21st-century world of work (Workplace 4.0) requires a
new set of digital business and working skills. Focusing on career strategies and human
capital learning models that help employees build skills quickly and continuously, and
organisational ecosystems and networks of empowered teams rather than structural
hierarchies to facilitate both individual and organisational reinvention, has become an
imperative for sustaining business survival and competitiveness. Leading organisations
recognise the importance of talent mobility and acquisition. Digital tools, such as social
networking, HR data analytics and cognitive technologies, are used to source people in
new ways, attract them through a global brand, and determine who will best fit the job,
team and company. Performance management approaches now emphasise continuous
feedback and coaching rather than focusing on appraisal. New approaches to workplace
redesign, employee engagement and well-being, culture and work productivity systems
are also put at the forefront of the digital workplace (Workplace 4.0).
Updating and revising diversity strategies to address issues of fairness, equity and inclusion
have become a CEO-level priority around the world.
•• Updating and revising diversity strategies to address issues of fairness, equity and
inclusion have become a CEO-level priority around the world. Accountability, data,
transparency and ‘diversity through process’ is driving efforts around unconscious bias
training and education throughout the business community.
•• Globally companies report making significant progress in adopting robotics, sensors,
cognitive and artificial intelligence (AI) technologies. The digital era is, therefore, seen as
an open talent economy. Companies expand their workforce to include freelancers, ‘gig
economy’ workers and crowds. These trends will result in the redesign of almost every
job, as well as a new way of thinking about workforce planning and the nature of work.
The context of South Africa’s skills and employment issues pose complex challenges that
require innovative thinking and leading-edge HR practices.
The local context and global trends and challenges clearly require HR leaders to engage
in new and innovative approaches to human capital development. This provides an
opportunity for leading organisations to use these trends to guide business productivity
and success, and take the lead in pulling society toward the crest of the technological
wave of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (Deloitte, 2017). Although South Africa, as an
emerging and developing country, may be slow to adapt to the demands of the digital
era, human capital development through the national skills development initiatives must
remain a core focus of HR strategies to ensure economic stability and growth in a rapidly

transforming global society. The local context of South Africa’s skills and employment
issues pose a myriad complex challenges that require innovative thinking and leading-
edge HR practices, which can be supported by organisational training and development
initiatives. The Global Talent Competitiveness Index (GTCI: 2015–2016) emphasises the
following key trends regarding the necessity for quality human capital development in the
African context, which organisations should note (Crous & Attlee, 2016):
•• Internationally mobile talent (‘brain circulation’ across borders) is a key ingredient
of human capital development. The acquisition of ‘know-how’ and experience via
networks, and innovations and entrepreneurship qualities through talent mobility,
benefits companies world-wide. Quality management practices are required for
optimal human capital development. To optimally benefit from talent circulation
(mobility), cities and regions need to facilitate talent acquisition through high-quality
infrastructures, competitive market conditions and business environments, superior
living conditions and an existing critical mass of talent with excellent networks.
Internationally, mobile talent (‘brain circulation’ across borders) is a key ingredient of

human capital development.
•• Inequalities in socio-economic background give rise to tension between those who are
privileged enough to be mobile and those lower on the social pyramid who lack mobility.
People who are not part of the talent pool may resist supporting the immigration of
highly skilled professionals and students unless their own children have the opportunity
to get ahead.
•• The diffusion of technology and efficient international communications make it possible
for corporations to move strategically important product development and research
activities to countries (i.e. China, South Korea, the Philippines, Slovenia, Turkey and
Vietnam), which employ quality talent at a low cost. Africa is currently excluded from
this trend due to low skills issues. Increasingly, talent is also being drawn to countries
such as Chile, South Korea, Rwanda and Azerbaijan rather than South Africa.
Technology and efficient international communications enable corporations to move product

development and research to countries such as China, which employ quality talent at a
low cost.
•• Competing for scarce vocational skills (TVET) will continue to challenge emerging
countries, including BRICS countries (i.e. Brazil, Russia, India, China and South
Africa). Quality TVET (vocational and technical skills training) and occupationally
directed training addressing scarce and critical skills and professions should become
a priority.
•• In the digital era, technological advances are rapidly evolving and technological
innovation increases the array of professions and jobs that can be automated, which will
affect knowledge workers such as technicians, as well as manual workers. Knowledge
10

workers will, in the future, be displaced by algorithms and low-skilled workers by

robots and artificial intelligence (AI). Virtual business models will allow employees to
work from home for different employers, while others will have to retrain and upskill
to retain jobs far from home. In general, the gap between the digital world of work
(Workplace 4.0) and educational institutions should also be narrowed by addressing
outdated and irrelevant training and education methods and curricula.
Rapidly evolving technological innovation increases the array of jobs that can be automated,
which will affect knowledge workers as well as manual workers.
As a matter of urgency, government policy-makers, investors in Africa and employers need

to acknowledge the impact of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (the Second Machine or
digital age) on plans for industrialisation, job creation and poverty eradication. The rise of
automation implies that industrialisation is likely to generate significantly fewer jobs for the
next generation of emerging and low-income economies such as South Africa (Crous &
Attlee, 2016). Although South African organisations need to support the government’s efforts
to raise the human capital skills profile of the nation amidst the nation’s unique and complex
skills development challenges, human capital development in South African organisations
should also take serious cognisance of the arrival and impact of the smart industry driven by
the Fourth Industrial Revolution (Workplace 4.0) for future economic growth.
2. T
HE SOUTH AFRICAN LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK FOR
WORKFORCE SKILLS DEVELOPMENT
In South African organisations, human capital and capability development is regulated
mostly by workforce skills development legislation and national strategies. South Africa
has an interesting and unique history of workforce skills development. However, there is
consensus that to achieve growth and development, South Africa requires a multipronged
skills development strategy that targets high-, intermediate- and low-level skills development
simultaneously in a differentiated manner (Kraak et al., 2006; Reddy et al., 2016; Young,
2005). The current National Skills Development Strategy (NSDS III) and new proposed
National Skills Development Plan 2030 (NSDP), for example, is a well-conceived strategy
with the potential to move South Africa forward in the monumental task of addressing the
country’s skills shortages, while taking cognisance of the changing world of work.
The NSDS III and the proposed National Skills Development Plan 2030 is a well-conceived
strategy to move South Africa forward in the monumental task of addressing the country’s
skills shortages, while noting the changing world of work.
The country’s skills development system emerged out of a process that saw organised labour,
business, educationalists and other stakeholders developing their independent visions for skills
development and education and training, and then coming together to work towards what
ostensibly appeared to be a single vision, but which inherently retained the legacy of competing
11

imperatives and expectations (Badroodien & McGrath, 2005). Policies and strategies, such as
Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment (BBBEE), the New Growth Path, the Industrial
Policy Action Plan (IPAP), the outcomes of the Medium-Term Strategic Framework, the
Human Resource Development Strategy (HRDSSA), sector developmental plans, government’s
goals for rural development and the new environmental strategy, the NSDS III, NSDP 2030
and skills development legislations offer opportunities for improving skills, or upskilling. These
policies ensure that different industries enter value-added markets to stimulate demand for
skills, employers act in their long-term interest, and there are incentives for organisations to
develop both high-level and basic skills. However, the scale of the training and development
challenge is still daunting to most employers and the task of appropriate skills development
awaits all South African workplaces (Reddy et al., 2016; Telela, 2004).
Labour market indicators show that skilled and semi-skilled occupations dominate the
make-up of the South African workforce.
Besides unemployment and employment equity, another important labour market

indicator is the trend to change occupations. Researchers often use occupations such as
those listed on the Organising Framework for Occupations (OFO) to measure the demand
for skills. By tracing occupations over time, it is possible to identify which occupations
are growing and, therefore, where demand exists for certain skills. In South Africa, there
has been a significant shift in occupations. There has been a growth in employment
opportunities in middle-level occupations, such as technical and associated professionals,
clerical workers and craft workers. Labour market indicators also show that skilled and
semi-skilled occupations dominate the make-up of the South African workforce (DoL,
2003; Reddy et al., 2016).
In South Africa, business service is the fastest growing industry as more organisations
outsource their non-core functions.
Internationally, service industries are the most versatile and flexible when it comes to
generating employment, particularly through the establishment of small and medium and
micro enterprises (SMMEs). In South Africa, the service sector is taking on an increasingly
important role as more and more organisations outsource some of their non-core functions.
Business service is the fastest growing industry – it has overtaken manufacturing in its
contribution to South Africa’s gross domestic product (GDP). Crime has also led to a
significant growth in industries such as private security and insurance services. As noted
earlier, globalisation is placing a greater demand on some industries (such as banking and
other financial services) to align themselves to international standards and practices. These
changes demand a flexible and sophisticated workforce that can adapt quickly to changes
in the working environment (DoL, 2003; Reddy et al., 2016).
12

The South African government has committed itself to raising the skills profile of the labour
market. Short-term measures to address immediate shortages, and longer-term solutions
have been in place since 1994 (the post-apartheid regime) to address structural imbalances
in the labour market. Some of the most important decisions taken by government in this
regard include:
•• The Green Paper on the National Skills Development Strategy for Economic and
Employment Growth in South Africa (March 1997), published by the Department of
Labour, which stated that there was a need to increase competency levels in the country
to promote economic and employment growth and social development;
To address the inequalities in the workforce, legislation makes provision for levy grants for
employers who promote the development of previously disadvantaged people.
•• To address the inequalities in the educational and equity profile of South Africa’s
workforce, skills development legislation (e.g. the Skills Development Act No. 97 of
1998; the Skills Development Amendment Act 31 of 2003; the Skills Development
Amendment Act 37 of 2008; the Skills Development Amendment Act of 2011; the
Skills Development Levies Act 9 of 1999, including the Revised Sector Education and
Training (SETA) Grant Regulations of April 2013) makes provision for levy grants for
employers who promote the development of black Africans, coloureds and Indians,
women and people with disabilities;
•• The National Qualifications Framework (NQF) Act 67 of 2008, which was enacted
to ensure, among other objectives, the integration of education and training in South
Africa. The NQF Act provides for the responsibilities of the Minister of Higher
Education and Training, the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) and
Quality Councils (e.g. Umalusi, Council for Higher Education and Training [CHET]
and Quality Council for Trades and Occupations[QCTO]);
•• The signing of National Skills Accords on 13 July 2011, which spell out the key
commitments by government, labour, business and communities to curbing the
skills challenge facing South Africa. One of the key commitments is to facilitate the
placement of new entrants in the labour market through learnerships, apprenticeships
and internships;
A key commitment is to facilitate the placement of new entrants in the labour market
through learnerships, apprenticeships and internships.
•• The National Skills Development Strategy (NSDS I [April 2001–March 2005], NSDS
II [April 2005–March 2011] and NSDS III [April 2011–March 2016 as extended
to 31 March 2020: Government Gazette No. 40505, 15 December 2016) articulated
government’s priorities for achieving its medium- and long-term goals with regard
to training and development. The NSDS served as the blueprint for improving the
effectiveness and efficiency of skills development in South Africa.
13

The NSDS emphasised, inter alia, the need to confront racial inequalities by giving more
opportunities to previously (and currently) disadvantaged South Africans.
e NSDS emphasised, inter alia, the need to confront racial inequalities by giving
Th
more opportunities to previously (and currently) disadvantaged South Africans.
Such opportunities include assisting unemployed people from designated groups to
participate in skills upliftment programmes. Through these programmes, unemployed
people can acquire the skills they need to enter the labour market or start their own
small businesses. These programmes include learnerships, apprenticeships, internships,
bursaries and new venture-creation initiatives. NSDS III incorporates PIVOTAL
(occupational-directed Professional, Vocational, Technical and Academic Learning)
programmes that are linked to a qualification and PIVOTAL (occupationally-directed
learning programmes) grants;
•• Facilitating the recruitment of skilled foreign workers in fields with critical skills
shortages;
•• Ensuring the development of South Africans in fields with critical skills
shortages (see the latest national list of occupations in high demand: on the
DHET website);
•• Providing career guidance and counselling to school leavers to assist them in pursuing
further studies in fields that meet the needs of the economy;
•• Ensuring the integration of government strategies to achieve the goals of the Medium
Term Strategic Framework and the Human Resource Development Strategy for South
Africa (HRDSSA II: 2010–2030);
•• Enhancing the labour market intelligence by constantly monitoring and evaluating
trends through skills demand and supply research and reports by the Department of
Higher Education and Training (DHET);
•• The White Paper on Post-school Education and Training (‘White Paper’: 15 January
2014, Government Gazette No. 37229) which focuses on providing guidelines to the
DHET and the institutions for which it is responsible on developing strategies to
improve the capacity of the post-school education and training system to meet South
Africa’s skills needs;
•• The draft Proposal for the National Skills Development Plan 2030 (NSDP: Government
Gazette Vol. 630, No. 41332, 15 December 2017). The NSDP 2030 has been developed
in response to the ‘White Paper’ to improve, within the context of the objectives of the
Skills Development Act, (1) the integration of the post-school education and training
system (PSET), and (2) the interface between PSET institutions (including universities
and colleges) and the world of work. The NSDP addresses the expiry of the NSDS III
on March 2016 (as extended to 31 March 2020: Government Gazette No. 40505, 15
December 2016) to allow for the finalisation and phasing in of the NSDP.
Table 1.1 provides an overview of the key pieces of national legislation that govern human
capital or workforce skills development in South African organisations.
14

Table 1.1 Overview of national legislation governing human capital skills development in
post-apartheid South Africa (Coetzee, 2018)
National legislation Purpose/objectives Additional notes
Skills Development Act To develop the skills of the South This Act provides for the establishment
97 of 1998 African workforce – of an institutional framework to
•• to improve the quality of life of devise and implement national, sector
workers, their prospects of work and and workplace strategies to develop
labour mobility; and improve the skills of the South
African workforce. It integrates those
•• to improve productivity in the
strategies within the NQF; it provides
workplace and the competitiveness of
for learnerships that lead to recognised
employers;
occupational qualifications; and among
•• to promote self-employment; and other things, provides for the financing
•• to improve the delivery of social of skills development by means of a levy
services. grant scheme and a National Skills Fund.
To increase the levels of investment Included in the Skills Development Act
in education and training in the labour was the legal establishment of what is
market and to improve the return on that now referred to as the Sector Education
investment; and Training Authorities (SETAs).
Other key sections in the Act include
To encourage employers – those dealing with the national skills
•• to use the workplace as an active development strategy, governance of the
learning environment; SETAs, sector skills plans, learnerships,
•• to provide employees with the learning programmes and quality
opportunity to acquire new skills; assurance.
•• to provide opportunities for new
entrants to the labour market to gain
work experience; and
•• to employ persons who find it difficult
to be employed.
To encourage workers to participate
in learnerships and other training
programmes;
To improve the employment prospects
of people who were previously
disadvantaged by unfair discrimination
and to redress those disadvantages
through training and education;
To ensure the quality of education and
training in and for the workplace;
To assist –
•• work seekers to find work;
•• retrenched workers in re-enter the
labour market; and
•• employers to find qualified
employees.
15


Skills Development The Skills Development Levies Act 9 The levy was only 0.5% of the monthly
Levies Act (SDLA) of 1999 (SDLA) established the payroll until March 2001. From then on,
of 1999 and related system of levy financing to fund skills the levy was 1% of the payroll. Although
regulations development, and allowed for additional public service departments do not pay
regulations under the SDLA which, in a levy, they are required to budget 1%
turn, provide for the allocation of grants of payroll for training purposes. They
by SETAs. The principal aim of the Act is should report on the usage of that 1%
to finance learning programmes aimed when they submit their workplace skills
at developing scarce and critical skills plans, annual training reports, PIVOTAL
by way of a compulsory levy system. Plans and Reports to their SETA.
Based on this Act, every company that Of the SDL paid over to SARS, 20%
exceeds the threshold set for the annual of the amount is transferred by the
payroll (i.e. a threshold is a total payroll Department of Higher Education and
of R500 000 per annum), as calculated Training (DHET) to the National Skills
for pay-as-you-earn (PAYE), has to Fund (NSF). This is used to fund large-
pay 1% of its total payroll as a Skills scale development projects that will
Development Levy (SDL). address national skills needs, such as
training those who are unemployed, the
youth, people living in rural communities
and people with disabilities. The
funding may be accessed by a range of
stakeholders, including SETAs.
Skills Development The key amendments introduced in The key objective of which was to
Amendment Act 31 of relation to SETAs were: strengthen the then Minister of Labour’s
2003 •• Amending the Minister of Labour’s powers to influence the work of, and to
regulation-making powers to hold to tighter account, the SETAs. This
prescribe requirements for the was in response to various problems
performance of SETA functions; that had been experienced in a number
of SETAs and the perceived inability
•• Providing for the amalgamation and
of the Minister to intervene decisively
dissolution of SETAs;
under the legislation in force at the
•• Requiring that SETAs conclude annual time. The skills development unit to
service level agreements with the which SETAs account has since been
Director-General: Labour concerning transferred to the Ministry of Higher
the performance of their functions Education and Training.
under the Act and the National Skills
Development Strategy, their annual
business plans and any assistance
to be provided to the SETA by the
Director-General to enable it to
perform its functions;
•• Empowering the Minister of Labour
to issue written instructions to
SETAs when they fail to perform
their functions or comply with service
level agreements, do not manage
their finances in accordance with the
SDA or when their membership is not
representative of their constituencies
or they have not prepared and
implemented an employment equity
plan as contemplated under the
Employment Equity Act 55 of 1998;
16


•• Requiring SETAs to ensure that their
membership is representative of
designated groups (black people,
women and people with disabilities);
•• Requiring SETAs to be managed in
accordance with the Public Finance
Management Act (PFMA);
•• Extending the grounds on which
the Minister may take over the
administration of a SETA to include
the failure by a SETA to comply with
its service level agreement or with an
instruction issued to it by the Minister
of Labour; and
•• By adding an additional statutory
function – promoting the national
standard of good practice on skills
development.
Skills Development Outlines the revised SETA functions, The Skills Development Amendment
Amendment Act 37 of which include the following: Act 37 of 2008 provides anew for both
2008 •• The development of a sector the functions and composition of the
skills plan; National Skills Authority; provides
anew for the functions of the SETAs;
•• The establishment of learning
and provides clarity on the continuation
programmes;
of apprenticeship training; and
•• The approval of skills plans; among other things, provides for the
•• The allocation of grants, promotion of establishment of the Quality Council for
learning programmes and registration Trades and Occupations (QTCO).
agreements for learning programmes; Learning programmes include a
•• Performing any other function learnership, apprenticeship, learning
delegated to it by the QCTO; and programme or any other prescribed
•• Liaison with provincial offices, labour programme, including a structured work
centres, the National Skills Authority experience component.
(NSA) and skills development forums.
•• Administration, in turn, is handled
by establishing a Skills Development
Planning Unit.
•• Established labour centres to:
–– provide information to workers,
unemployed and employers;
–– assist workers and other
categories of persons to find
placements;
–– assist workers and other
categories of persons to start
income-generating projects; and
–– help workers enter, say, learning
programmes.
17


Artisan development involves the
following:
•• The establishment of a National
Artisan Moderation Body (NAMB)
to monitor the performance of
accredited artisan trade test centres;
develop and maintain a national
databank of trade tests; tests;
develop and maintain a databank
for national artisan trade assessors
and moderators; record artisan
achievements; determine appeals
against tests; and recommend
certification of artisans to the QCTO.
The QCTO will issue the certificate.
The National The NQF Act provides for the NQF; The NQF should be seen as a
Qualifications provides for the responsibilities of representation of an integrated learning
Framework Act 67 of the Minister of Higher Education and framework in South Africa. It is intended
2008 Training; provides for the South African to integrate institutional training and
Qualifications Authority; and amongst workplace practice.
others, provides for Quality Councils (for Figure 1.2 details how the NQF Act
example, Umalusi, the Council for Higher integrated the three sectors.
Education and the QCTO).
•• The General and Further Education
The revised NQF consists of the and Training Qualifications Framework
following important features: (GFETQF: NQF levels 1 to 4) – falling
•• A 10-level NQF; under the Department of Basic
•• Unit standards-based qualifications Education but with the FET sector
and whole qualifications being falling under the DHET (Quality
equally valid; Council: Umalusi);
•• The replacement of the 12 National •• The Higher Education Qualifications
Standard Bodies by Standards Framework (HEQF: NQF levels 5 to
Advisory Panels for the purposes of 10) – falling under the DHET (Quality
standard setting (to streamline the Council: CHE)
NQF); •• The Occupational Qualifications
•• The replacement of Standard Framework (OQF: NQF levels 1–10)
Generating Bodies (SGBs) by – falling under the DHET (Quality
Communities of Expert Practices Council: QCTO).
(CEPs); Figure 1.3 provides an overview of the
•• A smaller SAQA Board; and role of quality councils in the South
African education and training system.
•• Three quality councils: Umalusi, the
Council for Higher Education (CHE)
and Quality Council for Trades and
Occupations (QCTO).
These quality councils manage the three
sub-frameworks that fall within a single
NQF and are co-ordinated by the South
African Qualifications Authority (SAQA).
18


The objectives of the NQF are
to contribute to the full personal
development of each learner and the
social and economic development of the
nation at large. It aims to:
•• create a single integrated national
framework for learning achievements;
•• facilitate access to, mobility and
progression within education, training
and career paths;
•• enhance the quality of education and
training; and
•• accelerate the redress of past unfair
discrimination in education, training
and employment opportunities.
Skills Development The Act seeks to provide for: This Act provides for an amendment
Amendment Act 26 •• The prohibition of a SETA board of the Skills Development Act 97 of
of 2011, published 28 member from conducting business 1998, so as to effect the necessary
March 2012 with the SETA concerned; amendments to the provisions relating
to the establishment of SETAs;
•• The disclosure of a conflict of interest
amalgamation and dissolution of SETAs;
on the part of a SETA board member;
the incorporation of sub-sectors from
•• Issues not addressed when the Act’s one SETA to another; the composition
statutory functions were transferred of the SETA Accounting Authority;
from the Minister of Labour to the disqualification of a member to a SETA
Minister of Higher Education and Accounting Authority; constitution of
Training, including: a SETA; conduct of a member of staff
–– Mergers, dissolution and closure; or Accounting Authority from engaging
–– Incorporating a subdivision of one in business with the relevant SETA;
SETA into another; disclosure of conflict of interests; the
repeal of sections which were excluded
–– Annual service level agreements in the transfer of the statutory functions
and business plans; to the Minister of Higher Education
–– The appointment of board and Training dealing with employment
members and chairpersons; and services and Productivity South Africa;
–– SETA constitutions. and to provide for matters connected
therewith.
Revised SETA Grant •• 1% of payroll paid to SARS: (see Mandatory grants are used to fund
Regulations of April Figure 1.4); education and training programmes
2013 (re-promulgated 13 •• 0.5% paid to QCTO; 10% to SETA (levy paying companies, submission of
January 2016). administration and 20% to NSF; workplace skills plan, annual training
Re-confirmed in report, PIVOTAL plan and report, non-
•• The mandatory grant to employers
draft National Skills PIVOTAL plan and report)
has been reduced from 50% to 20%;
Development Plan The discretionary grant policy of the
(NSDP) 2030 (15 SETA must set out how discretionary
December 2017) funds will be used in order to meet
sector needs.
19


Discretionary grant (49.5%): 80% The discretionary grants policy must also
allocated to PIVOTAL (occupational- set out how PIVOTAL programmes can
directed programmes) Grants be delivered through public education
(professional, vocational, technical and training institutions (in other words
and academic learning programmes FET/TVET colleges and HET institutions).
that result in qualifications or part Grant applications must be made
qualifications on the NQF) and that available within the sector to allow
address scarce and critical skills in access by any legal body or enterprise,
the sector. SMME’s and NGO’s to apply for any of
The remaining 20% of discretionary the various grants available. The policy
grant may be allocated to funding of must ensure openness and fairness.
other programmes related to priorities
outlined in the SSP. Pivotal grants
are accessed by the submission of a
PIVOTAL Plan and Report. Unclaimed
discretionary grants shall be transferred
to the National Skills Fund. SETAs must
have spent or committed to spending at
least 95% of the grant funds.
The National Skills Objectives included: It is a sub-component of the HRDSSA

Development Strategy •• To develop a culture of high quality and speaks directly to the training-
(NSDS) I: April 2001– lifelong learning; related aspects of the HRDSSA II
March 2005 (2010–2030). The NSDS guided the
•• To foster skills development in the
strategic planning of the DHET, the NSF,
formal economy for productivity and
the SETAs and related agencies.
employability;
The NSDS I emphasised equality and the
•• To stimulate and support skills
need to cultivate lifelong learning in a
development in small businesses;
workplace environment. Learning
•• To promote skills development was supposed to be demand driven
for employability and sustainable based on the needs of employees in
livelihood through social development both the public and private sectors.
initiatives; The effectiveness of delivery was
•• To assist new entrants into essential to ensure the desired
employment. outcomes were achieved.
The National Skills Objectives included: The emphasis in NSDS II was placed
Development Strategy •• To prioritise and communicate again on equity, quality training and
(NSDS) II: April 2005 – critical skills for sustainable growth, skills development in the workplace. The
March 2011 development and equity; need for the promotion of employability
was identified. This strategy also
•• To promote and accelerate quality
identified the need to assist designated
training for all in the workplace;
groups to gain knowledge and
•• To promote employability and experience in a workplace environment
sustainable livelihoods through skills in order to acquire critical skills. The
development; quality of the provision was identified as
•• To assist designated groups, including a problem area needing improvement.
new entrants, to participate in
accredited work-integrated learning
and work-based learning programmes
to acquire critical skills to enter the
labour market and self-employment;
•• To improve the quality and relevance
of provision.
20


The National Skills The NSDS III seeks to encourage and Emphasis is placed on training to enable
Development Strategy actively support the integration of trainees to enter the formal workforce
(NSDS) III: April 2011– workplace training with theoretical or create a livelihood for themselves.
March 2016 as extended learning, and to facilitate the journey The emphasis is particularly on those
to 31 March 2020 individuals make from school, college who do not have relevant technical
or university, or even from periods skills or adequate reading, writing and
of unemployment, to sustained numeracy skills to enable them to access
employment and in-work progression. employment.
The NSDS III seeks to promote a skills Under NSDS III, employers play
development system and architecture a key role in the talent pipeline.
that effectively responds to the needs of Employers are now required to become
the labour market and social equity. The actively involved in the curriculum of
strategy seeks to establish and promote professional, vocational, technical and
closer links between employers and academic (PIVOTAL) programmes: these
training institutions and between both of are programmes that provide a full
these and the SETAs. This strategy also occupationally directed qualification.
seeks to accelerate the development This will ensure that what learners are
of the much-needed skills that have taught is relevant to the world of work.
constrained the South African economy. Finally, there is a very strong focus on
quality assurance of everyone in the
pipeline in the NSDS III and monitoring
is not viewed as an add-on, but as an
integral part of what institutions, such
as SETAs, do.
The White Paper on Policy objectives: The White Paper outlines policy
Post-school Education •• A post-school education and directions to guide the DHET and the
and Training (‘White training (PSET) system that can institutions for which it is responsible in
Paper’: 15 January 2014) assist in building a fair, equitable, building the post-school education and
non-racial, non-sexist and democratic training system to meet South Africa’s
South Africa; skills and societal needs.
•• A single, co-ordinated post-school
education and training (PSET) system;
•• Expanded access, improved quality
and increased diversity of provision
•• A stronger and more co-operative
relationship between education
and training institutions and the
workplace;
•• A post-school education and
training system that is responsive
to the needs of individual citizens,
employers in both public and private
sectors, as well as broader societal
and developmental objectives.
21


The draft Proposal for The NSDP is grounded in the The NSDP addresses problems and
the National Skills overarching policy objectives of the opportunities in the skills landscape that
Development Plan 2030 White Paper. are summarised and addressed in the
(NSDP: 15 December The NSDP addresses the expiry of the White Paper; i.e. the need to integrate
2017) NSDS III on March 2016 (as extended to organisations in the skills landscape
31 March 2020). with PSET institutions, including
universities and colleges; the need to
outline a clearer mandate and role for
SETAs for the longer term; the need
for better aligned funding, planning
and monitoring mechanisms; and the
reduction of multiple accountabilities.
The skills development legislation provided for the establishment of a number of statutory
structures and supporting bodies which are summarised in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 S
tatutory structures and supporting bodies created by the skills development
legislation
Governing body Roles and responsibilities

Department of The DHET represents government and sets policy and strategic direction for all
Higher Education and matters pertaining to skills development in the post-school education and training
Training(DHET) system (PSET) and all three sub-frameworks of the NQF. The DHET has, inter alia, a
planning, monitoring and evaluating role in the performance of the NSA, NSF, SAQA,
SETAs and the QCTO.
Department of Basic The DBE represents government and sets policy and strategic direction for all
Education(DBE) matters pertaining to skills development in the General Education and Training Band
(GET sector).
South African SAQA advises the Minister of Higher Education and Training on NQF matters in
Qualifications Authority relation to the NQF Act, such as:
(SAQA) •• Advancing the objectives of the NQF;
•• Overseeing the further development of the NQF; and
•• Co-ordinating the NQF sub-frameworks.
Its board is required to perform its tasks after consultation and in co-operation
with all bodies and institutions responsible for education, training and certification
of standards affected by the NQF. It must also comply with the various rights
and powers of bodies in relation to the Constitution and Acts of Parliament. The
members of the board are nominated by identified national stakeholders in education
and training. SAQA also coordinates quality assurance matters in terms of the three
NQF sub-frameworks: Umalusi, CHE and QCTO (SAQA, 2009).
National Skills Authority The NSA advises the Minister of Higher Education and Training on policies and
(NSA) strategies for the new skills-building system. The NSA works closely with the DHET.
The NSA comprises representatives from organised business, labour, government
and other bodies that reflected community and provider interests, such as SAQA,
skills development providers and experts on employment services. The community
representatives include people who represent women, youth, the general public,
rural groups and people with disabilities (RSA, 2008).
22


The NSA has to ensure that systems are in place to support, monitor and evaluate
the SETAs and QCTOs implementation of the NSDP (i.e. the allocation of funds and
budget analysis, programme access and outcomes, and the work of the NSF). The
NSA will also evaluate DHET performance reports on SETA and QCTO performance
within the context of the NSDP, and make recommendations to the Minister
(DHET, 2017).
National Skills Fund The National Skills Fund (NSF) was established under section 27 of the Skills
(NSF) Development Act 97 of 1998. The Fund must be credited with the following
(DHET, 2017):
•• 20% of the skills development levies, interest and penalties collected in respect
of every SETA, as required by sections 8(3)(a) and 9(a) of the Skills Development
Levies Act;
•• The skills development levies, interest and penalties collected by the SARS
Commissioner from employers, which do not fall within the jurisdiction of a SETA,
as required by section 8(3)(c) of the Skills Development Levies Act;
•• Money appropriated by Parliament for the fund;
•• Interest earned on investments contemplated in section 29(3);
•• Donations to the fund; and
•• Money received from any other source.
The 20% allocated to the NSF must be allocated to research into the PSET system
and to programmes (i.e. skills development offered through the community education
and training system; youth programmes, building small businesses, and co-operative
and rural development) that will address the needs of the poor (marginalised and
disadvantaged groups) in an equitable manner. The NSF is responsible for the
funding of skills development aligned to national development strategies and
priorities (DHET, 2017).
Sector Education and There are currently 21 SETAs (see Table 1.3) who report to the Minister of Higher
Training Authorities Education and Training. Each SETA serves a specific sector of the economy. A sector
(SETAs) covers a group of linked and related economic activities. SETAs have stakeholder-
driven governing bodies (accounting authorities nominated by business, labour and
government, and appointed by the Minister of Higher Education and Training).
SETAs are responsible for ensuring that the respective sector contributes to the
realisation of the NSDS III, White Paper and New NSDP 2030 objectives regarding
skills development. They need to understand demand and to signal supply regarding
skills and qualifications (on all three NQF sub-frameworks) in occupations that
support economic growth, encourage employment creation and enable social
development through stakeholder engagement (employers, labour, government and
professional bodies). Demand analysis and supply planning (i.e. analysis of existing
workforce and projected skills needs against occupations) are key to the sector skills
plans (SSPs) which are informed by the employers’ annual workplace skills plans
and annual training reports, including PIVOTAL plans and reports. The SETA planning
cycle will in future align with the DHET medium-term strategic framework (MTSF)
5-year planning cycle, and National Development Plan goals and priorities, and the
medium-term expenditure framework MTEF 3-year budget cycle. The SETAs and the
QCTO must submit annual performance plans (APPs) to the DHET, who will undertake
a 3-year review of SETA and QCTO contributions toward national objectives.
23


SETAs manage budgets and expenditure, and use the levy grant to support the
PSET system to ensure funding concentrates on driving the provision of quality
qualifications and/or workplace-based experience (as part of a qualification) to
the existing workforce, the pre-employed (students) and the unemployed. SETAs
administer skills grants against agreed upon sector priorities and timelines. They
inform career-guidance processes regarding learning and occupational pathways.
SETAS also undertake quality assurance relating to workplace issues and currently
support the QCTO in quality assurance duties (DHET, 2017).
Quality Council of Trades The QCTO is responsible for quality assurance and standards-setting with regard
and Occupations (QCTO) to occupational qualifications in South Africa. It manages its sub-framework, the
OQF, to ensure quality in the design and development of occupational qualifications,
and the delivery, assessment and certification processes required to develop
occupational competence. Key functions include:
•• Establishing and maintaining the occupational standards and qualifications;
•• The quality assurance of occupational standards and qualifications and learning in
and for the workplace;
•• Designing and developing occupational standards and qualifications and
submitting them to the SAQA for registration on the NQF;
•• Ensuring the quality of occupational standards and qualifications and learning in
and for the workplace;
•• Promoting the objectives of the NQF;
•• Liaising with the National Skills Authority (NSA) on the suitability and adequacy
of occupational qualifications standards and qualifications and on the quality of
learning in and for the workplace;
•• Liaising with SAQA, other quality councils and professional bodies responsible for
establishing standards and quality assurance of standards and qualifications; and
•• Performing any other function delegated to it by the Minister of Higher Education
and Training.
The QCTO planning cycle will, in future, align with the DHET medium-term strategic
framework (MTSF) 5-year planning cycle, and National Development Plan goals
and priorities, and the medium-term expenditure framework MTEF 3-year budget
cycle. QCTOs must submit annual performance plans (APPs) to the DHET who
will undertake a 3-year review of QCTO contributions to the national objectives
(DHET, 2017).
Council on Higher The CHE functions as a quality assurance council for programmes and qualifications
Education (CHE) developed and provided on NQF levels 5 to 10 (universities).
General and Further Umalusi functions as a quality assurance council for programmes and qualifications
Education and Training developed and provided on NQF levels 1 to 4.
Quality Council (Umalusi) Umalusi accredits the following institutions:
•• Independent schools;
•• Private Further/Technical and Vocational Education and Training colleges (FET/
TVET colleges);
•• Private Adult Education and Training providers;
•• Private assessment bodies that assess the qualifications that Umalusi certifies.
24


National Artisan NAMB monitors the performance of accredited artisan trade test centres; develops
Moderating Body and maintains a national databank of trade tests; moderates trade tests; develops
(NAMB) and maintains a databank for national artisan trade assessors and moderators;
records artisan achievements; determines appeals against tests; and recommends
certification of artisans to the QCTO. It oversees the training and assessment of
artisans in South Africa. To become an artisan, a school-leaver would have to
complete a N-rated course; take part in a formal learning programme linked to a
SETA; undergo practical and then in-service training; and pass a trade test (SEIFSA,
2010). NAMB working together with the QCTO will go a long way to ensuring that
artisan training is of a high quality and standard, and that all artisan training is
subjected to a single national regime of quality assurance.
Communities of expert CEPs are not a statutory body but fall under the jurisdiction of the QCTO. The QCTO
practice (CEP) involves CEPs in the design and development of occupational qualifications. A
community of expert practice (CEP) is a group of practitioners currently active in the
occupation. CEPs consist of education, labour and professional bodies that have
an interest in the relevant field and draw on relevant experts and knowledgeable
individuals. This approach ensures that occupational qualifications remain relevant
and are responsive to changing needs in the labour market. Where there is a
professional body, institute or occupational association to represent practitioners,
these can be used to convene and manage the processes in line with QCTO
regulations. Where no such bodies exist, or where there are competing bodies,
the QCTO will set up and maintain a database of practitioners who are willing to
contribute to the delivery of the outputs (CHE, 2007).
The skills development legislation and new NSDP 2030 provide for social partners and
stakeholders that are represented on the various statutory bodies. All social partners and
stakeholders are required to support the goals and principles of the NSDP and skills
development legislation, as agreed under the National Skills Accord of 2011. The NSDP
outlines eight commitments that cover key areas across the PSET system (DHET, 2017a):
1. Expand the level of training using existing facilities more fully;
2. Improve the role and performance of TVET colleges (previously called FET colleges);
3. Increase internships and placement opportunities available within workplaces;
4. Improve the level of training in occupations in high demand (list on DHET website);
5. Improve the funding of training and the use of funds available for training and incentives
on companies to train;
6. Set annual targets for training in state-owned enterprises;
7. Improve SETA governance and financial management and stakeholder involvement;
and
8. Align training to the National Development Plan and ensure that there is effective
planning at the national and sectoral level.
25

Table 1.3 The current SETA landscape
SETA Scope of industry coverage

Agriculture Sector Education and Training Primary and secondary agriculture
Authority (AGRISETA)
Banking Sector Education and Training Authority Banking and microfinance sector
(BANKSETA)
Culture, Arts, Tourism, Hospitality and Sports Sector Culture, arts, tourism, hospitality and sports sectors,
Education and Training Authority (CATHSSETA) which comprises the following sub-sectors:
Arts and culture
Hospitality
Gaming and lotteries
Conservation and tourists
Sports/recreation/fitness
Tourism and travel
Construction Sector Education and Training Authority Construction industry

(CETA)
Chemical Industries Education and Training Authority Chemical industries sector

(CHIETA)
Fibre Processing and Manufacturing Sector Education Clothing, textiles, footwear and leather sector
and Training Authority (FP&M SETA)
Energy and Water Sector Education and Training Energy and water sector
Authority (ESETA)
Education, Training and Development Practice Sector Education, training and development sector
Education and Training Authority (ETDP-SETA)
Financial and Accounting Services Sector Education Financial and accounting services sector
and Training Authority (FASSET)
Food and Beverages Sector Education and Training Food and beverages sector
Authority (FOODBEV)
Health and Welfare Sector Education and Training Health and welfare sector
Authority (HWSETA)
Media, Advertising, Information and Communication Media, advertising and ICT sectors
Technologies Sector Education and Training Authority
(MICT‑SETA)
Insurance Sector Education and Training Authority Insurance sector

(INSETA)
Local Government Sector Education and Training Local government sector

Authority (LGSETA)
Manufacturing, Engineering and Related Services Manufacturing, engineering and related services sector
Sector Education and Training Authority (MerSETA)
Mining Qualifications Authority (MQA) Mining and minerals sector
26

SETA Scope of industry coverage

Public Services Sector Education and Training Authority Public service sector
(PSETA)
Safety and Security Sector Education and Training Safety and security sector
Authority (SASSETA)
Services Sector Education and Training Authority Services sector

(SERVICE SETA)
Transport Education and Training Authority (TETA) Transport sector
Wholesale and Retail Sector Education and Training Wholesale and retail sector
authority (W&R SETA)
Apart from the National Qualifications Framework Act, the White Paper on Post-school
Education and Training (‘White Paper’: Government Gazette No. 37229, 15 January 2014)
and the draft Proposal for the National Skills Development Plan 2030 (NSDP: Government
Gazette Vol. 630, No. 41332, 15 December 2017) currently serve as important pieces of
legislation relevant to human capital skills development in South African workplaces. The
White Paper and NSDP 2030 fall within the ambit of the Skills Development Act, as
summarised in Table 1.1. The following section discusses these government policies in
more detail.
2.1 National Qualifications Framework Act

The NQF is a framework, or set of principles and guidelines, that provides a vision and
structure for the construction of a national qualifications system. It is a national effort
to integrate education and training into a unified structure of recognised qualifications.
Education and training are brought together into a single, co-ordinated system designed
to encourage lifelong learning. Learners’ achievements are captured on the National
Learner Record Database (NLRD). In this way, the acquired skills and knowledge of all
learners are recognised. The NQF is an institutional framework for ensuring that there are
qualifications available to meet the individual, social and economic needs of the nation.
Only qualifications that have been registered by SAQA are recognised (Jewinson, 2008).
The NQF provides a vision for a national qualifications system that integrates education
and training into a unified structure of recognised qualifications.
2.1.1 NQF objectives

The NQF seeks to (SAQA, 2011a,b):
•• Create an integrated national framework for learning achievements;
•• Facilitate access to and mobility and progression within education, training and career paths;
•• Enhance the quality of education and training;
•• Accelerate the redress of past unfair discrimination in education, training and
employment opportunities; and
•• Contribute to the full personal development of each learner and the social and economic
development of the nation at large.
27

The NQF applies to all qualifications, giving education and training the same status.
It measures what people know and can do, not where and how they acquired their skills
and knowledge.
The current framework (shown in Table 1.4) is made up of 10 levels of learning and
pathways for learning specialisations, with varying degrees of complexity in skills and
knowledge. Different qualifications fit into the framework according to their focus and
difficulty. The level of a qualification is based on the exit level; in other words, on what
people will know and be able to do when they complete a qualification. This new way
of recognising learners’ achievements applies to all qualifications, giving education and
training the same status. It measures what people know and can do, rather than where and
how they acquired their skills and knowledge (Coetzee et al., 2013).
It is clear from Table 1.4 that provision has been made for progression (moving from
one level to the next). Provision has also been made for horizontal articulation between
qualifications.
NQF Level 1 is the basic level of compulsory education (school and Adult Basic
Education [ABET]) which everyone in the country should have. It fits into what is called
the General Education and Training Band (GET sector). It includes workplace learning
at elementary level. The responsibility for education and training at this level is shared by
both the Department of Basic Education (DBE) and the DHET.
NQF levels 2–4 represent additional education that takes place below university or at
tertiary education level. It is called the Further Education and Training Band (FET sector).
This includes workplace learning at intermediate level. The responsibility for education and
training at these levels is shared between the DBE and the DHET.
NQF levels 5–10 fall within the Higher Education and Training Band (HET) sector.
Education and training at these levels can be achieved through tertiary education (at
universities, universities of technology and TVET colleges) or through workplace and
private skills development providers. The responsibility for education and training at these
levels lies with the DHET.
28

Table 1.4 The 10-level NQF structure (based on SAQA, 2018)
NQF level NQF Band: HEQSF NQF Band: OQSF NQF Band: GFETQSF
(Higher Education and Training (Occupational Qualifications Sub- (General and Further Education
Qualifications Sub-Framework) Framework) and Training Qualifications Sub-
Framework)
Quality council: Quality council: Quality council:
Council on Higher Education (CHE) Quality Council for Trades and Occupations Umalusi
(QCTO)
2600_Practising_Learning_and_Development_3e.indb 29
Qualifications and Institutions Qualifications and Institutions Qualifications and Institutions
certificates certificates certificates
10 Doctoral Degree
Doctoral Degree
(Professional)
9 Master’s Degree
Master’s Degree
(Professional)
8 Bachelor Honours Degree Occupational certificate

Public and Private Public and private
Bachelor’s Degree (Level 8)
Higher Education skills development
Postgraduate Diploma Institutions providers
7 Bachelor’s Degree Occupational certificate
Advanced Diploma (Level 7)
6 Advanced Cerificate Occupational certificate

Diploma (Level 6)
5 Higher Certificate Occupational certificate

(Level 5)
29
2018/11/30 1:58 PM
30
NQF level NQF Band: HEQSF NQF Band: OQSF NQF Band: GFETQSF
(Higher Education and Training (Occupational Qualifications Sub- (General and Further Education
Qualifications Sub-Framework) Framework) and Training Qualifications Sub-
Framework)
4 Occupational certificate Grade 12/N3/NC(V)
(Level 4) National Certificate
Schools/TVET
3 Occupational certificate Grade 11/N2/NC(V)
Colleges/
(Level 3) Intermediate Community Colleges
Certificate
2 Occupational certificate Grade 10

(Level 2) Elementary Certificate
1 Occupational certificate Grade 9/ABET 4

(Level 1) General Certificate
2018/11/30 1:58 PM
2.1.2 Principles of the NQF

The principles and guidelines of the NQF are based on and grounded in (SAQA, 2001):
•• The eradication of injustice;
•• The achievement of reconstruction and development goals; and
•• The transformation and promotion of quality in education and training.
The following principles (see Table 1.5) underpin the objectives of the NQF and contribute
to the benefits of the NQF:
Table 1.5 Principles of the NQF (Fasset, 2009)
NQF principle Description

Integration Education and training should form part of a system of human resource development that
provides for the establishment of an underlying approach to education and training.
Relevance Education and training should be, and remain, responsive to national development
needs.
Credibility Education and training should have international and national value and acceptance.
Coherence Education and training should work within a consistent framework of principles and
certification.
Flexibility Education and training should allow for multiple pathways to the same learning ends.
Standards Education and training should be expressed in terms of a nationally agreed

framework and internationally acceptable outcomes.
Legitimacy Education and training should provide for the participation of all national
stakeholders in the planning and co-ordination of standards and qualifications.
Access Education and training should provide ease of entry to appropriate levels of education
and training for all prospective learners in a manner that facilitates progression.
Articulation Education and training should enable learners who successfully complete accredited
prerequisites to move between components of the delivery system.
Progression Education and training should ensure that the framework of qualifications permits
individuals to move through the levels of national qualifications via different
appropriate combinations of the components of the delivery system.
Portability Education and training should enable learners to transfer credits of qualifications
from one learning institution and/or employer to another.
Recognition of prior Education and training should, through assessment, give credit to learning that has
learning already been acquired in different ways.
Guidance of learners Education and training should provide for counselling of learners by specially trained
individuals who meet nationally recognised standards for educators and trainers.
2.1.3 Sub-frameworks of the NQF

The NQF has three qualifications sub-frameworks that are managed by three QCs, as
depicted in Figure 1.1 and Table 1.4. The roles of the three quality councils are depicted
in Figure 1.21. These frameworks describe the different levels of training and education in
South Africa, and they are as follows:
31

•• The General and Further Education and Training Qualifications Subframework

(GFETQSF) comprising levels 1–4. This framework accommodates the Adult Basic
Education and Training (ABET) levels, the schooling system up to Grade 12 and
Further Education and Training (FET) from levels 2–4.
•• The Higher Education Qualifications Subframework (HEQSF) from levels 5–10. This
framework accommodates qualifications from universities and universities of technology.
NQF
Level 10
Doctoral degree (Professional)
Occupational
curriculum
Level 9
Master’s degree (Professional)
Bachelor Honours Degree
CHE
Level 8
Bachelor’s Degree HEQSF
Postgraduate Diploma
Occupational assessment
Bachelor’s degree Level 7
National Skills Certificates

Advanced diploma
specifications
Occupational certificates
Advanced Certificate
Level 6
Diploma
NOPF
QCTO
Higher certificate Level 5

Incl. subject/ unit certificates
National Senior Adult National National

Certificate Senior Certificate Level 4
OQF
OQSF
UMALUSI
(Grade 12) Certificate (Vocational) 4
Grade 11/N2/NC(V)
Intermediate
Level 3
Units of Certificate
GFETQSF learning to be
FLC
accumulated National
Certificate
Level 2
(Vocational) 2
General Education Adult National

and Training Senior
Certificate (Grade 9) Certificate Level 1
Figure 1.1 How the NQF is linked to the GFETQSF, HEQSF and OQSF (DHET, 2010b)
•• The Occupational Qualifications Subframework (OQSF) from levels 1–10 (currently only
up to NQF level 8). This is a new sub-framework in the NQF that provides a structure
for designing, delivering and assessing learning that is highly responsive to the needs of
the workplace and the social development sector, in contrast to the other two qualification
frameworks that are focused on learning for foundational knowledge and skills, and academic
or discipline-based knowledge and research (NSDH, 2009). The OQSF will eventually
cover all NQF levels with regard to all occupational qualifications and related skills sets.
32

National Qualifications Framework Act
South African Qualifications

Framework (SAQA)
Department of Higher Education and Training
National Qualifications Framework

(NQF)
General and Further

Occupational Qualifications Higher Education
Education and Training
Subframework Qualifications Subframework
Qualifications Subframework
(OQSF) (HEQSF)
(GFETQSF)
Quality Council for Council for

Umalusi Trades and Occupations Higher Education
(OCTO) (CHE)
General and Further Higher Education Laws

Skills Development
Education Amendment Act
Amendment Act
Amendment Act
Figure 1.2 The NQF Act and its three qualifications sub-frameworks (BANKSETA, 2011)
2.1.4 NQF level descriptors

The purpose of level descriptors for levels 1–10 of the NQF is to ensure coherence in
learning achievement in the allocation of qualifications and part-qualifications to particular
levels, and to facilitate the assessment of the national and international comparability of
qualifications and part-qualifications. The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA)
is responsible for the development of the content of the level descriptors for each level of
the NQF in agreement with the three Quality Councils, namely, Umalusi, the Council on
Higher Education, and the Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (SAQA, 2010).
The NQF level descriptors appear in Appendix A.
SAQA is responsible for the development of the content of the level descriptors for each level
of the NQF in agreement with the three Quality Councils.
The three Quality Councils are Umalusi, the Council on Higher Education, and the
Quality Council for Trades and Occupations.
33

Minister of Higher Education and Training
Recommend qualifications
and part qualifications
to SAQA for registration
Make (NQF)
recommendations
Submit learner
Collaboration Develop and achievements to SAQA
between QCs manage sub- Develop and for record keeping (NLRD)
and SAQA frameworks: implement
policy and
criteria for:
SAQA NQF
Development of sector-
Development, driven qualifications
registration and and part qualifications
publication of
qualifications and
part qualifications
CHE HEQSF Develop measures for the
assessment of learning
achievement
Assessment,
recognition of prior
learning and credit
QCTO OQSF accumulation and Maintain learner
transfer achievements database
Conduct quality
Umalusi GFETQSF Quality assurance of sub-
assurance of framework
sub-framework
Organise and publish/

inform on research on
sub-framework matters
Figure 1.3 T
he role of quality councils in the South African education and training systems
(BANKSETA, 2011)
2.1.5 Contextual application of the level descriptors

The following principles underpin the application of the level descriptors across the three
sub-frameworks of the NQF (SAQA, 2011a, b):
•• There is one common set of level descriptors for the NQF to be used in different contexts.
•• The level descriptors incorporate 10 competencies.
•• The level descriptors are designed to meet the needs of academic, as well as occupational
qualifications.
•• There must be a correlation between qualification levels and occupational levels in the
world of work.
34

•• The critical cross-field outcomes of SAQA are embedded in the level descriptors.
•• Level descriptors are cumulative, that is, there is progression in the competencies from
one level to the next.
•• Level descriptors are applicable to the recognition of prior learning (RPL) see Chapter 7.
•• Level descriptors are descriptive and not prescriptive.
•• The nomenclature for qualifications is dealt with in the sub-frameworks of the NQF.
Level descriptors embrace learning in a wide variety of contexts (vocational, occupational,

academic and professional) and environments (classroom, laboratory, field, clinic,
community, etc.). Contextual interpretation of the level descriptors within each of the three
sub-frameworks across academic, professional and occupational contexts is encouraged.
Level descriptors provide a scaffold from which more specific descriptors can be developed
by a variety of different sectors and practitioners, for example, discipline- or profession-
based. It is also recognised that in the processes of curriculum design and development, the
interpretation of these generic level descriptors will be influenced by, for example, field-
discipline and context-specific nuances (SAQA, 2011a,b).
Level descriptors (see Appendix A) are designed to act as a guide and a starting point
for, inter alia:
•• Writing learning outcomes and associated assessment criteria for qualifications and
part-qualifications;
•• Pegging a qualification at an appropriate level on the NQF, used together with purpose
statements, outcomes and assessment criteria;
•• Assisting learners to gain admission through RPL at an appropriate level on the NQF;
•• Making comparisons across qualifications in a variety of fields and disciplines pegged at
the same level of the NQF; and
•• Programme quality management used together with purpose statements, outcomes and
assessment criteria.
Level descriptors are not learning outcomes or assessment criteria, but give general
descriptions of the nature and characteristics of learning at a particular level in the NQF.
Level descriptors are not learning outcomes or assessment criteria, but rather provide a
broad frame from which the specific and contextualised outcomes and assessment criteria
for a particular programme can be derived. The competencies listed at a particular level
in the framework broadly describe the learning achieved at that level, but an individual
learning programme may not necessarily meet each and every criterion listed.
Level descriptors give general descriptions of the nature and characteristics of learning
at a particular level in the NQF. They do this by identifying a progressive hierarchy of
achievement – that is, they aim at describing growth from the simple to the more complex,
in relation to learning, and applying knowledge and skills. They are aimed at developing
a common understanding of what a particular level of achievement means across different
fields, but at the same level.
35

Consequently, a qualification or part-qualification registered at a specific level of the NQF

shall comply with the following categories of level descriptors. The tables in Appendix A
show the applied competencies required at each level in order for learners to be declared
competent (SAQA, 2011a, b).
2.2 The White Paper on Post-school Education and Training in

South Africa
The White Paper of Post-school Education and Training in South Africa was launched by
the DHET on 15 January 2014 (Government Gazette No. 37229). The White Paper outlines
policy directions to guide the DHET – and the institutions for which it is responsible – in
how to build a developmental state with a vibrant democracy and a flourishing economy.
The main policy objectives of the White Paper are:
•• A post-school system that can assist in building a fair, equitable, non-racial, non-sexist
and democratic South Africa;
•• A single, co-ordinated post-school education and training system (PSET);
•• Expanded access, improved quality and increased diversity of provision;
•• A stronger and more cooperative relationship between education and training
institutions and the workplace;
•• A post-school education and training system that is responsive to the needs of individual
citizens, employers in both the public and private sectors, as well as broader societal and
developmental objectives.
The White Paper (WP) is an intensive 76-page document that contains a description
of specific challenges and current problems in addressing the challenges, together with
decisions/actions to correct the divide between PSET institutions and the world of work.
The White Paper focuses on using the post-school education and training system to achieve
the government’s objectives; for example, addressing, inter alia, the apartheid legacy and
inequalities. The skills needs of employers are not the focus of this paper. The White Paper
also brings in more centralised controls in an attempt to ‘fix’ problems and direct the skills
development system in the direction desired by the DHET. The White Paper views the
skills level of both existing employees and those entering the labour market as an important
pillar of government’s strategy to attract investment, industrial expansion and job creation.
The government’s view is that to achieve inclusive growth there has to be much better
coordination across government departments, with the state playing a more effective role
in stimulating and sustaining the economy.
The White Paper views the skills level of both existing employees and those entering the
labour market as an important pillar of government’s strategy to attract investment,
industrial expansion and job creation.
Table 1.6 provides a summary of the key policy areas.
36

Table 1.6 S
ummary of key policy areas outlined in the White Paper on Post-school
Education and Training (WP PSET) (Coetzee, 2017; Hattingh, 2017)
Policy area Brief description of policy goal decisions

FET vs TVET colleges •• FET colleges and private higher education institutions are renamed:
SAIVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) colleges.
Private training providers •• SA Institute for Vocational and Continuing Education and Training will
(PTP) be established to support the FET colleges; e.g. with research, upgrading
skills of staff, developing curricula, promoting dialogue between parties,
monitoring and evaluation of TVET institutions.
•• TVET colleges will be supported to develop capacity to train adult educators.
•• The DHET sees the public institutions as the core of the PSET system, and
will direct public resources to them. The government’s main thrust will be
to direct public resources primarily to meeting national priorities and to
provide for the masses of young people and adult learners through public
institutions.
Community colleges Current public adult learning institutions will be converted into community
colleges to train adults and young people in literacy and other basic skills.
They will also partner with Expanded Public Works Programmes and public
entities responsible for promoting SMMEs and cooperatives.
Unaccredited training The WP is very critical of unscrupulous private providers who have utilised
and provider-specific gaps and weaknesses in the quality assurance system to their advantage by
programmes offering what are called provider programmes. Students enrolling for these
programmes are misled into believing that they are proper higher education
programmes accredited on the NQF, when in fact they are not even quality
assured. Similarly, some private providers, including large and apparently
reputable ones, openly advertise unaccredited courses in the knowledge that
the authorities do not have the capacity to deal with their transgressions.
Programmes not aligned to The WP confirms that there is much learning that does not lead to a national
qualifications qualification. Such education and training need not be rigorously quality
assured, as long as it meets the needs of learners, the relevant government
department, private employer or community. Non-formal educational provision
targeted at specific community needs, as well as on-going professional
development, need not always lead to qualifications or be provided through
accredited providers.
Universities Three core functions are emphasised: (1) to provide people with high-
level skills for the labour market; (2) producers of new knowledge; and
(3) opportunities for social mobility and to strengthen social justice and
democracy. The three core functions are recognised as: teaching, research and
community engagement.
Community engagement involves socially responsive research, partnerships
with civil society organisations, formal learning programmes that engage
students in community work as a formal part of their academic programmes,
and many other formal and informal aspects of academic work.
Articulation Articulation must improve between all post-school institutions. In developing

and supporting an articulated post-school education and training system,
institutions should make every effort to avoid unfair and irrational barriers to
acceptance and credit transfer.
37


International links The DHET supports the international exchange of research, scholarship,
academics and students, as well as academic partnerships between South
African and other universities. The DHET will develop a framework of
principles and guidelines for institutions concerned with offering and receiving
cross-border distance education and ensure that providers of cross-border
education and training meet acceptable criteria and are subjected to suitable
quality assurance supervision.
Work-integrated The WP strongly supports WIL because many graduates lack practical
learning (WIL) workplace experience. Workplace learning must be seen as an integral part of
qualification and programme design.
The WP sees a key role for employers in the integration of education and
training. This will include a very significant expansion of work-integrated
learning and workplace-based learning, including apprenticeships, learnerships
and internships.
Workplace training The WP encourages universities to build strong partnerships with employers to
promote the expansion of workplace training opportunities, especially in those
areas where qualifications or professional registration depends on practical
workplace experience.
Open/distance learning WP promotes open learning through diverse modes of provision to complement
classroom-based delivery. Learning support centres and free national Open
Education Resources (OER) are to be established to improve access to learning
opportunities.
To increase enrolments, the DHET has decided that predominantly contact
universities may choose to offer distance programmes on condition that
effective quality-control measures are in place. The DHET will also encourage
all universities to expand online and blended learning as a way to offer niche
programmes, especially at postgraduate level, to those who are unable to
attend full-time programmes, either due to their employment status or their
geographical distance from a campus.
The WP also proposes that more education and training below university level
(e.g. TVET colleges) should be offered through distance learning.
CPD (continuous The DHET expects providers to focus on programmes that will give successful
professional development graduates enhanced employment opportunities after completion (especially
programmes) continuing professional development programmes).
Skills Planning Unit (SPU) A national Skills Planning Unit will be established to coordinate information
about skills needs and research and produce credible national skills plans.
One of the functions of these plans will be to inform norms that determine
which programmes are funded. The SPU will engage with industry and other
stakeholders to ensure that comprehensive information is available on skills
gaps and the kind of training taking place in the workplaces.
SETAs and levy grants The SETAs will remain as they are. However, their future role will be reviewed
(see the draft National Skills Development Plan 2030). The WP also comments
on issues such as SETA funding, roles and the levy grant system.
The discretionary grant will be for programmes intended to support existing
businesses, for current and potential new entrants to the labour market.
Providers could be public, private or in-house, on condition they have the
capacity to provide all or substantial parts of qualifications.
38


The focus of the mandatory grant will be exclusively on gathering accurate
data on sector skills needs. Companies will be required to provide information
on current levels of skills, experience and qualifications of staff, all training
that is taking place in that workplace and skills priorities and gaps for the short
as well as medium term.
Workplace skills plans Workplace skills plans and annual training reports must provide reliable data
about the sector or even the workplace. The data should be adequate to inform
strategic decisions at either sectoral or national level.
NQF sub-frameworks The three Quality Councils (CHE, Umalusi and the Quality Council for Trades and
Occupations – QCTO) remain largely unchanged – but with greater flexibility
on the qualifications they quality assure. Educational institutions should not
necessarily be limited to offering qualifications in a particular sub-framework.
So, e.g., TVET colleges may be in a position to offer programmes on the Higher
Education Qualifications Framework, say at Level 5 or even Level 6.
National Institute for The HIHSS was established to do research in areas related to humanities and
Humanities & Social social sciences, e.g. in African languages.
Sciences (HIHSS)
National Skills Fund (NSF) The 20% of the skills levy that is allocated to the National Skills Fund will be
used to fund skills development aligned to national development strategies
and priorities, e.g. youth programmes, building small businesses and
cooperatives, rural development and fund research.
Apprenticeships The DHET is committed to re-establishing a good artisan training system as

an urgent priority. The DHET will consider if the theoretical component of
apprenticeships can be delivered through distance learning.
Internships/learnerships/ The possibility exists for the TVET colleges and the SETAs to work together
apprenticeships to restructure occupational programmes (such as N-courses, which include
a period of work experience after completion of the college programme) as
learnerships or apprenticeships, or for the work placement to become a more
structured internship.
National Infrastructure Plan The government’s National Infrastructure Plan provides a major opportunity to
to promote apprenticeships, expand the country’s skills profile. In all of its 18 Strategic Integrated Projects,
learnerships there will be a requirement that service providers have a skills plan showing
how apprenticeships, learnerships and other occupational programmes will be
rolled out during the project. Where skills are sourced from abroad, contracted
employers must demonstrate how skills transfer will be achieved and how the
project will enable South African capacity to be built. The intention is to use
the projects to expand the country’s skills base. Occupational teams (OTs) must
be established. These teams will bring together representatives of employers,
education and training providers, professional bodies and others, such as trade
testers and licence issuers. OTs address problems of curriculum relevance
and alignment between institutional (theoretical) and workplace (practical)
learning, as well as work placement problems at a systemic, national level.
National Skills Authority A restructured and refocused National Skills Authority will have its functions
(NSA) concentrated specifically on the monitoring and evaluation of the SETAs. This
implies that it will become an expert body with high-level monitoring and
evaluation skills.
39


QCTO A concerted effort will be made in the coming years to build the capacity of the
QCTO and reduce the quality assurance work carried out by SETAs on behalf of
the QCTO.
Quality assurance Staff who work in quality assurance need extensive experience in and
knowledge of the specialised areas which they quality assure.
External assessment Strengthening external assessment systems (outside the university system) for
national qualifications is a priority.
Recognition of prior There must be a significant improvement in the availability of RPL services
learning (RPL) across sectors and regions. This strategy must include the establishment of a
coordination mechanism for RPL.
2.3 The National Skills Development Plan 2030

The National Skills Development Plan 2030 (NSDP: DHET Government Gazette No.
41332, 15 December 2017) builds on the goals of the National Skills Development Strategy
III (NSDS III) and supports the policy goals of the White Paper on Post-school Education
and Training (PSET) in the context of the Skills Development Act (SDA). NSDS III (see
Table 1.7 and Table 1.8) will expire on 31 March 2020 and will be replaced by the NSDP
2030. The NSDP retains the original purpose of the Skills Development Act, namely to
provide an institutional framework to devise and implement national, sector and workplace
strategies to develop and improve the skills of the South African workforce. As such, the
NSDP outlines the future roles of the Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs),
the National Skills Fund (NSF), the National Skills Authority (NSA) and the Quality
Council for Trade and Occupations (QCTO). The NSDP also suggests improvements
necessary to develop more effective skills planning mechanisms and the roles of social
partners in supporting formal skills development as part of PSET.
2.3.1 Purpose and strategic intentions of the National Skills Development Plan
The NSDP serves as a strategic document which outlines the purpose of the NSDP as aiming
to achieve the following in support of an integrated PSET system (DHET, 2017a):
•• To address the expiry of the NSDS III on March 2016 (as extended to 31 March 2020)
to allow for the finalisation and phasing in of the NSDP.
•• To build on the important policy shifts that were introduced in NSDS III (see Table
1.7 and Table 1.8) and highlighted in the White Paper (see Table 1.6), including the
need to:
–– provide greater levels of access to education and training in rural areas;
–– increase collaboration between the skills system, government and industry;
–– drive skills development primarily through the public education system and, in
particular, through universities and TVET colleges; and
–– focus less on numerical targets and more on outcomes and impact.
•• To address challenges that emerged from NSDS III, including work placement
difficulties for graduates and limited practical workplace experience, highlighting that
40

workplace learning must be an integral part of qualification and programme design,

and that tertiary institutions must be strengthened and changed where appropriate.
•• To provide a plan for the DHET to:
–– ensure that the levy-paying institutions contribute to the vision of the White Paper
and, in so doing, support the work of the DHET with funds from the National
Treasury;
–– indicate the roles played by the DHET and the key institutions implementing
the NSDP;
–– guide the disbursement of the levy grant system; and
–– indicate how the DHET will work with social partners to realise the intention of
the plan.
The four strategic intentions of the NSDP include:

1. Understanding demand through labour market information analysis. Data of SETAs
gathered from the workplace will be used as a source to understand and verify, in
collaboration with SETAs, employers and labour, the demand for occupational
qualifications nationally and within sectors.
2. Steering supply (qualifications and provision). The DHET will engage with
quality councils to ensure that qualifications and related curricula are in place
to meet the occupations in high demand (available from the DHET website:
http://www./dhet.gov.za). The DHET will avail resources to support the improvement
of the throughput and quality of these programmes (for example, incentives for
materials and lecturer development, and incentives for students). Partnerships with
SETAs, institutions and workplaces will be encouraged.
3. Steering supply (funding mechanisms). Creation of a framework for collaboration
between the Skills Planning Branch and Community Education and Training,
Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) and Higher Education
branches for planning purposes to consider how SETAs can (i) finance institutions to
fund enrolments and throughput in occupations, (ii) support workplace and institution
partnerships for integrated programmes, and (iii) design and implement workplace-
based learning incentives. Funding mechanisms and sources must support occupational
priorities and medium- and long-term planning.
4. Developing the capacity for growing supply. The DHET will be responsible for provision
and the SETAs will coordinate efforts to meet supply demand. Funding will come from
the fiscus and be complemented by funding to institutions in support of occupational
priorities (aligned to five-year planning cycle and three-year funding cycle to enable
incentives to support institutions in building capacity to address occupations in high
demand, including additional bursaries in these areas). The DHET, through institutions
responsible for materials development in each sector, will take responsibility for ensuring
that the materials required to deliver learning programmes against the occupational
qualifications are in place.
41

Table 1.7 The strategic intentions of the NSDS III (DHET, 2011b)
•• The NSDS III promotes the growth of Further Education and Training (FET) colleges (now called Technical and
Vocational Education and Training – TVET – colleges) to address national skills needs. Better use of workplace
learning programmes is encouraged, as is the use of worker-initiated training initiatives. Improved public sector
service delivery is seen as an imperative. The issue of language and literacy is of concern in terms of enabling
additional learning.
•• The NSDS III demonstrates high-level, directional thinking, linked to very good mapping, to initiatives such
as the New Growth Path, the Industrial Policy Action Plan, the outcomes of the Medium-Term Strategic
Framework, the Human Resource Development Strategy, sector developmental plans, government’s goals for
rural development and the new environment strategy.
•• The integration of education and training and accountability for delivery are the two cornerstones of the NSDS
III. This strategy seeks to support the integration of workplace training with theoretical training. It also seeks
to facilitate the journey from school, college or university, and even for periods of unemployment, to sustained
employment and in-work progress. There is a strong emphasis on linking skills development to career paths
and to career development.
•• For the first time ever, there is a strong focus on middle- and higher-level skills (Goal 2 of the NSDS III – see
Table 1.8). There is also the recognition that South Africa is primarily a knowledge economy, as well as an
acknowledgement that there has been an overemphasis on National Qualifications Framework (NQF) Level 3
learnerships in the past, with insufficient progression to more appropriate, higher-level skills (Fasset, 2011).
•• The strategy places a heavy emphasis on relevance, quality and sustainability of skills training programmes, to
ensure that they are able to impact very positively on poverty reduction and inequality.
•• For the first time, under NSDS III, employers will now play a key role in the talent pipeline. Employers are
now required to become actively involved in the curriculum. This will ensure that what learners are taught is
relevant to the world of work.
•• There is a very strong focus on quality assurance of everyone in the pipeline in the NSDS III and monitoring
is not viewed as an add-on, but as an integral part of what institutions, such as SETAs, do (DHET, 2011b;
Fasset, 2011)
Table 1.8 NSDS III goals, outcomes and outputs (DHET, 2011b)
NSDS III (April 2011–March 2016)

Goals Outcomes Outputs
Goal 1: Outcome 1: National Output 1: Capacity is established in the DHET to

Establishing need in relation to co-ordinate research and skills planning.
a credible skills development is Output 2: Sector skills plans, which are professionally
institutional researched, documented researched, provide a sound analysis of the sector and
mechanism for and communicated articulate an agreed sector strategy to address skills needs.
skills planning to promote effective
Output 3: Sector and national research is commissioned,
planning across all
and data are analysed, validated and captured in an
economic sectors.
integrated database that is accessible to all relevant
stakeholders.
Goal 2: Outcome 1: Middle-level Output 1: SETAs research and identify middle-level

Increasing access skills needs are identified skills needs in their sectors and put in place strategies to
to occupationally and addressed in all address these, particularly through the use of the public
directed sectors. FET colleges and universities of technology working in
programmes, partnership with employers providing workplace-based
both intermediate training.
level and higher Output 2: Projects are established to address middle-level
level professional skills in each sector.
qualifications
42


Outcome 2: 10 000 Output 1: SETAs establish projects and partnerships to

artisans per year qualify enable the relevant number of artisans for their sector to
with relevant skills and be trained in order to qualify and become work ready.
find employment. Output 2: The national Artisan Development Project
developed by JIPSA, and now located in the DHET and
M&E framework, is planned, managed and reported on,
with interventions where blockages occur.
Outcome 3: High-level Output 1: Sector skills plans identify the supply challenges
national scarce skills in relation to high-level scarce skills gaps and set out
needs are addressed by strategies for addressing these.
work-ready graduates Output 2: Agreements are entered into between SETAs,
from higher education university faculties and other stakeholders on appropriate
institutions. interventions to support improved entry to priority
programmes, increased work experience and experiential
learning for students and access to postgraduate work.
Outcome 4: Relevant Output 1: Sector skills plans identify the focal areas for
research and development research, innovation and development.
and innovation capacity is Output 2: Agreements are entered into between SETAs,
developed and innovative university faculties and other stakeholders on flagship
research projects research projects linked to sector development in a
established. knowledge economy.
Output 3: Programmes are put in place that focus on the
skills needed to produce research that will be relevant and
have an impact on the achievement of economic and skills
development goals.
Goal 3: Outcome 1: The National Output 1: The NCV is reviewed with inputs from
Promoting the Certificate (vocational) and stakeholders and the curriculum is revised to ensure that it
growth of a N-courses are recognised provides a sound foundation of relevant skills for building
public FET/TVET by employers as important the labour market.
college system base qualifications Output 2: The programmes offered to meet industry needs,
that is responsive through which young including those supporting apprenticeships and N-courses,
to sector, local, people can obtain are reviewed, updated and made available to and accessed
regional and additional vocational skills by employers.
national skills and work experience,
Output 3: A highly articulated system of qualifications
needs and entering the labour market
between the FET/TVET and universities programmes is in
priorities with marketable skills and
place.
obtaining employment.
Outcome 2: Partnerships Output 1: The capacity of FET/TVET colleges to provide

between the DHET, quality vocational training is reviewed. Each college has
SETAs, employers, private a strategic plan in place to build capacity and engage in
providers and public learning programmes, including programmes offered in
FET/TVET colleges are partnership with employers.
resulting in increased Output 2: SETAs identify FET/TVET colleges with
capacity to meet industry relevant programmes and put in place partnerships to
needs throughout the offer vocational courses and work experience for college
country. learners.
43


Outcome 3: The Output 1: The capacity of college educators to deliver

academic staff at colleges programmes is reviewed. Skills development programmes,
are able to offer relevant including work placement opportunities, are developed to
education and training of meet the needs of the college educators.
the required quality.
Goal 4: Outcome 1: A national Output 1: A DHET-led process, including stakeholders,

Addressing the strategy is in place to develops a strategy supported by all stakeholders.
low level of provide all young people Output 2: A national database tracks training and
youth and adult leaving school with an work opportunities and reports on the implementation
language and opportunity to engage of the strategy.
numeracy skills to in training or work
Output 3: The DHET partners with stakeholders in the
enable additional experience and improve
youth sector to put in place training and work experience
training their employability.
projects for young people.
Goal 5: Outcome 1: Training Output 1: SETA stakeholders agree on the provision of

Encouraging of employed workers substantial quality programmes for employed workers and
better use of addresses critical skills, report on the impact of the training.
workplace- promoting improved Output 2: Sector projects are put in place to address
based skills productivity, economic specific sector skills gaps.
development growth and the ability
Output 3: Cross-sectoral projects are established to
of the workforce to
address skills needs along local supply chains aimed at
adapt to change in the
supporting local economic development.
labour market.
Goal 6: Outcome 1: Output 1: SETAs identify in their skills planning

Encouraging Co-operatives supported research, established and emergent co-operatives and their
and supporting with skills training and skills needs.
co-operatives, development, expand Output 2: Sector projects are established by sector
small enterprises, and contribute to sector stakeholders, supported by the NSF.
worker-initiated, economic and employment
Output 3: A national database of co-operatives, supported
NGO and growth.
by skills development, is established and the impact of
community
training reported on.
training initiatives
Outcome 2: Output 1: SETAs, through their skills planning research,
Partnership projects identify the skills needs of small and emerging businesses
to provide training and in their sector and promote relevant programmes.
development support Output 2: Sector projects that are piloted by SETAs and
to small businesses expanded through partnership funding, are developed.
are established in all
Output 3: A national database of small businesses,
sectors and their impact
supported by skills development, is established and the
reported on.
impact of training reported on.
Outcome 3: Worker, NGO Output 1: SETAs engage with trade unions, NGOs and
and community-based community-based organisations in their sector and identify
education programmes skills needs and strategies in order to address needs.
are supported and their Output 2: SETAs establish quality pilot projects.
impact measured and
Output 3: Stakeholders expand successful projects with
reported on.
support from the NSF.
44


Goal 7: Outcome 1: There is a Output 1: SETAs with responsibility for public sector
Increasing public thorough analysis of and training conduct an analysis and reflect on achievements
sector capacity reflection on the provision and challenges.
for improved of education and training Output 2: DHET leads a discussion on the factors
service delivery in the public sector and impacting on provision and publishes proposals on
and supporting the contribution of the improving the institutional framework for public sector
the building of a various role-players. education and training.
developmental
state Outcome 2: Education Output 1: Sector skills plans set out the capacity needs of
and training plans for relevant departments and entities.
the public sector are Output 2: Plans and funding arrangements are agreed
revised and programmes upon between the relevant departments/entities and the
are implemented to build SETAs, and are reported on.
capacity.
Goal 8: Outcome 1: Career Output 1: Career guides are developed with labour
Building career paths are mapped to market information from SETAs, addressing sub-sectors
and vocational qualifications in all in their sector.
guidance sectors and sub-sectors, Output 2: Sector stakeholders are engaged and
and communicated programmes adjusted to meet the skills and qualification
effectively, contributing needs in order to promote comprehensive career
to the improved relevance development.
of training and greater
mobility and progression.
2.3.2 Principles of the NSDP

The NSDP (DHET, 2017a) is guided by five overarching principles that inform the policy
statements of the plan:
1. Advancing an equitable and integrated PSET system. The NSDP emphasises the
commitment to transformation and redress by addressing equity in relation to gender,
race and disability, and that skills development reaches those in employment, those who
are unemployed and those who are pre-employed (students). The levy grant institutions
must facilitate access to qualifications and part qualifications as registered on any of the
three NQF sub-frameworks. Funding from the fiscus will provide the base-funding
for PSET institutions, complemented by levy grant funding to enable stability of
the system.
The NSDP emphasises the commitment to transformation and redress by addressing equity
in relation to gender, race and disability.
2. Greater inclusivity and collaboration across the system. Collaboration through partnerships
within the public sector, as well as between the public and private sectors, to support
effective skills development is emphasised. There is a strong focus on:
•• quality and articulation to ensure effective pathways;
•• workplace-based learning in both public and private sectors;
45

•• forging partnerships across the skills development system within public and private
providers;
•• effective and meaningful stakeholder engagement to support ownership and
participation among stakeholders, including social partners, individuals, employers,
labour, providers, prospective learners and the public.
Funding from the fiscus will provide the base-funding for PSET institutions, complemented
by levy grant funding to enable stability of the system.
3. Focusing on support systems for learners. Prospective learners and the public are aware of
when and how to apply for programmes and have access to a simplified and centralised
process. The efficiency and effectiveness of decision-making, planning, fund allocation,
implementation and quality assurance must be improved. Where relevant, the use
of technology will be applied to standardise processes across all SETAs to improve
efficiencies and increase stakeholder involvement through online portals and accurate
data analyses for improved decision-making.
4. Strong emphasis on accountability. Commitment and mechanisms to improving the
monitoring and evaluation capacity in the PSET system (i.e. the DHET interface with
the NSA to understand effectiveness, efficiency, challenges and impact of the work on
the NSF, the SETAs and the QCTO). Review of the system will be done to address
non-performance and reallocate underutilised funding.
5. Rationalising the system. Ensure greater coherence across the skills landscape (SETAs,
NSF, NSA and QCTO). Rationalisation and streamlining of processes and structures
will take place to consolidate the skills landscape to reduce overlaps, enable efficient use
of scarce resources and ensure effective collaboration.
2.3.3 Levy grant funding within the NSDP

The Skills Development Levies Act 9 of 1999 (SDLA) and Revised SETA Grant Regulations
(April 2013 as re-promulgated in January 2016 and reconfirmed in the NSDP, December
2017) established the system of levy financing to fund skills development, and allowed
for additional regulations under the SDLA which, in turn, provide for the allocation of
grants by SETAs. The principal aim of the Act is to finance learning programmes aimed
at developing scarce and critical skills by way of a compulsory levy system. Based on this
Act, every company that exceeds the threshold set for the annual payroll (currently this
threshold is a total payroll of R500 000 per annum), as calculated for pay-as-you-earn
(PAYE), has to pay 1% of its total payroll as a Skills Development Levy (SDL).
The Skills Development Levies Act aims to finance learning programmes aimed at developing
scarce and critical skills by way of compulsory levies on companies.
The levy payment is regarded as fair because it is based on payroll. This is such a small
cost that employers will not employ fewer workers to reduce costs. Although public
46

service departments do not pay a levy, they are required to budget 1% of payroll for
training purposes. They should report on the usage of that 1% when they submit their
workplace skills plans, annual training reports, PIVOTAL plans and reports to their SETA.
Chapter 3 discusses these plans and reports in more detail.
The levy payment is regarded as fair because it is based on payroll. This is such a small cost
that employers will not employ fewer workers to reduce costs.
As shown in Figure 1.4, of the SDL paid over to SARS, 20% of the amount is transferred by
the DHET to the National Skills Fund (NSF). This is used to fund large-scale development
projects that will address national skills needs, such as training those who are unemployed,
the youth, people living in rural communities and people with disabilities. The funding
may be accessed by a range of stakeholders, including SETAs.
SETAs are not guaranteed funding via the NSF, however, although they always
endeavour to do so, and they have successfully received funding to train learners who are
ultimately intended to enter their sectors. Therefore, although employers are not able to
claim back 20% of their levy amount, they will ultimately see the benefit of the 20% in
the increased supply of skilled labour into their sector. SETAs receive the remaining 80%
of the levy paid by the employers, and 10% of this levy is retained by the SETA to fund its
administration expenses.
(a) The use and allocation of funds administered by SETAs

The use and allocation of the funds administered by SETAs involve the following:
•• Administration activities; payment of grants, implementation of the SETA Sectoral
Skills Plan (SSP) and Annual Performance Plan (APP) through the allocation of
discretionary grants. SETAs must not use more than 10% of the total levies paid for
administration.
•• SETAS will transfer 0.5% of the total levy paid by the employer to the QCTO. A key
focus of SETAs must be to address scarce and critical skills through occupational-directed
programmes aligned to qualifications that are designed to address skills needs in occupations
high in demand, and which may or may not include work-integrated learning; 49.5%
of the levy grant is, therefore, allocated to the discretionary grant fund. Of this 49.5%
discretionary fund, 80% must be allocated to occupational learning programmes or
PIVOTAL grants (professional, vocational, technical and academic learning programmes
that result in qualifications or part qualifications on the NQF) that address scarce and
critical skills in the sector. The remaining 20% of the 49.5% discretionary grant fund
may be allocated to funding of other programmes related to priorities outlined in the
Sector Skills Plan (SSP). Pivotal grants are accessed by the submission of a PIVOTAL
plan and report. The organisation must appoint a stakeholder applicant who will do the
submission on behalf of the company. The organisation should preferably also have a
training committee in place if they have 50 or more employees.
•• 20% of the levies are allocated to mandatory grants for non-pivotal, credit-bearing or
non-credit-bearing education and training programmes for the workforce, as outlined
47

in the company’s workplace skills plan and PIVOTAL plan and annual reports.
Mandatory grants can only be accessed by levy-paying companies and on submission
of a workplace skills plan and annual training report. All unclaimed mandatory funds
must be transferred to the discretionary fund by 15 August each year. Mandatory grants
must be paid quarterly each year. In order for an organisation to submit a mandatory
grant application, they must appoint a skills development facilitator (SDF) who will do
the submission on behalf of the company. If the organisation has 50 or more employees,
they must also have a training committee in place. Chapter 3 discusses the roles of the
skills development facilitators and the training committee in more detail.
•• All money received on an annual basis must be used up in the same year and no more
than 5% may be carried over (that is, 95% must be spent by the SETAs in the levy
cycle year).
•• Discretionary grants may be paid to public education institutions (FET/TVET
colleges), employers and other legal persons.
•• The discretionary grants policy must also set out how occupational learning
programmes/PIVOTAL programmes can be delivered through public education and
training institutions (in other words FET/TVET colleges and HET institutions).
Grant applications must be made available within the sector to allow access by any legal
body or enterprise, SMMEs and NGOs to apply for any of the various grants available.
The policy must ensure openness and fairness.
•• Project management expenses are not permitted to exceed 7.5% of the grant payable
for SETA projects.
•• The SETA criteria for grants must be approved by the SETA Accounting Authority
before funds are allocated.
•• Unclaimed discretionary grants shall be transferred to the National Skills Fund.
The revised SETA grant regulations have some major implications for workplace training
and development initiatives. The levy grant incentive for employee training (accessed
through the mandatory grants) has been drastically reduced (from 50% to 20%). The
workplace skills plan and annual training report are also now complemented by the
PIVOTAL plan and report. The reduced incentive for mandatory grants could lead to a
significant reduction in investment in employee training in support of skills development
in companies. The SETA grant levy incentives are now predominantly focused on funding
PIVOTAL (professional, vocational, technical and academic learning), that is, workplace-
based occupationally directed learning programmes that result in qualifications or part
qualifications on the National Qualifications Framework. The focus on occupational
learning programmes/PIVOTAL programmes is seen to be important to address the
shortages in critical and scarce skills.
Another issue of concern is that if employers do not claim mandatory grants or if
insufficient discretionary projects are approved by the SETAs within the stipulated time
frames each year, it will result in the major portion of the funds being swept into the
National Skills Funds. The new grant regulations further allow only public further and
higher education and training providers to claim discretionary funds unless through a
public TVET. Private providers of education and training will no longer be able to claim
48

any discretionary funds, unless through a public TVET, implying that they may be seen to
be excluded from the revised skills development system. Over the long term, the exclusion
of the private education and training sector may be to the detriment of the economy as
these providers actively participated in work-integrated learning over the past 12 years.
They may now be at the mercy of public institutions to create partnerships to help address
the limited capacity of public further and higher education institutions to produce an
acceptable throughput rate of qualified graduates.
Levy grant distribution

20% Sector
Skills Plan
priorities
NSF
20%
Discretionary grant:
Occupational programmes NSF 20%
49,5% Mandatory grant 20%
20% SETA Admin 10%
80% PIVOTAL 100%
programmes
QCTO 0,5%
Mandatory Grant
Occupational programmes 49,5%
10%
SETA Admin
0,5%
QCTO
Figure 1.4 SETA levy grant distribution (Coetzee, 2018)
By law, all SETAs are required to develop sector skills plans (SSPs) outlining their skills
priorities and possible interventions to achieve these skills.
(b) Sector skills plans

By law, all SETAs are required to develop sector skills plans (SSPs) outlining their skills
priorities and possible interventions to achieve these skills. SSPs combine the skills plans
and training reports of individual member organisations within their sector, consolidate
these into a sectoral snapshot and add research to arrive at a strategic sector development
plan for that particular SETA. This includes an analysis of the skills supply, skills demand,
critical and scarce skills and the challenges and opportunities that lie ahead. The workplace
skills plans, PIVOTAL plans and annual reports of employers are important sources of
information for SETAs in compiling their SSPs. Skills development facilitators (SDFs) and
training committees (TCs) play an important role in assisting the organisation to compile
and submit workplace skills plans, PIVOTAL plans and reports that reflect accurate data
to SETAs and to claim appropriate levy grants from the SETAs.
49

SETAs play a vital role in gathering statistics and other relevant information on labour
market skills needs and training provision.
SETAs play a vital role in gathering statistics and other relevant information on labour
market skills needs and training provision. Their close contact with industry places them
in an excellent position to document and communicate recent and emerging trends, as well
as to develop solid baseline indicators. This information is essential in planning to meet
the country’s skills needs and guiding investment in education and training provision.
The SETA sector skills plans (SSPs) must cover the whole sector, from the biggest to the
smallest business. Sector skills plans are necessary to ensure that SETAs know their sector,
understand how it is changing and what skills are needed to support growth. The sector
skills plans should include (Coetzee et al., 2007):
•• A profile (description) of the sector that should include a description of current
education and training happening in the sector;
•• Factors that might bring about future changes in the sector;
•• Employment and skills needs based on an analysis of the current situation and expected
changes, including a list of scarce and critical skills in the sector;
•• A vision of where the sector hopes to be in a few years, how the SETA plans to get there,
and how it will measure success; and
•• A budget and methods for monitoring, reporting and evaluating progress and successes.
The Skills Development Act states that SETAs can implement their skills plans by setting
up learnerships, approving the skills plans from workplaces in the sector, allocating grants
to employers, providers and workers, and monitoring education and training in the sector.
The close contact between SETAs and industry places them in an excellent position to gather
recent and emerging trends, as well as to develop solid baseline indicators.
(c) Workplace skills plans and reports

A workplace skills plan (WSP) outlines the planned training and education interventions
of an organisation, including the planned PIVOTAL training. It is best practice for every
organisation, regardless of its size, to determine the skills gaps within the organisation
and decide how it will address these gaps through training (Fasset, 2009). SETAs base the
payments of mandatory grants on the submission of a mandatory grant application, which
contains a WSP, as well as an annual training report (ATR).
SETAs base the payments of mandatory grants on the submission of a mandatory grant
application, which contains a WSP, as well as an ATR.
Payment of discretionary grants is based on the submission of a PIVOTAL plan and annual
report (i.e. workplace-based occupationally directed training). A skills plan should be well
50

researched, contain accurate data and reflect the training needs of the company before being
documented in the WSP (Coetzee et al., 2013). Chapter 3 elaborates on the WSPs and
ATRs. The NSDP (DHET, 2017a) states that the WSP and ATR are crucial mechanisms
in capturing accurate and relevant data on the skills of a company’s existing workforce,
as well as projected skills needs (against occupations). The DHET will in future provide
standardised templates for the WSP/ATR to ensure that WSP/ATR data contributes to a
better understanding of the sector trends in terms of the actual and projected demand for
and supply of skills needs against occupations in demand in the various sectors.
(d) Skills development committees (SDC)

Every workplace with more than 50 workers should preferably have an SDC, also called a
workplace skills development committee or a training committee. This committee includes
representatives from the various departments in an organisation. If there is a trade union in
a workplace, that union must also be represented on this committee. The SDC takes part
in discussions about the workplace skills plan, annual training report and other training
and development initiatives (Fasset, 2009).
Every workplace with more than 50 workers should preferably have a skills development
committee (SDC), also called a workplace skills development committee or a training committee.
It is strongly recommended that for organisations with more than 50 employees, an SDC be
established for the purposes of consultation on training matters. This committee, as a whole,
should reflect the interests of employees from all occupational categories in the organisation’s
workforce. In workplaces where such a committee has not yet been established, an existing
consultative forum should be used for this purpose, for example, an existing diversity
committee, affirmative action or employment equity forum (Fasset, 2009).
All stakeholders should be included in this forum, including, for example:
•• Representative trade unions; and
•• Employee representatives from designated groups, non-designated groups, all
occupational categories and levels, and senior management, including the managers
assigned with responsibility.
This forum should engage in proper consultation. Proper consultation includes (Fasset, 2009):
•• The opportunity to meet and report back to employees and management;
•• Reasonable opportunities for employee representatives to meet with the employer;
•• The request, receipt and consideration of relevant information; and
•• Adequate time being allowed for each of the above steps.
Ongoing interaction with and accessibility to senior management with regard to workplace
skills issues is critical to the success of this process. The frequency of consultative forum
meetings will vary from employer to employer, depending on size, sophistication, existing
levels of diversity, and what has already been accomplished in the workplace with regard to
skills development. Meetings should, however, take place regularly and employers should
allow time off for these meetings (Fasset, 2009).
51

The scope of the committee comprises the activities in the organisation, as these have been
decided in consultation with employees, as identified and described in the Employment
Equity, Skills Development Act and the Skills Development Levies Act and any regulations,
codes of good practice, directives and administrative guidelines published in terms of these
Acts. The committee is responsible for making recommendations to the management or
board of directors of the organisation. The SDC is not responsible for the implementation
of its recommendations. It may not be utilised as a forum in which to raise grievances and/
or demands not related to its scope and objectives (Fasset, 2009).
An SDC should have a Constitution in place with a given mandate and should be
performance driven to ensure commitment.
An SDC should have a Constitution in place with a given mandate and should be
performance driven to ensure commitment. The committee should, aside from its legal
obligations in terms of the Employment Equity and Skills Development Acts, be committed
to the following (Fasset, 2009):
•• Improving the quality of life of all workers, their prospects of work and mobility;
•• Improving productivity in the workplace and the competitiveness of the organisation;
and
•• Increasing the levels of investment in education and training and improving the return
on that investment.
This committee should represent the interests of all levels of the organisation and should
consult on the implementation and monitoring of its employment equity and skills
development plans in terms of the relevant Acts and the organisation’s requirements.
The key objective of this committee is to promote the purpose and goals of the
Skills Development Act and the Skills Development Levies Act within an organisation by
(Fasset, 2009):
•• Promoting skills development, by assisting and advising on the development of
competency levels of employees so that individual and team performance can be
improved, and the objectives of the employment equity plan realised;
•• Proposing actions to enhance the skills level of employees continuously so that
technology, process and structural changes can be effectively implemented;
•• Developing a WSP for an organisation;
•• Monitoring and reporting on the progress made in implementing the WSP in the
workplace;
•• Facilitating employee mobility through outcomes-based education and training in an
organisation;
•• Assisting employees to utilise the opportunity to use workplace skills development as a
mechanism to achieve nationally recognised unit standards and qualifications;
•• Enhancing the organisation’s quality of education and training;
•• Addressing the organisation’s past discriminatory practices and workforce imbalances;
•• Contributing to the personal development of employees; and
•• Optimising the levy rebates from the SETA.
52

The SDC is a key structure for workforce development in an organisation.
The SDC is a key structure for workforce development in an organisation (see Figure 1.5).
Some of its roles are as follows (Fasset, 2009):
•• To authorise and sign off the mandatory grant applications;
•• To drive and direct the skills development process;
•• To ensure that representative consultation takes place regarding the up skilling of
employees;
•• To ensure that the skills development facilitator (SDF) is leading the way in terms of
the skills development process; and
•• To support the SDF in its efforts to create awareness and promote training and
development opportunities in the workplace.
Communication
Roadshows/newsletters
Obtain buy-in and
commitment Skills Audit and
Monitoring Promote concept Development Plans
Budget (cost centres, Liaise with others Job profiles
people, comply to plan)
SWOT, skills analysis
WSP/EE plan
People assessment/
career pathways
Other Evaluation
Reintroduce cultural
diversity training
CEP involvement
Skills Development
Implementation strategy Committee Skills Development
Support EE plan (SDC) Committee Mandate
Establish milestones
Capacity building
Assessment system Vision, mission, scope
Assessors Job profiles for committee
RPL Compliance with (role of individual vs
Quality assurance systems SDF legislation role of group) and
WSP responsibilities
Learnerships
Implementation Time to invest
Policies and procedures
Timeframes
Reporting
International
benchmarking
Figure 1.5 Roles of the skills development committee (Fasset, 2009)
53

(e) Skills development facilitator

The person who advises on and helps to plan skills development for a workplace is called a
skills development facilitator (SDF). In terms of the Skills Development Act, an employer
must appoint an SDF. The SDF’s details must be sent to the relevant SETA. In larger
organisations, a currently employed training or human resources (HR) manager may
be appointed as an SDF. However, in smaller organisations, there is often no dedicated
training or HR professional fulfilling this role, and so a manager or company owner may
assume this role. This can also be outsourced to a professional external SDF.
A skills development facilitator (SDF) advises on and helps to plan skills development for
a workplace.
Some of the small organisations may appoint someone from outside the organisation to
be their SDF (referred to as an independent skills development facilitator: ISDF). Others
with similar needs may agree to club together and appoint one person to act as the SDF
for all of the organisations. SETAs will accept any of these ways of choosing an SDF if
the employer thinks that the person has the ability to do the job. An SDF is responsible
for the planning, implementation and reporting on workforce training and development
initiatives in an organisation, with SETA-related duties (Coetzee et al., 2007). The OFO
(Organising Framework for Occupations) version 2017 describes the general role of the
SDF (OFO code 2017-242302) as being responsible for analysing the skills requirements
within an organisation and co-ordinating the execution of the personal development plans
of employees, and monitoring the implementation of the workplace skills plan and
reporting accordingly.
In terms of the Skills Development Act, an employer has to appoint an SDF.
The SDF performs the following general functions:

•• Assists the employer and employees in developing a WSP, which complies with the
requirements of the SETA;
•• Submits the WSP to the relevant SETA;
•• Advises the employer on the implementation of the WSP;
•• Assists the employer in drafting an ATR on the implementation of the WSP;
•• Advises the employer on the quality assurance requirements set by the SETA;
•• Acts as a contact person between the employer and the SETA;
•• Serves as a resource with regard to all aspects of skills development in the workplace;
•• Communicates SETA initiatives, grants and benefits to the employer; and
•• Communicates with branch offices, and all employees in the main office and branch
offices, concerning events and grants being offered at the SETA.
The duties and activities of the SDF need to be understood against the background of
the new legislation driving training and development, which will require the SDF to
54

take on a more strategic role in terms of skills development in the workplace. These new
legislative changes, therefore, have implications for the future role and functions of SDFs
(Coetzee, 2011).
During 2004–2005, the functions of the SDF included a strong emphasis on the
quality assurance of skills development (now termed ‘learning’) in the workplace.
However, few SDFs were participating at a high enough level to give relevant input
to human resource development and workplace learning at a strategic level within the
company. Furthermore, most SDFs were ill-equipped or under-capacitated to completely
understand the strategic nature of their role. The focus on scarce and critical skills since
2006, and the establishment of the Organising Framework of Occupations (OFO) and
other initiatives, such as the Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO) and
the Broad Based Black Economic Empowerment (BBBEE) Codes of Good Practice, have
led to the professionalisation of industry, including skills development facilitation under
the QCTO. SDFs have been identified as the people to assist with the implementation of
all these new legislative initiatives.
The professional registration of SDFs is driven by the Association for Skills Development in
South Africa (ASDSA).
The professional registration of SDFs is driven by the Association for Skills Development
in South Africa (ASDSA) and sponsored and supported by the Services SETA under the
Business Consulting Chamber. The ASDSA is registered as a professional body by SAQA
(ID 866). Skills development facilitators can apply for membership and professional
designation registration with the ASDSA (website: www.asdsa.org.za or email: info@
asdsa.org.za). The ASDSA assesses the workplace competence of candidates applying
for professional designation status. The evaluation certifies that the individual is (1)
knowledgeable and capable of performing a specific occupational task (i.e. has the required
academic study knowledge and skills, and work competence), and (2) that the candidate is
qualified to present themselves as a practitioner in a specific field. There are currently two
designations conferred on ASDSA by SAQA for which SDFs can apply at the ASDSA:
•• Skills Development Technician (SDT) SAQA ID 493;
•• Skills Development Practitioner (SDP) SAQA ID 494.
The designation Skills Development Master is in the process of registration with SAQA.
Table 1.9 summarises the guideline criteria for ASDSA designations.
A professional designation refers to a professional title or status conferred by a professional
body in recognition of a person’s expertise and/or right to practise in an occupational field.
A professional designation status for an SDF gives them credibility because they obtain a
professional title verified by a professional body, which means that their knowledge and
experience have been evaluated against a registered standard. SDFs registered as members of
ASDSA must pay an annual membership fee to retain their membership and also engage in
continuous professional development (CPD) by bi-annually building up evidence of 60 CPD
points, as shown in Table 1.10, to retain their professional designation status (ASDSA, 2016).
55

Table 1.9 Guideline criteria for ASDSA designations (ASDSA, 2016)
Qualifying criteria for Skills Development Skills Development Skills Development

applicants Technician Practitioner Master
Experience in business 3 years 5 years Designation under
administration/consulting/HR development
Submission of signed off WSP/ 2 1

ATR/Pivotal plans
Recommendation by supervisor/ Yes Yes

manager
Achieved competence in SDF 3 unit standards 7 unit standards

unit standard 15217, 15221,15227 15217, 15218, 15221,
15222, 15227, 15228,
15232
Qualifications currently accepted QDETDP qualification ODETDP qualification

by ASDSA 50331 50331
Business ND: HR Management
administration & Practices 61592
qualification
SDF Unit Standards
SAQA 15217 Develop an organisational training and development plan.
SAQA 15218 Conduct an analysis to determine outcomes of learning for skills development
and other purposes.
SAQA 15221 Provide information and advice regarding skills development and
related issues.
SAQA 15222 Promote a learning culture in the organisation.
SAQA 15227 Conduct skills development administration in an organisation.
SAQA 15228 Advise on the establishment and implementation of a quality management

system for skills development practices in an organisation.
SAQA 15232 Coordinate planned skills development interventions in the organisation.
SDFs need to shift away from focusing on what people need to learn (training) to what
people in the company must be able to do to perform (occupational competence).
The establishment of the QCTO, the OLS (occupational learning system) and OFO
implies that SDFs need to shift away from merely focusing on what people need to learn
(training) to what people in the company must be able to do to perform (occupational
competence) as these relate to the OFO; that is, they must become strategic business
partners by focusing on ways to uplift the skills profile of the organisation’s human capital,
while helping to address the skills needs of the country.
56

Table 1.10 E
xamples of building up CPD points for SDFs registered as members of ASDSA
(ASDSA, 2016)
Category Activity CPD points

Workshops, seminars and Full-time study CPD points = 10
conferences Two-day workshop CPD points = 7
Full-day workshop CPD points = 5
½ day workshop CPD points = 3
Community projects Pro bono work on a WSP or ATR CPD points = 1 per hour
Mentoring You mentor to someone CPD points = 1 per hour

Being mentored by someone CPD points = ½ per hour
Professional development Membership: professional body CPD points = 1

Participation in a committee CPD points = ½ per hour
Personal development Two-day workshop CPD points = 5

Full-day workshop CPD points = 2
½ day workshop CPD points = 1
SDFs need to become strategic business partners and focus on ways to uplift the skills profile
of the organisation’s human capital.
The strategic role requires that SDFs develop the skills of a trainer or have access to people
who have those skills, business knowledge, knowledge of human performance technology,
partnering skills and consulting skills. SDFs will have to learn to familiarise themselves
with the business and operational goals of the company for the following 12 months and
the metrics used to measure the results and success of the company. It is also important
for SDFs to know the industry in which their organisation operates and to have specific
information about that industry, such as scarce and critical skills, other organisations that
are key players in the industry, what differentiates their organisation from others in the
industry, and the global factors that impact the industry. SDFs will have to learn to focus
on delivering results in the form of occupationally competent people, and not just on the
training and development solutions reflected in the WSP. Further education and training
in strategic human resource management and development has, therefore, become crucial
for the SDF (Coetzee, 2011). Chapter 3 and Chapter 10 focus on the role of the SDF in
relation to the learning and development (L&D) professional.
3. OUTCOMES-BASED LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT IN

SOUTH AFRICA
Outcomes-based learning and development focuses on what learners need to achieve at the
end of the learning process. The word ‘outcomes’ is used broadly to refer to everything that
is learned, including social and personal skills, the activities of learning and how to learn,
and concepts, knowledge, methodologies, values and attitudes. In addition, seven critical
outcomes, including lifelong learning developmental outcomes were adopted as the basis
57

for the design of all learning programmes. These eight learning outcomes are known as
critical cross-field outcomes (CCFOS – see point 3.6) (Coetzee et al., 2007).
Outcomes-based learning and development focuses on what learners need to achieve at the
end of the learning process.
The government established the NQF as a broad, outcomes-based and assessment-led strategy
to transform education and training in South Africa. According to this approach, SAQA (as
the formally recognised Apex body of authority – see Table 1.2) decides on detailed criteria
that any learner should meet before being issued a qualification. These criteria are formulated
as unit standards, which include a description of the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values a
qualified learner should be able to demonstrate in the future (Coetzee et al., 2007).
The government established the NQF as a broad, outcomes-based and assessment-led

strategy to transform education and training in South Africa.
3.1 Qualification, unit standard and credits

SAQA defines a qualification as a planned combination of learning outcomes, with a defined
purpose or purposes, which is intended to provide learners with applied competence and a basis
for further learning. National qualifications can be based on unit standards, but not all of them
are. Qualifications based on unit standards consist of a cluster of unit standards that are combined
according to the rules of combination prescribed by SAQA. Qualifications that are not based on
unit standards consist of clusters of learning outcomes combined as learning units. The learner has
to progress through these units to complete the qualification (Coetzee et al., 2007).
SAQA defines a qualification as a planned combination of learning outcomes, with a

defined purpose or purposes, which is intended to provide learners with applied competence
and a basis for further learning.
Qualifications are made up of a number of unit standards equalling a minimum of 120

credits. Each qualification will, however, specify the number of credits required to obtain
that specific qualification. Qualifications, as with unit standards, are registered by SAQA
on the NQF. Qualifications from the three NQF sub-frameworks are quality assured by
their respective quality councils (namely, Umalusi and CHE) (Fasset, 2009).
A qualification on the educational sub-frameworks generally consists of the following
components (SAQA 2001a):
•• Fundamental unit standards;
•• Core unit standards; and
•• Elective unit standards.
Qualifications are structured in this way to ensure that learners are developed holistically.
58

3.2 Occupational qualifications

An occupational qualification is a work-relevant qualification (i.e. it is a qualification
associated with a trade, occupation or profession resulting from work-based learning
comprising theory/knowledge; practical; and work experience), which encapsulates the
response of the OLS to labour market needs (QCTO, 2011). It represents the achievement
of a planned combination of learning outcomes, which is intended to provide qualifying
learners with the applied competence to practise an occupation, and provides a basis for
further learning. This qualification is designed by expert practitioners currently practising
the occupation and is registered with the NQF.
An occupational qualification is a work-relevant qualification, designed by expert

practitioners currently practising the occupation and is registered with the NQF.
Occupational qualifications combine knowledge, practical skills and work experience

skills into a meaningful, integrated description of what it means to be competent in an
occupation. It contains more detailed information relating to the curriculum, delivery and
assessment than previous kinds of NQF qualifications and, therefore, promotes a more
consistent and credible kind of qualification delivery system (NSDH, 2009).
There are two types of occupational qualifications issued in the OQF, namely National
Occupational Awards and National Skills Certificates.
There are two types of occupational qualifications issued in the OQF, namely National
Occupational Awards and National Skills Certificates. Learners accumulate credits that
contribute towards a qualification. Credits indicate the approximate time it would take a
learner to complete a particular learning programme (one credit = 10 notional hours). This
is an estimate of the time the average learner would take to master the learning outcomes
of the learning programme, the unit standard or qualification. Notional learning time does
not only refer to the time spent sitting in a classroom but also includes time spent reading,
researching, writing assignments and practising the theory, as well as past work experience
that is relevant to the programme (CIPD, 2008a).
3.3 Unit standards

Historically, a SAQA registered unit standard is a registered statement of education and
training outcomes and their associated assessment criteria, together with administrative
and other information, as specified by SAQA regulations. It describes the scope and
context within which the learner’s competence is assessed. The results of the learning, not
the processes, are described in unit standards (Fasset, 2004). The national unit standards
are available from the SAQA website. A unit standard is made up of a table of elements, as
shown in Table 1.11.
59

Table 1.11 Elements of a unit standard (Fasset, 2009)
Component Description
SAQA logo Used to indicate that the unit standard has been approved by SAQA.
Unit standard title The outcome of learning or training.
Unit standard ID number Allocated by SAQA, used as a reference number.
ABET band If applicable.
Unit standard type e.g. regular.
Registration status e.g. reregistered.
NQF level The level at which a unit standard is pitched based on the 10 levels of
the NQF.
Credits Credits refer to the weight assigned to a unit standard; it indicates the
time an average learner will take to achieve the unit standard.
Originator and primary or Name of the CEP and quality assurance functionary involved in compiling
delegated quality assurance the unit standard.
functionary
Field and subfield Indication of where in the 12 fields of learning identified, this unit
standard falls.
Registration start date Date on which the unit standard is registered by SAQA.
Registration end date Date on which the unit standard registration expires.
SAQA decision number Decision number used by SAQA.
Last date of enrolment and last Indication of time period of relevance of unit standard.
date for achievement
Purpose of the unit standard States what a learner will be capable of upon completion of the specific
unit standard (should be read in conjunction with the unit standard title).
It also provides an indication of whom the standard is aimed at.
Learning assumed to be in Indicates the knowledge and skills that are a prerequisite of this unit
place and RPL standard.
Range statements/outcome Defines the context and scope of the unit standard as a whole and/or the
range specific outcomes and assessment criteria.
Specific outcomes Indication of what the learner will need to achieve within the context of
the job or task for which the unit standard is written.
Assessment criteria Used to assess learners. Provides guidelines on what is expected from a
specific outcome.
Accreditation and moderation Accreditation: specifies requirements that the provider should meet;
options Assessment: specifies requirements that the assessor should meet;
Moderation: specifies moderation requirements.
Essential embedded Summarises the underlying knowledge learners require to master the unit
knowledge standard.
60

Component Description
Unit standard developmental Linkages to other unit standards and development outcomes expected.
outcomes and linkages
Critical cross-field outcomes Consists of qualities the NQF has identified for development in students;
these outcomes apply across all learning fields.
A unit standard is the smallest learning achievement (the essential ‘embedded’ knowledge
needed to do something) that can be credited to a learner on the NQF.
Unit standards are the building blocks of qualifications, learnerships and accredited
learning programmes. A unit standard is the smallest learning achievement (the essential
‘embedded’ knowledge needed to do something and the outcomes which a learner must
demonstrate) that can be credited to a learner on the NQF. A unit standard is a description
of the evidence someone will be able to demonstrate once they have mastered a skill.
Unit standards can stand alone, be grouped in clusters to form learning programmes or
be combined in line with SAQA’s rules of combination for qualifications registered on the
NQF (Stuart, 2011).
Unit standards are the building blocks of qualifications, learnerships and accredited
learning programmes.
A unit standard is a description of the evidence someone will be able to demonstrate once
they have mastered a skill.
Although the process of writing unit standards is changing under the occupational
learning system (OLS), traditional (SAQA) unit standards are still relevant to the design
of qualifications under Umalusi’s (Council for Quality Assurance on General and Further
Education) qualifications sub-framework and the Council on Higher Education’s (CHE)
qualifications sub-framework, as well as during the transitional phase of operation of the
QCTO. Unit standards based qualifications will still be relevant until after 2021. The new
approach to unit standards under the OQSF includes the following three new types of unit
standards that are being introduced to describe occupational-related learning and skills
development in the workplace. In terms of the OQSF and OLS, these three types of unit
standards will eventually replace all existing unit standards (Stuart, 2011):
•• Knowledge and theory learning;
•• Practical skills learning; and
•• Work experience learning.
61

Existing SAQA registered unit standards and qualifications will be adapted (and not
totally redesigned from scratch) in as far as they differ from the curriculum and assessment
specifications of an occupational qualification.
3.4 Specific outcomes

Specific outcomes are statements regarding elements of competence. They indicate what
the learner will need to achieve within the context of the job or task for which the unit
standard is written. These outcomes refer not only to subject content, but also include
actions, roles, knowledge, understanding, skills, values and attitudes that a learner needs to
perform to demonstrate competence (SAQA, 2001a, d, e). The criteria provided, indicating
how these outcomes will be assessed, are the assessment criteria for those outcomes.
3.5 Assessment criteria

Assessment criteria are statements that help an assessor to judge whether the evidence provided
by a learner is sufficient to demonstrate competent performance for each related outcome.
Learners have access to the assessment criteria and are thus prepared for assessment – they
know what is expected of them to achieve the outcomes and competence (Fasset, 2009).
Assessment criteria are statements that help an assessor to judge whether the evidence provided
by a learner is sufficient to demonstrate competent performance for each related outcome.
3.6 Critical cross-field outcomes (CCFOs)

All unit standards contain CCFOs. CCFOs consist of qualities that the NQF has identified
for development in students; they are essential life skills and act as the foundation upon
which other skills are built. CCFOs are generic and apply to learners across all fields of
learning (Fasset, 2009).
There are eight critical cross-field outcomes:

1. Identify and solve problems using critical and creative thinking;
2. Work effectively in a team;
3. Organise and manage oneself and one’s activities;
4. Collect, analyse, organise and critically evaluate information;
5. Communicate effectively using visual, mathematical and/or language skills in oral or
written form;
6. Use science and technology effectively and critically, showing responsibility towards the
environment and the health of others;
7. Demonstrate an understanding of the world as a set of related systems by recognising
that problem-solving contexts do not exist in isolation;
8. Contribute to the full personal development and lifelong learning of an individual
through awareness of:
•• how to learn more effectively;
•• how to be a more responsible citizen;
•• how to be culturally and aesthetically aware;
•• how to explore education and career opportunities; and
•• how to develop entrepreneurial opportunities.
62

Most unit standards do not use all eight critical cross-field outcomes:
•• Only the CCFOs that relate to the purpose, specific outcomes and ‘essential embedded
knowledge’ of the unit standard are incorporated in the unit standard; and
•• CCFOs are adapted in each unit standard to relate to that specific unit standard, that
is, learners are required to produce evidence that they can identify and solve problems
in the context of the unit standard.
Assessors need to ensure that their learners have addressed the CCFOs appropriately at the
level of the unit standard.
Activity
Study the eight critical outcomes in point 3.6 and then rate your ability (in your role as a
learning and development practitioner) to demonstrate these behaviours. Rate yourself
according to the following criteria on a scale of 1 (low) to 10 (high):
3. Outstanding performance;
2. Standard performance;
1. Unacceptable performance.
Critical outcomes Rating

Identify and solve problems using critical and creative thinking.
Examples: insight, problem-solving.
Work effectively with others as a member of team or group.

Example: working with other staff members to get information.
Collect, analyse and manage yourself and activities responsibly and effectively.
Examples: obtaining relevant information, displaying the ability to analyse
information, suggesting improvements.
Communicate effectively using visual, mathematical and/or language skills in oral

and written communication.
Examples: writing skills, discussing issues, doing presentations.
Use science and technology effectively and critically, showing responsibility towards
the environment and the health of others.
Examples: adopting a professional and scientific approach to L&D practices, safety
awareness, using technology, such as computers to plan, design and deliver learning
programmes.
Explore various learning and development strategies, apply the most appropriate one
and evaluate the effectiveness of the learning and development strategy applied.
Example: Continued professional development strategies.
Demonstrate employment-seeking skills for entry into the field of L&D using all of
the theoretical principles and reflecting on the effectiveness of such applications.
Apply your occupational competence within the organisation and local community,
showing an understanding of and sensitivity for diversity.
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3.7 Where to find unit standards?

All unit standards are published on SAQA’s website: http://www.saqa.ac.za. If you would
like to find a unit standard on a specific topic, you can visit this website. You can select
these options:
•• Qualifications and unit standards;
•• Registered qualifications and unit standards; and
•• Search for a unit standard.
You can then enter the topic for which you would like to find a unit standard under ‘unit
standard title’.
All unit standards are published on SAQA’s website.
3.8 Applied competence

The term ‘outcomes’ also refers to the applied competence that learners should be able
to demonstrate when they complete a learning programme. As shown in Table 1.12,
applied competence is the combination of a learner’s foundational, practical and reflexive
competence (SAQA, 2005). These competencies (shown in Table 1.12) are also reflected
in the NQF level descriptors (see Appendix A). The QCTO (see Van Niekerk & Van Zyl,
2014) added to the NQF level descriptors, the workplace-based required competencies in
terms of typical activities, role tasks and workplace focus, relevant to each level descriptor.
These are also indicated in Appendix A.
Table 1.12 Elements of applied competence (Coetzee et al., 2007)
Foundational Demonstrating an understanding of the knowledge and thinking which underpin the
competence actions taken
Practical Demonstrating the ability to consider a range of practical actions and make a decision
competence about which action to do
Demonstrating skills based on acquired knowledge
Reflexive Demonstrating whether one is able to integrate knowledge and skills with understanding
competence Demonstrating an ability to apply knowledge and skills in different contexts, and to
adapt to change in unforeseen circumstances
Applied competence is the combination of a learner’s foundational, practical and reflexive

competence; i.e. the ‘outcomes’ that learners should demonstrate after a learning programme.
3.9 Recognition of prior learning (RPL)

RPL is one of the principles of the NQF and forms a cornerstone for occupational learning.
Many learners possess skills and knowledge for which they have no formal certificate.
These skills and knowledge have, however, been gained through practical work experience.
RPL is the recognition of this learning and the awarding of NQF unit standards, learning
programmes or qualifications as a result (NSDH, 2007).
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Recognition of prior learning (RPL) is one of the principles of the NQF and forms a
cornerstone for occupational learning.
For example, an employee could have conducted duties relating to baking for a number
of years without any formal qualifications. This employee could now achieve the Further
Education and Training Certificate in Baking through RPL without having to undergo
training that will duplicate what they already know. The employee can contact an RPL
centre at a relevant training institution to be assessed against the whole qualification or
they can ask to be assessed against specific unit standards which they believe they can
achieve. According to Meyer et al., (2004), there are four steps in the recognition of the
prior learning process (see chapter 7):
1. Identifying what learners can do and what knowledge underlies their ability to do something;
2. Comparing this knowledge and skill with what is required in the unit standard;
3. Assessing whether learners have achieved the outcomes of the learning programme by
evaluating evidence of their performance against the standard; and
4. Giving the learners the appropriate credits if their knowledge and skills meet the
required standard.
3.10 Quality assurance partners (QAPs)

Under the SAQA Act, an ETQA was a body that was responsible for ensuring the quality
of the delivery and assessment of registered standards and qualifications by providers in its
relevant sector. There were 33 ETQAs (21 SETAs and 12 recognised professional bodies)
accredited by SAQA. With the implementation of the National Qualifications Framework
Act and subsequent repeal of the SAQA Act, all quality assurance roles of the ETQAs have
been relinquished to the QCTO. In terms of the Skills Development Act 97 of 1998, the
QCTO may delegate its functions. The QCTO has delegated some of its functions to
QAPs. These include the 21 SETAs and some professional bodies referred to above.
Historically, the functions of an ETQA were to (SAQA, 2001a, d, e):
•• Accredit skills development providers (SDPs) to conduct assessments against unit
standards and qualifications registered on the NQF;
•• Promote quality among constituent providers;
•• Monitor provision of training – conduct quality audits at specified intervals;
•• Evaluate assessment and facilitate moderation among constituent providers;
•• Register assessors and moderators;
•• Certificate learners;
•• Co-operate with relevant moderating bodies;
•• Recommend new standards or qualifications to advisory panels of experts;
•• Recommend modifications to existing standards and qualifications to the advisory
panel of experts; and
•• Maintain a database of records and submit reports to SAQA.
SAQA previously accredited ETQAs and monitored and audited them to assure the quality of
the execution of the above functions. However, this function has been shifted to the QCTO,
65

which has the power to appoint quality partners and to delegate some of its functions to
these partners. As previously stated, the QCTO has delegated some trade and occupational
qualifications design and assessment to development quality partners (DQPs) and assessment
quality partners (AQPs), replacing ETQAs and some functions of the SETAs. The QCTO,
which is responsible for the trades and occupational quality assurance and is responsible
for registered occupational qualifications in the NQF, adopted a policy on the delegation
of trade and occupational qualifications design and assessment to DQPs and AQPs in July
2011. Post-school higher education and training (for example, universities) remains under
the Council on Higher Education (CHE), and school-level training remains under Umalusi,
while the QCTO is responsible for occupational training. The QCTO is in the process of
taking over the delegated functions from SETAs and professional bodies.
The functions delegated to QAPs and which will be taken over by the QCTO are:
•• Accreditation of skills development providers;
•• Development of occupational qualifications;
•• Assessment of occupational qualifications;
•• Certification of occupational qualifications; and
•• Upload of learner information in the National Learner Record Database.
Post-school higher education and training remains under the CHE, and school-level
training remains under Umalusi, while the QCTO is responsible for occupational training.
The QCTO indicated that some training quality assurance functions (eg. workplace
approval processes) remains the function of SETAs and recognised professional bodies.
SAQA has so far registered more than 200 occupational qualifications in the Occupational
Qualifications Sub Framework (OQSF) of the NQF, which are quality assured by the
QCTO through QAPs. Unit standard qualifications are still quality assured by SETAs
and professional bodies and the QCTO monitors the accredited SDPs (skills development
providers). However, the NSDP 2030 states that the QCTO will also take over this role
from SETAs and professional bodies. The QCTO will, from June 2018, be collaborating
with SETAs and professional bodies in the accreditation of SDPs offering unit standard-
based qualifications.
3.11 Accreditation of skills development providers

Skills development providers (SDPs) are required to deliver curriculum components and
carry out internal assessments against related unit standards. The approach to accreditation
in the new skills development landscape is based on (Mkhonza, 2010):
•• Self-evaluation against general criteria and specific requirements specified in the relevant
occupational curriculum components (subjects and or modules); and
•• Recommendations from industry and/or a good track record.
The culture of self-regulation and strong links to relevant professional, occupational and
industrial bodies and associations is encouraged to maintain and raise standards. No
accreditation certificates are issued – the scope will be recorded and regularly updated
66

on the QCTO’s website, and the details with the exact date can be printed at any time.
However, quality monitoring and audits will be conducted as and when required, for
example, in the event of a complaint or when checking the final assessment results.
An education institution already accredited by another Quality Council (QC)
(Mkhonza, 2010):
•• Will be deemed to have met the general criteria for accreditation as a skills development
provider; and
•• Must meet the QCTO’s criteria for accreditation for the specific curriculum components
of the occupational qualifications they wish to offer.
Skills development providers accredited by the QCTO wishing to offer qualifications from
the other NQF sub-frameworks must follow procedures, as determined by the relevant QC.
4. THE SOUTH AFRICAN OCCUPATIONAL LEARNING SYSTEM

(OLS)
The amended Skills Development Act (DoL, 2008) ushered in the new system of
occupational learning in South Africa. This innovative way of learning was triggered by
increasing pressure to integrate education and workplace training. The White Paper and
NSDP 2030 (DHET, 2017a) also emphasise the integration of education and workplace
training in the new PSET system.
An occupational learning system (OLS) is a structured and systemic way of linking the
skills needs of the labour market to education and training processes and the development
of a skills pipeline (Vorwerk, 2010a). This approach to skills development describes the
essential structural element for skills development, the process flow and the role-players
at each stage of the process. It indicates hierarchical relationships and dependencies at
national, sectoral, industry and enterprise levels.
The OLS in South Africa consists of several components, as shown in Figure 1.6 and discussed
in the subsequent sections. These components include the labour market, the reporting system
and framework, planning and data management systems and learning systems.
•• The labour market. The labour market is a valuable source of information that provides
role-players with insight regarding the decline of certain occupations and changing
skills needs in occupations; in other words, vital signals that role-players should heed if
they are to invest in relevant learning opportunities.
•• Reporting system and framework. This system and framework are essential for capturing
accurate, real-time data from the labour market and reporting on it in a language and
format that facilitates the design and improvement of appropriate learning solutions
(NSDH, 2009). The Labour Market Intelligence System (LMIS) and the Organising
Framework for Occupations (OFO) are important examples of such reporting and
framework systems.
•• Planning and data management. These systems are used to interpret the information
gathered and structured by the reporting system and frameworks so that matching
learning intervention can be designed (NSDH, 2009). These systems include the
Occupational Qualifications Framework (OQF), the National Occupational Pathways
Framework (NOPF) and the Sector Skills Plans (SSPs).
67

•• Learning systems. These are used to take the data on skills needs and develop appropriate
learning solutions to match them. Learning systems include the QCTOs and CEPs (see
Table 1.2).
4.1 Labour market intelligence system (LMIS)

The LMIS is a mechanism established by the DHET to enable the use of labour market
intelligence in the post-school education and training environment, which will help to
achieve a better match between the supply and demand for skills, improve on skills planning
and promote growth, employment, productivity gains and gains in social and economic
equality. Labour market intelligence involves the systematic and coherent analysis and
interpretation of national information, together with its effective presentation, distribution
and use by stakeholders (DHET, 2017). The skills planning unit introduced by the White
Paper on Post-school Education and Training will function as a repository of labour market
information, develop skills-demand forecasting models, and promote and build labour
market research and skills analysis for the country. The key elements of skills planning
within the LMIS centre on the supply of skills (driven by employer demand for skills
acquisition); skills mismatches (imbalances between the skills that are available and the
skills that employers require); and the demand for skills (the jobs that are available and the
skills that are needed to do them). The LMIS is used for policy and planning by its key users:
the DHET; the Human Resources Development Council; the National Skills Authority;
the SETAs; the Department of Home Affairs (responsible for immigration); education and
training providers (including higher education institutions and colleges); the unions; career
advisers at all levels (including the school system); and learners and parents (DHET, 2017).
4.2 Organising Framework for Occupations (OFO)

The Organising Framework for Occupations (OFO) is a skills-based coded classification
system that encompasses all occupations in the South African context (ETDP SETA, 2017;
ISETT SETA, 2007). It is built on similar principles to those of the South African Standards
Classification of Occupations (SASCO), which is familiar to all players because of its use
by Statistics South Africa (Stats SA) to compile the October Household and Labour Force
Surveys. It is a framework for categorising all occupations and groups of occupations, from
entry level to advanced levels of competence, and its purpose is to promote labour market
dialogue by establishing a common language for talking about skills demand and supply
(ETDP SETA, 2017). This framework is cross-sectional so that snapshots of occupational
supply and demand can be analysed at national level. It clusters specialisations within an
occupation, which allows broad occupational problems and solutions to be identified and
understood more easily.
The Organising Framework for Occupations (OFO) is a skills-based coded classification

system of all occupations in SA.
68

DHET
Scarce and critical skills
SETAs
Economy
tion Report
rma LMIS
NOPF Info
Reflect industry
QCTO needs
Develop
Curriculum Impact
assessment Labour
Occupational & Market
qualifications
OFO
Qualification kills
of s &
assessment Flow
specifications
Assessment
centres
SAQA
Society
Provider system
Register and promote
learning programmes
Accredited & Approved
providers workplaces Learnerships
NLRD
Apprenticeships
Skills programmes
Figure 1.6 A
demand-driven occupational learning system in South Africa (Vorwerk,
2009a,b; 2010a)
The OFO promotes labour market dialogue by establishing a common language for talking
about skills demand and supply.
The classification of occupations is based on a combination of skills levels and skills

specialisations, which makes it easy to locate a specific occupation in the framework
(ETDP SETA, 2017). A skills construct is used in the context of competency, rather than
a description of tasks or functions. Because the OFO is used as a tool for identifying,
reporting and monitoring scarce and critical skills, it is revised and updated annually. The
OFO (version 2017) clusters occupations into eight major groups:
1 Managers;
2 Professionals;
3 Technicians and associate professionals;
4 Clerical support workers;
5 Service and sales workers;
6 Skilled agricultural, forestry, fishery, craft and related trades workers;
7 Plant and machine operators and assemblers;
8 Elementary occupations.
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The skills level of an occupation is related to competent performance of the tasks associated
with an occupation. A comparison can, therefore, be made between the skills level of an
occupation and the general education (cognitive) level associated with that occupation
on the NQF, as well as with the entry, intermediate and advanced levels referred to in
the NSDS (see Table 1.8). The skills level of an occupation is a function of the field of
knowledge required, the tools and equipment used, the materials worked on and the goods
or services provided in relation to the tasks performed (Van Niekerk & Van Zyl, 2014).
Based on the skills level and skills specialisation, occupations are divided into major
(one digit), sub-major (two digits), minor (three digits) and unit (four digits) groupings, as
illustrated in Table 1.13. Occupations (six digits) are sub-divisions of the unit groups and
further detailed through specialisation and alternative occupational titles (ISETT SETA,
2007). The OFO indicates the detailed level of specialisation by the use of the singular
form at the occupation level, whereas all other groupings (major or units) are expressed in
the plural. Table 1.13 illustrates the OFO structure as relating to the classification of skills
development facilitators and training and staff development professionals.
Table 1.13 The OFO structure groupings (DHET: OFO version 2017)
OFO structure groupings Skills development Training and development

facilitators professionals
Major group Year + 1st digit 2017-2 2017-2
Professionals Professionals
Sub-major Year + 2nd digit 2017-24 2017-24

group Business and administrative Business and administrative
professionals professionals
Minor group Year + 3rd digit 2017-242 2017-242

Administrative professionals Administrative professionals
Unit group Year + 4th digit 2017-2423 2017-2424

Personnel and career Training and staff development
professionals professionals
Occupation Year + 5th 2017-242302 2017-242401

& 6th digits Skills development facilitator/ Training and development
practitioner professional
4.3 Occupational Qualifications Framework (OQF)

The Occupational Qualifications Framework (OQF) is a sub-framework in the NQF (see
Figure 1.1) that provides a structure for designing, delivering and assessing learning that
is highly responsive to the needs of workplaces and the social development sector. This
is in contrast to the other two qualification frameworks, which are focused on learning
for foundational knowledge and skills, and academic or discipline-based knowledge and
research (NSDH, 2009).
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4.4 National Occupational Pathways Framework (NOPF)

The National Occupational Pathways Framework (NOPF) is used to take the analysis
provided by the OFO data and translate it into appropriate skills development strategies
and interventions (NSDH, 2009). While the OFO interfaces with the labour market
and helps to provide an understanding of occupational changes in the labour market,
the NOPF interfaces with the NQF, and seeks to respond to the patterns and trends with
matching skills interventions.
The NOPF maps the OFO data onto NQF levels, and clusters the skills-related
occupations, so that vertical progression (within occupations) and horizontal progression
(across occupations) can easily be achieved. It allows for the simple translation of the data
from the LMIS into appropriate skills-development strategies and interventions.
4.5 Communities of expert practice (CEPs)

Communities of expert practice (CEPs) are groups of expert practitioners who are currently
practising in occupations and who are convened to contribute to the development and
quality assurance of occupational qualifications (Van Rooyen, 2009). Practitioners are
involved in the quality assurance and standards-setting responsibilities of the QCTO to
ensure that occupational qualifications remain relevant and responsive to the labour market
skills needs. Working jointly with skills development providers and facilitators, they design
and develop occupational qualifications, curricula and qualification assessment specifications.
They replace the SGBs that were central during the first NQF (NSDH, 2009).
4.6 Occupational qualifications

An occupational qualification is a work-relevant qualification that encapsulates the
response of the OLS to labour-market needs (NSDH, 2009). It represents the achievement
of a planned combination of learning outcomes, which is intended to provide qualifying
learners with the applied competence to practise an occupation and to provide a basis
for further learning. This qualification is designed by expert practitioners (CEPs)
practising the occupation and is registered with the NQF. It combines knowledge
learning, practical learning and work experience learning into a meaningful, integrated
description of what it means to be competent in an occupation. It contains more detailed
information relating to curriculum, delivery and assessment than did previous NQF
qualifications, and therefore promotes a more consistent and credible kind of qualification.
An occupational qualification is a work-relevant qualification that encapsulates the response

of the OLS to labour-market needs.
The purpose of an occupational qualification is to specify the requirements that a learner

must meet to be certified as competent to practise an occupation, or a specialisation related
to an occupation, reflected on the OFO. The Skills Development Act 37 of 2008 (SDA)
defines an occupational qualification as ‘a qualification associated with a trade, occupation
or profession, resulting from work-based learning and consisting of knowledge unit
standards, practical unit standards and work experience unit standards’. In terms of the
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OLS, occupational qualifications or part qualifications will be awarded after an external

integrated summative assessment for an occupational qualification in terms of the rules
of combination. The assessment is based on the exit level outcomes that are derived from
the occupational purpose and tasks. Formal recognition of competence is recognised by
certification (QCTO, 2011).
Characteristics of occupational qualifications include:

•• An occupational curriculum – representing inputs from expert practitioners and covering
three forms of learning (that is, knowledge, practical skills and work experience); and
•• Occupational qualification assessment specifications – including internal assessment
and final external integrated summative assessment. Internal assessment guidelines are
for the assessment of each curriculum component. These internal assessments carried
out for the theory/knowledge and practical components of occupational qualifications
are the responsibility of the provider. External integrated summative assessment is
for the occupational qualification as a whole. The aims of occupational qualifications
assessment specifications are to:
–– Set national standards for external integrated assessment of occupational competence;
and
–– Specify requirements for accreditation of assessment centres or trade test centres
where required.
•• Qualification descriptions (three components in a qualification – knowledge and theory
learning, practical learning and work experience learning);
•• A link to the OFO;
•• Fitness-for-purpose – by representing labour market requirements (that is, it must be
demand-led and not supply-driven); and
•• Reflect all three forms of learning, that is:
–– Knowledge and theory (minimum 20%);
–– Practical skills (minimum 20%); and
–– Work experience (minimum 20%).
Each of the occupational qualifications must reflect three components of learning (DoL,
2008a, DHET, 2010b), as highlighted above:
1. The acquisition of general knowledge and theory learning (plus specialised and contextual
theory and knowledge). Conceptual knowledge/theory and information is acquired
systematically through a set of purposefully organised learning activities – this
component is offered by a skills development provider;
2. The acquisition of general and occupationally relevant practical learning. Practical focuses
on the ability to perform certain skills at a particular level, safely, productively, within
legal prescripts and with due regard for social responsibility – this component may be
acquired in a simulated environment; and
3. The requisite work experience learning in an occupationally relevant context. Work
experience focuses on the ability to integrate conceptual knowledge and practical
learning in concrete situations within the workplace.
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A combination of all three components (knowledge, practical skills and workplace

experience) is necessary to obtain competence in terms of qualifications in the occupational
qualifications sub-framework and the selection and proportion of these is driven by the
occupational purpose, as well as by the need to ensure progression.
4.7 Progression
The QCTO has developed related occupational qualifications and associated curricula to
ensure progression from the lower levels to higher levels in progressive steps (QCTO, 2011).
The occupational curriculum components must be assessed both internally and externally.
4.8 Internal assessment or assessment against curriculum

components
Knowledge learning, practical learning and work experience learning are assessed by
accredited skills development providers and approved workplaces in accordance with the
criteria outlined in the various curriculum components. This assessment is referred to as
internal assessment or assessment (ISA) against curriculum components, and culminates
in statements of results by accredited skills development providers. Statements of work
experience must be issued by approved workplaces. The same assessment criteria linked
to each curriculum component must be applied when conducting assessments for the
purpose of recognition of prior learning (RPL) already completed at a prior site and to
identify learning gaps (QCTO, 2011).
4.9 External integrated summative assessment of occupational

qualifications or part qualifications
The purpose of an external integrated summative assessment (EISA), or assessment against
the occupational qualification or part qualification, is to promote consistency and credibility
of the occupational qualifications or to promote articulation of the part qualification issued.
The criteria for this assessment are specified in the assessment specifications document
and captured in the occupational qualifications document (QCTO, 2011). The EISA is
a competency based assessment, based on the execution of work tasks from the exit level
outcomes of a qualification. The final EISA is conducted and managed by the approved
QAP (quality assurance partner) including DHET.
The purpose of an external integrated summative assessment is to promote consistency

and credibility of the occupational qualifications or to promote articulation of the part
qualification issued.
Assessment of the individual qualification learning components is not sufficient to confirm

competence to perform an occupation and the associated occupational tasks. Assessment of
occupational competence is conducted through the application of nationally standardised
assessment instruments and procedures at accredited assessment centres or registered sites.
This assessment is required for part qualifications. It is referred to as external integrated
summative assessment (EISA) or assessment against the occupational qualification or part
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qualification and results in a QCTO certification. Skills development providers may apply
for accreditation to conduct the external integrated summative assessments. To qualify
for an external assessment, learners must provide proof of completion of all required
components by means of statements of results and work experience (QCTO, 2011).
4.10 Assessment of foundational learning

The QCTO may require that all learners undertaking occupational programmes registered
on NQF levels 3 and 4 be assessed against the ‘foundational learning’ part qualifications
and, if found ‘not yet competent’, must complete the specified communication and
mathematical literacy courses. The primary reason to assess learners’ foundational
competence is to ensure that they (Van Deventer, 2010):
•• Cope with occupational learning demands; and
•• Are able to benefit from the learning process.
The assessment of foundational learning is not an entry requirement, but must be completed
prior to the external integrated summative assessment. The completion of this aspect of the
curriculum is over and above the knowledge, practical and work experience components
outlined above.
4.11 Development quality partners (DQP)

The development quality partner (DQP) is responsible for the development of occupational
qualifications and performs the functions outlined below (QCTO, 2011):
•• Managing the development and review of occupational qualifications and curricula, for
the approval of the QCTO;
•• Managing the development and review of qualification assessment specifications, in
co-operation with the AQP, for the approval of the QCTO;
•• Compiling a database or co-ordinating the process of identifying relevant expert
practitioners, facilitators and assessors (not limited to their own constituency or
stakeholders) to participate in the development and verification of occupational
curricula and qualification assessment specifications and associated occupational
qualifications;
•• Convening working groups consisting of:
–– expert practitioners (CEPs) to develop the occupational profile;
–– expert practitioners to develop practical skills modules and work experience modules;
–– facilitators to develop discipline knowledge subjects; and
–– expert practitioners, facilitators and assessors to develop qualification assessment
specifications.
•• Developing a qualifications development process report outlining:
–– the processes and participants involved in the development and verification of the
occupational curriculum;
–– the processes and participants involved in the development; and
–– verification of the qualification assessment specifications. and
•• Conducting quality audits of skills development providers, if requested by the QCTO.
–– The QCTO will, over time, take these processes in house.
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4.12 Assessment quality partners (AQP)

The assessment quality partner (AQP) is responsible for both the internal and external
assessment of occupational curriculum and qualifications (QCTO, 2011).
General Specialised Specialised

General knowledge Work
practical practical knowledge
& theory experience
skills skills & theory
Integrated summative external

All forms of learning
assessment of competence
General “Stage 2” learning
qualifications
Certification
Vocational & occupational Work-related learning

directed qualifications
RPL process
Other QCs QCTO & quality partners
Designation
by
professional
body
Industry-defined criteria (representative)
Figure 1.7 Scope of qualification (DHET, 2010a,b; Vorwerk, 2010a)
4.13 Occupational learning programmes

The NSDS III and the revised SETA grant regulations of 2013 refer to occupational
learning programmes as PIVOTAL or occupationally-directed programmes. PIVOTAL
occupational programmes are occupational-directed professional, vocational, technical
and academic learning programmes that are linked to a qualification that meets the critical
needs for economic growth and social development. A PIVOTAL programme combines
course work at universities, universities of technology and colleges with structured learning
at work (professional placements, work-integrated learning, learnerships and internships).
The White Paper on post-school education and training and the NSDP 2030 also emphasise
occupational learning programmes with structured workplace-based components as
important elements of training and development in South African workplaces.
A PIVOTAL programme combines course work at universities, universities of technology

and colleges with structured learning at work.
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In terms of the Skills Development Act 97 of 1998, a learning programme includes a

learnership, an apprenticeship, a skills learning programme (‘skills programme’) and
any other prescribed learning programme that includes a structured work experience
component. Learners participating in these programmes have to demonstrate sufficient
foundational competence in communication and mathematical literacy to cope with the
occupational learning demands and benefit from the learning process. The different types
of occupational learning programmes in South Africa are discussed below. These include
the learnership, apprenticeship and skills learning programmes. Table 1.14 differentiates
between these three types of learning programmes.
4.13.1 Learnerships
Learnerships enable government to invest massively in skills development for empowerment
and economic purposes, especially to reduce unemployment and poverty. In terms of the
Skills Development Amendment Act of 2008, a learnership includes an apprenticeship.
Learnerships enable government to invest massively in skills development for empowerment

and economic purposes, especially to reduce unemployment and poverty.
Combining both knowledge and work experience components of learning, learnerships are
believed to be the most time and cost-effective way to empower learners with economically
relevant skills that give them better employment prospects than traditional knowledge-
driven qualifications, or work experience-driven trades (NSDH, 2011). The learnership
system – as one approach to implementing the objectives of the Skills Development Act
– provides the opportunity to transform the process of skills formation by creating the
mechanism needed for a skills revolution in South Africa. The learnership regulations
(DHET, Government Gazette No. 30010 of 29 June 2007) outlines the policy and
procedures for learnerships.
Learnerships are believed to be the most time and cost-effective way to empower learners
with economically relevant skills that give them better employment prospects.
In the OLS, a learnership is a supervised, structured and planned experiential learning

programme that, firstly, includes the three curriculum components of knowledge, skills
and work experience of a specific type and duration; and secondly, is governed by a
contractual agreement between the employer, the learner and the training provider or SDP
that leads to a National Occupational Award or a National Skills Certificate. The skills
certificate forms a distinct but recognised portion of an occupational award as determined
by the DHET. The learnership should result in much better employment prospects for
graduates because of the tighter link between the labour market needs and occupational
qualification design in the OLS. Learnerships must be delivered by an accredited training
or SDP (Stuart, 2011).
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A learnership is governed by a contractual agreement between the employer, the learner and
the training provider or SDP that leads to a National Occupational Award or a National
Skills Certificate.
Generally, a learnership will be registered by the CEP responsible for developing the
National Occupational Award or National Skills Certificate to which they are linked. In
the case of higher education providers offering learnerships, the learnership design must
be approved by the QCTO, which is responsible for the design of all learnerships. SETAs
have a brief to create learnerships, guided by the skills shortages in their economic sector
(Stuart, 2011). In terms of the NQF, learnerships will not be offered against qualifications
on the further or higher education frameworks, but only on the OQSF.
Generally, a learnership will be registered by the CEP responsible for developing the
National Occupational Award or National Skills Certificate to which they are linked.
A learnership seeks to bridge the articulation gap between institutional and occupational
learning. This programme includes a complex contractual agreement for a fixed period between
the learner, the SDP and the employer. The contractual agreement provides a framework for
formalising the relationship between these three parties in realising the qualification. Beyond
the formality of the agreement, this relationship requires high levels of co-operation to ensure
the smooth planning and operation of the learnership (Akoojee et al., 2005).
4.13.2 Apprenticeships
In terms of the Skills Development Amendment Act of 2008, an apprenticeship refers to a
learnership in respect of a listed trade, and includes a trade test in respect of that trade. A
trade is an occupation for which an artisan qualification is required in terms of the Skills
Development Amendment Act of 2008. In this context, an artisan is a person who has
been certified as competent to perform a listed trade in accordance with the Act.
An artisan is a person who has been certified as competent to perform a listed trade in
accordance with the Skills Development Act.
Apprenticeship, as a form of learning, has developed over centuries and can be regarded as
a form of vocational and occupational training, with varying approaches to organisation in
each country (Pattayanunt, 2009). Many countries view apprenticeships as a key component
for skills development, with Australia and Germany leading in this regard (Board of
Vocational Education and Training [BVTE], 2005; Keating et al., 2002). Pattayanunt
(2009) argues that apprenticeship is most relevant as a model of skills development and
occupational learning in contemporary society if it is adaptable to the changing skills
demands of the labour market, in terms of types and levels, and if it responds to mutual
interests of the social partners and is efficiently regulated and standardised. The outcomes
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of the apprenticeship system are difficult to measure, but some quantifiable measures, such
as the rate of apprenticeship activity, participation, completion and qualifications, are
widely used to evaluate the success of the system (Pattayanunt, 2009). The South African
apprenticeship system is regulated by the Skills Development Amendment Act 2008 and
administered and managed by various government departments, SETAs and overseas
funders such as the SSACI (Swiss South African Corporate Initiative).
The South African apprenticeship system is regulated by the Skills Development Amendment
Act of 2008 and administered by various government departments, SETAs and overseas
funders such as the SSACI (Swiss South African Corporate Initiative).
The system of apprenticeship commits employers, learners, education and training

institutions and the state to fulfil various obligations in the training process, which have
been agreed to at sector level. The apprenticeship contract is a legally binding agreement
that is normally structured in specific sector contexts, and is monitored and quality assured
by SETAs, reflecting a social compact struck between employers, unions and individual
learners/workers (Kraak, 2008b). This social contract often specifies the demarcation of
work that only artisans can do, and the wage to be paid to apprentices in training and to
qualified and experienced artisans.
4.13.3 Skills learning programmes

Prior to the Skills Development Amendment Act of 2008, skills learning programmes were
regarded as occupationally based learning programmes which, on completion, constituted
a credit towards a qualification registered in terms of the 10-level NQF. In the context of
NSDS III and the OLS, a skills learning programme is not PIVOTAL in the sense that it
does not include an academic qualification, linked with workplace experience, that qualifies an
individual to enter a particular trade or profession (DHET, 2011). Although the new definition
of skills learning programmes is still under discussion, in the context of the NSDS III (DHET,
2011), they are regarded as shorter programmes with a specific application or specialisation in
mind – for example, how to operate new technology in the workplace or how to undertake
community ventures. They also include programmes, such as those required for continuing
professional development (CPD), which enable graduates from occupationally directed/
PIVOTAL programmes to remain up to date and relevant (DHET, 2011).
The role of skills learning programmes is to up-skill and multi-skill the South African
workforce, as well as new entrants into the relevant economic sectors.
A skills learning programme is recognised throughout the Skills Development Act. It is

one of the most dynamic and relevant features of the education and training system in
South Africa. The role of skills learning programmes is to up-skill and multi-skill the South
African workforce, as well as new entrants into the relevant economic sectors. The provision
of skills learning programmes assists workplaces to develop meaningful and relevant career
and learning pathways for their employees in a highly accessible manner. This, in turn,
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leads to the improvement of workplace practices, employability and mobility of the South
African workforce (MQA, n.d.).
A skills learning programme must be composed of clusters of unit standards that together
enable the learner to earn an income; it should constitute an employable skills unit; the
learner should be able to write the end-product (outcome) of the learning programme on
a CV; after completion, the learner should be able to go to an employer and say, ‘I am able
to perform this function/service if you employ me’ (Hattingh, 2004).
A skills learning programme should contain the following elements (MQA, n.d.):
•• Must have a total credit value of less than 120;
•• Must be unit standards based;
•• Must have a structured workplace learning component; and
•• Employers or accredited SDPs may develop learning programmes. However, the
learning programme must be registered with the relevant SETA and the QCTO.
A skills learning programme serves the following purposes (MQA, n.d.):

•• Provides learners with practical (hands-on) experience where appropriate;
•• Increases employability, self-employment and mobility in the workplace;
•• Provides occupationally directed and focused learning;
•• Contributes to closing the gaps identified in the workplace skills plan (WSP), sector
skills plan (SSP) and provincial skills plan (PSP) or research;
•• Advances career aspirators of employees; and
•• Addresses the principles of portability, access redress and equity in the workplace.
Table 1.14 D
istinction between a learnership, an apprenticeship and a skills learning
programme (SAQA, n.d.)
Type of learning programmes

Skills learning
programme
Feature Learnership Apprenticeship (‘skills programme’)
Relevance to Appropriate in all Tended to be restricted to Appropriate in all

occupations occupations in all economic blue-collar trade. occupations in all economic
sector in which work- Many trades are relevant in sectors in which work-
based learning paths are a wide variety of sectors, based learning paths are
available. e.g., electricians and available.
It is specific to an machine operators. It is specific to an
occupation, but also occupation, but also
develops employability develops employability
across a wide spectrum across a wide spectrum
of work. of work.
Target group Learners in most Mostly in the traditional Learners in most

occupational fields. trades. occupational fields.
Can be employed, Apprentices are employed Can be employed,
unemployed or pre- for the duration of the unemployed or pre-
employed at the time of apprenticeship. employed at the time
entering the learnership. of entering the learning
programme.
79


Skills learning
programme
NQF Level The qualifications that The qualification is not The qualifications that a
learnerships lead to higher than the trade level, learning programme leads
can span across all 10 i.e. equivalent of NQF to can span across all 10
NQF levels. level 4. NQF levels.
Age of learners No age restriction Usually entry-level No age restriction on

on learners entering employees. learners entering a learning
learnerships. programme.
Duration Duration is determined by Three to four years Duration is determined by

the minimum of 120 credits, depending on the the number of credits in the
so learnerships are usually programme. programme, which should
12 to 18 months. be less than 120.
Contract with Formal learning programme Contract is signed between Formal learning programme
learner agreement is signed by the the apprentice and a single agreement is signed by the
learner, employer and the employer for the duration of learner, employer and the
skills development provider. the apprenticeship. skills development provider.
Qualification Designed to meet legally The certificate issued is Unit standards are
specific criteria for NQF- trade-specific, making designed to meet legally
alignment, e.g., it is portability difficult. specific criteria for the NQF.
portable and serves as Qualifications enjoy wide Unit standards are
a building block for national and international registered with SAQA and
further learning. recognition in respect of the nationally recognised by
SAQA-registered and specific trade. employers and training
nationally recognised by The qualification is not institutions.
employers and training necessarily recognised by Unit standards contribute
institutions. training institutions as a to the achievement of a
Builds occupational- stepping-stone to further qualification.
specific skills and develops learning.
generic (critical cross-field)
competencies, which
are relevant in all work
contexts.
Credit for Learners are awarded No formal recognition Learners are awarded
outcomes credits for the outcomes for learning outcomes credits for the unit
achieved successfully achieved, even if apprentices do standards successfully
if they do not complete the not complete the completed, even if they do
learnership. apprenticeship. not complete the learning
programme.
Curriculum Jointly planned by Integration and Jointly planned by

and learning relevant stakeholders. interrelationship relevant stakeholders.
programme The interrelationship between institutional and The interrelationship
between and integration of workplace learning is not between and integration of
workplace and institutional formally structured, and workplace and institutional
learning is formally the integration seldom learning is formally
structured into the learning happens. structured into the learning
programme. programme.
80


Skills learning
programme
Programme Comprises a number of unit Comprises a number of Comprises a number of unit

structure standards registered with modules or learning units. standards registered with
SAQA on the NQF. SAQA on the NQF.
Institutional Delivered by a wide Delivered by FET/TVET Delivered by a wide

learning spectrum of training colleges. spectrum of training
component institutions, and Customised to the needs of institutions, and
contextualised to the needs the specific trade. contextualised to the needs
of the occupation for which of the occupation for which
the learnership is designed. the learning programme
is designed.
Work-based Learner gains a broader Learner’s work-based Learner gains a broader

learning spectrum of work experience is restricted to spectrum of work
component experience that is not the work context of a single experience that is not
limited to the work he employer. limited to the work he
or she is doing with one or she is doing with one
employer. Integrated employer. Integrated
workplace learning and workplace learning and
foundational learning foundational learning are
are not necessarily clearly defined.
a requirement or
clearly defined.
Purpose Promotes access to Aimed at developing Promotes access to

of learning employment, as well as FET trade-specific skills and employment, as well as FET
opportunities in the field of consolidating the worker’s opportunities, in the field of
the learnership, as well as ability in that trade. the learning programme, as
in other fields. well as in other fields.
Role of Primarily that of a learner Primarily that of an Primarily that of a learner

the learner for the duration of the apprentice, who is in for the duration of the
learnership. employment. learning programme.
Approval/ Must be approved by the Must be approved by the Must be approved by the
registration relevant SETA in terms of relevant SETA in terms of relevant SETA in terms of
the Skills Development the Skills Development the Skills Development
Act, which submits for Act, which submits for Act, which submits for
registration to the QCTO. registration to the QCTO. registration to the QCTO.
Assessment Learner’s final assessment Apprentice’s competence Learner’s final assessment

of competence is done by is assessed through trade of competence is done by
the workplace and SDP. tests conducted by an workplace and SDP.
Disputes regarding accredited assessment Disputes regarding
assessment may be dealt quality partner, e.g. assessment may be dealt
with by the relevant SETA. INDLELA or COTT. with by the relevant SETA.
Core, fundamental and Moderation of assessment
elective components are is dealt with by the NAMB.
assessed. Application and practical
skills are assessed.
81


Skills learning
programme
Employment Employment is not Employment is not Employment is not

opportunity guaranteed with the guaranteed; although guaranteed with the
current employer after employers often take current employer after the
the learnership, but the on apprentices with a learning programme, but
learnership prepares the view to keeping them as the learning programme
learner for employability permanent employees after prepares the learner for
outside the scope of the successful completion of employability outside
current employer. the apprenticeship. the scope of the current
employer.
The 2007 learnership regulations were revised and, on 29 March 2017, the DHET issued
the Draft SETA Workplace Based Learning Programme Agreement Regulations (DHET
Government Gazette No. 40730) for public comments. The focus on workplace-based
learning programmes as an important element of learnerships is in line with the focus areas
of the White Paper on Post-school Education and Training and the NSDP 2030 objectives.
The Draft SETA Workplace-based Learning Programme Agreement Regulations define a
workplace-based learning programme as:
•• An educational approach with a quality-assured curriculum through which a person
internalises knowledge, gains insights and acquires skills and competencies through
exposure to a work-place to achieve specific outcomes applicable for employability; and
•• An educational approach without a quality-assured curriculum through which a person
internalises knowledge, gains insights and acquires skills and competencies through
exposure to a workplace to achieve specific outcomes for employability.
Within the workplace-based learning programme context, a learnership refers to a

period of workplace-based learning culminating in an occupational qualification or part
qualification.
Within the workplace-based learning programme context, an apprenticeship refers to a
period of workplace-based learning culminating in an occupational qualification.
The Draft SETA Workplace-based Learning Programme Agreement Regulations also
refers to three types of internships:
1. Student Internship, Category A: a period of workplace-based learning undertaken as
part of the requirement for the Diploma, National Diploma, Higher Certificate or
Advanced Certificate as a vocational qualification stipulated in the HEQSF.
2. Student Internship, Category B: a period of workplace-based learning undertaken as part
of the requirement for a professional qualification.
3. Student Internship, Category C: a period of workplace-based learning undertaken as part
of the requirement for the Occupational Qualifications of the QCTO.
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For purposes of workplace-based skills programme agreements, only the following

internships are relevant:
•• Graduate internship: a period of workplace-based learning for the purposes of allowing
a person who has completed a post-school qualification to gain workplace experience or
exposure to enhance competence and/or employability. This may include academic staff
with existing qualifications who need industrial exposure or experience.
•• Student internship: a period of workplace-based learning for a person who is enrolled
at an education and training institution for a SAQA-registered qualification and may
include vacation work.
•• Other: a period of learning related to workplace-based competencies and/or the transfer
of skills, as determined and confirmed by a SETA, and may include continuous
professional development (CPD) courses.
Individuals can apply for the following types of workplace-based learning programmes:
•• Apprenticeship; •• Learnership;
•• Candidacy; •• Student Internship, Category A;
•• Internship for the ‘N’ Diploma; •• Student Internship, Category B.
The Draft SETA Workplace-based Learning Programme Agreement Regulations

(DHET, 2017b) further outlines the policy and procedures for agreements between the
employer, learner and skills development provider, and assessment, certification and quality
assurance matters.
5. Q
UALITY ASSURANCE MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTH
AFRICAN OCCUPATIONAL LEARNING SYSTEM
The Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO) is a quality assurance and
standards-setting body responsible for occupational qualifications within the OLS.
It assumes overall responsibility for the quality-assurance functions that were previously
given to SETA ETQA bodies and professional bodies (ETQAs); it may delegate some of
these functions back to the SETA quality-assurance divisions (NSDH, 2009). However,
the NSDP 2030 (DHET, 2017a) states that the quality-assurance role of the SETA ETQAs
and those undertaken by the National Artisan Moderating Body regarding the quality of
occupationally relayed programmes must be integrated into the QCTO. The QCTO must
collaborate with the other two quality councils to enable learners to move across the three
sub-frameworks of the NQF.
The Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO) is a quality assurance and
standards-setting body responsible for occupational qualifications within the OLS.
The South African skills development system is built around the quality management
model at macro level, as shown in Figure 1.8. Quality management is encapsulated in the
Cabinet’s vision, which cascades down through intervention strategies developed by both
the Ministry of Labour and the Ministry of Higher Education and Training (Vorwerk,
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2010c). The DHET is responsible for implementing these strategies through appropriate
interventions and programmes at SETA level. The SETAs then operationalise these
strategies by promoting the successful development and implementation of appropriate
occupational learning programmes at the workplace level. These occupational learning
programmes ultimately contribute to the supply of skills in the labour market.
At micro level, a quality management system in the new OLS encompasses all
aspects of quality (including, ultimately, impact assessment); quality assurance (the
management, design and development of occupational curricula and qualification
assessment specifications and working with quality partners representing CEPs); quality
control (accreditation of skills development programmes, registration of assessment centres
and registered constituent assessors, and monitoring of data); and quality improvement
(responding to issues in the system at local level) (DHET, 2010b).
Within the OLS, the NSDS III and NSDP 2030 (DHET, 2017a), quality assurance
for occupational learning revolves around the QCTO. The QCTO will set occupational
standards, manage quality, and monitor and evaluate the implementation of occupational
learning programmes. According to Vorwerk (2010b), quality management is a strategic
decision in an organisation. Quality is dependent on the utility of the learning, which
includes managing the system (that is, monitoring and evaluating the system delivery,
programme evaluation and impact assessment) (DHET, 2010b). Figure 1.8 depicts the
QCTO model for quality management in South Africa.
Quality improvement through

MONITORING AND EVALUATION
• of development and design processes
• of implementation of learning programmes
• data analysis and impact assessment
Quality assurance of development

Quality assurance of development and design of ASSESSMENT
and design of CURRICULA PROCESSES
by applying nationally standardised by applying nationally standardised
processes and systems QUALITY processes and systems
• occupational curricula PARTNERS
• Qualification Assessment
• foundational learning competence
Specifications (QAS)
• occupational qualifications and
unit standards • Nationally standardised assessment
instruments
Quality control of PROVISION,

IMPLEMENTATION and CERTIFICATION
•A
ccreditation of skills development providers
(requirements specified in curriculum)
• Implementation of assessment strategies
(requirements specified in QAS)
• Establishing a secure certification system
Figure 1.8 QCTO model for quality management (DHET, 2010a)
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It is clear from Figure 1.8 that quality is vital across all aspects of occupational learning
programmes, namely, curriculum development and design; monitoring and evaluation; design
and development of assessment processes; and provision, implementation and certification.
The QCTO remains small, but works through its partners. It has the responsibility
to manage the consistency of the design and development process and certification of
occupational qualifications; it controls the quality of provision and assessment through
accreditation and registration; it monitors data and improves processes and quality-control
mechanisms; and it improves development and design processes (DHET, 2010a,b). The
elements of the QCTO model for quality management are discussed briefly below.
5.1 Quality assurance of development and design of curricula

The process of occupational qualification development is extremely rigorous and is initiated
at industry level by the constituents, the SETAs or an association or professional body on
the basis of existing needs. The needs may originate from the scarce skills list or demands
from an industry or sector, and be preceded by research. An application for qualification
or curriculum development is then forwarded to the QCTO, which sets the process in
motion. Key stakeholders, including a curriculum/qualification development facilitator, a
qualifications development partner and an assessment quality partner, are identified and
become involved in the process (DHET, 2010a,b).
The process of occupational qualification development is initiated at industry level by the

constituents, the SETAs or an association or professional body on the basis of existing needs.
The curriculum/qualification development facilitator guides and directs the various working
groups that are responsible for the development of an occupational profile, the development of
the learning process design and the development of assessment specifications. These working
groups collaborate with the CEPs. The result of this process is an occupational curriculum
and qualification. The curriculum/qualification development facilitator, with inputs from
the CEPs, compiles and submits the development process report, including occupational
curricula, qualification assessment specifications and occupational qualifications, to the
qualification development partner. Thereafter, the qualification development partner
registers occupational curricula and qualifications assessment specifications on the NOPF
and, finally, submits an occupational qualification to SAQA for registration. The QCTO
oversees the whole process of occupational curriculum/qualification development to ensure
that it meets the quality standards set (Vorwerk, 2009).
5.2 Controlling the quality of provision, implementation and

certification
The QCTO controls the quality of provision, assessment and certification by applying
specified criteria in terms of:
•• The approval of regulated occupational learning;
•• Accreditation of skills development providers (SDPs); and
•• The implementation of assessment strategies.
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The QCTO approves all regulated occupational learning programmes developed by the
QAPs prior to the registration by the DHET to ensure validity and compliance with
occupational qualification rules of combination.
Accreditation of skills development providers (SDPs) is vital because SDPs are required
to deliver curriculum components and conduct internal assessments against related learning
components. SDPs are accredited on the basis of their ability to provide the theory/
knowledge and practical skills development components outlined in the curriculum. The
approach used by the QCTO to accredit SDPs is based on evaluation against general
criteria and the particular requirements specified in the relevant occupational curriculum
components. SETAs will have to focus on workplace approval for work experience learning
and monitoring the implementation of occupational learning programmes in line with the
DHET regulations.
5.3 Quality assurance of development and design of assessment

processes
The QCTO is responsible for accrediting assessment centres to conduct an external
integrated summative assessment of occupational competence.
5.4 Quality improvement through monitoring and evaluation
The QCTO conducts research to monitor the effectiveness of learning interventions in the
context of the larger occupational learning system.
The QCTO conducts research to monitor the effectiveness of learning interventions in the
context of the larger occupational learning system. The process of monitoring and evaluation
revolves around the development and design processes, the implementation of occupational
learning and data analysis, and impact assessment (qualitative and quantitative). Qualitative
impact assessment focuses on the appropriateness and relevance of skills, the credibility of
assessment, enhanced employability and increased productivity and the quality of work.
Quantitative assessment focuses on whether the learning programme is delivering the right
number of people, as well as on the balance between demand and supply. Along with the
QCTO, the SETAs’ role has changed from education and training quality assurance bodies
to real quality assurance involving quality monitoring of programme implementation and
programme evaluation research, including impact assessment. The QCTO will conduct
the statistical analysis of learner data collected, including enrolment, completion and
certification rate. These data will be analysed in terms of SDPs and workplaces, assessment
centres, learners, occupational learning programmes and qualifications (DoL, 2008b).
Qualitative impact assessment focuses on the appropriateness and relevance of skills, the
credibility of assessment, enhanced employability and increased productivity and the quality
of work.
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Quantitative assessment focuses on whether the learning programme is delivering the right
number of people, as well as on the balance between demand and supply.
5.5 Quality control mechanisms in the development

of occupational curricula and qualifications
Overall, quality mechanisms in the new OLS include consultations with the CEPs, hence
the notion of quality partners – one for the development of curricula, qualifications and
assessment specifications, and the other for the management of the assessment process,
using nationally standardised instruments. Figure 1.9 depicts the occupational curriculum
development process, as managed by the development quality partner within the framework
of the QCTO (Van Niekerk & Van Zyl, 2014, p. 1).
PROCESS RESPONSIBLE QUALIFICATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
Submit Curr, Ass 10
QCTO monitors performance of the DQP in Processes 4, 8 & 9
Specs, Qual & 9 DQP

Process Report QCTO
Manage Verifica- Evaluates
tion Process 8 DQP with Constituency Group
(Curr & Ass Specs) DQP
Finalise Assess- QDF with AQP & Expert Practitioners,
ment Specs 7 (incl Assessors)
Develop Module QDF with Expert Practitioners,

Specifications 6 AQP & Educationalists
Appoint AQP 5 QCTO Staff
Manage Verifica-
DQP with Expert
tion of Occupa-
tional Profile & 4 Practitioners and
proposed AQP DQP
Proposed AQP
DQP with Expert
Develop Occupa-
tional Profile 3 Practitioners (incl
Assessors)
Oversee Scoping
Meeting with QCTO
Constituency & 2 Staff
Appoint DQP
Receive and Pro- QCTO

cess Application 1 Staff
Occupational Curriculum Verified
Qualification Profile Component External Curriculum Occupational
RESULTS Scope & SLA & Specifications Assessment (B+C) and Qualification
with (DQP) SLA with (incl Internal Specifications Assessment (A+B+D)
(AQP) Assessment) Specifications
A B C D E F
Figure 1.9 O
ccupational curriculum development process managed by development
quality partner (Van Niekerk & Van Zyl, 2014:1)
The QCTO is responsible for the design of all qualifications and their related unit standards
in the OQF.
The QCTO is responsible for the design of all qualifications and their related unit
standards in the OQF. It utilises the National Occupation Pathways Framework (NOPF)
as a management tool to identify related clusters of occupations, minimise duplication
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and ensure that occupational qualifications and curricula are designed in line with the
skills needs of the labour market. The design process for occupational qualifications is
expert-driven and is based on the desired occupational profile (CEP). The QCTO may
appoint moderating bodies to perform agreed quality-assurance functions for specific
occupations or occupational families. These moderating bodies are professional bodies or
occupational associations that have a strong and demonstrated interest in the particular
occupations. Assessment of occupational competence is performed by constituent
assessors. These constituent assessors are members of the relevant CEP, that is, they are
practising the occupation or are active in the occupational context. This ensures credibility
of the assessment process. The other two quality councils with whom the QCTO must
collaborate are Umalusi and the CHE.
Quality partners are involved in the promotion of quality in occupational learning
and these include professional bodies, occupational associations, SAQA and the SETAs, as
illustrated in Figure 1.10. These partners are involved from the initial stages of occupational
qualification development, during implementation and during assessment.
Labour market
QCTO
Professional
Other QCs
bodies
QA framework
Performance
Research and data analysis
indicators e.g.
learner enrolment,
throughput,
employment
• Nationally creditable
Value added
• Qualifications
• Standardised
by QCTO Value added

• Curriculum
in terms of
Assessment
by QCTO
ensuring right in terms of
inputs
Design
credible learner
achievements
Quality
SETAs Quality implementation partners
providers SAQA employers
Figure 1.10 Quality assurance partners in the new OLS (DoL, 2008b; DoL, 2009)
88

Quality partners are involved in the promotion of quality in occupational learning and
these include professional bodies, occupational associations, SAQA and the SETAs.
According to Vorwerk (2010), a focus on quality assurance is misleading if it is not

embedded in a broader approach to quality management. Based on overall organisational
strategy, quality assurance of occupational learning programmes ensures the predictability
and repeatability of processes under the organisation’s control against the strategic criteria
in the quality management system (Vorwerk, 2010a). Quality assurance of occupational
learning programmes is largely an issue of quality control (DHET, 2010b).
6. M
ANAGING QUALITY IN WORKPLACE LEARNING AND
DEVELOPMENT
In the South African workplace, HRD operates within the national requirements for
quality outcomes-based L&D. The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines ‘quality’ as ‘degree
of excellence’ and ‘assurance’ as ‘formal guarantee’ or ‘positive declaration’. From these
definitions, ‘quality assurance’ is a formal guarantee of excellence. The SAQA Act defines
quality assurance as the process of ensuring that the specified degree of excellence is achieved.
The unit standards and regulation requirements specify these degrees of excellence. Quality
management is defined as all activities of the overall management function that determine
the quality policy, objectives, strategies, responsibilities and implementation of these by
means of a combination of managerial processes (Coetzee, 2007a).
The SAQA Act defines ‘quality assurance’ as the process of ensuring that the specified degree
of excellence is achieved.
In L&D, the move towards a quality management system approach is being driven by:
•• Stakeholders (particularly the state) that demand a higher level of quality in education
and training, particularly where learners and employers have to invest in learning
opportunities;
•• International expectations that each country will ensure the quality of its graduates
and learners;
•• L&D providers that demand flexibility, requiring self-approval and review of new
learning programmes;
•• A move away from expensive, unresponsive centralised systems; and
•• Standards and qualifications.
South African organisations that want to use the NQF to best advantage will need to
establish their own L&D quality management systems.
South African organisations that want to use the NQF to best advantage will need to
establish their own L&D quality management systems. This approach is consistent with the
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international trend towards self-management and devolved responsibility for quality; this
means that everyone is responsible for quality. Quality management is also fundamental
to every other qualifications framework in the world. A robust and coherent L&D quality
management system provides learners and other stakeholders with an assurance that the
HRD department and its staff have the capacity to meet the needs of its clients. Quality can
only be measured when these requirements are known and defined. Table 1.15 summarises
important elements of the workplace L&D quality management system.
Table 1.15 Elements of the workplace L&D quality management system (Coetzee, 2007a)
Quality assurance
element Description
Management system Management is responsible for overseeing the design of the quality management
system. The following are management functions regarding the quality
management system:
•• Compiling the departmental business plan, workforce plan, workplace skills
plan, strategic HRD plan and budget;
•• Establishing policies and procedures, which specify the standards of
performance and service delivery;
•• Reviewing performance and service delivery against the set standards;
•• Developing a strategy to achieve business goals and strategies; and
•• Developing a quality and service delivery culture.
Personnel and material Management should provide sufficient and appropriate resources to implement
resources the quality system and achieve the quality objectives. The motivation,
competence and thus L&D, communication capacity and performance of
personnel involved in quality management are crucial. Effective performance
management processes must be in place for all staff involved in facilitating
the quality management system. Employees must also be educated in the
principles of the quality management system. Regular communication on quality
performance is essential for improvement purposes.
Administrative, physical These include service provisioning equipment and stores; accommodation,
and financial resources transport and information systems; quality assessment facilities; operational
and technical documentation; the funding of learning provision; administrating,
recording and storing of learner achievement, education, training and
development.
An employee’s biographical information, qualifications, educational level and
performance appraisal data should be maintained and updated on the personnel
administration system.
L&D records HRD and L&D records are normally kept to:
HRIS LMS (see Chapter 3) •• Make strategic skills development decisions;
•• Keep track of the status of skills in the department/organisation;
•• Enable HRD management staff to respond to enquiries from top management
and outside institutions; and
•• Guide employees to reach their full potential in the organisation by devising
individual development plans that suit their particular needs.
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Quality assurance
element Description
The type of records could be any of the following:
•• Strategic HRD plan, L&D plan, workplace skills plan and annual training report;
•• HRD budget and expenditure;
•• Workforce planning data;
•• Records of learning programmes attended;
•• Employees’ personal HRD and L&D records;
•• Performance and development appraisal records;
•• In-service training records;
•• Assessment and moderation records of learner achievements;
•• Course evaluation records; and
•• Quality audit and self-evaluation records.
Communication system An effective communication system allows for an effective flow of information
between all the parties involved in the development of people. The
communication system must eliminate the blockages and obstacles interrupting
the flow of information and ensure that all information is available to all levels of
staff within the agreed timeframes.
A quality management system includes the following:

•• Quality management policies that define what the HRD function wishes to achieve;
•• Quality management procedures that enable the HRD function to practise its quality
management policies; and
•• Review mechanisms, which ensure that the quality management policies and procedures
are applied and that they remain effective.
As shown in Table 1.15, the quality management system governs all L&D practices
(Coetzee, 2007). Table 1.16 and Table 1.17 include checklists that can be used in the
management of workplace L&D quality systems.
Table 1.16 Checklist for setting up the L&D quality assurance system (Coetzee, 2007a)
In place
Responsible
Yes No Key performance areas person Evidence
1. Establish the QA structure:
•• Manager responsible for L&D provision QA;
•• Assessors;
•• L&D professionals;
•• Skills development facilitator;
•• Skills development committee;
•• Coaches;
•• Moderators;
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In place
Responsible
Yes No Key performance areas person Evidence
•• RPL advisors;
•• Mentors;
•• Quality auditors;
•• Administrative support; and
•• Occupational and job profiles for all these positions.
2. Recruit, appoint and train QA staff.
3. Negotiate performance contracts and development plans

with QA staff.
4. Obtain physical, administrative and financial resources to

operate the learning provision QA function.
5. Draft strategies and an operational business plan for the

learning provision QA function (including mission, vision,
values, goals and objectives).
6. Identify the quality assurance areas to be managed.
7. Draft policies and procedures for each of these areas.

These will form the basis of the quality management
system, which must be formally managed using ISO
guidelines.
8. Set up a management information system to review, on

at least a monthly basis, the established goals.
9. Train stakeholders, management and staff in learning

provision QA (orientation sessions). Ensure that they
understand policy and procedure requirements.
10. Set up a documentation and administrative system that

complies with SAQA/QCTO standards.
11. Design an internal quality audit (self-assessment) and

customer review system (identify main quality areas;
draw up checklists, measurement scales and other tools;
and draw up quality audit procedures).
12. Orientate stakeholders and involve staff in the quality

audit process.
Activity Checklist for L&D interventions
Study chapters 2 to 8 and then complete the checklist in Table 1.17 below.
L&D professionals will have to carry out certain checks that everything is running
according to schedule, that the required learning outcomes are being achieved and that
the required standards are maintained.
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Table 1.17 L
&D intervention quality checklist: learning facilitation, administration and
quality assurance management (Coetzee, 2018)
Yes ✓ No ✗ Comments
1. Planning of learning/training event
1.1 I know and understand the learning outcomes to be achieved.
1.2 I have thoroughly studied the facilitator guidelines:
•• sequencing of training methods and learning activities;

•• time allocation;
•• opportunities for application and practice;

•• use of projector, video, textbook, learner workbook; and
•• formative and summative assessment activities.
2. Organisation resources for a learning event/programme
2.1 I have identified the equipment and resources I need:
•• writing boards;
•• flip chart;
•• projector;
•• pens;
•• presentation data;
•• monitor and visual equipment; and
•• recording equipment.
2.2 Requisitions for equipment and materials are submitted in time
to the appropriate person.
2.3 Quantity of learning support materials/equipment ordered

matches anticipated number of learners.
2.4 Materials/equipment to be used are available and organised in

an orderly manner.
2.5 Venue is arranged in a way that promotes learner participation

and suits learning activities.
3. Facilitation of learning programme
3.1 I make a conscious effort to be seen and heard by all learners

when speaking.
3.2 The pace, and the level of language are suitable for the
learning group.
3.3 I repeat, rephrase and sum up new information at adequate

intervals.
3.4 Demonstrations of practical tasks are done at a pace slow

enough for learners to assimilate essential information.
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3.5 Learning is contextualised into real-life situations,
whenever possible.
3.6 Previous learning is referred to and built on.
4. Use of materials to facilitate learning
4.1 Learning support materials are used in an appropriate manner at

appropriate stages of the learning cycle.
4.2 Clear instructions are given to learners regarding the use

of materials.
4.3 Checks are carried out to ensure that learners understand and
follow instructions regarding the use of materials.
4.4 Gaps in existing materials are identified and simple strategies

are used to address these (for example, extra explanation is
offered to learners; supplementary materials are introduced).
4.5 Audio-visual material can be seen and heard by learners.
5. Effectiveness of learning programme
5.1 Purpose and intended outcomes of the learning event are

explained to learners.
5.2 Training methods and learning activities are appropriate for the
subject matter.
5.3 Opportunities for application and practice are provided within
the learning event.
5.4 Activities are varied within a single learning event.
5.5 Learners are actively involved in each stage of the learning event.
5.6 Learning needs of individual learners are dealt with adequately.
5.7 Each learning event is summarised and an indication of what is

planned for the following event is given to learners.
6. Assessment of learners within a learning situation
6.1 Learners are informed of impending assessment events.
6.2 The purpose of the impending assessment event is explained to

learners (placement; formative; summative).
6.3 Outcomes that learners will be expected to demonstrate in the

assessment are explained to learners in accessible terms.
6.4 Prescribed assessment instruments are used as specified.
6.5 Learners are given clear instructions regarding the

assessment event.
6.6 Judgements on learners’ performance are made in accordance
with prescribed guidelines.
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6.7 Moderation/verification procedures for internal assessment are
followed where necessary, according to policy.
6.8 Results of internal assessment are made available to learners
within a specified period.
6.9 Administrative requirements of the external assessment agency
are fulfilled.
6.10 Specified measures are taken to ensure the security of the
assessment documentation.
6.11 Assessment is ethically administered.
6.12 Learners are given an opportunity to ask questions about their
assessment results.
6.13 Feedback is given to all learners on their individual strengths
and weaknesses with regard to their performance in the
assessment event.
6.14 Implications of assessment results are clarified with learners in
a sensitive manner (for example, the need to repeat a level, the
need to improve on identified weaknesses).
6.15 Records are kept of learners’ performance in assessment events,

in accordance with the requirements of the organisation.
6.16 Information from assessment results is used in lesson planning

in order to build on learners’ strengths and to help them to
improve their weaknesses.
6.17 Appropriate forms of formative and summative assessment for

illiterate/semi-literate learners are used, where applicable.
7. Fulfilling administrative requirements of a learning group
7.1 I have an attendance register, which records learners’ names,

surnames, dates and times of classes and absenteeism.
7.2 I have records of learners’ addresses, contact telephone

numbers and contact people.
7.3 Reasons for collecting personal information are explained

to learners.
7.4 Records are accurate, complete and up to date.
7.5 Records are available to learners and relevant authorities.
7.6 Records are systematically organised.
7.7 The venue is secured (through the relevant authority) for the
duration of the event.
7.8 The venue and equipment are organised timeously.
7.9 Damage to equipment or the venue is promptly reported to the

appropriate person.
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7.10 Situations that may affect the health and safety of learners are
promptly reported to the appropriate person.
7.11 Dates, times of learning events, venues, registration procedures,

fees, absentee procedures are communicated to learners.
8. Evaluation of own facilitation performance
8.1 Feedback on the learning event is sought from learners in the

form of open-ended questions.
8.2 Learner feedback is synthesised into a few valid points.
8.3 Relatively successful and unsuccessful aspects of a learning

event are identified.
8.4 Actual outcomes of the event are compared to planned

outcomes.
8.5 Plausible reasons are given for the relative success/failure of

the event.
8.6 Feedback from learners and your own refection are formulated
into resolutions about future learning events.
8.7 Your own learning and development needs and areas for self-
improvement are identified.
8.8 Resolutions are formulated to build on own strengths or address

own development needs.
8.9 Assistance and advice are sought from a senior practitioner or

supervisor when necessary.
8.10 Reports on progress of learning groups are produced according

to requirements.
8.11 Reports accurately indicate progress made and difficulties

encountered.
8.12 Exceptionally high incidents of absenteeism and dropout are

recorded and plausible explanations offered.
9. Helping learners with language and literacy across the curriculum
9.1 Learners are consulted on language(s) to be used for all

activities (for example, in whole group, small groups, materials,
written and oral work).
9.2 Strategies for dealing with language difficulties, which may

affect learning, are suggested.
9.3 Relevant terminology of the subject (including acronyms and

abbreviations) is explained.
9.4 The level and style of the language used for instructions is
suitable for learners.
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9.5 Relevant symbols and their uses are explained to learners.
9.6 The layout and style of visuals used in support materials are
explained to learners.
9.7 Learners are helped to use the different parts of a text (for
example, contents page, glossary, index, page numbers, charts,
graphs, diagrams, uses of colour, worksheets).
9.8 Learners are questioned on the purpose of a text to ascertain

how much is understood; fuller and alternative explanations are
given when required.
9.9 Learners are shown how to use textbook and learner workbooks.
9.10 Learners are helped to fill in forms and worksheets relevant to

the learning situation.
10. Identifying and responding to learners who have special needs
10.1 Learners who may have special learning, counselling or health

needs are referred to relevant services and appropriate actions
are taken within the learning situation.
10.2 Learners who have special needs (for example, physical

disability, such as sight or hearing impairment, impairment
of movement or motor skills, learning disability as a cause of
impaired performance in writing, reading, spelling, numeracy
ability) are recognised.
10.3 Learners with special needs are referred for further intervention
by someone other than the trainer.
10.4 Adequate information regarding the referral is provided to the

learner to reduce anxiety (for example, address, time, the nature
of referral, people involved).
10.5 Strategies are implemented to assist the learner.
10.6 The learning environment is organised to alleviate difficulties

(for example, seating closer to the front, negotiating help from
other learners).
Review and discussion questions

1. How can the South African skills development legislation improve the skills situation
in the country?
2. What are the aims of the institutional structures created by the skills development
legislation? How do these structures impact on the training and development efforts
in South African organisations?
3. How do the three sub-frameworks of the NQF differ? What are the key aspects of
each sub-framework?
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4. What are the purposes and contributions of the various pieces of skills development
legislation?
5. What is the purpose and strategic intent of the National Skills Development Plan 2030?
6. How does the approach to outcomes-based learning and development benefit South
African workplaces?
7. What are the elements of the occupational learning system?
8. Which quality assurance mechanisms govern learning and development in
workplaces?
Summary
The South African government recognises skills development as a crucial tool in
enabling the South African economy to change and grow in line with global trends. This
chapter explored how the local and global contexts of human capital challenges shape
the skills development system of South Africa. Furthermore, this chapter highlighted
the skills development legislative framework, including aspects such as the Skills
Development Acts, the National Skills Development Strategy, the White Paper on Post-
school Education and Training, the new National Skills Development Plan 2030 and the
institutional framework for skills development and other structures that represent a
vision of an integrated training and development system. The various Acts introduced
new structures, programmes, requirements and funding policies for training and
development initiatives in South African organisations. These are designed to increase
investment in skills development and to improve the quality and relevance of education
and training to the economy. Skills development providers and CEPs contribute to the
vision of integrated skills development by ensuring that their occupational qualifications
and other programmes, methodologies and practices comply with the quality
requirements for outcomes-based education and L&D (training and lifelong learning).
Skills development is a crucial tool in enabling the South African economy to change and
grow in line with global trends.
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THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING, CHAPTER
2
EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION AND
PERFORMANCE
Key points of the psychology of learning

•• In an organisational context, learning occurs through learning and development (L&D) and
organisational learning processes.
•• L&D design begins with an understanding of how learning occurs. Adult learners’ characteristics
(readiness to learn, motivation to learn) and training design characteristics (principles of learning,
objectives) affect the learning process and learning outcomes.
•• L&D professionals use principles from learning theories and approaches to design learning
programmes and to enhance learning processes during training.
•• Learning at an individual level strongly influences organisational learning processes.
•• Employee performance is a function of employee motivation, level of competence and organisational
factors.

•• Describe the link between L&D and learning and performance in an organisational context.
•• Explain how the characteristics of adult learners influence the learning process and the design of
•• Differentiate between the various theories and approaches to learning and training.
•• Explain how L&D professionals can apply the principles of learning theories and approaches to the
design and delivery of training.
•• Explain how multiple intelligences influence adult learning.
1. INTRODUCTION
The focus of this book is on learning and development (L&D) in the context of the South
African workplace. Historically, various terms have been used to describe the L&D field,
which traditionally was referred to as training and development (T&D). Although T&D
still remains a popular term, contemporary professionals view training through formal,
structured learning programmes – usually presented in classroom scenarios – as only one
way of achieving development. The term learning reflects the contemporary importance
placed on continuous development as a lifelong learning activity. The term learning also
reflects the self-directedness and independence of adult learning, and the contemporary
move towards online and social learning enabled by advances in smart mobile and internet
technology (King, 2017).
The term L&D focuses on the learning needed for organisational and individual
development to occur. L&D also extends beyond those working within the organisation
to those who make an essential contribution to the organisation’s success (for example,

outsourced contract workers and suppliers) (Harrison, 2009). The South African Board for
People Practices (SABPP), the national professional body for human resource practitioners
and L&D professionals, also adopted the term learning and development (L&D) as the
preferred term to reflect the dynamic role of the profession in the workplace (SABPP, 2014).
The SABPP (2014) describes L&D as the practice of providing occupationally directed
and other learning activities that enable and enhance the knowledge, practical skills and
workplace experience, and behaviour of individuals and teams based on current and future
occupational requirements for optimal organisational performance and sustainability.
The global knowledge economy of today increasingly demands people with high-level
technical and social skills, knowledge and expertise to solve a constant stream of competitive
problems.
The SABPP’s description of L&D corroborates the global and local view that the economic
competitiveness of a nation is related to its skills base (Arnold et al., 2016; DHET, 2017a).
The global knowledge economy of today increasingly demands people with high-level
technical and social skills, knowledge and expertise to solve a constant stream of competitive
problems. For this, as well as for historical reasons, the South African government directs
considerable effort into encouraging organisations to invest in the skills development
of their staff (see Chapter 1). However, companies also increasingly recognise that the
continued improvement of employee work performance through L&D is vital to ensure
organisational survival and success in the new millennium. More and more organisations
are starting to realise that investment in employee learning and development at a strategic
level is an essential element of organisational renewal, adaptability and competitiveness in
a dynamic global business market.
Companies increasingly recognise that the continued improvement of employee work

performance through L&D is vital to ensure organisational survival and success in the new
millennium.
Organisations are realising that investment in employee L&D at a strategic level is an

essential element of organisational renewal, adaptability and competitiveness in a dynamic
global business market.
Learning and development (L&D) is also beneficial for employees. By proactively and
strategically engaging in L&D initiatives, employees can develop a portfolio of skills,
enhance their opportunities for promotion, take part in more challenging and interesting
work and move easily between jobs and organisations. The job changes that are driven
globally by technological development and constant information flow imply that
individuals must continually learn new skills, how to use new tools and systems, and stay
abreast of the smart technology, knowledge and information, just to keep up with job
demands (Arnold, et al., 2016).
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Chapter 2 | The psychology of learning, employee motivation and performance
By engaging in L&D initiatives, employees can develop skills, enhance their opportunities
for promotion and more interesting work, and move easily between jobs and organisations.
Given how expensive and important L&D initiatives are, it is important for L&D
professionals to use a systematic approach to the design and delivery of their L&D
interventions (such as learning programmes) to build employee competence and
improve their performance. A systematic approach includes assessing and analysing the
organisation’s and employees’ L&D needs, incorporating principles of learning in training
delivery, considering transfer of learning to the workplace, assessing learners’ achievements
and evaluating the effectiveness of the L&D programme. Chapters 3 to 8 will discuss this
scientific approach (also called the learning cycle), particularly as it applies to the design,
delivery and evaluation of learning programmes, and the assessment and moderation of
learners’ achievements. In this chapter, the concept and principles of learning that form
the foundation of effective work-based learning design and delivery in the workplace will
be explored.
2. EMPLOYEE COMPETENCE AND PERFORMANCE

L&D efforts are focused on improving employee knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs
(competencies), and employee work performance to build organisational capability.
Competencies and employee motivation influence work performance. It is generally
believed that improved employee performance is a result of a combination of the required
competencies and motivational attitudes.
2.1 Competencies
Competencies are typical behaviours (supported and influenced by attitudes and beliefs,
knowledge and skills) that individuals demonstrate when performing the tasks necessary
for producing occupation-related and/or job-related outcomes within a given organisational
context (Blanchard & Thacker, 2013). Competencies relate to specific descriptions of work
tasks or job outputs that have to be achieved to demonstrate satisfactory job performance.
Competency frameworks are used to define the dimensions of a job, and provide criteria by
which the effectiveness of performance can be evaluated. Employees should possess several
sets of competencies in order to perform a particular job successfully (Blanchard & Thacker,
2013). To remain employable, employees may also be required to develop various diverse
sets of competencies. The outcomes-based and work-based L&D approach (see Chapter 4)
supports the notion of competency development by focusing on developing an individual’s
ability to apply his or her newly acquired competencies at work (see Chapter 3).
Competencies relate to specific descriptions of work tasks or job outputs that have to be
achieved to demonstrate satisfactory job performance.
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2.2 Attitudes and beliefs

Attitudes and beliefs influence employee behaviour and can either support or restrain
the development of new competencies. Attitudes are general positions of approval or
disapproval that we all have towards specific situations, ideas, events or people (Werner
& DeSimone, 2012). Employee attitudes should be considered in training interventions
because they influence motivation (Blanchard & Thacker, 2013). Shaping or changing
attitudes and beliefs through training might involve raising awareness of prejudices to
modify behaviour; developing flexibility and co-operation in team work; or cultivating a
culture of courtesy and sensitivity when dealing with customers. Attitudes and beliefs are
regarded as the affective outcomes of learning programmes.
Attitudes and beliefs influence employee behaviour and can either support or restrain the
development of new competencies.
2.3 Knowledge
Knowledge is the accumulated information, facts, principles and procedures associated
with a specific subject that individuals collect and store in their memories as time goes
by (Blanchard & Thacker, 2013; Werner & DeSimone, 2012). Knowledge is regarded as
the cognitive outcome of a learning programme. Knowledge relates to the way in which
people process information and attach sense and meaning to it. A distinction can be made
between explicit knowledge (that is quantifiable and easily transferred and reproduced) and
tacit knowledge (that is concerned with understanding and application). Tacit knowledge
is often combined with experience and interpretation, and consequently more difficult
to include in a learning programme. Knowledge is a vital requirement for learning and
developing skills. Knowledge is, therefore, the foundation of learning (Blanchard &
Thacker, 2013).
Knowledge is the cognitive outcome of a learning programme – it relates to the way in

which people process information and attach sense and meaning to it.
2.4 Skills
A skill is the ability to execute a job to a required standard (Blanchard & Thacker, 2012).
Skills are those aspects of task behaviour that need to be performed to an acceptable level
to ensure effective job performance. How effectively and efficiently an employee performs
a job may give an indication of the individual level of skill (Blanchard & Thacker, 2012;
Werner & DeSimone, 2012). Skills-based outcomes of learning programmes are the
procedural knowledge component of an individual’s set of competencies. A range of skills
can be identified, such as:
•• Manual or technical skills;
•• The application of specific competencies, knowledge and skills to perform a task;
•• Interpersonal skills, such as the ability to work in a team; and
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•• Analytical and problem-solving skills involved in making sense of complex situations,

applying judgement and making decisions (Marchington et al., 2016).
Skills are those aspects of task behaviour that need to be performed to an acceptable level to
ensure effective job performance.
2.5 Learning and performance

In the broader context of L&D, learning is defined as a relatively permanent change
in behaviour or potential behaviour as a result of productive interaction with one’s
surroundings. Acquiring facts and knowledge through studying, being taught and lived
experiences lead to learning (Werner & DeSimone, 2012). In other words, the individual
is affected in some way or another as a result of exposure to L&D activities or interventions
in the workplace. Learning therefore implies sustained change, as it is expected to increase
job performance. Anything that produces only a short-term effect is not regarded as true
learning. For example, a student who crams as much information as possible into her
head before an examination, and forgets most of it after the examination, has not learned
anything (Werner & DeSimone, 2012). Learning, therefore, also excludes changes in
behaviour that result purely from growing older. Whereas performance can be directly
observed, learning can only be inferred from behaviour or performance, and behaviour
(or rather, behavioural change) possesses the characteristic of being a measure of learning
(Blanchard & Thacker, 2012).
Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour or potential behaviour

as a result of productive interaction with one’s surroundings. Learning implies sustained
change, as it is expected to increase job performance.
From Figure 2.1, it is clear that employee performance depends on more than just employee
attitudes and work behaviours (Kramar & Holland, 2015). The organisational context,
determined by management decisions, policies and procedures and organisational culture
all affect employee performance. Employee ability involves two categories of employee
knowledge. The first category is the knowledge of facts, objectives, principles and knowledge
of self (also called declarative knowledge). The second type is procedural knowledge, which
includes cognitive, psychomotor, interpersonal and self-management competence.
Motivation is about individual decisions to perform and the degree of exertion and
diligence in application (Kramar & Holland, 2015). However, opportunity to perform
should also be considered when employee performance is investigated. The resources
provided to support persistently acceptable performance, work and organisational contexts
affect employee opportunity to perform at acceptable levels. Human resource (HR) policies,
strategies, procedures and practices affect employee ability and motivation. Employees
should have clear impressions of what is expected from them in terms of job performance
content and standards (Kramar & Holland, 2015).
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A simple description of employee performance are illustrated as Figure 2.1.
Ability to
perform
Motivation Individual job

to perform performance
Opportunity
to perform
Figure 2.1 Components of employee performance (Botha, 2018)
Employee performance depends on the organisational context which is determined by

management decisions, policies and procedures and organisational culture.
HR policies, strategies and procedures affect employee motivation: employees should have
clear impressions of what is expected from them in terms of job performance.
Individual employees usually perceive their work performance as acceptable (Page-Tickell,

2014). Employees tend to compare their efforts with those of their co-workers and also
with their own personal goals, and substantiate their performance accordingly. Acceptance
of this fact is vital to understanding employee workplace learning. In addition, as discussed
earlier, an individual’s belief in their capacity to be successful in learning affects their
workplace learning participation and success (Page-Tickell, 2014).
An individual’s belief in their capacity to be successful in learning affects their workplace

learning participation and success.
3. THE NATURE OF LEARNING

How people learn and how they acquire skills for effective job performance are important
considerations for the design, delivery and management of effective learning programmes.
Knowing how people learn can help managers and L&D practitioners to diagnose
performance problems, assess L&D needs and identify development strategies (Noe,
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2014). Cognitive psychology research indicates that people generally learn in two ways,
namely through implicit learning and explicit learning (Rebuschat & Williams, 2012;
Stevenson & Palmer, 1994).
Cognitive psychology research indicates that people generally learn in two ways, namely
through implicit learning and explicit learning.
3.1 Implicit learning

Implicit learning refers to the implicit (unconscious) knowledge that people use daily. They
use this knowledge in most of what they do, but they cannot describe how they have
acquired the knowledge. For example, people learn their mother tongue through implicit
learning. They are not always consciously aware of the knowledge they gain from implicit
learning, but they can still apply that knowledge when the situation requires them to do so.
People cannot always explain why they understand and are able to respond to what their
parents ask or tell them to do. They cannot necessarily describe the relevant knowledge,
unless they are taught the rules of the language (such as grammar and syntax). Implicit
learning is, therefore, described as noticing regularities in the world and responding to
them in consistent ways. Implicit learning is automatic; it occurs without our conscious
control and leads to implicit knowledge (Rebuschat & Williams, 2012; Stevenson &
Palmer, 1994).
Implicit learning is automatic; it occurs without our conscious control and leads to implicit
knowledge.
3.2 Explicit learning

Explicit learning requires conscious and deliberate thought and effort. Educational institutions
facilitate explicit learning. They help learners to think deliberately and consciously about
the meaning of things, how to solve problems and how to remember information. Explicit
learning can be divided roughly into three activities: memorising, problem-solving and
understanding (Rebuschat & Williams, 2012; Stevenson & Palmer, 1994).
Explicit learning requires conscious and deliberate thought and effort. Educational
institutions facilitate explicit learning.
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Activity
The seven wonders of the short-term memory

The short-term (working) memory of most people seems to have a capacity of roughly
seven bits of information. It can be described as a closet with seven hangers. The
wonderful thing is that, although there are only seven hangers in a person’s closet, what
they hang on each of them is almost unlimited (Dooley et al., 2005). People can deal with
more than seven pieces of information by dividing information into chunks.
Look at the following 15 letters:

SAASACPANCSANDF
Try to memorise them. (Difficult, isn’t it?)
Now chunk the letters into something that makes sense:
SAA SACP ANC SANDF
We can increase the capacity of our short-term memory by creating larger and larger
chunks of information. If we want to remember something for longer than the 15 to
30 seconds so that it remains in the working memory, we must repeat the information
and then encode it. We encode information by relating new information and concepts
to information already present in our long-term memory. If we arrange information in
some kind of logical order (for example, chronologically, or according to size, colour or
importance), it helps us to remember more information for longer periods. Research
has found that the best way to remember is to use meaningful connections to things
we already know. One way of doing this, is to compare or contrast new information to
old information. For example, compare your beliefs about how learning occurs to the
information you have gained in this chapter (Dooley et al., 2005).
3.3 Memorising
Learners who focus only on memorising and problem-solving have a shallow approach
to their own learning. They only want to reproduce the subject matter in some way, for
example, by answering assignment questions. When learners and facilitators of learning
concentrate on understanding, they take a much deeper approach. They think about what
they are learning and they try to understand the material so that they can use it to develop
and change their pre-existing ideas (Stevenson & Palmer, 1994).
Explicit learning is a conscious action, therefore it requires deliberate effort and the use
of memory. Memory serves as a storage facility for everything we have learned about the
world (all the knowledge we have acquired in our lives so far) and provides a facility for
conscious thinking. The long-term memory is our storage facility. The short-term memory
is the workspace in which we work with information. For this reason, it is also called the
working memory. The working memory has a storage function as well: it stores the ideas
we are thinking about while we are thinking about them. The working memory has a
limited capacity; it can hold between five and nine ideas at one time. Usually, people can
think about only one idea at a time. A computer works in a similar way. The hard drive is
the computer’s long-term memory; the RAM (random-access memory) is the computer’s
working memory, and this is where the processing of data takes place.
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The long-term memory is our storage facility. The short-term memory is the workspace in
which we work with information, so it is also called the working memory.
The limited capacity of the short-term memory explains why explicit learning is difficult.
If the demands made by explicit learning exceed the capacity of the working memory,
learning will not occur or will occur to a limited extent only. But when learners practise
what they have learned through explicit learning, it becomes implicit (automatic), and the
information or knowledge is stored in the long-term memory. This frees up space in the
working memory.
When learners practise what they have learned through explicit learning, it becomes implicit
(automatic), and the knowledge is stored in the long-term memory.
Memorising happens when we read or listen to material because we want to memorise it.
How do you prepare for examinations? Do you read through the work, summarise the
sections you think are important and then repeatedly read through your summaries until
you feel that you remember enough of the work to pass an examination?
We memorise by rehearsing or repeating information and sometimes by integrating the new
material with existing knowledge. When we memorise information, we are accumulating
the information in our memories. We can either combine the new information with our
existing knowledge or add it to our memories without linking it to existing knowledge.
Memorising does not change the new or existing knowledge in any way. The emphasis
is only on the accumulation of knowledge. Research has shown that repetition alone is
not a good technique for memorising facts. Memory (and thus learning) improves when
learners organise the learning material in a way that is logical to them and the material is
integrated with pre-existing knowledge.
Memory (and thus learning) improves when learners organise the learning material in a
way that is logical to them, and the material is integrated with pre-existing knowledge.
3.4 Problem-solving
A problem can be described as a goal that seems to be out of the reach of a person, either
because of a lack of information or a lack of resources (Stevenson & Palmer, 1994). When
the person does something that leads to achieving the goal, the problem is solved. When
the goal is achieved, the person learns something new about that situation or problem. So,
when a learner finds a solution to a problem, they learn something new. When the learner
applies the solution so often that the behaviour becomes automatic, further learning occurs.
In this way, the learner frees up working memory for more complex or difficult problems
or situations. For example, when we learn to multiply, we learn that 2 × 2 = 4. At first, this
is a difficult problem for us. But when we apply what we have learned from the problem to
different problems, the calculation becomes automatic.
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Problem-solving does not require the use and explicit awareness of prior knowledge. This is
why learners are not afraid to get involved in problem-solving situations. The danger is that
learners may use only problem-solving and memorising when they learn, while neglecting
true understanding. The ability to solve problems, as described in the example above, is
limited to situations in which the learner must know that 2 x 2 = 4. The knowledge gained
cannot be used in new situations unless it is similar to the one described. For the learner to
use the generalised knowledge that is gained through understanding, they must be able to
understand the conceptual principles that underlie a range of problems that seem different
from one another (Stevenson & Palmer, 1994). For example, if learners know only how to
multiply with a pocket calculator, they may find the solution to a problem, but they will not be
able to apply the solution in any situation in which they do not have a calculator. For them to
do the calculation without the calculator, they must understand the mathematical concepts
behind the solution or the steps that will lead to the solution (Stevenson & Palmer, 1994).
The danger is that learners may use only problem-solving and memorising when they learn,
while neglecting true understanding.
3.5 Understanding
Understanding requires not only the use of the working memory, but also the ability to
think about and deliberately control knowledge and thought processes. This is a high-level
cognitive (thinking) activity; it takes years to develop this ability (Stevenson & Palmer,
1994). Most people find this type of learning difficult and many avoid trying to use it. To
grasp the concept of understanding more clearly, try to think of it in terms of your new
knowledge and your existing knowledge. When understanding occurs, there is interaction
between your existing knowledge and the new knowledge that you are processing.
Existing knowledge is used to make sense of the new knowledge. At the same time,
the new knowledge may lead to a change in our existing knowledge. Learners often do
not achieve understanding because they fail to evaluate their existing knowledge by using
information from the new material they are studying. Learners who attempt to understand
new work deliberately use their prior knowledge to help them to make sense of the new
information. They also try to modify their existing knowledge with the new information
(Stevenson & Palmer, 1994).
Existing knowledge is used to make sense of the new knowledge. At the same time, the new
knowledge may lead to a change in our existing knowledge.
The kind of knowledge that is enhanced and modified through the activity of understanding
is called conceptual knowledge. This knowledge describes the world around us. One of
the important reasons why we should learn through understanding is that it assists us to
understand and change our understanding of the world. Why was Alexander Graham Bell
the one to ‘discover’ the telephone? Why was Copernicus the person who proposed that
the Earth revolves around the Sun? They used understanding to evaluate their existing
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knowledge and incorporate new information into the existing knowledge. In this way, they
created new knowledge.
The kind of knowledge that is enhanced and modified through the activity of understanding
is called conceptual knowledge.
Although all learning does not result in better performance, careful attention to learning
design, principles of implicit and explicit learning and work environment characteristics
can greatly increase the likelihood that learning will result in improved job performance
(Landy & Conte, 2004). Training increases the probability of learning, and learning
increases the probability of better performance. However, for learning to be effective, it
must take account of the factors that accelerate, enable and hinder the learning process.
Table 2.1 provides an overview of typical barriers to learning.
Training increases the probability of learning, and learning increases the probability of
better performance.
Table 2.1 Barriers to learning (Lee-Davies, 2007; Martin, 2005)
Barrier External factors

Physical Inappropriate time or place.
Specific environment Unsupportive colleagues or superiors;

Pressure to participate in a learning programme.
Barrier Internal factors

Perceptual Inability to see that there is a problem.
Personality Learning style and preferences;

Demographics (including race, gender, age and cultural background);
Habits.
Cultural Conditioning about the way things are currently done.
Emotional Mood, anxiety.
Motivational Unwillingness to take risks.
Cognitive Previous bad learning experiences.
Intellectual Limited ability;

Memory limitations.
Expressive Ineffective communication skills;

Learning experience.
Situational A lack of opportunity;

Poorly designed learning event.
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Activity
Read through the following descriptions. Determine whether implicit or explicit learning
is taking place.
Description Implicit/Explicit
Nomsa is learning how to behave at the dinner table.
Pieter has started working at his new place of work, and he is still getting used to the
new ideas of acceptable and unacceptable behaviour.
Jonathan is studying for an examination and memorising the names of the different
learning theories and their characteristics.
Siviwe is participating in a group exercise in which he is learning to apply

interviewing skills.
Seshni has to apply the interpersonal communication principles she learned on a

supervisor’s training course in her work situation.
Alice is doing a case study in which she has to solve the planning problems of a
production manager.
4. ADULT LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS

In the workplace, L&D activities and interventions are developed for adult learners. While
children learn because they are curious or simply for the sake of learning, adults are more
orientated to learning for application in the near future. Several characteristics of adult
learners affect the learning process and outcomes. These include the learners’:
•• Motivation or need to know; •• Mastery orientation; and
•• Readiness to learn; •• Experience level (Noe, 2014).
•• Performance orientation;
The need-to-know aspect is the perceived value of the knowledge to learners, and learners’
interest in attending a learning programme, learning from the training and transferring
the competencies acquired in training back to the job. Adult learners often prefer learning
programmes that focus on life issues, job tasks or specific problems, in other words, learning
programmes that are personally meaningful in some way (Blanchard & Thacker, 2012).
Adult learners often prefer learning programmes that focus on life issues, job tasks or specific
problems, i.e. ones that are personally meaningful in some way.
Readiness to learn is the amount of prerequisite knowledge the learners possess and the
learners’ subjective opinion of their ability to learn the material. It also includes the learners’
general mental ability, goal orientation, experience level and desire to participate in the
learning programme (Blanchard & Thacker, 2012). For example, in a group of learners
with widely different cognitive abilities, high-ability learners will be bored, while low-
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ability learners will have trouble keeping up with their peers. In a group of learners with
similar abilities, learning facilitators can proceed through material at a pace appropriate
to the backgrounds of the participants. Research has shown that the participants’ belief
in their ability to master the learning material directly influences their motivation to
participate in the learning opportunity (Blanchard & Thacker, 2013).
Learners with a performance orientation are concerned about doing well in training
and being evaluated positively. They perceive their abilities as somewhat fixed and they are
generally not open to learning environments in which errors and mistakes are encouraged.
They direct their energies to performing well on tasks, often at the expense of learning.
Performance-orientated learners are often sensitive to feedback. To avoid criticism, they
might reduce their efforts and goals in challenging situations. In contrast, individuals
with a mastery orientation are concerned with increasing their competence for the task at
hand, and they view errors and mistakes as part of the learning process. Mastery-orientated
individuals are flexible and adaptable in learning situations, which is particularly important
when learning dynamic tasks and making complex decisions (Landy & Conte, 2012).
Compared to performance-orientated learners, individuals with a mastery orientation are
more motivated to learn, more actively engaged in the training task, more prepared to
acquire new skills in training, and more effective at transferring their new skills to the job.
Individuals with a mastery orientation are concerned with increasing their competence for
the task at hand and they view errors and mistakes as part of the learning process.
Activity
• When learning new information in your studies or on the job, do you tend to have a
mastery orientation or a performance orientation?
• Does this orientation help or hinder what you learn, and how you later apply that
information when you take a test or perform on the job? (Landy & Conte, 2012).
An additional characteristic of adult learners that influences the learning process is experience
level. Inexperienced learners with lower levels of competency generally benefit more from
longer and more structured learning programmes. In contrast, experienced learners with
high levels of competency thrive in shorter, less structured learning programmes. All of
these characteristics of adult learners must be addressed in order for them to feel capable
of learning and willing to engage in the learning experience (Blanchard & Thacker, 2012).
L&D professionals must, therefore, evaluate the relevance of the learning material and
process to the learner’s goals, values, needs, readiness for and orientation to learning, and
experience level. The role of the learning facilitator or trainer should always be to support
and enhance the adult learner’s natural energies and talents for learning.
Inexperienced learners with lower levels of competency generally benefit more from longer
and more structured learning programmes.
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Adults prefer self-directed learning strategies. It seems that adults want to set their own pace,
establish their own structure, and keep open the option to revise their learning strategy. Adults
walk into learning situations with a fairly well-defined cognitive map. This map is based on
their experiences of the world, and the older they are, the more detailed their map is likely
to be. This means that L&D professionals must consider the differences between members
of a training group in terms of their learning strategies and needs. Differences in experience
should also be regarded as a valuable learning resource. L&D professionals (in their role as
learning facilitators) must be skilled in guiding learners to share those experiences in a non-
threatening manner. Learning approaches that emphasise an individualised and self-directed
learning strategy, and use other group members as resources for learning, will be most likely
to succeed with adult learners (Blaschke, 2012; Knowles, 1972).
Adults tend to prefer self-directed learning strategies – they want to set their own pace,
establish their own structure, and keep open the option to revise their learning strategy.
Adult learners are regarded as lifelong learners who have critical insight, independent
thought and the ability to analyse reflectively. They can make judgements about different
theories or arguments (Coetzee, 2016a). These learners can manage their own learning
because they act out of their own free will and initiate the learning themselves. Adult
learners are lifelong learners with the ability to:
•• Develop and be in touch with curiosities;
•• Formulate questions that can be answered through enquiry (finding out the facts);
•• Identify the information required to answer different kinds of questions;
•• Locate the most relevant and reliable sources of information;
•• Select and use the most efficient methods of collecting the required information from
the appropriate sources;
•• Organise, analyse and evaluate the information to get valid answers; and
•• Generalise, apply and communicate answers (King, 2017).
L&D professionals can nurture and develop these abilities of adult learners by adopting
the principles of andragogy (adult learning) in their L&D practices and processes. The
andragogical approach utilises the learners’ experience of the world in the development
and implementation of learning programmes. L&D professionals develop learning
programmes that are personally meaningful to adult learners, ensuring that the learners
can participate actively in the learning programme, which ensures that learners maintain
motivation throughout the learning programme (Blaschke, 2012).
L&D professionals can nurture and develop the abilities of adult learners by adopting the
principles of andragogy (adult learning) in their L&D practices and processes.
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L&D professionals who adopt an andragogical approach to training are regarded as true
facilitators of learning. Learning becomes a participative process in which the learner
shares the responsibility for the learning with the facilitator. Mutual respect, trust and
supportiveness are evident in the relationship between the facilitator and the learners.
L&D professionals and managers should strive to develop an environment that facilitates
learning. The learning experience can be enhanced by using principles from several learning
theories and various approaches to learning in the training design.
An andragogical approach to training involves a participative process in which there

is mutual respect, trust and supportiveness in the relationship between the facilitator and
the learners.
Activity
Reflect on your personal learning journey so far. Would you describe yourself as an
adult lifelong learner? Compile a checklist of the principles of adult learning and lifelong
learning. Indicate which of the principles you can identify in your own learning journey
and which principles you still need to practise.
Case study: Reflecting on qualities of adult lifelong learning

Mpho is the third of six daughters of a single mother. Mpho’s mother struggled to find
the money to ensure that her daughters would receive a good education and to provide
access to tertiary education. Mpho decided to use the local TVET college to qualify
as an electrical engineering technician. When she failed to find a job after qualifying,
she became a house cleaner and saved the money to further her qualifications. She
subsequently qualified as a boilermaker and is currently looking for a suitable position.
Questions
1. Which of the qualities of an adult lifelong learner does Mpho exhibit? Use the
qualities of a lifelong self-directed learner to substantiate your answer.
2. Which of the qualities of an adult lifelong learner would you advise Mpho to focus on
developing, if any? Use the qualities of a lifelong self-directed learner to substantiate
your answer.
5. THEORIES OF LEARNING
Various theories of learning have been developed over the years. These can be classified into
the classical theories and the modern theories of learning. Theories of learning have their
roots in the study of psychology. Initial theories were developed from research into animal
behaviour and learning. From these early studies, different perspectives were developed,
which provided insights into the nature of individual learning (Noe, 2014).
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5.1 Classical theories of learning

Four classical theories of learning can be identified, namely the behaviourist theories,
cognitive theories, social learning theories and humanist perspectives on learning. Each
one of these adds to the understanding of the learning process by building on the earlier
approaches and making sense of different learning experiences. L&D professionals, as
learning facilitators, have to think critically about how learners learn and what they can
do to assist learners. Learning theories help learning facilitators to understand the learning
process. By incorporating the principles behind the learning theories into the design and
development of learning materials, L&D professionals can enhance the learning process.
Four classical theories of learning can be identified, namely the behaviourist theories,
cognitive theories, social learning theories and humanist perspectives on learning.
5.1.1 Behaviouristic perspective on the learning process

The behaviourist approach has been influential in highlighting specific elements in
the learning process that need to be considered when designing or facilitating learning
events. This approach demonstrates how behaviour can be shaped through appropriate
reinforcement techniques (Robinson, 2006). The behaviourist approach explains learning
in terms of what happens in the world around us. We learn because someone praises us
when we do something right. Mental processes are not taken into account in this theory.
The basic principle of the behaviourist approach to learning is that we form associations
between a stimulus (a mother praises a baby who takes a step) and a response (the baby
takes a step) (Noe, 2014). Learning occurs when desired behaviour is praised (enforced)
and this increases the likelihood of the person repeating that behaviour in the future. For
example, a mother repeatedly encourages her baby to take a step and praises the baby
warmly when the baby does take a step. The baby learns that, when she takes a step, her
mother will praise her, so she takes another step. The behaviour is reinforced and the
probability that the behaviour will be repeated in the future increases (Noe, 2014).
The behaviour that the mother wants to see (the baby walking by herself ) can be
caused by repeated practice. This means that the relationship between the behaviour and
the reinforcement is important, as long as the reinforcement (reward) is given immediately
after the behaviour. The more the mother praises the baby’s efforts, the more the baby will
try to repeat those efforts, but only if the mother praises her while the effort is being made
or immediately afterwards. The rewards that each of us finds important, or reinforcing,
are unique. We cannot assume that everyone’s behaviour will be reinforced using the
same rewards.
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What are the implications of the behaviourist approach for learning interventions?
The learning intervention that will be presented when the L&D professional uses
this theory as a basis for designing the intervention will be subject-focused. Learning
outcomes will focus on clearly specified behaviours, skills and competencies. The
behaviourist approach assumes that learners are passive recipients of input and that
the L&D professional is the expert who is in control (Noe, 2014). The training
environment will be more formal, the L&D professional will be the one in control
and the participants may tend to be externally motivated, inactive and rely heavily on
the L&D practitioner (Blanchard & Thacker, 2012). Typical training methods will
include: bite-sized chunks of information, repeated instructions, repeated practice
at tasks, role-plays, instruction and reinforcement. The behaviourist approach is not
recommended for more complex learning outcomes and higher level skills (Blanchard
& Thacker, 2012).
The behaviourist approach is not recommended for more complex learning outcomes and
higher level skills.
5.1.2 Cognitive approach to learning

Cognitive approaches to learning build on the work of Kohler (1925), who researched how
animals solved problems and Piaget (1926), whose work focused on child development.
Cognitive theories focus on how individuals process and interpret information, while
acknowledging that humans do not always learn by performing a task and receiving direct
reinforcement. Instead, humans can use memory, judgement, problem-solving, reasoning
and understanding to make connections between what they observe and how they should
behave or perform in situations (including work situations). For example, a young woman
touches a red-hot coal. It burns her fingers and she pulls away her hand. When this woman
sees a red-hot coal again, she will not touch it, because she knows that it will burn her
fingers. According to the theory of cognitive information processing, the woman received
information from the environment (the coal is hot!). She processed the information (don’t
touch, it is hot!) and stored this information in her memory. This stored information is
expressed in her behaviour when she is in a similar situation.
Every day we receive information through our senses, but we process only that
information to which we pay attention. This is called selective attention (Dooley et al.,
2005). Think of a time when you were engrossed in a conversation with someone and then
clearly heard your name mentioned by someone else in the same room. This is an example
of selective attention. Another example is when you start thinking of buying a car or cell
phone. Have you noticed how often you see the same model of car or cell phone that you
want to buy? You probably saw that model of car or cell phone just as often before you
made your decision, but you did not pay attention to it at the time.
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Every day we receive information through our senses, but we process only that information
to which we pay attention. This is called selective attention.
Sometimes, behaviours become automatic. We do not have to pay as much attention to

these behaviours as we had to when we first started doing them. Think about making a cup
of coffee. How much attention do you pay to all the tasks involved in making the coffee?
And yet, how often do you burn yourself with hot water or forget to add sugar? This is
called automaticity (Dooley et al., 2005). You have made coffee so often that it has become
automatic. You can make a good cup of coffee without consciously thinking about it. This
links with implicit and explicit learning.
Pattern recognition is another important concept in cognitive information processing.
When we receive new information, we try to fit it into a pattern that is already established
in our memories. Pattern recognition enhances the transfer of new stimuli (information
people receive through their senses) from the environment to our working memories.
There is no conscious thought involved in pattern recognition (Dooley et al., 2005).
Pattern recognition is another important concept in cognitive information processing.

When we receive new information, we try to fit it into a pattern that is already established
in our memories.
Cognitive information processing relies on the following processes: the senses must pass
on information; the individual must pay sufficient attention to the information; and an
appropriate pattern must exist in the sensory memory for pattern recognition to occur.
When all three of these processes are completed, new information can enter the working
memory. Conscious processing can then start to take place: information is retrieved from
the long-term memory and used in processing new information (Dooley et al., 2005).
In cognitive information processing, the senses must pass on information, the individual
must pay attention to it and an appropriate pattern must exist in the sensory memory for
pattern recognition to occur.
According to the cognitive information-processing model, learning materials must be

well organised to help learners process and encode information. Learners must also be
allowed to practise what they have learned. In this way, certain skills become automatic,
and this frees up learners’ attention for more learning. L&D professionals must include
graphic material, such as mind maps, diagrams and pictures in the learning material, to
help learners process and encode the information more efficiently. Lastly, learners must be
encouraged to notice, think about and experiment with how they learn so that they can
improve their own learning (Dooley et al., 2005).
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How will the cognitivist approach influence the learning intervention?

The content of the intervention will be more problem- or task-focused, while the L&D
professional will assume the role of facilitator and presenter of the training. Participants
must play an active role and demonstrate self-directed and self-evaluating behaviours.
The cognitive approach to learning assumes learners to be cognitive information
processors and the L&D professional is an expert who, being in control of the process,
will vary the format of training to accommodate the learner’s learning style. The focus
of the training will be on clearly specified job roles and competencies (Blanchard &
Thacker, 2012). The participants may be more internally motivated and the training
environment will be more mutually respectful, collaborative and relaxed. Typical
training methods include: concept maps, varied presentation methods and formats, a
framework and sequenced learning steps, and clearly specified KSA (knowledge, skills
and attitudes) objectives, making progress from simple to complex tasks. The cognitive
approach is not recommended for more complex learning outcomes because it tends to
focus on the assessment of memory, not ability and the inappropriate use of learning
style models (Blanchard & Thacker, 2012).
5.1.3 Social learning

Social learning theory, or observational learning, is a refinement of behaviourist and
cognitive approaches (Noe, 2014). According to social learning theories, people learn by
observing other people. By observing, they acquire knowledge, beliefs and attitudes and
learn rules, skills and beliefs (Blanchard & Thacker, 2012). For example, consider how
children learn to clean a room or to dress themselves. They do so by watching others
and trying to copy them. Social learning helps us to observe the consequences of certain
behaviours of others in a social setting (Blanchard & Thacker, 2012).
Social learning theory introduces the concept of the role model. It suggests that people
will seek to model themselves on others whom they perceive to be successful. In other
words, they will try to imitate the behaviour of their role models (Noe, 2014). A technique
called behaviour modelling is often used to apply principles of social learning theory to
the development of interpersonal skills. Behaviour modelling works through observing
employees (or recordings of employees) who demonstrate positive modelling behaviours;
rehearsing the behaviour using a role-playing technique; receiving feedback on the rehearsal
and finally, trying out the behaviour on the job. Role modelling also underpins mentoring
initiatives within organisations (Landy & Conte, 2012).
Social learning theory is not concerned with the cognitive processes and conceptual
structures involved in learning. It focuses on the social environments and relationships
that will provide the correct context for learning (Landy & Conte, 2012). In the context of
training, learners participate in a structured environment (the organisational environment);
at the same time, they contribute to that structure (their own behaviours influence the
organisation). Learners learn by practising the required behaviours in a group. In the
context of training, learners, practise, learning, participation and the group context are
interconnected; they cannot be isolated from one another. This means that the whole
group is affected by the learning that takes place in each participant.
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Social learning can often be unintentional: learners master certain situations or behaviours
as a result of their participation in the group. Social learning does not require mastery of
specific knowledge, but rather full engagement (participation) in the specific situation or
group (Noe, 2014). The focus is on the group, not on the individual. The situation and the
group provide information about probable consequences of behaviours and motivate the
participants to act in certain ways.
Social learning theory introduces the concept of the role model. It suggests that people will
seek to model themselves on others whom they perceive to be successful and this can often be
unintentional.
How does the social learning approach influence the learning intervention?
L&D professionals should remember that learning is a social process. The learner,
learning and the social environment are all interconnected. Advancements in mobile
technology and social media facilitate principles of social learning. When designing
learning processes, L&D professionals should apply this knowledge by making provision
for group work and social interaction. Social media via mobile and internet technology
should be utilised to engage the learner in meaningful ways, especially for younger
generation learners whose brains are wired for social media technology (King, 2017).
5.1.4 Humanist perspectives on learning

The humanist perspective views knowledge as a personal, subjective issue, not an external
commodity waiting to be internalised through the absorption of content (Noe, 2014).
Based on the work of Carl Rogers (1969), the humanist perspective says that individuals
have a natural aptitude for learning and have control over their own learning processes and
outcomes. All training should therefore take a learner-centred approach. The role of the
L&D professionals shifts to that of learning facilitator, while the responsibility for learning
rests firmly with the learner (Noe, 2014).
The humanist perspective views knowledge as a personal, subjective issue, not an external
commodity waiting to be internalised through the absorption of content.
What are the implications of the humanist perspective for learning facilitation?
Facilitation involves creating an environment in which people are motivated to
think, contribute ideas, listen to others, share perspectives and experiences as adult
learners and evaluate their learning and contribution. Humanist approaches thus
emphasise a shift from traditional, instructor-led, content-based L&D interventions
to self-directed, work-based learning processes. Humanist approaches also thrive in an
organisational culture that encourages individual and collective learning and embraces
change (Noe, 2014). The humanist perspective on learning is applicable to the South
African outcomes-based approach to L&D practices.
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Humanist approaches emphasise a shift from traditional, instructor-led, content-based

L&D interventions to self-directed, work-based learning processes.
Activity
From the following examples, identify which learning theory is being described. Explain
how you identified the learning theory and the implications for learning facilitation.
Implications
Description Learning theory Explanation for facilitation
People learn because they are offered a
reward for doing specific things.
People are concerned with the thinking

processes involved in learning. People’s long-
and short-term memories, and the attention
they pay to the information they receive from
the world, influence the way they learn.
People learn through social situations. They

are influenced by the situation, but they also
influence the situation.
People have a natural ability to learn and

control their own learning.
6. MODERN THEORIES OF LEARNING

Modern theories of learning incorporate the classical learning theories into new perspectives,
identified in research, to construct newer theories of learning, focusing particularly on
adult learning and how adults learn best.
6.1 Experiential learning
A theme of cognitive learning theory is that learning does not occur only in formal, structured
situations: learning can be informal and spontaneous.
A theme of cognitive learning theory is that learning does not occur only in formal,
structured situations: learning can be informal and spontaneous. The experiential learning
approach sees learning as a cyclical, dynamic and continuous process. It also emphasises that
learning is an active process. Learners are not passive recipients of training, but actively seek
out opportunities to apply their behaviour in new situations (Noe, 2014). The dynamic,
continuous and cyclical nature of learning is best described by means of Kolb’s (1985;
2015) famous learning cycle (see Figure 2.1). According to this model, effective learning
results from progression through four stages, which are repeated all the time as learning
progresses (Kolb, 2015). The cycle includes the following:
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1. Reflective observation (watching). Reflecting on previous experiences and feelings occurs

during this stage. Watching, listening and actively thinking through issues ensure that
careful consideration is made before taking action.
2. Abstract conceptualisation and generalisation (thinking). During this stage, theories for
the future are developed. Using reflections, information is analysed and conceptualised
in an abstract form. That is, the learner thinks through the possible repercussions of
ideas and applies previous learning to increase the success of the idea. Logical thought
and modelling (brainstorming) give rise to new things to try out.
3. Active experimentation (acting/doing) Testing implication of concepts in new situations
occurs during this step. This involves learning through doing. Previous thoughts and
ideas are applied in a practical situation. Trial and error gives rise to further thoughts
and ideas, which can be followed through the entire cycle.
4. Concrete experiences (feeling). Following active experimentation, the learner gains
concrete experience in terms of the development of feelings. These feelings are used as
a reference point for future actions.
Kolb’s model sees learning as goal-directed. As individual goals may vary, individuals will
pay more attention to different stages of the cycle (Kolb, 2015).
Concrete experience
Concrete experience in terms
of developing
feelings
Active experimentation Reflective observation

Testing implications of Reflecting upon previous
concepts in experiences and feelings
new situations
Abstract
conceptualisation
and generalisation
Developing theories for
the future
Figure 2.2 Kolb’s experiential learning cycle (Kolb, 2015)
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Activity
Think about a learning programme in which you have been involved. Can you identify
the stages of Kolb’s learning theory in that learning programme? Which stages of Kolb’s
learning theory would you add to ensure that all the participants pass through all four
stages of the learning process?
6.2 Action learning

Action learning is a form of organisational and individual learning. It is also cyclical and
experiential in nature. In action learning, individuals and the organisation learn how to
deal with problems and situations by developing an understanding of problems and then
creating change. Change is followed by reassessment and further adaptation, as and when
necessary, based on the new learning achieved. In practice, it is learning through action, a
form of continuous development. In individual learning terms, action learning follows the
same experiential learning process described by Kolb (Noe, 2014).
In action learning, individuals and the organisation learn how to deal with problems and
situations by developing an understanding of problems and then creating change.
6.3 Preferred learning styles

An important question about learning is why everyone is not equally successful at the
learning to which they are exposed. For example, not everyone achieves the same marks in
an examination, even though they study the same course, with the guidance of the same
lecturer. Some individuals learn to drive a car quickly, while others need many lessons
before they pass the driving test. According to Kolb (2015), individuals have a preference
for one of the four stages of the learning cycle. This is known as the individual’s preferred
learning style.
6.3.1 The Kolb and Fry learning style inventory

Kolb and Fry (1975) argue that individuals prefer using different stages of the learning
cycle. Most individuals prefer to use one stage – the one with which they are most at
ease – most of the time. While a person’s style can be modified over time with a great deal
of persistence and effort, people have a natural inclination to use their dominant style in
preference to others. Trying to learn in another style is difficult, stressful and unpleasant
(Kolb, 2015). The learning style inventory (Kolb, 2015) developed by Kolb and Fry can
be used to identify an individual’s dominant learning style. Table 2.2 gives an overview of
the four learning styles (converger, diverger, assimilator and accommodator) within Kolb’s
learning cycle (Kolb, 2015).
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Table 2.2 Kolb and Fry’s four learning styles (Kolb, 2015)
The converger uses abstract •• Can apply ideas in practical ways

conceptualisation and active •• Performs well when there is a single correct answer
experimentation abilities to learn.
•• Uses hypothetical, deductive reasoning to solve specific problems
•• Not emotional; would rather deal with objects than with people
•• Usually specialises in physical sciences
The diverger uses concrete experience •• Well developed imaginative ability

and reflective observation abilities •• Sees situations and problems from different perspectives
to learn.
•• Good at generating ideas
•• Finds people interesting and has broad cultural interests
•• Usually specialises in arts
The assimilator uses abstract •• Good at creating theoretical models

conceptualisation and reflective •• Very good at inductive reasoning
observation abilities to learn.
•• Concerned with abstract concepts; does not worry about the
practical use of theories
•• Not overly concerned with people
•• Usually specialises in basic science and mathematics
The accommodator uses concrete •• Good at doing things (application)

experience and active experimentation •• Does not shy away from taking risks
abilities to learn.
•• Can adapt quickly to changing circumstances
•• Solves problems intuitively
•• Gets information from other people
•• Prefers action-oriented jobs
6.3.2 Gregorc’s learning styles

Gregorc (cited in Rogowsky et al., 2014) bases his learning styles theory on the following
two variables:
1. How people order the world (random or sequential); and
2. How people view the world (abstract or concrete). This creates four learning styles, each
with its own preferences in learning activities and learning environments.
Table 2.3 gives an overview of these four learning styles.
Table 2.3 Gregorc’s learning styles (Rogowsky et al., 2014)
Preferences Learning style Characteristics

•• Concrete Concrete/random •• Random
•• Prefers practical situations •• Divergent thinkers
•• Uses models to learn •• Can make intuitive leaps in
•• Can see the big picture reasoning
•• Prefers to use trial and error •• Wants choices
•• Seeks alternatives
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Preferences Learning style Characteristics

•• Concrete Concrete/sequential •• Sequential
•• Makes lists •• Likes details
•• Prefers hands-on activities •• Prefers procedures
•• Enjoys learning •• Encourages timeliness
•• Prefers order
•• Abstract Abstract/random •• Random

•• Enjoys feelings and emotions •• Is flexible and spontaneous
•• Prefers a supportive environment •• Prefers variety
•• May know the answer but cannot •• Well-developed visual imagination
always explain how it was reached
•• Abstract Abstract/sequential •• Sequential

•• Must be given time to process new •• Prefers order
information •• Reasoning is rational and logical
•• Uses analytical strategies to •• Enjoys personal connections
solve problems with others
•• Prefers to investigate and analyse
6.3.3 McCarthy’s 4MAT model

McCarthy’s 4MAT model (cited in Goyal, Yadav & Tripathi, 2015) identifies four types
of learner:
1. The imaginative learner;
2. The analytical learner;
3. The common sense learner; and
4. The dynamic learner.
Table 2.4 summarises the characteristics and preferred learning styles of each of these types.
Table 2.4 McCarthy’s 4MAT model (cited in Goyal et al., 2015)
The imaginative learner The analytical learner

The imaginative learner learns through experiencing The analytical learner learns by conceptualising and
and asks ‘why’? asks ‘what?’
•• Wants to know why something must be learned •• Wants facts and information
•• Asks questions •• Works systematically
•• Says ‘what if?’ •• Work must be organised
•• Questions content and purposes •• Must have purpose, directions and expectations
•• Wants to understand •• Must be able to think and reflect before
•• Seeks alternative solutions taking action
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The common sense learner The dynamic learner

The common sense learner learns through applying and The dynamic learner learns by creating and asks ‘what
asks ‘how?’ or ‘how to?’ can this become?’ or ‘what can this be used for?’
•• Work must be practical and learner must be able •• Uses knowledge and skills to create something
to use it •• Must be allowed the freedom to take risks and
•• Content should be applicable to life and experience enjoy new ways of thinking
•• Compares and contrasts new information to old to •• Thinks creatively and in unusual ways
make sense of it •• Prefers working alone but will work with others
•• Dislikes routine
•• Likes applying ideas
One of the most important implications of learning styles is that they indicate how people
prefer to learn. This may have a big impact on how well learners interact with one another
and in a learning programme. Knowledge of learners’ preferred learning styles is, therefore,
important for L&D professionals. Learning facilitators should avoid designing learning
programmes from the perspective of their own learning styles, as they may ignore the
preferences of their learners and lose them in the learning process.
Activity
What is your learning style preference?

Think back to a mathematics, science or language class when you were at school. Some
of the learners always understood what the teacher was trying to explain, while others
were completely lost. This has as much to do with learning styles as it has to do with
intelligence. How many of you were good at mathematics and science, but poor at
languages? And for whom was it the other way around? Did you do well in a test when
the subject matter was easy to memorise (such as business management), or did you
perform better when you were required to understand and apply your knowledge or
skills (such as science or languages)?
6.3.4 Are learning style preferences valid?

According to Rogowsky et al., (2015), insufficient empirical evidence exists to support the
theory of learning style preferences. Furthermore, L&D professionals fail to distinguish
between preferred learning styles and aptitudes. Learning style theories define and classify
learning behaviours, but do not describe the underlying practices and learning structures
that create the specific learning behaviours. In addition, the reliability and validity of the
learning style theories have not been proven sufficiently (An & Carr, 2017).
Kolb’s experiential learning model has received some critique from researchers in
the field (Bergsteiner et al., 2010 ), which should be noted by L&D professionals. The
following aspects are regarded as flaws in the model which undermine its efficacy:
•• It does not differentiate plausibly and consistently between concrete/active/primary
and abstract/passive/secondary learning processes.
•• It fails to differentiate appropriately between learning activities and learning typologies.
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•• The bi-polar dimensions (for example, concrete–abstract) are flawed.

•• Certain viable learning constructs are not recognised, and other learning constructs are
not taken into account.
The critique on the theory of preferred learning styles indicates that the theory still needs to
be researched thoroughly to determine its validity and reliability for application in learning
opportunities.
6.4 Mentoring and coaching

Mentoring and coaching are growing in popularity as learner-centred development tools
(Noe, 2014). Mentoring refers to a relationship in which a senior, experienced individual
provides support, advice and friendship to a younger, less experienced member of staff.
Mentoring can be formal or informal, and it can take different forms. For example, some
organisations use mentoring arrangements for new employees and people from historically
disadvantaged groups as a strategy to accelerate the development of potential.
Mentoring refers to a relationship in which a senior, experienced individual provides

support, advice and friendship to a younger, less experienced member of staff.
The concept of coaching is used to describe a one-to-one relationship between a manager

and an individual employee. The aim is to develop or enhance the employee’s on-the-
job performance. This form of learning relies on one individual (manager or supervisor)
teaching a particular skill to the employee, through demonstration. The employee literally
sits next to the coach to watch and practise under their guidance.
The concept of coaching is used to describe a one-to-one relationship between a manager and
an individual employee to develop or enhance their on-the-job performance.
6.5 Connectivist learning theory

Connectivist learning theory was first proposed by Siemens (2004, cited in Kizito, 2016)
and is associated with learning in digital contexts. According to connectivist learning
theory, knowledge does not exist within the individual, but can be distributed using a
complex set of connections. Learning is associated with the individual capacity to create,
access and navigate the knowledge networks. The knowledge networks are created and
sustained through individual experience and interactions within a particular community
(such as a community of practice or a community of learners).
Collaboration is a vital foundational component of connectivist learning theory.
Collaboration exists where the members of a community co-operate to achieve a pre-
determined goal. Consequently, interaction between the members of the community is
a requirement for knowledge acquisition. Teamwork creates a more efficient and relevant
learning process, because of the acceptance that the knowledge and capability already
reside in the network. Individuals and groups can learn from the collaborative interaction.
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Collaboration is a foundational component of connectivist learning theory.
Learning is associated with the individual capacity to create, access and navigate the
knowledge networks and capability that already reside in the network.
Siemens (2004, cited in Kizito, 2016) indicates the following eight main beliefs of
connectivist learning theory:
1. The diversity of opinions that exists within a community create the learning and knowledge.
2. Creating connections between specific knowledge items (or artefacts) lead to learning.
3. Knowledge may also reside in the accepted systems, procedures and practices of a
community.
4. The desire and capability to increase knowledge is more important than what is already known.
5. Continued learning requires the nurturing and cultivation of connections and the creation
of new connections.
6. The capacity to identify associations between disciplines, departments, ideas and concepts
is an essential competence.
7. The purpose of all connectivist learning is to ensure that knowledge remains current –
accurate and up-to-date.
8. The act of making a decision is fundamentally a learning process.
The connectivist learning theory implies that facilitators of learning have varied roles, such
as equipping learners with the capacities to create and nurture the required connections
in their personal learning networks. In addition, the learning facilitator should provide
the required resources for learning systems to function effectively and construct learning
opportunities that inspire the desire for continued learning.
Connectivist learning theory depends on sufficient and adequate technological
frameworks to support connections, provide valid and reliable knowledge resources and
deliver motivating and stimulating learning opportunities (Kizito, 2016).
7. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
A thorough knowledge of learning principles helps L&D professionals in their role as
learning facilitators. These principles include practice and overlearning, physical and
psychological fidelity, whole versus part learning and massed versus distributed practice
(Landy & Conte, 2012).
7.1 Practice and overlearning

Practice is critical to retaining newly learned skills. This is why many learning programmes
emphasise active practice. For example, musicians actively practise scales on their
instruments. They cannot retain and develop their skills by passively watching someone
else. Overlearning is the practice of presenting learners with several extra learning
opportunities even after they have demonstrated mastery of a task. Overlearning tends
to lead to automaticity (the ability to perform a task with limited attention) and thus
adequate, long-term task performance (Landy & Conte, 2012).
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Overlearning is the practice of presenting learners with several extra learning opportunities,
even after they have demonstrated mastery of a task.
7.2 Identical elements (physical and psychological fidelity)

Fidelity is the extent to which the task in the training situation is similar to the task required
on the job. There should be elements in the training environment and tasks that are
identical to the environments and tasks in the work environment (Werner & DeSimone,
2012). The existence of fidelity in training tasks increases the benefit that training will have
on job performance (Werner & DeSimone, 2012). Physical fidelity refers to the extent to
which the training tasks, equipment used and environment mirror the physical features of
the actual work situation (Werner & DeSimone, 2012). For example, aircraft simulator
tasks possess physical fidelity if they accurately represent the layout of the cockpit and the
motion that occurs in actual aircraft (Landy & Conte, 2012).
Fidelity is the extent to which the task in the training situation is similar to the task required
on the job. Fidelity in training tasks increases the benefit of training on job performance.
Psychological fidelity is an indication of how trainees attach related meanings to both

the training environment and the work environment (Werner & DeSimone, 2012).
Psychological fidelity influences how well training activities support participants in
developing the competencies (attitudes, knowledge, skills and abilities) and other
characteristics that are necessary to perform the job successfully. For example, lieutenant
candidates in a fire department are trained (and assessed) in a simulated setting in which
they have to respond to a fire by actually speaking the directions and orders they would
give. This setting highlights their communication and decision-making skills and possesses
psychological fidelity (Landy & Conte, 2012).
7.3 Whole versus part learning

Another important consideration in training is the size of the learning tasks. Whole learning
occurs when the entire task is practised at once. Part learning occurs when sub-tasks are
practised separately and later combined. L&D professionals should consider the task’s
difficulty level (task complexity) and the extent to which the sub-tasks are interrelated (task
organisation) to determine the usefulness of whole and part learning (Landy & Conte,
2012). For example, developing the skills to land an aircraft involves a number of complex
tasks. An example of part learning is the way actors rehearse various parts of a play (such as
dance steps, fight scenes and pieces of dialogue) separately.
L&D professionals should consider the task’s complexity and the extent to which the
sub-tasks are interrelated to determine the usefulness of whole and part learning.
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Activity
• Describe how learning to drive involves part learning.

• Next, describe whether you think the learning sequence is likely to be different
for learning to drive a car with an automatic transmission compared to one with a
manual transmission (Landy & Conte, 2012).
7.4 Massed versus distributed practice

Massed practice conditions are conditions in which learners practise a task continuously
and without rest. Distributed practice gives learners rest intervals between practice sessions,
which are spaced over a longer period of time. In general, distributed practice results in
more efficient learning and retention than massed practice, because the rest periods reduce
fatigue and allow time to strengthen learned associations. For tasks with high complexity
(such as air traffic control), longer rest periods between practice sessions are more beneficial
for learning and skill acquisition (Landy & Conte, 2012).
8 .THE BRAIN AND LEARNING

Various theories explain the role of the brain in adult learning.
8.1 Accelerated learning

Accelerated learning is the process of creating and maintaining a positive learning state
by enhancing people’s self-esteem and encouraging confidence in their ability to learn
and perform. The positive learning state reduces mental barriers to learning and improves
performance (Clement, 1992; Center for Accelerated Learning, 2018). Accelerated
learning is a well-researched, learner-centred approach. It uses learners’ natural talents to
give them the best opportunity to maximise their learning, retention and performance.
Accelerated learning technology accomplishes this by creating stress-free, positive, joyful,
and psychologically and physically healthy environments that enhance self-esteem and
focus on the needs of learners.
Accelerated learning is the process of creating and maintaining a positive learning state
by enhancing people’s self-esteem and encouraging confidence in their ability to learn
and perform.
Accelerated learning techniques help to create an optimal learning environment because

the techniques encourage involving the whole body/mind with all its emotions, senses
and receptors. Optimal learning environments create a sense of wholeness, safety, interest
and enjoyment, which is essential for optimising human learning. Accelerated learning
is activity-based rather than materials-based or presentation/instruction-based and so
learners are totally and actively involved and take full responsibility for their learning.
Collaboration between learners in a social learning community is encouraged. A rich
variety of learning options is offered, which allows learners to use all of their senses and to
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exercise preferred learning styles. Learners are exposed to a process of solving problems in
real-world scenarios, receiving continual feedback, evaluation and self-reflection (Center
for Accelerated Learning, 2018).
Accelerated learning techniques help to create an optimal learning environment – the techniques
encourage involving the whole body/mind with all its emotions, senses, and receptors
Activity
Accelerate your learning

Visit google+ to access the following links from Brian Tracy. He provides valuable
accelerated learning techniques. Brian Tracy states that when he started off his career,
he had not graduated from high school and was working manual labour jobs. Because
he didn’t get good grades in school, he assumed he wasn’t smart. What he found is that
learning is actually a skill that can be developed just like driving a car or riding a bike. In
this video, he teaches you a proven technique that you can use to accelerate learning
and absorb information at a rapid pace.
See:
YouTube: http://ow.ly/ScHSb
Facebook: http://www.facebook.com/BrianTracyPage
Twitter: http://www.twitter.com/BrianTracy
Google+: +BrianTracyOfficialPage
Pinterest: http://www.pinterest.com/BrianTracy
Instagram: @TheBrianTracy Blog: http://ow.ly/TXzAT
To discover how you learn best, take Brian Tracy’s Personal Learning Assessment: http://
bit.ly/1RjLpNs
To understand accelerated learning approaches, we must first understand how our brains
work. Research in the neurosciences has led to the development of the following brain models.
8.2 Split-brain theory

The split-brain model stems from work done by Sperry (1974) and Ornstein (1977).
According to the left/right brain hemisphere model, the left brain is verbal, logical
and sequential and can generally do only one thing at a time. Most traditional L&D
programmes present information in a manner that appeals to the left brain. The right
brain, by contrast, is creative, visual and holistic. Apparently, it has direct access to people’s
enormous memory banks. The right brain can absorb huge amounts of information with
little effort. Its visual memory is essentially perfect and, with memory techniques that link
lists of data to visual images, most memorisation activities become rapid and easy. Given
the analytical capabilities of the left brain and the visualisation ability of the right brain,
co-operation between the two hemispheres leads to optimal learning and performance
outcomes. This is called whole-brain learning (Clement, 1992).
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Accelerated learning technology involves the entire person (mind, brain and body)
in the learning process. All efforts (from needs assessment and initial learning material
development to delivery and follow-up) focus on maximising the abilities and success of
the learner. An important task of accelerated learning is to engage the right brain in co-
operation with the left brain. The left brain wants step-by-step information (to analyse),
while the right brain wants rich information (to synthesise). Balancing the involvement of
the left and right brains requires that we use the logical and the emotional, the sequential
and the global, and the linguistic and the musical in more or less equal proportions. Both
hemispheres are involved in activities such as exercises and games that evoke the playful
part of the learner, provide an overview, and draw on analytical resources to integrate
details. Processes that involve both hemispheres imprint subject matter deeply into memory
(Center for Accelerated Learning, 2018; Clement, 1992).
An important task of accelerated learning is to engage the right brain, which wants rich
information (to synthesise), in co-operation with the left brain, which wants step-by-step
information (to analyse).
8.3 Regenerative brain theory

Diamond’s (1984) classical regenerative brain theory teaches that a rich emotional classroom
environment stimulates brain-cell activity in certain parts of the brain. Sensory stimuli with
emotional content cause the brain to release opiate-like neurotransmitters, which produce
a sense of well-being and a state of heightened awareness. So, elements of accelerated
learning, such as relaxation, music, games, art and storytelling, trigger a powerful learning
state that enhances long-term memory. The pleasurable feelings induced by the natural
opiates released in the brain make the learning experience desirable (Clement, 1992).
Sensory stimuli with emotional content cause the brain to release opiate-like neurotransmitters,
which produce a sense of well-being and heightened awareness.
8.4 Triune brain theory

Triune brain theory (MacLean, 1973) divides the evolutionary development of the brain
into three phases: the reptilian brain, the old mammalian brain (limbic system) and the
neomammalian brain (neocortex). Each of these parts of the brain has its own special
functions, and each part is important to learning. The neocortex surrounds the limbic
system, which, in turn, surrounds the reptilian brain. All three parts of the brain are
interconnected.
The reptilian brain automatically handles our basic physical needs (such as heart rate,
breathing and hunger). It contains the reticular activating system which, like a computer,
runs our stored mental ‘programmes’ without judgement. Many people have internal
programmes that negatively influence their learning ability. For example, these programmes
might cause an inner voice to say, ‘I can’t learn this’ or ‘I’m a slow learner’ (Clement,
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1992). The limbic system is the seat of our emotions and feelings. It also contains the
hippocampus, which is essential to long-term memory. The neocortex contains our higher-
level thinking skills. It is this part of the brain that separates people from other animals.
The neocortex performs its function effectively only when the other parts of the brain
have processed the information according to their specific functions. Long-term memory
depends on all three parts of the triune brain (Clement, 1992).
9. HUMAN INTELLIGENCE
Human intelligence is no longer defined only by intellectual quotient (IQ). Research has
shown that intelligence is a concept that incorporates a multiplicity of variables. L&D
professionals should keep these multiple intelligences in mind when designing and
conducting training. Every participant has something to contribute, therefore the course
design and presentation should make it possible for participants to contribute from their
own type of intelligence.
9.1 Gardner’s multiple intelligences

Gardner (2017) identified and tested seven distinct intelligences, and proposed an eighth
form of intelligence. These intelligences are divided into three categories: communication,
relating to objects and relating to the self. Table 2.5 gives an overview of the eight
intelligences and how these apply to individual learning.
Table 2.5 Gardner’s eight intelligences (Gardner, 2017)
Category Intelligence Application in learning

Communication Verbal/linguistic •• Uses words as communication and thinking skills
•• Becomes involved in debates, storytelling and poetry
•• Uses metaphors, puns, analogies and similes
•• Can read for long periods
•• Chooses to listen, speak, read and write
Musical/rhythmic •• Can recognise and produce melody, rhythm and rhyme

•• Is conscious of the impact of music
•• Likes music
•• Responds to music and rhythm sources
•• Responds to sounds
Relating Visual/spatial •• Attuned to pictures, symbols and drawings

to objects •• Can see detail
•• Enjoys graphs, charts and representations that explain ideas
•• Thinks in pictures
Bodily/ •• Keen sense of the tactile and aware of own body

kinaesthetic •• Prefers manipulating and handling materials to make sense
of information
•• Learning should involve some kind of activity, such as walking,
building or role-play
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Category Intelligence Application in learning

Logical/ •• Enjoys numbers and reasoning
mathematical •• Can identify patterns, and recognise cause and effect and
sequencing
•• Likes solving problems and posing and answering questions
•• Wants to analyse, assess and organise information and use
spreadsheets
Relating Naturalist •• In touch with the natural world (animals and plants)
to objects •• Enjoys geography, landscapes and the weather
•• Wants to be outdoors
•• Can see details in nature and can recognise patterns and
characteristics
•• Uses patterns and attributes to classify information
•• Appreciates the environment
Relating Interpersonal •• Interacts well with others

to the self •• Social beings, sensitive and intuitive to other people’s moods
and feelings
•• Often friendly and extroverted, in touch with others’
temperaments
•• Valuable member of a team
Intrapersonal •• High degree of self-awareness

•• Knows and can manage own emotions and feelings and can
use this knowledge to manage own behaviour
•• Self-refection and goal setting are important
•• Acts on a strong awareness of own strengths and needs
9.2 Sternberg’s three intelligences

Robert Sternberg (2015) identified three intelligences: practical, analytical and creative
intelligence.
•• Practical intelligence. This kind of intelligence applies new information practically.
It asks, ‘What can I do with this?’ Information is used to solve problems and make
decisions to apply to real-world situations.
•• Analytical intelligence. This kind of intelligence identifies problems, creates different
solutions, decides on an optimal solution and applies the solution in practice.
Information is used to judge situations critically.
•• Creative intelligence. This kind of intelligence challenges existing assumptions and
concentrates on new ways of doing things. It involves using cognitive processes to
create questions, problems and projects that internalise new learning.
According to Sternberg, intelligent people can use knowledge combined with these
intelligences to make sense of information. In other words, information must be used
intelligently to be of any value.
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9.3 Emotional intelligence

The term emotional intelligence was originally coined by Salovey and Mayer (1990) to
complement the traditional view of general intelligence by emphasising behaviour that
requires emotional and behavioural control in social situations (Maguire et al., 2016).
Emotional intelligence is distinct from, but related to, other intelligences. More specifically,
it is intelligence (the ability to grasp abstractions) applied to emotions. Emotional intelligence
differs from person to person (some people are more emotionally intelligent than others). This
form of intelligence develops over a person’s lifespan and can be enhanced through training.
Emotional intelligence involves particular abilities to reason intelligently about emotions,
including identifying and perceiving emotion (in self and others). It also provides the skills to
understand and manage those emotions successfully (Maguire, et al., 2016).
Emotional intelligence differs from person to person. It develops over a person’s lifespan and
can be enhanced through training.
The literature distinguishes between ability models and mixed models of emotional
intelligence (Maguire, et al., 2016). The ability model defines emotional intelligence as
a set of abilities that involves perceiving and reasoning abstractly, using information that
emerges from feelings. The mixed model incorporates the underlying abilities identified by
the ability model. It further defines emotional intelligence as a set of abilities that includes
social behaviours, traits and competencies such as self-awareness, managing one’s emotions,
motivation, empathy and social skills, each of which is discussed in more detail below:
•• Self-awareness is an awareness of, and appreciation of, one’s own emotions.
•• Managing one’s emotions means allowing the situation to determine appropriate ways of
expressing emotions.
•• Motivation refers to the ability to focus on a task despite obstacles and challenges.
•• Empathy means being sensitive to and responding appropriately to others’ emotions
and feelings.
•• Social skills are skills that equip us to manage the emotions of other people and deal
with their emotions and feelings (Maguire, et al., 2016).
People who are self-aware can put names to their feelings. They can recognise their emotions
and ask others for support by expressing their emotions. These people also have strategies
to cope with their emotions and can change them when they feel the need.
When we manage our emotions, we are guided by a situation; we can adapt our
emotions to the demands of the situation. This means that we can calm our emotions
when we know that they are not appropriate or that we will gain nothing by expressing
or feeling our emotions in the situation. Strategies we can use to calm ourselves include
counting slowly to 10 (or more if we need to), taking several deep breaths, going for a walk
or looking inwards to get in touch with our feelings at that moment.
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People who are self-aware can put names to their feelings. They also have strategies to cope
with their emotions and can change them to the demands of the situation.
When we are able to keep going even when things are not going according to plan (or seem
to be working against us), we are behaving in a motivated way. Our ability to use intrinsic
or internal motivation to persist at a task is enhanced when we receive ongoing feedback on
our progress, when we are sure that we are up to the challenge and when we have a sense
of control over our progress.
When we are sensitive to other people’s feelings and respond to them appropriately,
we show empathy. We learn this ability in an environment of mutual respect and concern
for other people’s problems and emotions. When we deal with other people and their
emotions positively and constructively, we are using our social skills. This means that we
are attuned to other people’s body language signals, their needs and behaviours. By using
our social skills we can respond appropriately.
Activity
Review the statements in the table below, and answer the following questions.
• Identify your preferred emotional style.
• How does your preferred style influence your interpersonal relations and your ability
to learn individually, in a group and in a connectivist learning context? (Source:
Wechsler cited in Wolmarans, 2004.)
• Keeping in mind your preferred emotional style, and within the context of emotional
intelligence, which components of emotional intelligence do you think you should
still develop to have a well-balanced emotional intelligence profile?
Friendly helper Strong achiever Logical thinker
Rejects strong emotions – Rejects tender emotions – Uncomfortable with all
hostility, animosity, aggression love, affection, endearment, emotions – blocks out emotions
compassion
Accepts tender emotions Accepts strong emotions Displaces emotions with logic,
data, facts and figures
✓ Which is true of you? ✓ Which is true of you? ✓ Which is true of you?

•• Prefers warmth, harmony and •• Task-orientated, initiates •• Prefers information gathering
co‑operation action, co‑ordinates, pushes and clarification of words
•• Peacemaker, non‑assertive for results and ideas
•• Attempts to minimise tension •• Prefers to be in command •• Replaces emotion with logic,
•• Assertive and readily accepts accuracy and self-reliance
•• Praises others, looks for
common ground, does aggressive qualities in •• Rejects strong and tender
favours for others themselves and others emotions
•• Fears conflict and •• Influences by giving orders, •• Fears confusion, loss of
emotional hurt threatening, withholding structure or being wrong
rewards or challenging others •• Dislikes being obligated to
others or being overpowered
by emotions and impulse
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Friendly helper Strong achiever Logical thinker

•• Reaction to stress •• Fears being perceived as soft •• Influences by logic, fact and
–– dependence or depression and sentimental or losing clever arguments and their
control knowledge of rules and
•• Needs to learn:
•• Reaction to stress regulations
–– to assert themselves
–– domination or impulsive •• Reaction to stress
–– to ask for what they want
over-activity –– withdrawal or rule bound
–– to be critical and
•• Needs to learn: •• Needs to learn:
evaluative of ideas
–– patience –– awareness of own
–– how to support others feelings
–– acceptance of closeness
and intimacy
–– expression of emotion
What are the implications for L&D? In addition to taking into account different learning
styles of learners, L&D professionals also have to consider the principles of accelerated
learning and the various kinds of intelligence when they design learning programmes. They
should attempt to involve as many different kinds of intelligence as possible in the learning
process and think of ways to develop the different aspects of emotional intelligence in
all learners.
Table 2.6 Stimulation of intelligences (based on Clement, 1992)
Intelligence Stimulus to accelerate learning and performance

Linguistic •• Incorporate reading and writing.
•• Encourage learners to speak to one another in a topic-specific manner.
•• Use dyads, or pairs of learners, to allow learners to discuss what they have
just learned.
•• Use plays.
Logical/ •• Play games and puzzles.

mathematical •• Use exercises that are different from the traditional to entice those who are weak
in these areas.
Musical •• Listen to songs, raps, background music, concert readings, and so on.
•• Keep a variety of music at hand to create different moods.
Visual/spatial •• Use colourful models, patterns, pictures and symbols.

•• Draw simple posters to describe key points, using colourful markers, and post them
around the room.
•• Encourage the use of mind maps.
•• Replace words with icons.
•• Use guided imagery to introduce a subject and review it.
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Intelligence Stimulus to accelerate learning and performance

Bodily/kinaesthetic •• Exercise, walk and dance.
•• Make models of what you are teaching.
•• Let learners touch objects pertinent to the subject.
•• Include stretching exercises and educational kinaesthetic exercises.
•• Use ball tossing to stimulate memory exercises.
•• Use role-play and mind maps.
Interpersonal •• Work in dyads or small groups.

•• Converse about the subject matter and have learners actively listen to others.
•• Get learners to share how they feel about the subject.
Intrapersonal •• Keep a journal of feelings, discovered blocks and assets.

•• Teach relaxation procedures to help learners to let go and reflect.
Practical •• Ask learners to demonstrate learning by designing models.

•• Give workplace assignments such as conducting interviews or collecting evidence
for a portfolio to demonstrate workplace application.
Analytical •• Give puzzles to solve.

•• Ask learners to provide solutions to problematic situations by means of case
studies and brainstorming.
Creative •• Give learners challenging projects, such as researching real issues of concern in the
workplace and coming up with solutions and recommendations for improvement.
Emotional •• Ask learners to identify their own moods and emotional states before starting
intelligence a workshop.
•• Create a positive mood by means of music and relaxation exercises.
•• Use dyads to help learners to find creative solutions to identify and deal with their
anxiety and concerns.
•• Use small groups to guide learners in expressing their concerns and finding creative
solutions to deal with them.

1. How does the SABPP describe L&D for the South African context?
2. How do the characteristics of adult learners influence the learning process and
design of learning? How can L&D professionals improve their learning design by
incorporating the needs of adult learners?
3. How do the various theories of learning support the design and delivery of effective
learning programmes? Describe the important principles of each learning theory as
they apply to adult learning.
4. Why is it important for L&D professionals to incorporate the principles of learning in
the design and delivery of learning programmes?
5. Why is it important for L&D professionals to have a sound knowledge and understanding
of learning styles, multiple intelligences and emotional intelligence? How would you,
as a learning facilitator, develop the emotional intelligence of your learners?
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Summary
In this chapter, we explored the characteristics of the adult learner. We saw how the
principles and theories of learning can be applied to enhance, not only the design and
delivery of learning programmes, but also to optimise individual and organisational
learning and performance. A solid understanding of the psychology of learning is critical
to creating a learning environment that motivates adult learners in the workplace to
engage in continued education and L&D initiatives.
It is important for L&D professionals to use a systematic approach to training that
assesses training needs, incorporates principles of learning in the design and delivery
of training, assesses learner achievements and evaluates the effectiveness of learning
programmes. In chapters 3 to 8, this scientific approach (also called the learning cycle)
is discussed. The first phase in effective learning programme design, namely analysing
an organisation’s and employees’ L&D needs, is introduced in Chapter 3.
No one can be a great facilitator of learning unless they see their learners as unique and
capable individuals, and have a genuine desire to impart to learners what they believe to
be of value.
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PART
2
THE SYSTEMATIC LEARNING CYCLE

CONDUCTING A LEARNING AND CHAPTER
DEVELOPMENT NEEDS ANALYSIS
Jo-Anne Botha and Melinde Coetzee 3
Key points of conducting a learning and development needs analysis:
•• A learning and development (L&D) needs analysis (LDNA) is the first step in the dynamic learning
cycle, which consists of planning, design, delivery and evaluation of any L&D initiative.
•• An LDNA is concerned with both current and future employee performance and drives the successful
implementation of organisational strategy. Consequently, it involves gathering and evaluating data
about existing employees’ capabilities and the organisation’s current and future demands for skills.
•• Before learning design issues are considered, a careful LDNA is required to develop a systematic
understanding of where L&D is needed, what needs to be taught or trained and who needs to
be trained.
•• The information generated by a well-planned and executed LDNA directly affects the efficacy of any
L&D intervention.
•• An LDNA typically addresses four interrelated focus areas of analysis, namely sectoral,
organisational, task and person.
•• LDNA models and employs a systematic process and technology for improving employee and
organisational capability.
•• During the LDNA phase, the L&D professional should get clarity on the preferred organisational
outcomes of the intended learning intervention and the organisational support that learners will
receive after the programme to enhance the transfer of learning in the workplace.

•• Explain the various phases of the dynamic learning cycle.
•• Evaluate the importance of the dynamic learning cycle.
•• Identify the various levels of an LDNA.
•• Discuss the purposes of an LDNA.
•• Explain the methods a learning and development (L&D) professional can employ to gather data for an
LDNA.
•• Evaluate the appropriateness of the needs analysis methods for the four focus areas of analysis.
•• Explain the steps involved in conducting an LDNA.
•• Describe how the information gathered from an LDNA informs the design of outcomes and workplace-
based learning programmes (discussed in Chapter 4).
•• Explain the importance of establishing an LDNA information system.
•• Discuss the tasks of the various role-players involved in the annual LDNA and skills planning process.
•• Differentiate between the role and tasks of the skills development facilitator (SDF) and learning and
development (L&D) professionals.

1. INTRODUCTION
Right-skilling the workforce has become the main focus of all human resource development
(HRD) strategies and learning and development (L&D) efforts and initiatives in
organisations. In Chapter 1 we pointed out how organisations world-wide are finding
themselves ill-equipped to compete in the VUCA (volatile, uncertain, complex and
ambiguous) economy of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (Second Machine Age) or digital
era that characterise the 21st century Workplace 4.0 (Deloitte, 2017). The reason is that
too many workers lack the right skills to help their employers grow and succeed. The
connection between human capability and organisational success is even clearer today,
as skills shortages threaten the short- and long-term success of businesses and industries
throughout the world (Crous & Attlee, 2016; Deloitte, 2017; Noe et al., 2014). The
business perspective is augmented by a shift towards the transformative effect of workplace
learning. The human (people) component in the L&D field is being recognised increasingly.
Workplace learning is no longer only about equipping employees to do their given jobs as
effectively as possible, but is also about allowing employees to grow and develop as human
beings – focusing on the question of ‘Who am I in this job, this organisation and this
world?’ (Van Dellen & Cohen-Scali, 2015).
Workplace learning is no longer only about equipping employees to do their given jobs
as effectively as possible, but is also about allowing employees to grow and develop as
human beings.
With the global, technological information and knowledge-based economy placing an

ever-growing premium on the talent, creativity and efficiency of the workforce, business
leaders talk of a widening gap between the skills their organisations need and the current
capabilities of their employees. In Chapter 1, we discussed how in South Africa, the Skills
Development Acts, White Paper on Post-school Education and Training and National
Skills Development Plan 2030 (DHET, 2017a) introduced new structures, strategies,
programmes and funding policies designed to increase investment in skills development
and to improve the quality and relevance of education and training and skills development
in workplaces. These government policies also introduced a systematic and planned
approach to developing skills, which integrates skills planning and development at national,
provincial, sector and company level (DHET, 2017a; Hattingh, 2003a,b; Stuart, 2011).
Working together, individuals, business leaders, skills development or L&D providers,
L&D professionals and the government must meet the challenge of right-skilling head
on to bring about future growth and success in a VUCA global economy. These changes,
along with the White Paper on Post-school Education and Training and National Skills
Development Plan 2030 (DHET, 2017a) and the focus on occupationally specific and
workplace-based learning design (see Chapter 1 and Chapter 4), will increasingly influence
the nature of the HRD function and L&D practices in the organisation (see Chapter 9).
Increasingly, we shall see a shift from the focus on providing training programmes to a
more comprehensive focus on creating learning organisations in which L&D becomes an
integral part of the organisation’s short- and long-term business strategy, and knowledge
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Chapter 3 | Conducting a learning and development needs analysis
creation and sharing are the norm (Noe, 2008; Opperman, 2015; Tannenbaum et al., 2017).
Top-performing organisations are moving away from merely training their employees to
investing in a lifelong learning and development (L&D) culture for a number of reasons
(Opperman, 2015; SABPP, 2014):
•• L&D supports the continuous upskilling of employees for sustainable business and
individual performance.
•• L&D enables employees to adapt to the strategy and changing market conditions
and technology.
•• L&D enables a better skills match between the employee and the organisation.
•• L&D develops the human capability of the organisation, which ensures long-term
sustainability for the business and the industry or sector in a competitive market.
•• L&D creates an occupationally competent and engaged workforce, which builds
organisational capability, providing employees with opportunities to develop new
knowledge and skills, increase their competence and enhance their opportunity
for promotion.
•• L&D accelerates skills development and achievement of employment equity and
organisational transformation, and limits the impact of skills shortages.
•• L&D serves as a catalyst for continuous improvement, change and innovation.
Top-performing organisations are moving away from merely training their employees to
investing in a lifelong learning and development (L&D) culture.
Increasingly, we shall see a shift from providing training programmes to a more comprehensive
focus on creating learning organisations in which L&D will be an integral part of the
business strategy.
As explained in Chapter 2, the South African Board for People Practices (SABPP) also
stipulated learning and development as one of the human resource (HR) standards for
high performing organisations. Learning and development is seen as the practice of
providing occupationally directed and other learning activities that enable and enhance
the knowledge, practical skills and workplace experience and behaviour of individuals and
teams, based on current and future occupational requirements for optimal organisational
performance and sustainability (SABPP, 2014).
LDNA is, therefore, regarded as crucial to the planning, design, delivery and evaluation of
any L&D initiative in the workplace. In the context of organisational and human capability
development, a needs analysis is understood to be the systematic collection and evaluation
of information to find the gaps in the existing competency levels, skills, knowledge and
attitudes of employees. It involves gathering and analysing data about employees’ existing
capabilities and the organisation’s demand for skills, and analysing the implications that new
and changed roles have for changes in capability (CIPD, 2007; Werner & DeSimone, 2009).
The information obtained from an analysis of the assessed needs provides the foundation for
human resource development (HRD) as a profession and L&D as an HRD practice.
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A sound LDNA defines whether a performance discrepancy, indeed, exists or may exist
in the foreseeable future; whether an L&D intervention would be the best approach to
manage an identified performance problem; what is required to reduce the gap between
the competencies demanded by a specific position and the current competencies of the
occupant(s); identifies the individual employees who should be included in the L&D
intervention and the required content of the L&D intervention (Ferreira et al., 2015).
A progressive LDNA further considers the organisational culture, philosophy and value
system; is preferably proactive instead of reactive; zooms in on the development of
identifiable and observable competencies and not individual perceptions; utilises a variety
of data collecting methods and sources and is able to produce a cost/benefit analysis
(Ferreira et al., 2015).
In reality, organisations will always face some type of skills gap. This may be caused by
shifting market conditions, technological advancement, global financial crises, evolving
industries or changing customer needs. The extent to which HRD decisions are rationally
justifiable is dependent on the extent to which a rigorous L&D needs analysis has been
performed (to explain the actual why and how to carry out L&D activities), and whether
formal training or L&D programmes are, in fact, the best solution for the performance
problem or development need.
2. THE DYNAMIC LEARNING CYCLE AND NEEDS ANALYSIS

A systematic L&D needs analysis (LDNA) is the first phase in the dynamic learning cycle
(see Figure 3.1). A learning cycle is a reiterative or repeating process comprising five phases:
1. L&D needs analysis (LDNA);
2. Learning design (see Chapter 4);
3. Learning delivery (see Chapter 6);
4. Assessment and moderation of learners’ achievements (see Chapter 7); and
5. Evaluation of programme effectiveness (see Chapter 8).
The focus of the dynamic learning cycle (see Figure 3.1) is the continuous improvement of
employee learning, development and performance in the workplace to create a sustained
competitive advantage for the organisation and to facilitate organisational flexibility and
innovation. To achieve organisational agility and employee adaptability, a novel approach
to learning and development is called for (Noe et al., 2014). Employee learning no longer
takes place primarily through tertiary education programmes or formally developed
organisational learning interventions, but encompasses the work milieu and work and
social networks. Active learning, social interaction, the construction of shared meaning
and transfer of implicit knowledge are all components of learning in the 21st century
Workplace 4.0 (Noe, et al., 2014).
Active learning, social interaction, the construction of shared meaning and transfer of
implicit knowledge are all components of learning in the 21st century Workplace 4.0.
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Phase 1
L&D needs analysis
Phase 5 Phase 2
Evaluation of programme Learning
effectiveness Programme design
THE LEARNING CYCLE
Phase 4
Assessment and Phase 3
moderation of learner L&D intervention delivery
achievements
Analyse
Evaluate
Design
Assess and
moderate
Deliver
Like cogs in a machine, every phase in the learning cycle contributes to the eventual
success of a learning programme. All phases are equally important.
Figure 3.1 The classical systematic dynamic learning cycle
The new insights into learning in a fast-paced, connected world implies that the design
of L&D opportunities should emphasise active participation on the part of the learner,
social networking with other learners, focusing on extensive content areas and not
only job-specific training and development, and, lastly, create and implement learning
opportunities that facilitate collaborative learning (Noe, et al., 2014). Consequently, the
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dynamic learning cycle concentrates on the development and nurturing of individually

important competencies to create knowledgeable employees who can play an active role
in managing their own learning and future career development, and serve as a knowledge
repository or learning partner for their colleagues. Knowledgeable employees who are
capable of fulfilling the multiple demands of their jobs, and are also willing and able to
manage their own learning and future career progression, are key demands in the 21st-
century VUCA workspace (Coetzee, 2014; Van Veldhoven et al., 2017).
L&D in the workplace is a systematic process facilitating continuous learning and development.
The dynamic learning cycle, an example of which is shown in Figure 3.1, emphasises
that L&D in the workplace is a systematic process facilitating continuous learning and
development. The behaviour and values of employees in their roles as learners change or
are modified by organisational and personal L&D interventions. Therefore, organisational
and employee needs change and evolve during the course of their working lives, creating a
continuous cycle of development or lifelong learning. The various phases of the dynamic
learning cycle are discussed in Chapters 4 to 8.
3. PURPOSES OF NEEDS ANALYSIS

The point of departure for any L&D intervention is the expected organisational results
based on predetermined expectations and needs – what observable change(s) do the
organisational stakeholders expect at the end of the learning intervention? Consequently,
the development of an L&D intervention starts with the end in mind – what should be
achieved and how will the L&D professional indicate to organisational stakeholders that
the desired end has been reached?
The point of departure for any L&D intervention is the expected organisational results
based on predetermined expectations and needs.
The assessment of organisational and employee needs determines the design content of a
learning programme, which influences the delivery of the programme. As the needs of the
various organisational role-players change, the type, content and delivery methods of L&D
interventions should be adapted. The design and implementation of L&D interventions, in
turn, affect assessment and moderation methods. L&D programme evaluation ensures the
continuous improvement and enhancement of learning design and programme delivery,
and assessment and moderation practices. Often, new needs arise from the assessment and
evaluation results. The dynamic learning cycle illustrates the dynamic nature of learning
and development in the workplace context.
As the needs of the various organisational role-players change, the type, content and delivery
methods of L&D interventions should be adapted.
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The LDNA serves several purposes in L&D planning, design, delivery and evaluation. It
mainly illustrates where an organisation stands in relation to the competencies currently
available and the competencies needed – currently or in the future, as determined by the
organisation’s goals and objectives. In addition, the LDNA identifies the root causes of
performance problems and the most appropriate solutions to the identified performance
problems. The LDNA also provides information on the type of L&D intervention(s) that
may be needed, the facilities that should be made available and an estimate of the cost
versus the benefit of implementing an L&D intervention (Rothwell et al., 2016). The
purposes of an LDNA are briefly summarised in Table 3.1
Table 3.1 The purposes of the L&D needs analysis
Purpose Description
Decide the LDNA approach. Ascertain whether a proactive or reactive approach toward
LDNA should be taken.
Identify performance gap. The performance gap exists because there is a discrepancy
between what employees are actually capable of doing and
what is expected of them in terms of the requirements of
the position.
Identify the root cause(s) of performance All performance discrepancies are not necessarily caused
discrepancies. by a lack of knowledge, skill or experience on the part
of the employee. The root causes of the performance
discrepancies should be identified before a learning
intervention is recommended.
Specify performance discrepancies in knowledge, Some discrepancies in knowledge, skill or attitude should
skills or attitude that can be addressed by means be addressed by means other than a learning intervention.
other than a learning intervention.
Identify performance discrepancies in knowledge, Those performance discrepancies that are clearly caused
skills or attitude that should be addressed by a by a lack of knowledge, skill or attitude on the part of the
learning intervention. employee(s) should be addressed by means of a learning
intervention.
Identify the type of learning intervention. The identified performance gap indicates the learning
outcomes to be formulated, the type of learning intervention
to be utilised, the required facilities and so on.
Provide feedback on the efficacy and effectiveness The performance discrepancies provide information for
of the learning intervention. feedback on the efficacy and efficiency of the proposed
solution, and can also be used to improve any learning
intervention that was developed.
3.1 Proactive and reactive needs analysis

As shown in Figure 3.2, a needs analysis can be proactive or reactive (Blanchard & Thacker,
2012; Handshaw, 2014). A proactive needs analysis focuses on the future. Performance
problems that may occur in the future are identified in the present in order to address
them before they may occur and possibly have a negative impact on the organisation. These
possible performance gaps may be created by changes in organisational goals, or by changes
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in technology, legislation or product offerings that require new employee skills (Noe,
2014). Employees are exposed to learning programmes that address identified needs before
they can cause performance problems. L&D interventions are developed and implemented
proactively to prepare employees for future changes.
Identify performance problems that

may occur in the future and expose Desired
Proactive needs
employees to L&D programmes to performance
analysis
prevent performance problems.
L&D Needs Analysis GAP

ANALYSIS
Assessing the gap between
current and desired performance
and identifying causes and
solutions
Identify and address

Reactive needs Current
performance problems
analysis performance
in the present.
Figure 3.2 Proactive and reactive needs analysis
Proactive needs analyses focus on performance problems that may occur in the future so that
they can be addressed before they have a negative impact on the organisation.
A proactive needs analysis is an excellent approach to empower employees to drive an

organisation’s future goals and strategies, particularly if changes in organisational goals and
strategies require new competencies (Handshaw, 2014). Furthermore, a proactive LDNA
is a strategic approach to use if an organisation plans to go into a new venture that requires
different knowledge, skills and competencies from its employees. Consequently, proactive
LDNA requires the L&D professional to become a strategic positioner in the business
context, identifying possible performance gaps before they exist and suggesting solutions
to facilitate the smooth running of the business organisation.
A proactive LDNA is an excellent strategic approach if an organisation plans to go into a

new venture that requires different knowledge, skills and competencies from its employees.
A reactive needs analysis focuses on the present (Noe, 2014). It identifies a current
performance shortfall that should be addressed now to improve employee performance
and facilitate the achievement of organisational goals. Information for reactive needs
analyses are usually identified from an employee (or a team’s) performance appraisal,
accident reports, wastage and unnecessary breakages, and unplanned work stoppages or
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bottlenecks (Noe, 2014). One can assume a triage approach to reactive LDNA. Triage is
used in emergency situations to identify patients who need immediate attention (red) –
those needs that should be addressed urgently because the performance gap constitutes an
immediate crisis for the organisation. Patients who require urgent attention but are in no
immediate danger of death or an adverse outcome are classified as orange in the emergency
room triage language. In a reactive LDNA, orange performance gaps can be addressed after
the crisis has been managed, but before they become an organisational threat. The last
category is the green patients. These are the patients who should be treated, but waiting for
treatment poses no immediate danger to their health. In LDNA terms, green performance
gaps are those that cause a problem and should be addressed within the foreseeable future,
but currently pose no immediate danger to the organisation.
A reactive needs analysis focuses on current performance shortfalls that should be addressed
to improve employee performance to achieve organisational goals.
Care should be taken to address all reactive L&D needs as effectively and efficiently as
possible, to prevent them from causing a threat to the organisation’s continued sustainability
and success. In the case of reactive needs analyses, the L&D professional will have to deal
with managers at all levels who perceive an identified competency gap as an immediate
danger to the organisation, which should be addressed as soon as possible (Handshaw,
2014). The L&D professional should use a predetermined set of steps to complete the
L&D needs analysis to get an objective view of the performance discrepancy, which is
substantiated by performance information (Handshaw, 2014).
It is important for L&D professionals to keep in mind that they will have to deal with
fewer requests for reactive needs analyses when they actively adopt and practise the role of
strategic business positioner (that is, L&D professionals understand the business and the
context in which it operates, develop stakeholder relationships, and produce actionable
innovative solutions to organisational capability challenges [Ludike, 2014]). To successfully
execute the role of strategic business positioner, the L&D professional should interrogate
the organisation’s strategic plan and goals, proactively identify possible performance gaps
and take the initiative to suggest innovative solutions that will address those gaps pre-
emptively.
Activity
Proactive and reactive LDNA

Which of the following performance gaps require a proactive and which require a
reactive LDNA?
1. A builder’s labourer is injured because he walked into the path of a bulldozer while
he was chatting with a colleague. It transpired that the labourer was hired only that
morning because the usual labourer fell ill and could not work. The labourer received
no safety training.
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2. A cashier at a bank is continually short on his float. It transpires that the cashier has
trouble distinguishing between R 20 and R 200 notes.
3. A clerk in a lawyer’s office is frequently late for work, which causes the lawyer, who
needs her to take down customer details, to run late on her appointments.
4. An organisation that used to specialise in handling the billing requirements for a
number of medical practices will be implementing a sophisticated billing system.
5. A manufacturing organisation is upgrading its manufacturing equipment.
6. An engineering company that builds cell-phone towers plans to appoint at least 50
new employees to install the equipment at the top of the towers.
Feedback:
Any LDNA that should address a performance problem that has arisen in the present
requires a reactive LDNA. Consequently, numbers 1, 2 and 3 are all examples of a
reactive LDNA.
An LDNA that attempts to address performance issues that may arise in the future
is a proactive needs analysis. These are numbers 4, 5 and 6.
3.2 Identify existing or future performance gap(s)

With the data gathered from an LDNA, the gap between actual and desired performance
is illustrated for managers, employees and L&D professionals alike. The gap analysis can
be used to identify the causes of existing performance-related problems and their possible
future consequences if it becomes apparent that the performance gap is not addressed
effectively and efficiently.
In a reactive LDNA, the performance gap is the difference between the desired
performance in a specific position and the actual performance. The data can usually be
gathered from the individual’s quarterly or yearly performance review. Information on
workplace accidents and health and safety incidents can also serve as an information
source for a reactive gap analysis. Furthermore, a comparison of the individual employee’s
capacities with the job description can yield information on possible performance gaps
that may exist.
In a reactive LDNA, the performance gap is the difference between the desired performance
in a specific position and the actual performance.
In a proactive LDNA, the document mostly used to pre-emptively identify a performance

gap is the organisation’s strategic plan and goals. The L&D professional should scrutinise
the organisational strategic plans and goals frequently to ascertain whether a change in
organisational direction will necessitate a comprehensive retraining or upskilling of
employees. The implementation of new technology or a new system, such as a payroll,
e-learning, quality management or performance management system, will require large-
scale upskilling of all employees. In addition, if an organisation intends to go in a whole
new strategic direction, which would require employees to perform different kinds of
duties, a planned reskilling of employees is necessary. A skills matrix, as illustrated in
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Tables 3.5 and 3.8, is a good source of information on the current skills in the organisation
and can be used fruitfully in a proactive needs analysis. The workplace skills plan of the
company also contains skills matrices of planned skills development per OFO skills
categories. The SETA skills planning guide on scarce and critical skills provides important
documents to consider in a proactive needs analysis.
In a proactive LDNA, the organisation’s strategic plan and goals are scrutinised to ascertain
whether a change in organisational direction will necessitate retraining or upskilling
of employees.
3.3 Identifying causes of performance discrepancies

In the LDNA, a systematic process and technology are used to improve human performance
capability. A systematic analysis is orderly and consistent. Most importantly, the output
(result) of each LDNA becomes the input (information source) for subsequent L&D
interventions and decisions (Noe, 2014). Once the L&D professional has identified the
cause of the performance problem, the focus shifts to finding a solution to the performance
discrepancy. It is vital to realise that an L&D intervention is not always the required
solution to a performance problem (Noe, 2014).
It is vital to realise that an L&D intervention is not always the required solution to a
performance problem.
The ability to delve deep down to the root causes of performance problems, and not just
focus on their observable symptoms or predisposed individual perceptions, is an essential
competence of the L&D professional (Handshaw, 2014). It is only when L&D professionals
are capable of distinguishing between the root causes of performance problems and their
observable symptoms that performance problems can be successfully addressed where they
emanate (Noe, 2014; Rothwell et al., 2016). Table 3.2 gives a few guidelines on the root
causes of performance problems.
It is important to identify the causes of performance problems, because recommended
solutions to performance gaps are based on the identified causes of performance
discrepancies. For example, learning interventions and job-support tools can be extended
to enhance motivation and to increase skills and knowledge. Problems caused by improper
environments and incentives are usually handled through a broader strategy, which often
involves management and organisational redesign (Blanchard & Thacker, 2013). An
effective LDNA will ensure that only those performance problems that can be addressed
effectively through the intervention of training will be the focus of learning interventions.
Problems caused by improper environments and incentives are usually handled through a
broader strategy, which often involves management and organisational redesign.
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Table 3.2 R
oot causes of performance problems and suggested methods to address them
(adapted from Blanchard & Thacker, 2007)
Needs analysis System problems •• Analyse the work environment (including job profiles).
•• Implement necessary changes indicated by environmental
analysis.
Poor communication •• Communicate clearly and proactively about performance

about performance expectation and standards.
expectations and actual •• Provide adequate and timely feedback on actual
performance performance.
Incongruence in •• Change punishment/reward systems of the

rewards for, or organisation. Identify the source of the incongruence
punishments of, (such as performance goals that are not aligned with
behaviour organisational goals or group/team norms and standards
that cause poor performance).
•• Review group dynamics and investigate possible
implementation of group/team intervention.
•• Review and/or modify organisational performance
management and/or reward system.
•• Review and/or modify organisational disciplinary system.
Gaps in knowledge, •• Provide on-the-job assistance.

skills and attitudes •• Give employee time to practise new skills and knowledge.
that do not need the
•• Change the nature of the job or work environment.
implementation of a
learning intervention •• Transfer employee to another job.
•• Institute appropriate disciplinary intervention.
Gaps in knowledge, •• Provide appropriate L&D interventions.

skills and attitudes
that do require the
implementation of a
learning intervention
System problems are caused by the environment in which employees must work. Here is
an example of a systems problem: the organisation’s mission is to improve innovation, but
employees must seek permission before they can try something innovative. In this case,
training in innovative behaviour is not the answer; a change in policy is needed. System
problems that prevent the achievement of organisational goals must be removed before
employees can perform. These changes usually require support from senior management,
and frequently require a restructuring of communication and/or reporting lines, or a
change in a range of policies.
Lack of or inadequate feedback on work performance is frequently a deficit in
supervisor–employee communication. Supervisors may be afraid to give negative feedback,
so poorly performing employees often think that they are performing well. In this case,
training the employee will not be the only solution to the performance discrepancy. Instead,
the supervisor should be trained to give appropriate feedback (Blanchard & Thacker, 2013)
and the reasons for the employee’s poor performance should be investigated to determine
if the employee needs training or an L&D intervention.
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Lack of or inadequate feedback on work performance is frequently a deficit in supervisor–

employee communication, in which case, training the employee will not be the only solution.
Incongruencies in rewards for, or punishment of, behaviour. Organisations should consider

the messages they send to employees with the reward system. Does the employee who
works hard receive the same increase as the employee whose work is only adequate or
even mediocre? When hard-working employees suddenly start underperforming, the
performance management and reward system should be reviewed before considering
training as an option. Peer pressure also plays a role in poor performance. When a group
of employees set a production standard, it is easy to spot employees who do not meet this
standard. Consequently, when one of the employees fails to meet the standard, the other
employees ‘punish’ them through ridicule or exclusion. Training these employees, who are
apparently underperforming, is not the answer to the performance problem. Rather, the
organisational performance management and/or reward system should be reviewed, as well
as the disciplinary system. When the performance discrepancy is caused by team or group
pressure, a team-wide intervention should be considered instead of training the ‘problem’
employee (Blanchard & Thacker, 2013).
When hard-working employees suddenly start underperforming, the performance

management and reward system should be reviewed before considering training as
an option.
Sometimes, training is not the best solution, even when there are deficiencies in knowledge,
skills and attitudes.
Deficiencies in knowledge, skills and attitudes. Sometimes, training is not the best solution,
even when there are deficiencies in knowledge, skills and attitudes. Some employees may
possess the required knowledge and skill, but not the required attitude for a variety of
reasons. Employees may find the job boring, or they may feel threatened or intimidated by
the work environment. There are employees who feel uncertain when confronted with new
environments, technology or work processes. An employee may be experiencing personal
or health problems, which he or she does not wish to discuss with the supervisor. Some
employees just do not want to perform at the required level. In these instances, L&D
professionals should consider alternatives, such as the following (Blanchard & Thacker,
2013; Noe, 2014):
•• Provide on-the-job assistance. Give the employee time to practise new skills and
knowledge. When tasks are performed infrequently, employees may become less
proficient at performing them. Providing adequate practise opportunities may prevent
performance gaps. For example, police officers are required to practise at a shooting
range a given number of times every year in order to develop their ability to use weapons
effectively and safely.
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•• Change the nature of the job. When a specific part of a job requires a skill or knowledge
that is difficult to acquire, the job may be changed to exclude the difficult parts. For
example, call-centre staff can deal with routine enquiries, but any unusual enquiry is
referred to the call-centre manager or technical staff.
•• Transfer the employee to another job. Sometimes, employees may possess the knowledge
and skills required to do a job well, but they do not like the job. It is possible that
they do not find the job stimulating, or they find the environment intimidating or
unsupportive. It may solve the problem if the employee is transferred to another job.
•• Refer the employee to the organisation’s employee assistance programme. Employees who
experience personal problems or health issues may not feel comfortable discussing these
issues with their supervisor because of the existing power relationship between the two.
In such cases, employees should be referred to the employee assistance programme in
order to find solutions to the performance discrepancy.
•• Implement disciplinary action. If the employee has received a lot of training, time to
practise, support and so on, and still refuses to perform to the required standard,
disciplinary action may be implemented provided that a full record of performance
management and L&D interventions over a period can be produced.
3.4 A lack of competence that indicates the implementation of an

L&D intervention
When a lack of knowledge, skills and attitudes is the cause of a performance problem,
and if the alternatives above have been eliminated, some form of L&D intervention is the
required solution to address the performance discrepancy. L&D professionals can then
proceed to list and describe the knowledge, skills and attitudes that are lacking. These will
form the basis for the development of training objectives and learning outcomes.
It is essential to involve the main organisational stakeholders in the LDNA. The way
to ensure that training impacts positively on the organisation is to design and implement
the kind of L&D interventions that really contribute to individual and organisational
performance improvement. This can be achieved by negotiating with the relevant
stakeholders regarding the required results or outcomes of any learning programme. The
organisational strategy provides a point of departure for the LDNA and all L&D initiatives
should be aligned with it (Blanchard & Thacker, 2013; Noe, 2014).
The organisational strategy provides a point of departure for the LDNA and all L&D
initiatives should be aligned with it.
Activity
Determine root causes of performance problems

Refer to the previous activity. Try to determine the root causes of the performance
problems explained in numbers 1–3 and explain what the L&D professional’s next step
should be.
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Feedback:
The performance problem in example 1 is caused by a lack of knowledge. The next step
would be to decide whether a training intervention is necessary or not.
The performance discrepancy in example 2 may be caused by a problem with near
sight, or it may be caused by haste. The next step for the L&D professional will be to
discuss the matter with the employee and/or supervisor and then decide whether the
employee should be referred for an eye check or reassigned to another position.
The performance issue in example 3 may be caused by personal circumstances,
such as a dependence on public transport, which is frequently unreliable, or a child-
minder who is unreliable, or a responsibility to a sick parent or other relative. The next
step for the L&D professional would be to interview the employee and/or supervisor to
determine the cause of the late arrivals at work and to find a solution to that problem.
The employee may be referred to the employee assistance programme if necessary.
Is an L&D intervention the solution for a performance deficiency? (based on

Swanepoel et al., 2003)
Quick reference checklist

What is the performance What is the difference between what is being done and what
discrepancy? should be done?
What is the evidence and is it reliable?
Is the discrepancy important? What does it cost?

Will the problem grow?
Is it worth fixing?
Is it a lack of skill/knowledge/ Could they do it if their lives depended on it?

attitude? Did they know how to do it in the past?
Have they forgotten?
Do they get regular feedback on how they are doing?
Is there a simpler way? Can the job be simplified?

Could job aids be used?
Can they learn by being shown instead of through training?
Do they have the potential to do the Are they physically fit?

job well? Do they have the mental potential?
Are they qualified or underqualified?
Are employees being punished for Do the employees experience peer pressure when they perform
delivering the required performance? at the required level?
Are employees rewarded for non-performance by being
included in a specific team or group?
Is there some perceived reward for non-performance (less
work, worry, tiredness, more attention)?
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Quick reference checklist

Does correct performance really Is there a favourable outcome for performance?
matter for the individual? Is there any status or job satisfaction connected with the job?
Are there any obstacles to performing?
Are the resources available (time, equipment, tools, space,
support)?
Are there any other barriers (policy, work environment,
culture, motivation, systems, improper incentives, authority or
conflicting time demands)?
What is the best solution? Are there any solutions that are unacceptable to the
organisation?
Are the solutions beyond the resources of the organisation?
3.5 Providing information for L&D interventions

The LDNA provides the background information needed to plan, design and deliver an
L&D intervention or learning programme. An LDNA identifies the following aspects:
•• The gap between desired competence or performance and current competence or
performance;
•• The cause of the gap;
•• The learning outcomes to be achieved through the learning intervention;
•• The specific learning intervention that would achieve the learning outcomes; and
•• The specific target group.
L&D solutions are then chosen from a wide range of possibilities, which flow from the
causes of the problem. The needs and characteristics of the target group are identified,
and these needs determine the objective of the learning programme and the appropriate
learning outcomes of the programme (read more about learning outcomes in Chapter 4).
3.6 Providing feedback on the effectiveness and impact of L&D

interventions
The LDNA provides a basis for feedback, for tracking change and evaluating the outcomes
of an L&D intervention (Noe, et al., 2014). When results are positive, the information
can be used to ensure that the L&D initiative continues. When results are negative, the
L&D professional can decide to take corrective action or stop the L&D intervention. The
decision to continue, adapt or discontinue an L&D intervention should be based on the
evaluation results (including impact) of an L&D intervention. Hard facts, such as proof
that learning outcomes have been achieved, or that employee performance has improved,
or that accidents or wastage have decreased, should be used for feedback purposes. Intuitive
impressions, such as the opinion of a supervisor or a participant in an L&D intervention
will not suffice (Blanchard & Thacker, 2012; Rothwell et al., 2016). The evaluation of
L&D interventions should clearly show how they contributed to organisational strategic
priorities, including gains compared to costs (Noe, et al., 2014).
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The evaluation of L&D interventions should show how they contributed to organisational
strategic priorities, including gains compared to costs. Intuitive impressions will not suffice.
It is valuable to give all organisational stakeholders, including employees, feedback about

the results of the LDNA and L&D intervention evaluation. Feedback can give L&D
interventions momentum and lead to proactive action as managers and individuals gain
a better understanding of the performance discrepancies they face and how they can
be addressed effectively. An evaluation of the L&D intervention can provide tangible
information on the value the learning intervention added to the organisations’ growth
and success. The efforts of the L&D department can be quantified and explained in the
organisational budget (Blanchard & Thacker, 2012; Rothwell et al., 2016). In the light of
organisational accountability and ethics, it has become imperative for L&D professionals
to consult and communicate with all stakeholders throughout the dynamic learning cycle
(CIPD 2018). You will learn more about L&D evaluation in Chapter 8.
In the light of organisational accountability and ethics, it is imperative for L&D professionals
to consult and communicate with all stakeholders throughout the dynamic learning cycle.
4. FOCUS AREAS OF L&D NEEDS ANALYSIS

In South African workplaces, an LDNA addresses four focus areas: (1) a sector of the economy,
(2) the organisation as a whole or a specific group or department in the organisation, (3)
the employees’ occupational tasks/job roles, and (4) the individual (person). Irrespective of
the focus, the LDNA can zoom in on identifying the competency gap that exists between
what the job incumbent should be able to do and what the incumbent is actually capable
of doing. In addition, the LDNA can zoom in on the competencies that will be needed
in the future and the competencies that employees, groups, organisations and economic
sectors currently possess. Both of these approaches may be called a ‘gap’ analysis, however,
one is reactive (focusing on addressing competency gaps that currently exist) and the other
is proactive (focusing on competency gaps that may exist in the future).
The LDNA can zoom in on the competencies that will be needed in the future and the
competencies that employees currently possess – this may be called a ‘gap analysis’.
Table 3.3 summarises the four focus areas of LDNA that L&D professionals have to
consider in the South African environment. The sectoral and person analyses in South
Africa are regulated through the legislation related to skills development (see Chapter 1).
It is important to note that the four focus areas of LDNA are interrelated and often
conducted at the same time. Data from one analysis are often used to ensure that the
data for another analysis are complete. Take the workplace skills plan as an example.
Information on individual and departmental needs is needed to compile a workplace skills
plan. Information gathered in job analysis is also needed to identify L&D needs at the
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individual level. So, while we can identify four focus areas of LDNA, these must never be
considered in isolation. Table 3.3 describes the focus areas of each basis of LDNA.
Table 3.3 Focus areas of L&D needs analysis (Coetzee et al., 2013)
Focus area Description

Focus area 1 •• Identify key skills shortages and assess the relative importance of the
National and sectoral identified shortages in the sector.
analysis •• Feed skills gap information into the national skills plan by means of the sector
skills plan.
Focus area 2 •• Examine company-wide goals and problems to determine where training is
Organisational analysis needed by means of a formal skills audit.
•• Feed skills gap information into the sector skills plan by means of the
workplace skills plan.
Focus area 3 •• Examine tasks performed and competencies required to determine what
Occupational/job task/ employees must do to perform successfully. Consult the OFO occupational/job
role analysis tasks and organisational job profiles.
•• Feed skills gap information into the workplace skills plan by means of the
department/section plan.
Focus area 4 •• Examine competencies, current performance and career development needs to
Person analysis determine who needs training.
•• Feed skills gap information into the workplace skills plan by means of the
personal development plans and department/section plan.
4.1 Focus area 1: Sectoral analysis

The SETAs are required to gather statistics and other relevant information on labour market
skills needs and training provision, document and communicate recent and emerging
trends, and develop baseline indicators (ETDP SETA, 2017). A sectoral needs analysis
therefore identifies key skills shortages (i.e. scarce and critical skills in terms of occupations
in high demand in the sector – see Table 3.4 and Table 3.5) and assesses the relative
importance of the identified shortages in the sector as these relate to the National Skills
Plan. Sectoral skills shortages are shortages that seriously endanger the successful operation
of an important economic and/or social activity. These shortages are identified through a
study of the workplace skills plans submitted to a SETA by the employers in a particular
economic sector and the skills shortages that are identified in this way will be regarded
as L&D priorities for the sector. Generally, in administering the levy grant regulations,
SETAs have a workplace monitoring strategy to ensure that employers submit accurate
and reliable data on the workforce and skills needs, because the SETAs use the data to
develop and implement their sector skills plans (SSPs), which contribute to national skills
needs. Poor data submitted by the employers would affect the development of the SSPs as
information on scarce and critical skills would be unreliable.
A sectoral needs analysis identifies key skills shortages in the sector and assesses the relative
importance of these shortages as these relate to the National Skills Plan.
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Sectoral skills shortages are shortages that seriously endanger the successful operation of an
important economic and/or social activity.
Generally, in administering the levy grant regulations, SETAs have a workplace monitoring
strategy to ensure that employers submit accurate and reliable data on the workforce and
skills needs.
The DHET requires all stakeholders across all SETAs to use the latest version of the
Organising Framework of Occupations (OFO) to compile the SSPs, and the national
skills demand list, as shown on the DHET website, to enable the identification of trends
across all economic sectors. As discussed in Chapter 1, the OFO enables labour market
dialogue regarding skills demand and supply in a common language across all sectors.
For example, using the OFO codes in SSPs and the workplace skills plans and reports
helps to ensure that there is consistency in the way organisations report on scarce and
critical skills and occupations in demand. For this purpose, organisations are required to
update their organograms annually to be aligned with OFO codes linked to job profiles
and descriptions. Present and future job vacancies are also mapped in terms of the OFO
codes on the organisational charts (ETDP SETA, 2017).
The DHET requires all stakeholders across all SETAs to use the latest version of the
Organising Framework of Occupations (OFO) to compile their SSPs.
Table 3.4 Understanding scarce and critical skills (adapted from Coetzee et al., 2013)
Scarce skills
Scarce skills refer to those occupations in which there are a scarcity of qualified and experienced people, currently
or anticipated in the future. This scarcity is usually caused by the unavailability of employees with the required
skills or they are available but they do not meet the company’s employment criteria. The scarcity can arise from
one or a combination of the following, grouped as absolute or relative:
•• Absolute scarcity: suitably skilled people are not available at all, for example:
–– A new or emerging occupation, i.e. there are few, if any, people in the country with the requisite skills
(qualification, competence and experience) and education and skills development (training) providers
have yet to develop learning programmes to meet the skills requirements. For example, if you look at the
MerSETA example below, employees who can operate and maintain the equipment and machinery in an
advanced manufacturing plant that is not labour-intensive but operated through robots.
–– People have chosen not to pursue training or careers in the occupation, for a variety of reasons.
•• Relative scarcity: suitably skilled people are available but do not meet other employment criteria, for example:
–– Geographical location; i.e. people are unwilling to work outside urban areas.
–– Equity considerations; i.e. there are few, if any, candidates with the requisite skills (qualifications,
competence and experience) from the designated groups available to meet the skills requirements of the
company or job. For example, if you refer to the MerSETA example below, you will see that there is a
shortage of previously disadvantaged female managers.
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Scarce skills
–– Long skills development and learning (training) lead time; i.e. there are people in education and training
(formal and workplace learning) who are in the process of acquiring the necessary skills (qualifications,
competence and experience) but where the lead time will mean that they are not available in the short term
to meet replacement demand.
Priority skills refer to those that are required by a sector for resolution of immediate skills shortages. For example,
if you refer to the MerSETA example, you will see that automotive or motor mechanic is listed on both the
critical and scarce skills list for the manufacturing and engineering sector, and is also earmarked for PIVOTAL
development. This indicates a priority skill for the sector.
Critical skills
Critical skills refer to specific key or generic and ‘top-up’ skills within an occupation.
•• Generic ‘top-up’ skills, including cognitive skills (problem-solving, learning to learn), language and literacy
skills, mathematical skills, computer literacy skills, team work, self-management skills. In the MerSETA
example, these are called ‘critical skills for success’.
•• Technical ‘top-up’ skills are skills that are required on top of the generally accepted skills associated
with an occupation. These skills might have emerged as a result of changing technology, new forms of
work organisation or even the operational context in which the occupation is being applied. In the MerSETA
example, these would be ICT skills that are required to operate and maintain new machinery, such as those
used in the servicing of new-generation cars.
Examples
•• If a municipality cannot recruit any town planners because there are simply none available – no-one responds
to adverts or the company has used a recruitment agency, which has been unsuccessful – then town planning
is an absolute scarce skill.
•• If people do respond to a company’s recruitment advert, but none of the potential applicants want to relocate to
the small rural town in which the municipality is located, then town planning is a relatively scarce skill, for
reasons of geographical location.
•• If the company has determined, in its Employment Equity Plan, that it requires a black woman in the position
of town planner, and only white people or men respond to the recruitment adverts, then town planning is a
relatively scarce skill, for reasons of employment equity.
•• If the company cannot recruit anyone to the position, but it has two young women doing work experience in the
town planning department, who will complete their degrees only in two years’ time, then town planning is a
relatively scarce skill, for reasons of long training (learning) lead times.
•• If the company can recruit town planners, but finds that it has difficulty in working in teams and supervising others,
then team work and supervisory skills are generic ‘top-up’ skills attached to the occupation of town planner.
•• If the municipality can recruit town planners, but finds that it has difficulty in developing plans for labour-
intensive developments in a rural environment, the ability to develop plans for labour-intensive developments
in a rural environment is a technical ‘top-up’ skill attached to the occupation of town planner (LGSETA,
2007/08).
Activity
Scarce skills analysis

Study the list of scarce skills across the various occupations provided on the DHET
website. Which of these skills are applicable to the company in which you work or
where you intend to work?
Are human resource management or skills development listed at scarce skills in any
of the sectors you studied? Also see Table 3.5 (ETDP SETA scarce skills list).
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Table 3.5 E
xamples of scarce and critical skills and occupations in high demand in the
ETDP SETA (ETDP SETA, 2017)
Scarce skills (examples only)

OFO code Occupation NQF Level Total
134507 Head of Department (Teacher) 7 8 228
134501 School Principal 7 5 694
233102 Natural Sciences Teacher 7 1 016

(Grades 4–9)
231101 University Lecturer 8 509
233101 Maths Teacher (Grades 4–9) 6 469
Critical skills (examples only)

OFO code Occupation Critical/top-up skill Estimated
number
234101 Foundational Phase School Language teaching across curriculum, Reading 5 100
Teacher assessment, Assessor, Information technology,
Pedagogical content and Methodological
knowledge
232119 Language Teacher Afrikaans, African languages, Pedagogical 4 280

(Grades 10–12) content and Methodology knowledge
231101 University Lecturer Statistics, Fundraising, Moderation and 2 605

assessment, Coaching and mentoring,
Curriculum development and assessment,
Advance research, Supervision, Research
article publication, Project management,
Curriculum development, Material
development, Monitoring and evaluation,
Records management, Facilitation
121201 Personnel/Human Resource Coaching and mentoring, Performance 520

Manager management, Electronic records management,
Monitoring and evaluation, Strategic planning,
Financial management, Information systems
management, Organisation development
242302 Skills Development Facilitator/ Project management, Communication skills, 179

Practitioner Report writing, Computer skills
233101 Maths Teacher (Grades 4–9) Classroom management, Computer skills 153
Scarce and critical skills: Case scenario – MerSETA

The Manufacturing and Engineering and Related Services SETA (MerSETA) is one of the largest SETAs in South
Africa. The SETA is divided into five chambers, covering a range of occupations and business ventures in the
manufacturing and engineering sector:
1. Auto chamber 2. Motor chamber 3. Metal chamber
4. Plastics chamber 5. New tyre chamber.
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The manufacturing and engineering SETA collates and manages the development of the 539 154 employees of
4 434 employers. In the current economic climate, the sector continues to experience job shrinkage because of
a variety of factors. Each of the five chambers has employers submitting workplace skills plans (WSP), annual
training reports (ATR) and grant applications to the SETA. The information from these reports and applications are
collated to produce a sector skills plan (SSP) for the manufacturing and engineering sector for a specific period.
The information reported here was retrieved from the most current SSP, which is set for 2017/18–2021/22, a
period of five years (MerSETA SSP 2017/18–2021/22).
The purpose of the MerSETA is to ‘promote artisan development for employability’ (MerSETA SSP 2017/18–
2021/22). The SSP is informed by the National Development Plan, Human Resource Strategy, Rural Development
Strategy and Strategic infrastructure projects. The MerSETA has identified seven key issues that should be
addressed by its SSP within the following five years:
1. Transforming the national economy by implementing beneficiation and through investing in the development of
high level skills, including research and development.
2. Inclusive growth by escalating access – by increasing access to education, training and development
opportunities for people from previously disadvantaged backgrounds.
3. Community development by implementing or becoming involved in skills development activities that address
community development needs.
4. Increasing access to opportunities for people living with disabilities by increasing access to workplace training
and development opportunities.
5. Supporting the green and blue economies by providing development opportunities for the artisans and
engineers that are required to fully exploit the opportunities provided by South Africa’s ocean and other
natural resources.
6. Providing support to informal, small and medium business enterprises by providing relevant training and
development opportunities to facilitate their growth and address the challenges they face.
7. Supporting rural development projects by providing relevant skills initiatives that will create economic
opportunities for employment and entrepreneurship.
The sector experiences grave skills shortages that affect the sector negatively. For example, skills shortages
reduce the capacity of manufacturing organisations to install new technology, which would require highly skilled
operators. This affects production costs, profitability and profit margins. Consequently, skills development of
lower-level employees is a priority.
The MerSETA has identified a list of behaviours and attitudes (called critical skills for success) that employees
should possess in order to ensure their continued employability in the sector. Some of the critical skills identified
by the MerSETA are as follows:
•• Critical thinking and holistic problem solving (practical application of theoretical knowledge);
•• Teamwork, collaboration and leadership;
•• Innovation (including the capacity to question, criticise and produce alternative solutions);
•• Familiarity with and knowledge of technological applications and usage;
•• Intrapersonal, reflective competence;
•• Communication and interpersonal competence;
•• Resilience, agility and adaptability;
•• Lifelong learning and learning self-management.
In addition, MerSETA has identified the following skills gaps in their sector:
•• Science, technology and mathematics competence;
•• Supervision skills;
•• Engineering skills related to manufacturing, robotics and maintenance;
•• Automation and optimisation of manufacturing processes;
•• Electrical, electronic and ICT skills;
•• Maintenance skills related to automation.
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To address the skills shortages in their sector, and to address the seven key issues that are priorities in their
sector, MerSETA has implemented both learnerships and apprenticeships. The MerSETA skills programmes
consist of unit standards or groups of unit standards that relate to the relevant qualifications. All MerSETA
qualifications are registered with SAQA and offer NQF levels from 1 to 5. The learnerships and apprenticeships in
which the MerSETA is involved are summarised below:
Apprenticeships Learnerships
Motor mechanic Welding application
Diesel fuel-injection mechanic Manufacturing and assembly of automotive components
Electrician (engineering) Production technology
Fitter Automotive repair and maintenance
Millwright Metals production
Management development
The MerSETA believes that future managers should be grown from current employees, consequently they are
involved in management development programmes such as the Women in Leadership Programme.
In addition to learnerships, apprenticeships and management development, the MerSETA has identified a list of
occupations earmarked for PIVOTAL/occupational-directed development:
•• Automotive mechanic •• Welder •• Production/operations supervisor
•• Manufacturing •• Metal engineering process worker •• Boilermaker
•• Electrician •• Product assembler •• Diesel mechanic
•• Mechanical fitter •• Industrial engineer
Learning partners
To ensure that the SSP is implemented, the MerSETA has partnered with formal post-school education and
training providers, such as Universities of Technology and TVET colleges who offer learning opportunities for
the NQF Level 4 National Certificate (Vocational) (NCV). In addition, since a severe shortage of artisans exists in
this sector, the MerSETA is investing in the artisan development initiative by means of the NCV artisan training
programme, which offers learners an alternative method to becoming qualified artisans, instead of utilising the
apprenticeship route. In addition, partnerships have been established with international organisations, public
higher education institutions, SETAs, trade unions, not-for-profit organisations and employer organisations.
Advanced manufacturing, innovation and growth

The MerSETA believes that advanced manufacturing, innovation and growth requires the development of future-
relevant skills. The MerSETA believes it is vital to research new occupations relevant to the sector, specifically
research into curricula. Advanced manufacturing should receive specific attention in order to develop sectoral
capacity for global competitiveness. Furthermore, future advanced manufacturing and technology adoption in the
sector implies an imperative to invest in high-level skills such as engineers and artisans who can work efficiently
with newly adopted manufacturing equipment and processes.
Source: adapted from the MerSETA SSP 2017/18–2020/21
4.2 Focus area 2: Organisational analysis

The purpose of an organisational needs analysis is to examine the internal environment of
the organisation that may influence employee job performance. The internal environment
consists of organisational goals (such as those described in the HRD strategy for the
company), available resources, and the external influences on the organisation. This
information is used to determine where L&D interventions should be directed. The LDNA
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at the organisational level is often referred to as a skills audit. The LDNA exercise aims to
identify critical and scarce skills (see, for example, the ETDP and the MerSETA examples),
and to compare these to the skills required by the organisation now and in the future.
The LDNA at the organisational level is often referred to as a skills audit – its aim is to
identify critical and scarce skills.
The sector skills planning guide serves as a valuable source of information regarding what
data is required by the SETA for reporting purposes on a national level. A skills audit
helps to assess the shortfall or surplus of key skills so that any skills gap can be determined
(Werner & DeSimone, 2016). After the completion of the skills audit, a skills matrix (see,
for example, Table 3.8) can be compiled, which indicates the types and levels of skills
currently available in the organisation.
Activity
Sector skills planning guide

Visit the web of any SETA. Access the SETA’s skills planning guide. Critically think about
the usefulness of the SETA skills planning guide in an organisational LDNA.
To conduct a skills audit (see Table 3.6), also referred to as an organisational skills needs
analysis, a competency profile linked to the OFO can be developed for each job within
a company. The competency profile will list the knowledge, skills, values and other
behaviours employees require to be successful in their jobs (Fasset, 2009). Conducting a
skills audit involves using the list of competencies of a given job and comparing these to the
list of competencies of the employee filling that particular position. Any variances should
be recorded and noted as the skills gaps (if there is a shortfall in the competencies of the
staff member). As noted earlier, organisations are required to update their organograms
annually to be aligned with OFO codes linked to job profiles and descriptions. Present
and future job vacancies are also mapped in terms of the OFO codes on the organisational
charts. This enables the company to report on skills demands and projected supply needs
in the OFO terminology (codes) required by the SETA and DHET.
In an organisational context, a skills gap analysis compares the actual skills of the
current workforce with real skills requirements. The skills gap analysis also assesses the
L&D needs of different departments or sub-units in the organisation. Lastly, the skills
gap analysis determines the extent to which managers, peers and technology support the
transfer of learning, or the workplace application of learning. The information gathered
from the skills gap analysis is used to compile the workplace skills plan (WSP).
A skills gap analysis compares the actual skills of the current workforce with real skills
requirements and also determines the extent to which managers, peers and technology
support the transfer of learning or the workplace application of learning. This is used to
compile the workplace skills plan (WSP).
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The skills needs analysis can result in lengthy lists of skills gaps in the company. The
most required skills and L&D needs should be prioritised. The remaining needs should
be recorded and can be addressed during the following WSP period. There are various
methods of conducting skills needs analyses from empirical methods to the informal
processes similar to the above-mentioned method. The SDF should research different
methods to suit the company’s needs and budget (Coetzee et al., 2013).
Compiling and submitting a WSP helps the company to apply for a skills levy grant
in support of planned L&D programmes. A WSP reflects the company’s skills planning,
which involves the measurement and subsequent interventions surrounding the supply
and demand for skills in the business. In essence, the WSP summarises the identified scarce
and critical skills needs of an organisation and the relevant interventions to address these
skills needs (ETDP SETA, 2017).
Table 3.6 Planning a skills audit (based on CIPD, 2007)
Type of data What to include

Business objectives •• Requirements in terms of outputs, levels of customer service and interactions
with other parts of the organisation.
•• How are these measured?
•• What is going to change?
National and sectoral •• What are the national and sectoral requirements regarding scarce and critical skills?
requirements •• How are these linked to the company’s scarce and critical skills categories?
•• How does the company perform in terms of equity requirements?
Technology and •• How are jobs done now in terms of the organisation and resources available?
organisation of work •• What technologies do people use, and how might this change?
•• Changes may be planned in terms of the number of people to carry out the
targeted performance or in terms of the way in which they are supervised
or managed.
Employee •• Who is currently employed in the area you are analysing?

demographics •• Who is joining and leaving the organisation?
•• What categories of employees are included?
Education •• Basic education, vocational or academic qualifications.

•• Link education to assumptions about people’s expectations around L&D provision,
cognitive or thinking abilities and their level of current skills and knowledge.
Past experience •• What previous knowledge, skills and behaviour have been expected in the past
and are required currently?
•• This may be linked to the organisation’s competence framework.
•• What is the experience of past L&D interventions?
Occupational •• What are individuals doing at the moment?

tasks/job roles and •• What implications will any changes have for their roles?
responsibilities
•• How do job profiles compare with OFO codes and scarce/critical skills list?
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Type of data What to include

Current competence •• Current performance levels of individuals and teams and any areas where
competence needs to increase.
•• This can be measured against both current and changed roles.
Employee status •• Are people employed permanently or part-time, on a fixed or short-term contract?
Location •• What is the physical location of employees and their access to L&D provision?
Length of time in job •• The length of time people have spent in their current role might have an effect on
their training needs and the forms of training they require.
Employee attitudes •• How do employees feel about changes; do they see the changes as opportunities
and culture or threats?
•• How will this affect their willingness to learn and acquire new skills?
•• Does the organisation want to change attitudes or focus on particular
performance standards?
Notwithstanding that companies are required by law to submit a WSP to be supported for
the funding of L&D programmes, it is best practice for every organisation, regardless of
its size, to determine the skills gaps within the organisation and decide how it will address
these gaps through training (Fasset, 2009). SETAs base the payments of mandatory grants
on the submission of a mandatory grant application, which contains a WSP, as well as
an annual training report (ATR). A skills plan should be well researched and reflect the
training needs of the company before being documented in the WSP (Coetzee et al., 2013).
Based on a review of several SETA websites, Table 3.7 provides a summary of the typical
information required by a SETA in a WSP. The skills development facilitator (SDF), in
collaboration with management, employees, the training committee and other relevant
stakeholders, assists the company in compiling and submitting a WSP and ATR, and the
subsequent claiming of levy grants.
SETAs base the payments of mandatory grants on the submission of a mandatory grant
application, which contains a WSP, as well as an annual training report (ATR).
Table 3.7 E
xample of typical information required in a workplace skills plan and annual
training report (Coetzee, 2018)
WSP element Field description

1 Administrative details including Company and SDF details.
SDF details
2 Banking details Users must either confirm the banking details, as reflected on the
system, or submit a stamped letter from the bank if the company’s
banking details have changed.
3 Employment summary The total number of employees per OFO code must be captured (all
employees for whom the company pays SDL). It is important that
the geographical area of the employee/s must be the store where
they are working.
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4 Planned beneficiaries of training The number of people to be trained in the financial year must be
captured. This must include both employed and unemployed, and
the number of beneficiaries trained per intervention; therefore the
same beneficiary may be reported more than once if more than one
training will be done.
5 Scarce skills WSP Refers to those occupations in which there is a scarcity or shortage
of qualified and experienced people and takes longer than three
months to fill.
6 Total projected budget The total amount of money planned to be spent for all the training
planned for the financial year must be captured. This must also
include the amount of money expected from occupationally
directed/PIVOTAL programmes allocation.
7 PIVOTAL planned beneficiaries List of beneficiaries of education and training to be implemented

of training who belong to the occupationally directed/PIVOTAL programmes.
8 Development and This aspect is compulsory for all large and medium entities and
consultative process must outline the process used to develop the WSP. Evidence of
employee consultation must be uploaded onto the SETA system.
This can be in the form of minutes of the training committee or
performance management plans or minutes of any other meetings
where training plans were discussed with employees.
9 Checklist This must be used to check all fields that are applicable to the
organisation before submission is done. Once the company has
submitted, no changes can be made.
ATR FORMS
10 Number of actual beneficiaries Beneficiaries who participated in all learning interventions in the
of training previous SETA financial year. Include the number of beneficiaries
trained per intervention, therefore the same beneficiary may be
reported more than once if more than one training was done.
11 Impact assessment What impact has the training had on the company? This must
include financial and operational impact.
12 Actual spent on training This must be the total amount spent on training in the previous
financial year. All invoices must be kept by the company as
evidence for verification purposes.
13 PIVOTAL no. of actual beneficiaries This section will be populated with information from the number of
of training actual beneficiaries of training.
14 General comments This section must be completed with any clarification or comments
regarding the WSP/ATR or PIVOTAL report.
15 Variance report Variance between training planned and the actual training
implemented.
16 Vacancies difficult to fill This section must be completed by indicating what vacancies the
organisation is finding difficult to fill and the reasons thereof.
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17 Authorisation and stakeholder This section must be signed by all three signatories and must be
support (WSP, ATR, PIVOTAL report scanned and uploaded under the document uploads section on
and banking details) declaration Indicium. Original signature pages must be kept by the company
for audit purposes. The original signature pages must not be
submitted to the SETA.
By compiling a WSP, a skills development facilitator (SDF) has the opportunity to obtain
input from various role-players within the organisation to ensure that the plan focuses
on the needs that exist within the company. It is important to work with management to
ensure (Coetzee et al., 2013):
•• buy-in and co-operation from management; and
•• resource allocation.
To achieve the full benefit of training, training has to be based on needs identified within
the organisation. Only then can it contribute to:
•• the upgrading of skills;
•• enabling change and transformation;
•• assisting the organisation to achieve and maintain a competitive edge; and
•• instilling a culture of lifelong learning.
By documenting the L&D interventions that they have planned in the WSP, companies can
measure the implementation of the plan to ensure that the development of employees, whose
skills are a company’s most important commodity, does not get sidetracked (Coetzee et al., 2013).
The SDF, with the support of HRD professionals, is an important role-player in
conducting a company skills audit and interfacing with the SETA on the WSP, ATR and
levy grant claims. The employer must provide the SDF with the resources, facilities and
training necessary to perform the functions set out. An SDF is a (Fasset, 2009):
•• Facilitator: to facilitate the development of an employer’s skills development strategy;
•• Expert: to serve as an expert resource for accrediting the employer as a skills development
or L&D provider and for the implementation of appropriate learning programmes
(learnerships and learning programmes);
•• Administrator: to complete and submit the WSP and ATR and assist in claiming skills
development levies from the SETA;
•• Adviser: to advise the employers and employees on the National Skills Development
Plan (NDP) and on the implementation of its WSPs and assist in assessing the impact
of skills development interventions in the workplace;
•• Skills development/training and needs evaluator: to assess the skills development needs of
the organisation by conducting skills audits and/or L&D needs analyses;
•• Mediator: to serve as a contact person between the employer and the relevant SETA;
and
•• Quality assurer: to ensure that skills development interventions captured on the WSP,
and reported in the ATR, comply with the company, QCTO and SAQA requirements.
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Table 3.8 Example of a skills matrix
Training & Male Female

Education NQF
Band Type of Qualification Level African Asian Coloured White African Asian Coloured White Total
GET ABET 3 and lower
Gr 9 (Std 7) and lower ABET 4 1
TVET Gr 10 (Std 8) or Technical N1 2
Gr 11 (Std 9) or Technical N2 3
Gr 12 (Std 10) or Technical N3 4
HET Career certificates 5
General/career-focused diplomas 6
General Bachelor’s/career-focused
7
degree
Postgraduate degrees (Honours,

8
Master’s, Doctorate/Professional)
Total
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2018/11/30 1:58 PM
Case study: Conducting an LDNA

A South African global investment company embarked on an LDNA to explore and
identify the current gaps in the competency of employees with a focus on areas such
as leadership culture and practice, technical ability, teamwork and strategy, and strategy
delivery knowledge. The L&D professional’s approach was to collect information from a
variety of sources both qualitative and quantitative.
The following records (quantitative data) were consulted to obtain previous results:
• Performance data from 2010;
• Goal achievement from 2010;
• Employee survey results from 2010;
• Customer feedback 2010; and
• LDNA data from 2010/2009.
To explore current thinking, qualitative data were obtained from:

• Focus groups divided in grade, job title and divisional cluster;
• Interview with managing directors and executive directors;
• Interview with Head of Talent and Performance; and
• Interview with Chief Office of Human Capital.
To predict the future, qualitative data were obtained from:

• Interview with managing directors and executive directors;
• Interview with Chief Office of Human Capital; and
• Interview with Managing Director of Strategy and Direction.
Interview questions
• What are the current organisational challenges?
• What capabilities are needed to tackle these challenges?
• How equipped are we to tackle them (rate on a scale)?
• How prepared are you to release your team members for training/L&D interventions
(rate on a scale)?
• What are the foreseeable changes in the organisation in 2011?
• What capabilities are needed to navigate these changes successfully?
• Team strengths?
• Team development needs?
• Certification requirements (scale of importance to business)?
• What does the L&D function do well? What can be improved? How would you rate
the services of the L&D function?
• Does learning get transferred to the workplace after an L&D intervention/learning
programme (i.e. do learners apply the knowledge and skills in the workplace – do
you see any change/improvement?
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The LDNA template that was used by the L&D professional looked as follows:
Department/
Job Title team name Manager Date
Primary business objectives
Secondary business objectives
Experience required
Behaviour and skills Level (1–5) Level (1–5) Importance (1 to 3)

assessment Required Current
Behaviours
Computer skills required
Technical skills required
L&D requirements identified
High priority training/L&D Intervention(s) Months Complete

intervention within 6 months
Medium priority training/L&D

intervention within 12 to 18 months
Low priority training/L&D

intervention within 18 to 24 months
The L&D professional drew up the following L&D plan after completion of the LDNA:
L&D intervention plan – high priority (within 6 months)

Area Number of Nature Arranged Complete Learning Cost
(division/ learners of L&D (date) gap closed
team) intervention
needing L&D planned
intervention
L&D intervention plan – medium priority (within 12 to 18 months)

team) intervention
needing L&D planned
intervention
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L&D intervention plan – low priority (within 18 to 24 months)

team) intervention
needing L&D planned
intervention
TOTAL COST
The L&D professional also made a note of alternative ways of learning, apart from
attendance of a formal learning programme or L&D intervention:
Books/ On-line Coaching/ Shadowing Job swap Journals/ Webinars Networking

e-books/ mentoring blogging
audio (including
books face-to-
face or
social
media
technology)
Activity
Conducting an LDNA
Review the case study example above. Identify the advantages of the approach
followed by the L&D professional. Would you describe the approach as proactive or
reactive? Give reasons for your answer. Discuss the example with a colleague. Share
your thoughts on how you would have approached the LDNA. Explain your reasons for
the chosen approach.
4.3 Focus area 3: Occupational/job task/role analysis

Occupational or job task analysis examines what employees must do to perform their jobs
to the required standard (Morgeson et al., 2016). An occupational and/or job analysis
identifies and describes the tasks performed by employees in a specific occupation and/
or job, and the knowledge, skills, attitudes and other behaviours needed for successful job
performance (Morgeson, et al., 2016). If available, the results of an occupational or job
analysis are helpful in determining training needs (see Chapter 4). Task analysis generally
consists of:
•• Developing task statements;
•• Determining homogeneous task clusters, which are more usable and manageable than
individual task statements; and
•• Identifying competencies or knowledge, skills, attitudes and other behaviours (KSAOs)
required for the job (Landy & Conte, 2016; Noe, 2014).
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The links between task clusters and KSAOs (knowledge, skills, abilities, other attributes)
can be used to develop skills programmes that enhance the most important KSAOs. The
occupational learning system utilises the components of jobs to identify the knowledge,
skills and work experience needed to perform an occupation or job effectively (Noe, 2014).
Therefore, the task analysis informs the content of qualifications, learning and learning
programmes in the occupational learning system.
Activity
Identifying job tasks

Select a job profile or job description of a job with which you are familiar.
• Identify one job performance area.
• List three main tasks to be performed in the job.
• Using the graph below, analyse the main tasks in terms of:
–– frequency of use (scale: 0% to 100%); and
–– importance (criticality) to organisation (scale: 1–10).
100%
Frequency
50%
0%
0 10
(Low) Importance (High)
(criticality)
• Analyse one main task in terms of the KSAOs required to complete the task
successfully.
• Complete a competency matrix.
Attitudes Other
Description Knowledge Skills and values behaviours
of main task required required required required
• Using the following graph, analyse the competencies (knowledge, skills, attitudes/
values and other behaviours) in terms of:
–– frequency of use (scale: 0% to 100%)
–– importance (criticality) to organisation (scale: 1–10)
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100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
Frequency
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(Low) (High)
Importance (criticality)
• Analyse the results and identify the most important competencies to be addressed.
Are the identified competencies:
–– skills shortages;
–– scarce skills;
–– core competencies;
–– core skills; or
–– generic skills?
4.3.1 Applied competence

As discussed in Chapter 1, SAQA distinguishes between applied competence and applied
occupational competence. Applied competence consists of the following three sub-types:
1. Foundational competence is the knowledge, underpinning theory and principles that
learners must acquire and apply in their lives and work.
2. Practical competence is the skills that learners must be able to demonstrate in their lives and work.
3. Reflexive competence is the ability of learners to reflect on their own learning and growth
and the ability to reflect on how the acquired knowledge and skills could be applied in
different social contexts.
Applied competence is the core focus of outcomes-based learning programmes (see

Chapter 4). The L&D needs analysis is an important part of identifying and developing
applied competence.
Applied competence is the core focus of outcomes-based learning programmes.
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Activity
Applied competence
1. Study the three types of competency described (applied competence). Think about
the career you have chosen. What are the foundational, practical and reflective
competencies that an L&D professional requires? (Hint: use the information in this
book as a guideline. Which activities require theoretical knowledge, which require
you to apply your theoretical knowledge and which require you to think about your
theoretical knowledge?)
Feedback:
A L&D professional should know why a skills audit should be conducted (foundational
competence); the L&D professional should know how to conduct a skills audit
(practical competence); and, lastly, the L&D professional should be able to think
about their own learning in the context of skills development in order to build their
own comprehensive knowledge of L&D.
2. Study the role of a skills development facilitator (SDF) described in Chapter 1, then
complete the following statements:
• An SDF requires the following foundational competence …
• An SDF requires the following practical competence …
• An SDF requires the following reflective competence …
4.3.2 Applied occupational competence

In the occupational learning system, the competency that learners should develop is
referred to as applied occupational competence. Applied occupational competence consists
of the following:
•• Knowledge and theory, which the participants will acquire through formal learning;
•• Practical skills, which is the application of knowledge and theory, and includes the
practising of occupational skills in a controlled environment;
•• Work experience, which is experience gained in the workplace after completion of the
knowledge and theory, and practical skills components of a qualification/learning
programme (see chapters 1 and 4).
Activity
Applied occupational competence

Consult the critical and scarce skills list and the descriptions on learnerships and
apprenticeships in the MerSETA case scenario. Identify at least four occupations
that require applied occupational competence. Remember that applied occupational
competence consists of knowledge and theory, practical skills and work experience.
Feedback
A learnership or apprenticeship that results in a national occupational certificate or
national occupational award is based on occupational competence. If you look at the
MerSETA example, the learnerships and apprenticeships in which they are involved will
all be occupational qualifications.
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4.4 Focus area 4: Person analysis

Person analysis identifies the individuals within an organisation who should receive
training, and the kind of training they need. The knowledge that an individual employee
possesses is the most important contributor to a sustained competitive advantage for the
organisation (Cascio, 2014; Noe et al., 2014). In addition, since employees as lifelong
learners are expected to be creative, innovative and to actively manage their own learning
and careers, the development of individual competence is becoming increasingly essential
(Van Veldhoven et al., 2017). Employee L&D needs can be assessed using a variety of
methods. For example, assessments of KSAOs can be obtained from the performance
evaluation system or from a 360-degree feedback system that provides input for training and
development activities. A 360-degree feedback system includes feedback from managers,
peers, customers and other stakeholders, and a self-evaluation. Objective data on accidents
and job performance are examined as part of the needs analysis and written or practical
tests are used to assess employees’ current job knowledge. Assessments of an employee’s
personality, ability and prior learning experience are increasingly being used as part of the
needs analysis process (Noe, 2014).
A 360-degree feedback system includes feedback from managers, peers, customers and other
stakeholders, and a self-evaluation.
At the individual (personal focus area) level, LDNA is the process of finding out what an
employee is supposed to do (the desired performance) and what the individual can actually
do (the actual performance or what the employee is doing incorrectly, inadequately or not
at all). An individual’s learning and development needs may be personal, performance-
related or career-related.
An individual’s learning and development needs may be personal, performance-related or

career-related.
Individual learning and development needs include the following:

•• Updating knowledge, skills and job-related competencies;
•• Increasing job satisfaction and fulfilling personal goals;
•• Making decisions about career choices;
•• Identifying personal strengths and growth areas;
•• Identifying and achieving personal work values and work targets;
•• Developing communication, personal effectiveness and life skills;
•• Improving qualifications;
•• Facilitating individual learning and self-development; and
•• Building self-awareness, self-confidence and motivation.
Any job requires a person to meet certain standards. Standards are levels of expertise, skills
or performance that a person needs to comply with to do a job properly, and are usually
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derived from the job description, which flows from the occupational task/job profile
analysis process. Training might be necessary if an employee does not meet the required
performance standards. Training based on such a need (or needs) will aim to address that
need by giving the employee the opportunity to develop the competence to do the job to
the required standard (Noe, 2014).
Organisations use personal development plans to identify and document the L&D needs of
staff and possible ways to meet those needs.
Organisations use personal development plans to identify and document the L&D
needs of staff and possible ways to meet those needs. Personal development plans are
evaluated within the context of the individual’s overall career progression and within the
context of the organisation or department’s objectives. By using personal development
plans, organisations show that all staff are entitled to meaningful training and education
opportunities. Personal development plans identify the following:
•• Employees’ existing competence (which will help to form the basis for an effective
skills audit);
•• The work values of staff (for example, career progression, helping others, creativity,
being skilled and respected in one’s work);
•• The work and career targets of staff;
•• The competencies that need to be developed to enable staff to meet their work and
career targets; and
•• An individually tailored programme of development, training, education and support
(including learnerships where appropriate), designed to enable staff to acquire the
relevant competencies to meet their work targets, personal and career objectives, and
sustain their general employability.
By using personal development plans, organisations show that all staff are entitled to
meaningful training and education opportunities.
Personal development plans are negotiated between the line manager or supervisor and
the individual staff member, and should be reviewed regularly. Managers and L&D
professionals try to find a balance between individual and organisational needs (but
because of budgetary constraints, this is not always possible). Conflicts may arise between
the needs of different individuals, between different organisational needs and between
individual and organisational needs. To resolve such conflicts, L&D professionals should
prioritise organisational and individual L&D needs according to budgetary constraints,
national priorities for transformation, priorities for a specific SETA, local circumstances
and strategic planning priorities. Such decisions should be transparent and should be
taken in consultation with training committees, staff members, unions and other relevant
stakeholders. Since employee knowledge is a source of competitive advantage for the
organisation, investment in employee development is an essential part of the organisational
budget (Cascio, 2014).
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Since employee knowledge is a source of competitive advantage for the organisation,

investment in employee development is an essential part of the organisational budget.
Activity
Personal development planning

Prepare for a development conversation with your manager. Follow the guidelines
provided below:
Personal development discussion planner
Name:
Date of discussion:
Manager/supervisor:
My expectations of the session with my manager/supervisor:
Issues to discuss:
•• Career plan
•• Internship/learnership programme
•• L&D goals and needs
•• Development opportunities
•• Further education opportunities
•• Work performance
•• Personal problems
What is important to me
•• What have I achieved and to what standard or level?
•• What evidence do I have (portfolio of evidence) of my achievements?
•• Whose evidence is this (own work, correspondence, references or commendations from customers,
colleagues)?
•• What have I learned during the development process? How do I learn this?
•• What am I satisfied with? What do I want to develop further?
Talk about yourself in the areas of skills, working style, interests and values.
Skills: What do I do really well?
Personal reflection
What is my working style and personal style?
How do others see me?
What feedback have I received from others?
•• Supervisors
•• Co-workers
•• Interactions with others.
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Interests: What work-related ideas/activities do I find fulfilling? Use the interest sort below.
Interest sort:
High interest and high competence High interest and low competence
High satisfaction area Development opportunity areas
Low interest and high competence Low interest and low competence
Burnout areas Red flag areas
Values: What ideas do I cherish about my career (for example, challenges, clear-cut procedures, creativity,
flexibility, independence, mental stimulation, teamwork, stability)?
List the values you cherish in order of most important to least important.
What specific feedback do I need?
What information do I need in terms of trends?

Identify the future trends in your industry, organisation and profession in respect of the four factors listed
below, and understand the implications for making career decisions and ensuring your general employability.
•• Organisational structure •• Norms and culture of organisation
•• Environment •• L&D opportunities
Which two options are the most appealing?

Set multiple career directions and determine the resources critical for success and continued employability.
Multiple options
•• Vertical (seeking promotion and more responsibility on current path)
•• Lateral (moving to new duties or areas, but at the same level)
•• Enrichment (enhancing present skills and duties; adding new challenges)
•• Realignment (starting over or returning to a position with less status)
•• Exploratory (testing changes without permanent commitment; researching options)
•• Relocating (looking outside the organisation for a better career fit).
Future thinking
Keep in touch with mentor and other sources on new developments.
Enrichments
Identify activities/projects related to your present opportunities that will provide a greater challenge.
Education, learning and development opportunities (NQF aligned)

Identify development opportunities related to your current L&D needs and career path.
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What two development activities are most important?
Conversation tips
•• Be candid, constructive and to the point.
•• Take some time to think before your first meeting.
•• Keep an open mind. Your first task is to explore, brainstorm and build on ideas about options and how to
accomplish them. Do not get locked into one goal, one development area or one strategy too early.
After reflecting on your current job, work through the items below.
•• Draw up your personal development plan. If you do not have a job profile, use your ultimate career goal and
your current competency profile to determine your development gaps and L&D needs.
Your personal development plan
Employee name: Position:
Date captured: Date updated:
Actions Responsibilities
1. Do a self-assessment of how your current competencies compare You
with those required in your job. Do this by looking at your current
competencies, job profile, competency profile and the ultimate career
development plan you have chosen.
2. Identify areas in which you need to improve your competence. You
3. Complete your personal development plan: You
•• List the competency gaps that prevent you from achieving your
job outputs.
•• Identify where learning and development are required.
•• Describe your future career aspirations.
4. Discuss your personal development plan with your manager: You and your manager
•• Discuss your performance in terms of the gaps that have
been identified.
•• Agree on a suitable learning solution.
•• Prioritise learning needs.
•• Draw up a timeline that indicates when you plan to
complete training.
5. Implement L&D solutions by integrating the learning outcomes You, your manager and the
of the learning programmes you intend to complete into your organisation
career pathway.
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Example of an individual needs analysis questionnaire

Name: Position:
Highest qualification: Time in position:
Next possible (future) position: Time needed to prepare for next possible (future) position:
List your five most important Rate your competence in these How important is each task
technical/operational job tasks: tasks, from 1 (poor) to 7 (excellent). (from 1 – least important to 5 –
most important)?
List your five most important Rate your competence in these How important is each task
people-related job tasks: tasks, from 1 (poor) to 7 (excellent). (from 1 – least important to 5 –
most important)?
List the three most important Rate your competence in these How important is each task
tasks or competencies you should tasks, from 1 (poor) to 7 (excellent). (from 1 – least important to 5 –
master in order to prepare for a most important) for your future
future position: career?
What assistance do you require from your employer to enable you to prepare for a possible future position?
5. GATHERING DATA FOR L&D NEEDS ANALYSIS

Various methods can be used to gather data from employees and employers in an
organisation. The most common methods include questionnaires, observation, skills and
knowledge tests, personal development plans, performance appraisal data and critical
incidents.
5.1 Questionnaires
Questionnaires are used widely as a method of gathering data (Landy & Conte, 2016).
Usually, a survey is done on a sample or representative group of the organisation (for
example, a number of randomly picked employees and managers each complete a
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questionnaire). But sometimes a whole department or the entire organisation is involved

in the survey. A questionnaire is an inexpensive way to gather data and a large number
of people can be reached in a short time. Respondents also get the opportunity to give
their opinions without fear of recrimination or embarrassment. The data gained from
questionnaires can be summarised and reported easily.
A questionnaire is an inexpensive way to gather data and a large number of people can be
reached in a short time.
Questions must be clear and unambiguous. Questioners should avoid asking two (or
more) questions in one. Questionnaires cannot always identify the causes of performance
problems and they do not allow for free expression or responses other than the options
provided. Often, not many employees complete and return the questionnaire, resulting in
a poor response rate. In addition, only literate employees can take part in surveys (Landy
& Conte, 2016).
Questionnaires cannot always identify the causes of performance problems and they do
not allow for free expression or responses other than the options provided.
5.2 Observation
During observation and work sampling, employees are observed doing their jobs or specific
parts of their jobs (Landy & Conte, 2016). The biggest advantage of this method is that
it does not interrupt the work of a person or department. Observation requires a highly
skilled person who has a good understanding of the job being observed and the process of
observing. Conversely, employees may sometimes react negatively and feel that the observer
is spying on them. Observation is a more subjective technique than questionnaires, but it
provides information on the employee’s behaviour and the results of that behaviour. The
effectiveness of the technique is influenced by the type of job being observed and the
expertise of the observer (Landy & Conte, 2016).
Observation requires a highly skilled person who has a good understanding of the job being
observed and the process of observing.
5.3 Individual interviews

The individual interview is a popular and versatile way to gather information. Managers and
employees accept this as a valid method of gathering information, because they can contribute
their own views to the information (Noe, 2014). Furthermore, some kinds of information
can be obtained only through the personal interaction of an interview. Respondents can
explain their views in their own terms and, because the interview is a discussion, respondents
may gain insight into their own situations. Literacy is not a requirement when the interview
method is used. When in-depth questions are used, participants may reveal their feelings and
explore causes of problems and possible solutions. Other advantages of the interview method
are that all the questions of the survey are answered and a higher response rate is achieved.
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On the other hand, the information obtained from an interview may be biased or distorted.
Sometimes, important information is lost because the interview is a stressful situation for
some respondents. It is also a time-intensive and expensive way to gather information. The
confidentiality of the information cannot always be ensured and the results may be difficult
to analyse and quantify (Noe, 2014 a,b).
The individual interview is a popular and versatile way to gather information, but it is also
time-intensive and expensive, and can be stressful for some respondents.
5.4 Skill and knowledge tests

Tests can be designed for a specific job, or standardised. Well-constructed tests will
determine employees’ abilities to perform certain aspects of a job to a certain standard.
The test should measure job-related qualities. The scoring mechanism should be developed
by a trained person to ensure validity and reliability. Cognitive tests measure levels of
knowledge in a specific area, while behavioural tests measure skills. Tests can usually be
scored easily and can be administered to a large group of employees at once. However,
tests are time consuming and expensive to develop. In addition, South African legislation
requires that all psychological assessments should be proven to be valid and reliable, and
should avoid bias (Coetzee, 2010; SAQA, 2014a,b).
Cognitive tests measure levels of knowledge in a specific area, while behavioural tests
measure skills.
5.5 Personal development plans

A personal development plan sets out an employee’s future L&D opportunities to achieve
long-term career goals, and the L&D opportunities to which the employee has already
been exposed by the organisation (Utting, 2017). A personal development plan assists both
the employee and employer to keep the employee’s long-term career goals in mind when
discussing L&D needs. It provides an opportunity to identify areas in which knowledge
and skills should be improved in the current job and as preparation for future positions.
The personal development plan lists the employee’s knowledge and skills that must be
developed, how and when these will be developed and the person responsible for ensuring
that the development is implemented (Utting, 2017).
A personal development plan assists both the employee and employer to keep the employee’s
long-term career goals in mind when discussing L&D needs.
5.6 Performance appraisal data

Performance appraisal data can be relevant in the needs analysis process, if the performance
appraisal system allows for the identification of employee training needs (Noe, 2014).
Strengths and weaknesses in past performance are identified. Action plans and goals are
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developed to address the weaknesses and build on the strengths. Training and development
can often solve performance problems (Noe, 2014). As part of the performance appraisal,
the personal development plan can be used to plan the employee’s future development and
identify development opportunities. Performance appraisals must be conducted regularly
for the information to be useful in the needs analysis process. Supervisor bias and misuse
of the system may invalidate the information gained from performance appraisals (Noe,
2014). To ensure that performance appraisal information is relevant, reliable and valid for
needs assessment, the following principles should apply:
•• The appraisal system should be relevant to the job and acceptable to both parties;
•• The manager who does the appraisal must have regular contact with the employee to
ensure that the manager has access to performance-relevant information;
•• The appraisal should be for developmental purposes only; and
•• The employee should understand the benefits (in the form of development and training)
they will derive from the appraisal.
Performance appraisals must be conducted regularly for the information to be useful in the
needs analysis process.
5.7 Critical incidents

The critical incident or samples of behaviour method is a relatively easy method to use,
especially if a proper job description is available (Noe, 2014). To use this method for
L&D needs assessment, critical incidents are sorted into dimensions (based on the job
description) and separated into examples of good and poor performance. Dimensions
with many examples of poor performance indicate areas in which many employees are
performing poorly. Additional training is required for these areas (Noe, 2014).
5.8 The organisation’s human resource and workplace skills plans

The human resource plan for the organisation is a valuable resource in the organisational
needs analysis and should be utilised to assess what kind of competencies will be needed in
the coming year and what kind of L&D interventions should be implemented to ensure
that these competencies are developed. A skills audit is usually conducted at organisational
level to provide information on the current competency levels. This can be compared to
the future requirements with regard to employee competencies in order to establish what
the training priorities should be to prepare employees for future organisational directions.
Information of a skills audit is also used in the compilation of a WSP (Powell et al., 2016).
A skills audit is usually conducted at organisational level to provide information on the

current competency levels.
The WSP is created out of an in-depth evaluation of the organisation’s strategic goals and an
understanding of the challenges and forces at work, both for and against the organisation
in the wider business environment, that affect the organisation (Powell et al., 2016). The
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compilation of a WSP requires that information should be gathered yearly at all three
levels. As discussed in Chapter 1, the WSP is the document that outlines the planned L&D
interventions for a specific organisation in the coming year. The WSP is a legal requirement
of organisations wishing to claim a mandatory grant from their SETA. The WSP and annual
training report (ATR) form an integral part of the company’s annual L&D plan and are used
to assist companies to qualify for skills development levy grant rebates (see Chapter 1).
The WSP and the ATR form an integral part of the company’s annual L&D plan and are
used to assist companies to qualify for skills development levy grant rebates.
It is good practice for organisations to establish a routine information-gathering exercise

to ensure that the information provided on the WSP is correct and that the L&D
interventions planned for the year will be relevant to the actual needs experienced within
the organisation. The needs analysis information at organisational level can be accessed
by studying the organisation’s strategies and goals, and the implementation plans for
these strategies.
5.9 Which data collection method to use

When deciding on which method to use to collect data for needs assessment, consider
the following:
•• The involvement of employees and management;
•• The time available to do the analysis;
•• The costs involved with each method and the available budget for the needs analysis;
•• The type of data required; and
•• The geographical distribution of the respondents.
Choosing the appropriate method to gather data is only one of the steps in the needs
analysis process. After sufficient data has been gathered, an evaluation or assessment of the
data must be conducted to determine which, if any, conclusions can be drawn from the
data. Only then can the L&D professionals make any recommendations about existing
L&D needs (Noe, 2014). We now look at the L&D needs analysis process in more detail.
Case example
Data collection methods
AllSport is a leading sport broadcaster on the African continent. The organisation forms
part of a broader television, internet and video entertainment group with a specific
focus on the African continent. Allsport was established in the late 1980s and has grown
over time to become a global leader in sport broadcasting and is widely acknowledged
as being one of the ‘best in the business’. The organisation has grown from strength
to strength, extended its viewer base, number of sport offerings provided, as well as
signing various international agreements to bring overseas sports to African viewers
across the continent.
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This growth led to a challenge in terms of available talent to support and drive the broader
organisational growth ambition. Locally, the organisation battled to access talent pools,
given the nature of its business and, as such, a grassroots growth strategy was adopted to
source and develop talent internally. Further to growing its own internal talent, an additional
challenge was that senior talent in the organisation experienced a ‘glass ceiling’ effect due
to a lack of individual growth opportunities, which led to higher levels of disengagement
and an unwillingness to impart skills to younger talent, given the legacy of the organisation.
Given this background, a company-wide L&D intervention programme was initiated

with the following objectives:
• Diagnose the current organisational landscape in order to identify talent development
opportunities to build a robust and multicultural workforce;
• Develop a practical talent development matrix that can be used to identify training
and development requirements between levels;
• Develop the talent matrix in such a manner that it allows for multiskilling and cross-
functional opportunities for talent to be developed.
The L&D professional in collaboration with the organisation development professionals

decided to follow a multimethod data collection process:
Method Description
Desktop Analysis of all strategic documents related to the strategic intent of the organisation as
analysis well as currently documented work design, policies and processes.
Semi-structured Semi-structured interviews were done with the executive team to understand the
interviews current organisational landscape.
Focus groups Focus groups were held with all team members across all levels within the organisation
using an open space design collecting both quantitative and qualitative data.
Observational Team members job-shadowed the AllSport staff members when they were at physical
analysis sport broadcasting events to observe their processes and also conduct informal
discussions with team members on the job.
An overall participation rate of more than 80% was achieved through the multimethod
approach.
Based on the data collection outcome, a multifaceted L&D intervention programme

was initiated that focused on the following:
• Policies and process redesign
–– This work stream focused on creating a consistent policy environment across
all divisions, as well as addressing identified inefficiencies in current processes.
• Communication
–– This work stream focused on developing new and innovative technology-driven
communication channels.
• Organisational and work design
–– This work stream relooked at the organisational structure, work design and
individual job profiles to ensure the correct distribution of accountability in the
organisation.
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• Talent development matrix (TDM)

–– This work stream focused on the development of a robust talent matrix that
enabled multiskilling, cross-functional skills development and career pathing.
Criteria used for the design of a talent development matrix (TDM) were as follows:
• Knowledge: theoretical knowledge of industry, sport and specific discipline;
• Experience: required practical experience within specific discipline;
• Qualification: obtained qualifications or certifications relevant to job;
• Technical competency: technical skills required to perform in role; and
• Behavioural competency: people management competencies required to lead others.
Once the design of the TDM was agreed with critical stakeholders, it was implemented
in practice. A structured approach was followed which entailed the following:
• Positioning the talent development matrix (TDM) to all employees and gathering
their input into the criteria and design process. This was crucial to gain buy-in into
the utilisation of the matrix.
• Critical was to position the TDM as a developmental process and further position the
benefits to individuals in terms of their own development, understanding of what is
required to move up and across levels and disciplines, and how to meet specified
criteria for each step.
• Appointing a specific individual with the role of managing the matrix and supporting
line and individuals to utilise the matrix. This individual was also responsible for
continuous improvement on the matrix. An important consideration was the fact
that this individual was identified from business and, as such, had a very good
understanding of the different disciplines.
• A train-the-trainer programme for line managers on how to effectively use the matrix
for their talent.
• Assessing all talent within the organisation against the matrix criteria to plot all
individuals on the matrix.
• Feedback from individual team members regarding where they were plotted on the
matrix. These conversations were also utilised as a developmental conversation,
with individuals being able to craft their development plans aligned to their own
growth ambitions. The TDM was really useful as first-time employees understood
what was required for them to grow to the next level or decide if they had the desire
to move over to a different discipline.
• Integration of the TDM into other human capability processes and aligning learning
curricula to the different levels and criteria.
• Automation and integration of the matrix into other systems to allow the TDM to
become a master file for workforce planning.
• The last step entailed continuous monitoring of the effectiveness of the TDM,
as well as the refinement of measurement criteria over time aligned to business
realities and requirements.
Source: Veldsman, 2018 (used with permission)
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6. L
&D NEEDS ANALYSIS AND THE ANNUAL SKILLS PLANNING
PROCESS
As previously indicated, an annual LDNA forms an integral part of the national skills
development process. According to Hattingh (2014), skills development should be a
continuous, planned and structured process that is influenced by the SETA requirements,
but not dependent on them. The company workplace skills plan/annual training report (see
Chapter 1) should be the end result of a business-driven skills planning process of which the
LDNA is a core element (see Chapter 9). The workplace skills plan should be derived from
and integrated into other human performance improvement processes focused on developing
the human capabilities needed to achieve the organisation’s business goals and objectives, such
as talent management, succession planning and retention of scarce skills (Hattingh, 2014).
This will ensure the return on investment (ROI) from L&D interventions, as programmes
will be focused on the competence required for the key performance areas of the business
(Hattingh, 2014). An example of the skills planning process is shown in Figure 3.3.
Skills development should be a continuous, planned and structured process that is influenced
by the SETA requirements, but not dependent on them.
The skills planning process should include:

•• A skills audit (about every three to five years) to determine the current state of skills in
the company; followed by
•• An annual L&D needs analysis to identify the main skills gaps and training needs that
must be addressed to improve the organisation’s performance; resulting in
•• A comprehensive L&D plan for learning and other learning programmes to improve
employee and organisational performance. This document should be used as a basis for
compiling the WSP/ATR, which includes only information that is relevant for the SETA.
Develop data-gathering methods and

Plan to plan
procedures
• HRD committee
• Develop competency charts for each
• Departmental training
department
committees
• Design L&D needs analysis
• Administrative rules
questionnaires
Evaluate L&D
effectiveness HRD
and compile ATR INFORMATION Develop data-
• Provide feedback SYSTEM gathering cycle
• Apply for levy grants
Implement
Compile workplace skills Analyse L&D needs and
L&D needs analysis
plan and HRD plan plan L&D interventions
(gather data)
Figure 3.3 The skills planning process

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As shown in Figure 3.3, the HRD department generally initiates the L&D needs analysis
process to ensure that the company will be able to submit the workplace skills plan on time
to the relevant SETA and qualify for the mandatory grant.
Table 3.9 T
imeline for the annual L&D needs analysis and the skills development planning
process (Hattingh, 2014)
Timeframe Conducting L&D needs analysis

Mid-August SDF and training committee plan the L&D needs analysis and LDNA questionnaire.
1st week Sept. SDF sends LDNA questionnaire to line managers and staff via the relevant training
committee members in the business units.
4th week Oct. SDF completes consolidated list of training and other L&D needs identified.
1st week Nov. HRD/L&D manager provides feedback to EXCO to confirm L&D needs priorities.
Timeframe Develop L&D plan
2nd week Nov. SDF finalises the list of training and other L&D programmes for the coming year.
3rd week Nov. SDF finalises the L&D plan, with delivery schedule, for the next year – approved by the
training committee and HRD/L&D manager.
4th week Nov. SDF distributes L&D plan to managers and staff.
2nd week Jan. SDF sends reminder to managers/staff to check the online L&D calendar
3rd week Jan. Commencement of L&D interventions, as recorded in L&D plan.
Timeframe Update HRD/L&D plan
1st week April SDF and training committee plan the review of the LDNA to update L&D needs.
2nd week April SDF and training committee send simplified LDNA questionnaires to managers for
revision of the previous year’s needs.
3rd week April SDF consolidates revised L&D needs.
4th week April Updated HRD/L&D plan completed, approved and distributed.
Timeframe Complete WSP and ATR
Continuously SDF monitors implementation and ensures that L&D intervention information is
recorded.
1st week May SDF commences the preparation of the final WSP/ATR and determines the latest SETA
requirements.
2nd week May SDF starts recording required information from the updated L&D plan in the WSP and
L&D records from the database for learning programmes completed for the ATR.
1st week June SDF submits first draft of the WSP/ATR to the training committee and HRD/L&D
manager for feedback.
2nd week June Management approves WSP/ATR and SDF obtains required signatures.
3rd week June SDF submits completed WSP/ATR to SETA.
4th week June Organisation meets deadline for submission of WSP/ATR and qualified for the
Mandatory Skills Levy Grant (see Chapter 1).
Continuously The SDF submits applications for Discretionary Grants to the SETA for the programmes
that meet specified SETA requirements.
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The HRD department sends the questionnaires to the departmental training representatives,
collects the completed questionnaires, analyses the data, prepares the results (with the help
of the departmental training representatives) and communicates the outcome to the L&D
unit of the HRD department. On the basis of their feedback, the HRD department develops
a final HRD plan and WSP, which will be submitted to the SETA as a requirement for
the mandatory grant. The HRD plan comprises the broader HRD strategies to address the
L&D needs in the short term (a financial year), medium term (two to three years) and long
term (three to five years). The HRD plan will also include capability-building strategies,
such as talent pool development, managerial development and succession development.
The short-term strategies are included in the workplace skills plan.
Table 3.9 outlines the core activities related to an LDNA process that is integrated
with the company’s annual skills development planning process. The process outlined
below was developed by Hattingh (2014) to ensure the active involvement of managers
and staff in determining the annual skills training and informal in-house development
needs that would drive personal and organisational performance. Although the annual
WSP and ATR should result from a well-structured and planned process involving the
accurate and reliable analysis of the skills needs in the organisation, it is not the end of the
annual skills planning process. The learning programmes or L&D interventions planned
for the year need to be promoted and the implementation of the WSP monitored by
all the role-players involved (see Table 3.10). The actual impact on achieving the desired
business results (ROI) and delivering on stakeholders’ expectations (ROE), as discussed in
Chapter 8, must be evaluated (Hattingh, 2014).
The last step of the L&D needs analysis is to ensure that the following information is
documented:
•• The agreed organisational success indicators of the planned learning intervention,
including the return on expectations (ROE) and the return on impact (ROI);
•• The present and prospective L&D needs at all levels of the organisation;
•• The possible integration of the identified L&D needs with national and sectoral
needs; and
•• The HRD/L&D plan and completed WSP.
The information above is used in the evaluation of the learning programme. (This is also the
topic of Chapter 8.) The main objective of the evaluation of L&D programmes is to find
out whether the planned L&D programmes achieved the desired organisational outcomes.
Evaluation of L&D programmes is also an attempt to find weaknesses in the needs
analysis system, provide feedback on the developed and implemented L&D programmes
and suggest any changes needed to the concerned parties. The HRD department should
develop a system for evaluating L&D programmes to ensure the quality of the learning
programmes (also discussed in Chapter 8).
The main objective of the evaluation of L&D programmes is to find out whether the
planned L&D programmes achieved the desired organisational outcomes.
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As companies may qualify for a Skills Levy Grant (see Chapter 1), based on their workplace
skills plan and annual training report, the company level skills planning process is generally
driven by the internal or external person designated as the skills development facilitator
(SDF). The SDF is commonly someone from the human resource development or L&D
unit in a company, or the person responsible for staff training (Hattingh, 2014). As shown
in Figure 3.4 and Table 3.10, training committees are usually established in companies to
assist the HR development department and the skills development facilitator (SDF) to
collect the L&D needs of the various departments and to ensure that the LDNA process is
fair and addresses equity needs.
Training committees assist the HRD department and the SDF to collect the L&D needs of the
various departments and to ensure that the LDNA process is fair and addresses equity needs.
Representatives from the various job levels and various race and gender groups usually form
the training committee of a department. Administrative policies and procedures should be
established to manage the activities of the HRD department and training committees. Some
of the most important matters that should be described in policies and procedures are:
•• The number of meetings each year;
•• The duration of each meeting and the dates, if possible;
•• General objectives of each meeting;
•• General guidelines for recording and distributing minutes of meetings; and
•• The responsibilities of, and co-ordination between, the various departments, the
departmental training representative, the training committee and the HRD department.
Administrative policies and procedures should be established to manage the activities of the
HRD department and training committees.
HRD department
HRD committee
Departmental training representatives (one per department)
Department Department Department Department

training committee training committee training committee training committee
Representatives from all job levels, race and gender groups in the department
Figure 3.4 The skills planning support structure

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As shown in Table 3.10, skills planning processes must be conducted in consultation

with the organisation’s management, especially line-functional managers and employee
representatives to ensure that they ‘own’ the process and do not regard it as an HRD
department responsibility. The number of people involved in gathering the required
information will depend on the number of employees in the organisation. Table 3.10
provides some examples of the contributions of different role-players to the skills planning
process (Hattingh, 2010b). Apart from the role-players listed in Table 3.10, the SDF
and the L&D professionals are critical to the success of the LDNA process. Table 3.11
differentiates between the roles of the SDF and L&D professionals in the skills planning
and L&D implementation process.
Table 3.10 Role-players involved in the annual skills planning process (Hattingh, 2010b)
Contributions of role-players to the skills planning process

Top and senior management
•• Formulate strategic plans and goals in which current/future skills needs are described.
•• Make decisions about the overall skills planning process to ensure its relevance.
•• Promote skills development through vocal support and encouragement.
•• Build and support a culture that values human capital development and lifelong learning.
•• Approve the allocation of the financial, human and other resources needed for effective skills planning and
development.
HR manager
•• Ensures that the skills planning process is integrated into HR processes, such as human capital management,
performance appraisal, succession planning, talent management and skills retention.
•• Ensures that the competency profiles (or job descriptions) are clearly formulated so that they can be used for
measuring the employees’ performance against job requirements.
•• Makes relevant information available to the SDF, especially the results from performance appraisals and other
information on performance gaps and skills needs.
HRD manager (or other manager responsible for training and development)
•• Ensures that the skills planning process is focused on developing the skills the organisation needs to achieve
its current and strategic objectives.
•• Works in close consultation with managers and the SDF to ensure that the WSP is aligned to the strategic
priorities of the organisation.
•• Organises and oversees the nomination, selection and capacity-building of the SDF and training committee to
ensure that they have the competence required to perform these functions.
Line managers, team leaders and supervisors

•• Provide input on the performance problems and training needs in their work units.
•• Support the participation of employees in learning and other development programmes.
•• Monitor staff performance after training to track the impact of training.
•• Provide feedback to the SDF and skills planning team on the success of the learning programmes, measured in
terms of improved on-the-job performance.
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Contributions of role-players to the skills planning process

Training committee
•• Represents the interests of business units, sections or divisions in the organisation to ensure that their skills
needs are addressed.
•• Assists the SDF to fulfil their role by identifying skills needs in the unit and feeding them into the skills
planning process.
•• Promotes and supports skills development within their own unit.
•• Assists in monitoring, tracking and evaluating the impact of skills development on the performance of the
business unit.
•• Could include representatives from the employment equity committee to ensure that the WSP is used to
promote the achievement of the organisation’s equity targets.
Employees
•• Accurately indicate learning needs during the training needs analysis.
•• Provide feedback on learning programmes completed to indicate relevance to their own work role, so that
feedback can be used to evaluate the quality, relevance of impact of such programmes.
Table 3.11 O
ccupational tasks of skills development facilitators, L&D professionals and
trainers (DHET: OFO, 2017)
Skills development
practitioner (SDP) Learning and development Occupational instructor/
(skills development facilitator) professional trainer
OFO occupational title and OFO occupational title and tasks: OFO occupational title and
tasks: 2017-242302 2017-242401 tasks: 2017-242402
Analyses the skills requirements Plans, develops, implements and Conducts and assesses training/
within an organisation and co- evaluates L&D programmes to ensure learning and development to
ordinates the execution of the management and staff acquire the ensure management and staff
personal development plans of skills and develop the competencies acquire the skills and develop
employees and monitors the required by an organisation to meet the competencies required
implementation of the workplace organisational objectives. by an organisation to meet
skills plan and reports accordingly. organisational objectives.
OFO generic occupational OFO generic occupational tasks:

tasks: 2017-2423 2017-2424
Advising on and performing Identifying training needs and
personnel functions relating to requirements of individuals and
employee recruitment, placement, organisations.
training, promotion, compensation, Setting human resource development
and employee–management objectives and evaluating learning
relations or other areas of outcomes.
personnel policy
Preparing and developing instructional
Studying and analysing jobs training material and aids, such
performed in an establishment as handbooks, visual aids, online
by various means, including tutorials, demonstration models,
interviews with workers, and supporting training reference
supervisors and management, documentation.
and writing detailed position, job
or occupation descriptions from
information obtained.
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Skills development
practitioner (SDP) Learning and development Occupational instructor/
(skills development facilitator) professional trainer
Preparing occupational information Designing, co-ordinating, scheduling
or working on occupational and conducting training and
classification systems. development programmes that can
Advising and working on the be delivered in the form of individual
foregoing and other aspects of job and group instruction, and facilitating
and occupation analyses in such workshops, meetings, demonstrations
fields as personnel administration, and conferences.
workforce research and planning, Liaising with external training providers
training, or occupational to arrange delivery of specific training
information and vocational and development programmes.
guidance. Promoting internal and external
Studying and advising individuals training and development, and
on employment opportunities, evaluating these promotional activities.
career choices and further Monitoring and performing ongoing
education or training that may be evaluation and assessment of
desirable. internal and external training quality
Identifying training needs and and effectiveness, and reviewing
requirements of individuals and and modifying training objectives,
organisations. methods and course deliverables.
Gathering, investigating and
researching background materials
to gain an understanding of various
subject matters and systems.
7. H
UMAN RESOURCE INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN THE L&D
NEEDS ANALYSIS
The human resources (HR) function is responsible for tracking existing employee data,
which generally includes personal histories, skills, capabilities, accomplishments and
salary. To reduce the manual workload of these administrative activities, organisations
began to automate many of these processes by introducing specialised, electronic, human
resources information systems (HRISs). These integrated systems are designed to help
provide information used in HR decision-making, such as administration, payroll,
recruiting, training or L&D interventions (including the WSP and ATR information),
and performance analysis.
An HRIS is an integrated electronic system designed to provide information used in HR

decision-making, such as administration, payroll, recruiting, L&D and training, and
performance analysis.
The HRIS has two uses: (1) an administrative use by means of which employee records are
consolidated and electronically stored for daily operation purposes – the administrative
HRIS is integrated with the company information technology system; and (2) a strategic
HRIS which mainly aids the decision-making process. The administrative information is
used to make decisions about the recruitment and retention of people.
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As a whole, the HRIS enables the HR function to play a more strategic role in the company by
improving information sharing and communication between the company and employees
(Majunder, 2016). The basic advantage of an HRIS is to not only computerise employee
records and databases, but also to maintain an up-to-date account of the decisions that
have been made or that need to be made as part of a human resource management plan,
the HRD/L&D plan and the annual WSP/ATR.
The HRIS enables the HR function to play a more strategic role by improving information
sharing and communication between the company and employees.
Specific components of an HRIS may include (Majunder, 2016):

•• Database: Employee data (for example, compensation history, emergency contact
information, performance review information, absence/leave history, L&D records) are
electronically stored and can be accessed from anywhere, anytime.
•• Payroll function: Employee hours, cheques or payroll deposits to employees, for example,
can be downloaded easily by HR. Salaried employees can be paid with substantially
reduced risk of error and tax compliance is improved.
•• Time and labour management: Absence management (vacation or sick leave matters, for
example) can be more easily recorded, verified and tracked by HR.
•• Benefits: an HRIS software package can facilitate medical benefits and retirement
investments.
•• Employee interface: Although some HRIS packages allow employees limited user access,
employees can update their personal information electronically, review pay scales,
change retirement benefit options, or download salary and benefit information.
•• Recruitment and retention: Employee appointments, performance reviews and L&D are
electronically recorded and managed.
The training or L&D component of the HRIS provides a system for organisations to
administer and track employee training and L&D efforts. The system, normally called
a learning management system (LMS) if it is a stand-alone product, supports the LDNA
process because it allows HR to track the education, qualifications and skills of employees,
and outlines what training courses, books, CDs, web-based learning or materials are
available to develop which skills. Courses can then be offered in date-specific sessions, with
delegates and training resources being mapped and managed within the same system. A
sophisticated LMS allows managers to approve training, budgets and calendars alongside
performance management and appraisal metrics. The LMS component of the HRIS is a
valuable resource for compiling the annual training report which, together with the WSP,
is required to qualify for skills development levy grants rebates.
The LMS component of the HRIS is a valuable resource for compiling the ATR which,
together with the WSP, is required to qualify for skills development levy grants rebates.
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7.1 Ethics and processing of employee information in an LDNA

An LDNA and/or skills audit collects sensitive information, particularly in respect of an
individual’s knowledge and skills gaps. An individual’s needs and rights have to be respected.
In addition, major planned changes in an organisation may give rise to new L&D needs.
Senior management may wish to keep the planned changes secret. In these situations,
L&D professionals may need to convince senior management that they need to gather
data to plan timely L&D interventions that will contribute to the success of the initiative.
L&D professionals then have to conduct an LDNA while maintaining confidentiality
(CIPD, 2007).
Because the HRIS and LDNA practices involve handling employees’ personal
information, the HR function and L&D professionals are required by law (i.e. Protection of
Personal Information (POPI) Act, No. 4 of 2013) to treat personal information, including
the collection, usage, storage, dissemination, modification or destruction (whether such
processing is automated or not) ethically and with respect.
Because the HRIS and LDNA practices involve employees’ personal information, the HR
function and L&D professionals are required by law to treat personal information ethically
and with respect.
Personal information (as described by the POPI Act, 2013) includes:

•• Contact details: email, telephone, address, etc.
•• Demographic information: age, sex, race, birth date, ethnicity, etc.
•• History: employment, financial, educational, criminal, medical history, etc.
•• Biometric information: blood type, etc.
•• Opinions: of and about the person.
•• Private correspondence, etc.
•• Special information: information concerning a child, religious or philosophical beliefs,
race or ethnic origin, trade union membership, political opinions, health, DNA, sexual
life and criminal behaviour.
Some of the obligations of responsible parties under the POPI Act (2013) include:
•• Allowing the data subject (e.g. employee) to see the information on request;
•• Ensuring that the data is relevant and up to date;
•• Applying reasonable security measures to protect it;
•• Only collecting information that is needed for a specific purpose;
•• Only holding as much information as is needed, and only for as long as the information
is needed.
The POPI Act promotes transparency with regard to information collected and how it
is to be processed. This openness is likely to increase employee/customer confidence in
the organisation/employer. This is also likely to reduce the risk of data breaches and the
associated public relations and legal ramifications for the organisation/employer (POPI
Act, 2013).
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The POPI Act (2013) outlines eight core principles relevant to processing the information
of people:
1. Processing limitation: Processing must be lawful and personal information may only be processed
if it is adequate, relevant and not excessive, given the purpose for which it is processed.
2. Information quality: The responsible party must take reasonably practicable steps to
ensure that the personal information is complete, accurate, not misleading and updated
where necessary, taking into account the purpose for which it was collected.
3. Accountability: The responsible person must ensure that the eight information processing
principles are complied with.
4. Purpose specification: Personal information must be collected for a specific, explicitly
defined and lawful purpose related to a function or activity of the responsible party. The
responsible party must take steps to ensure that the data subject is aware of the purpose
for which his/her personal information is being collected.
5. Further processing limitation: In circumstances where personal information is received
from a third party and passed on to the responsible party for further processing, the
processing must be compatible with the purpose for which it was initially collected.
6. Openness: Personal information may only be processed by a responsible party that has
notified the Information Protection Regulator. Further certain prescribed information
must be provided to the data subject by the responsible party, including what information
is being collected, the name and address of the responsible party, the purpose for which
the information is collected and whether or not the supply of the information by that
data subject is voluntary or mandatory.
7. Security safeguards: The responsible party must secure the integrity of personal
information in its possession or under its control by taking prescribed measures to
prevent loss of, damage to or unauthorised destruction of personal information and
unlawful access to or processing of personal information.
8. Data subject (individual) participation: A data subject has the right to request a
responsible party to confirm, free of charge, whether or not the responsible party holds
personal information about the data subject and request from a responsible party, the
record or a description of the personal information held, including information about
the identity of all third parties, or categories of third parties who have, or have had,
access to the information. A data subject may request a responsible party to:
•• Correct or delete personal information about the data subject in its possession or
under its control that is inaccurate, irrelevant, excessive, misleading or obtained
unlawfully;
•• Destroy or delete a record of personal information about the data subject that the
responsible party is no longer authorised to retain.
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1. What is a systematic dynamic learning cycle? How do the various phases relate to
one another?
2. Why is an L&D needs analysis (LDNA) such an important phase in the systematic
learning cycle? What are the purposes of an LDNA?
3. What is the difference between a reactive and a proactive LDNA?
4. What are the four focus areas of LDNA? What information is gathered at each level
and what can the information be used for?
5. What methods can an L&D professional employ to gather data for an LDNA? Which
methods would be the most appropriate for the different levels of training needs
analysis? Give reasons for your answers.
6. Who should be involved in an LDNA?
7. Why is it important to establish an HRD information system?
8. Why should L&D professionals have a sound understanding of the POPI Act when
conducting an LDNA?
Summary
L&D needs analysis (LDNA) is the starting point of the learning cycle. This chapter
explored the importance of performing an LDNA on various levels to explain why and
how to carrying out L&D activities and whether training is, in fact, the best solution
for the performance problem or development need. Before learning design issues are
considered, a careful LDNA is required to develop a systematic understanding of where
training is needed, what needs to be taught or trained, and who will be trained. The
next phase in the learning cycle, namely using the results of an LDNA to design quality
outcomes-based learning programmes, is explored in Chapter 4.
Employees become increasingly committed to jobs in which they can learn new skills, and
to jobs they find personally challenging. Allowing employees to customise their growth
opportunities provides them with further opportunities to learn and shifts responsibility for
that learning to the employees themselves (Ulrich et al., cited in Palmer, 2002).
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OUTCOMES-BASED WORKPLACE CHAPTER
LEARNING DESIGN
Melinde Coetzee and Jo-Anne Botha 4
Key points of outcomes-based workplace learning design
•• This chapter focuses on the design of work-based learning programmes and other short learning
programmes that are generally contained in the annual workplace skills plan (WSP).
•• The effective L&D professional recognises that few (if any) of the desired learning outcomes will
be reached unless learners are actively involved in the learning process and perceive the learning
as valuable to them. This implies moving away from a content-driven approach to a learner-centred
approach in learning design.
•• The effectiveness of the learning process depends on developing learning outcomes that are
meaningful and appropriate to the needs of the learners and the organisation.
•• The L&D facilitator guide contains guidelines on how to enable learners to achieve the learning
outcomes. It also facilitates quality assurance in respect of learning design, delivery, assessment and
the evaluation of value added.

•• Evaluate the benefits of adopting a learner-centred approach to learning design.
•• Explain the ‘design down and deliver up’ approach to outcomes-based learning design.
•• Explain the 10 stages of outcomes-based, work-based learning design.
•• Differentiate between programme objectives and learning outcomes.
•• Discuss how learning taxonomy levels guide the formulation of learning outcomes.
•• Develop a learning delivery and assessment strategy for a learning programme.
•• Develop a course outline for a learning programme.
•• Explain the characteristics of well-designed learning activities.
•• Discuss the aspects to be considered when choosing training/learning methods.
•• Discuss the elements of well-designed, outcomes-based learning materials.
•• Describe the process of selecting sources of and sequencing learning content.
•• Discuss the function and content of the L&D facilitator guide in outcomes-based learning design.
1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter explores the second phase in the systematic learning cycle, namely the design
of outcomes-based workplace learning as it relates to the design of work-based learning
programmes and other short learning programmes that are generally contained in the
annual workplace skills plan (WSP). Whereas an L&D needs analysis tells us what needs to
be learned and developed, learning design is concerned with how that learning occurs and
how changes in knowledge, skills and attitudes can be achieved (Arnold & Randall, 2010).

Within the context of the NQF and the OQF, outcomes-based workplace training has
moved beyond content to focus on the outcomes or measurable end products or services of a
learning process.
The L&D philosophy and methodology that the L&D professional chooses to follow,
will direct and inform all L&D activities (needs analysis, learning design and delivery,
assessment and evaluation). In the past, L&D tended to be content driven. Learning
materials and activities were designed around content, which supported the content
orientation of curricula and modes of instruction. Within the context of the National
Qualifications Framework (NQF) and the Occupational Qualifications Framework
(OQSF), outcomes-based workplace training has moved beyond content to focus on the
outcomes or demonstrable and measurable end products or services of a learning process.
The reasoning is that content is not studied for its own sake; rather, learners should be able
to apply and reflect on the content in real-life contexts (the workplace). The outcomes of
the learning process can include learner achievements in the following areas (Stuart, 2011):
•• Actions that are performed;
•• Rules that are acted out;
•• Knowledge that is evidenced;
•• Understanding that is shown;
•• Skills that are demonstrated;
•• Values and attitudes that a learner has to demonstrate;
•• The criteria and performance standards against which the learner achievements will
be assessed; and
•• The particular workplace contexts of these achievements.
Phase 1
L&D needs analysis
Phase 5 Phase 2
effectiveness programme design
THE LEARNING CYCLE
Phase 4
achievements
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Chapter 4 | Outcomes-based workplace learning design
Although the focus of this book (and this chapter) is not on the design of occupational
qualifications and the formal learning and learning programmes that constitute them,
the principles that underpin their design are used as broad guidelines in the design of
work-based short courses or learning programmes. As discussed in Chapter 1, the newly
established Occupational Learning System (OLS) requires that all workplace L&D or
skills development interventions be linked to the scarce and critical skills embedded in the
occupations listed on the Organising Framework for Occupations (OFO), which is linked
to the current labour market skills needs. In other words, the L&D interventions must be
based on the skills demanded by employers to perform optimally as a business in a globally
competitive and turbulent business environment. The general rule of thumb is, therefore,
that work-based learning programmes must support the occupational learning principles of
developing employees’ occupational and/or job competence in terms of the three curriculum
components: knowledge, skills and work experience (discussed in Chapter 1).
The newly established OLS emphasises on-the-job training and skills development in the
workplace.
The newly established OLS (see Chapter 1), emphasises on-the-job training and skills
development in the workplace. The learning design of short courses and learning
programmes should support the principles and aims of skills development in South
African workplaces. Research has also shown on-the-job training to be more effective than
classroom training because it enables learners to transfer their learning to the workplace,
leading to greater productivity for the organisation and enhanced employability for the
individual (Rees & French, 2016).
On-the-job training is more effective than classroom training because it enables learners
to transfer learning to the workplace, leading to greater productivity and enhanced
employability.
Developing employees’ occupational and job competence in terms of the three curriculum
components (i.e. knowledge, skills and work experience) enables both the organisation
and its employees to be responsive to changing labour market needs and to remain up-to-
date and relevant. In the context of the OFO, the term ‘occupation’ refers to a set of jobs
involving main tasks and duties that are characterised by a high degree of similarity of skill
specialisation (field of knowledge required, tools and machinery used, materials worked
with and kinds of products and services produced). A job is a set of tasks and duties carried
out – or meant to be carried out – by one person for a particular employer, including
self-employment (Vorwerk, 2009a,b; Stuart, 2010). The job tasks and duties are usually
described in a company-specific job profile or a job description. In terms of the OFO,
occupational/job tasks are broken down into:
•• Products or services to be delivered: conceptual knowledge/theory required;
•• Occupational/job responsibility: practical on-the-job skills required; and
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•• Context in which tasks will be performed: settings, circumstances, interfaces and/or range
of work experience required.
We shall use the term occupation/job in this book to refer to both the occupations listed
on the OFO and the particular job described by the job profile or job description relevant
to the organisation or workplace. The occupations listed on the OFO (which is updated
annually to reflect the changing skills and profile needs of the labour market) are nationally
recognised as sets of jobs embedding scarce and critical skills needed in the labour market
at a particular educational/cognitive level (NQF). Occupational-based and, therefore,
work-based learning design, considers in the needs analysis process whether the identified
skills gaps of a particular job are linked to occupations listed on the OFO. Because the
OQF is focused on providing a structure for designing, delivering and assessing quality
learning that is highly responsive to the skills demands of the workplace (Stuart, 2011), the
occupational focus assists L&D professionals to identify whether a learning programme
addresses the development of occupationally related scarce and critical skills, in addition to
the identified company job-specific skills. This approach will help to ensure that employees
in the workplace develop and acquire the relevant skills that are in demand in the labour
market, which, in turn, will help employees to increase their productivity, employability,
mobility and progression within the NQF/OQF.
You will also remember from our discussion of the annual workplace skills plan and
annual training report in Chapter 1 and in Chapter 3 that the skills development facilitator
is required to categorise the intended and actual L&D interventions according to the
OFO occupational categories in the annual WSP. This assists management and the SETAs
to monitor the development of scarce and critical skills in a particular company and
sector, and ensures that the company and sector remain responsive to the changing labour
market needs.
Occupational/job competence relies on employees acquiring the required general
and specialised knowledge and theory, and general and practical skills, which underpin
occupational/job tasks, and relevant work experience to ensure the transfer of learning
to the workplace and job. Research by Bersin and Associates (cited in Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2009) also indicates that as much as 70% of employee learning occurs on the
job. This is also the focus of work-based learning design, which aims to equip employees
(learners) with the knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviours they need to consistently
and competently perform critical, on-the-job behaviours, which ultimately result in an
increase in productivity in the workplace (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2009).
Research by Bersin and Associates indicates that as much as 70% of employee learning
occurs on the job. This is the focus of work-based learning design.
The general knowledge and theory, and specialised and contextual (workplace-specific)
theory and knowledge relate to the specific subjects and topics (content) that will be
addressed in the learning programme. The general and practical skills component of the
learning programme relates to the general and occupational or specific job-relevant skills.
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This may include the application of knowledge and theory in the workplace context and/
or the development of practical skills required by the occupation/job. The work experience
component of the learning programme includes opportunities for occupational/job-
relevant practice and experience in the workplace. The elements of these three forms of
learning for occupational/job competence will be based on the L&D needs analysis (see
Chapter 3).
Conceptual knowledge/theory and information are acquired systematically through a set of

purposefully organised learning activities.
A work-based learning programme therefore comprises a series of structured learning

activities or events that are intended to equip learners with (1) the knowledge and theory, (2)
practical skills and (3) work experience needed to fulfil a particular occupational/job role,
and to perform competently those tasks and responsibilities associated with that particular
role in the workplace. Conceptual knowledge/theory and information are acquired
systematically through a set of purposefully organised learning activities. Practical/applied
knowledge and skills focus on the ability to perform certain skills at a particular level,
safely, productively, within legal prescripts and with due regard for social responsibility –
this component may be acquired in a simulated environment. Work experience focuses
on the ability to integrate and apply conceptual knowledge and practical skills in concrete
situations in the workplace and on the job (that is, transferring the learning to the workplace
and job).
Practical/applied knowledge and skills focus on the ability to perform certain skills at a
particular level, safely, productively, within legal prescripts and with due regard for social
responsibility.
As discussed in Chapter 2, the effective L&D professional recognises that few (if any) of
the desired outcomes will be realised unless learners are actively involved in the learning
process and perceive the learning as valuable to them. Therefore, determining the L&D
needs and expectations of the organisation and the learner (as discussed in Chapter 3) is a
prerequisite for planning the learning design of a work-based learning programme.
An effective L&D professional recognises that few of the desired outcomes will be realised
unless learners are actively involved in the learning process and perceive the learning
as valuable.
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L&D needs analysis
Define business needs/expectations

and success indicators
Product/service Evaluate effectiveness
of programme/
Define and unpack occupational/job Occupational/ Impact assessment/
tasks in relation to expectations job tasks and Return on investment (ROI)
DESIGN
responsibility
DOWN Return on
Workplace context expectations (ROE)
Develop additional occupational/job tasks
(workplace context specific)
Pilot/adjust/modify
programme
Analyse L&D needs in relation to
occupational/job tasks (required
knowledge, skills, work experience)
Analyse learners’ profiles Product/service Knowledge
Occupational/job
Determine learning programme objective Skills
responsibility
Workplace Work
Formulate learning outcomes at context experience
particular NQF/OQF level
Develop learning delivery and assessment Knowledge unit

Subjects/topics
strategy and specifications standard
Skills unit
Determine, source and sequence Modules
standard
learning content
Work experience
Modules
unit standard
Design learning materials, assessment
and evaluation tools
Develop learning facilitation

process guide Monitoring and reinforcement
assurance
Quality
Deliver training Transfer learning to workplace
Assessment and moderation Ongoing mentoring and support

DELIVER UP
Figure 4.2 S
teps in designing outcomes-based/workplace learning programmes
(Coetzee, 2007b)
SAQA (2005) refers to outcomes-based, work-based learning design as a ‘design-down,

deliver-up approach’ to learning design.
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2. OUTCOMES-BASED, WORK-BASED LEARNING DESIGN

Outcomes-based, work-based learning design can be differentiated in terms of 10 important
stages which are discussed in this chapter:
Stage 1: Identifying job/occupational requirements and stakeholder expectations;
Stage 2: Reviewing the L&D needs analysis versus the job/occupational tasks;
Stage 3: Analysing the job/occupational purpose and tasks in terms of knowledge,
practical skills and work experience;
Stage 4: Analysing the learners’ profiles;
Stage 5: Defining the learning programme objective and outcomes;
Stage 6: Determining, sourcing and sequencing the learning content;
Stage 7: Designing learning activities;
Stage 8: Developing a learning delivery and assessment strategy;
Stage 9: Choosing training and learning methods;
Stage 10: Designing learning support materials.
The activities involved in the stages of outcomes-based, work-based learning design are
illustrated in Figure 4.2. The process outlined in Figure 4.2 is similar to what SAQA (2005)
refers to as a ‘design-down, deliver-up approach’ to learning design. Once the design-down
process is complete, learning designers deliver up; that is, they design learning activities
to prepare learners for the assessment activities set out in the curriculum of the learning
programme. Learning and assessment activities help learners to build up evidence that they
have achieved the learning outcomes at the required NQF/OQF level.
Once the design-down process is complete, learning designers deliver up; that is, they design
learning activities to prepare learners for the assessment activities set out in the curriculum.
The activity at the end of this chapter also provides a real-life case scenario of the application
of the various elements outlined in Figure 4.2. We suggest that you study the case scenario
when working through the various steps of outcomes-based, work-based learning design.
2.1 Stage 1: Identifying job/occupational requirements and

stakeholder expectations
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5
Job/occupational L&D needs and Job/occupational Learner profile Learning
requirements job/occupational purpose & tasks analysis programme
& stakeholder tasks analysis Knowledge/practical objective and
expectations skills/workplace outcomes
experience

Learning content Learning activities Learning delivery Training and Learning support
development design and assessment learning methods materials
strategy
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The L&D needs analysis may have produced generic expectations outlined by the various
business stakeholders. The generic expectations could be related to the job performance of
learners that needs to be improved, or a particular business problem the company may be
experiencing, or the need to develop new skills to take advantage of a market opportunity.
These must be converted into observable, measurable success outcomes, that will ultimately
accomplish return on stakeholder expectations. Learning designers thus start with the end
in mind – the desired end result – hence the term ‘outcomes-based learning design’ is used.
Learning designers in consultation with the business stakeholders, such as management,
determine what success will look like. They then also determine the subsequent critical
knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviours that must be applied in the learners’ jobs to
bring about the identified outcomes, which will ultimately help the company to achieve
the predetermined performance or success indicators (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2009).
Learning designers thus start with the end in mind – the desired end result – hence the term
‘outcomes-based learning design’ is used.
Success and effectiveness of work-based learning design comes from the recognition
and satisfaction of wider stakeholder expectations of company-specific L&D initiatives.
Clarifying the expectations of stakeholders (such as those of management who is sponsoring
the L&D initiative), is a crucial step to ensure that strategic alignment is achieved and
that the L&D initiative will contribute to the business goals of the company. In this
regard, L&D professionals strive to make a business case for L&D interventions in the
workplace and to articulate the value proposition (see Chapter 9) of any L&D activity
(Stewart & Rigg, 2011). Clarifying stakeholder expectations upfront helps to guide clear
and appropriate learning programme objectives, alignment with the business strategy and
design and delivery support and capability. Typical expectations may include the extent to
which employees will show ‘strategic readiness’, new behaviours and improvement in their
performance after completion of a learning programme (Stewart & Rigg, 2011).
Clarifying stakeholder expectations upfront helps to guide clear and appropriate learning
objectives, alignment with the strategy and design and delivery support and capability.
Work-based learning design focuses on optimal job performance within a specific

occupational/job context as a desired end result. Therefore, in line with the design of
occupational qualifications, the starting point for designing work-based learning is an
analysis of the occupational/job tasks of the particular group of learners in relation to the
three elements of (1) knowledge and theory, (2) practical skills and (3) work experience
needs, identified by means of the L&D needs analysis process (see Chapter 3).
Work-based learning design focuses on optimal job performance within a specific

occupational/job context as a desired end result.
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As shown in Table 4.1, the NQF level of an occupation/job is related to competent

performance of the tasks associated with an occupation/job. The skills level of an
occupation/job is a function of the field of knowledge required, the tools and equipment
used, the materials worked on and the products or services provided in relation to the tasks
performed. The LARF (Levels, Activities, Role and Focus, and Time span of Discretion)
tool (see Table 4.1) is used to align occupational/job tasks to an NQF level (Stuart, 2011).
Appendix A in this book shows the NQF level descriptors and the link with the OQF/
LARF descriptors. The NQF focuses only on learning for foundational knowledge and
skills, and educational/academic or discipline-based knowledge and research. In addition
to the NQF level descriptor aspects (see Chapter 1), the OQF focuses on the time span
of work experience needed in a particular occupation/job role to function at a particular
NQF/OQF knowledge and skills level in the workplace.
The LARF tool is used to align occupational/job tasks to an NQF level.
Table 4.1 T
he LARF tool for aligning work-based learning programmes to the appropriate
NQF level (Stuart, 2011; Vorwerk, 2009 a,b)
NQF Time span of

levels Typical activities Role Workplace focus discretion
10 Envisioning future scenarios Visionary Future shape of 1–15 years
leadership the organisation,
industry, profession
9 Set and implement strategies Leading and The ‘business 5–10 years
directing landscape’ or
profession
8 Manage or design systems Resource Policy, resource 3–5 years

management allocation
7 Manage or design processes Changed New technology 1–3 years

practices systems
6 Develop and implement Optimisation Improvements 3 months–1 year

changes
5 Maintain efficiencies Stability and Systems 1 week–3 months

consistency
4 Set up processes and solve Process Process data 1 week–3 months

process problems management
3 Adjust, maintain and oversee Procedures Productivity 1 week
2 Monitor, support Operations Machinery 1 day
1 Perform elementary tasks Task Machines, tools Less than 1 day
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NQF Time span of

levels Typical activities Role Workplace focus discretion
Process questions in using the Process Process questions in
LARF tool: questions in using the LARF tool:
What are the predominant using the LARF The people or things
common things people tool: with which the
routinely do? What is the person is expected
Verb + noun purpose of these to interact or deal:
typical tasks? Noun
What is the
characteristic
or expected
function?
To … verb
+ noun +
[adverbial
phrase]
Note: These level descriptors for work-based learning design are a work-in-progress and
need to be tested in more contexts. See Appendix A for the link with the NQF level
descriptors.
2.2 Stage 2: Reviewing the L&D needs analysis versus the job/
occupational tasks
experience

strategy
Proper planning and design of a learning programme can be done only after a thorough
L&D needs analysis (as discussed in Chapter 3) and an occupation/job tasks analysis. This
step involves comparing the analysis of the required occupational/job knowledge, skills and
work experience and performance standards in relation to the specific needs of the targeted
learner group identified in the needs analysis. The analysis process helps to identify the
knowledge, skills and work experience gaps in terms of the occupation/job requirements
and performance standards that must be addressed in the learning programme. The needs
and expectations of stakeholders are also considered in relation to the required occupational/
job tasks and performance standards. The Organising Framework for Occupations (OFO)
206

and the organisational job profiles are useful sources of information on what is expected
from the employee on the job.
Proper planning and design of a learning programme can be done only after a thorough
L&D needs analysis and an occupation/job tasks analysis.
2.3 Stage 3: Analysing the job/occupational purpose and tasks in

terms of knowledge, practical skills and work experience
experience

strategy
The purpose of an occupation/job is usually outlined in the occupational profile for a

specific qualification and in the job description or job profile. During this step, learning
designers review the occupational/job purpose of an occupation, as described on the OFO
(see Chapter 1) or the particular job description or profile, and clarify it in terms of the
specific job role requirements that are of relevance to the learning design. Typical questions
that must be asked are (Vorwerk, 2009a,b):
•• Why does this occupation/job exist?
•• What is the unique contribution that this occupation/job makes within the company
and to the strategic business plan?
•• How does the occupation/job relate to the specific business needs/expectations and
success indicators determined by the business stakeholders (management)?
The purpose of an occupation/job is usually outlined in the occupational profile for a specific
qualification and in the job description or job profile.
2.3.1 Unpacking occupational/job tasks

Unpacking the occupational/job tasks involves a process of identifying the following
components (Vorwerk, 2009a,b):
•• The unique product or service that is delivered by executing the task. Identifying the
product or service will assist in determining the theoretical knowledge that is required.
For each task, the learning designer asks: ‘If this task is completed successfully, what will
it produce? What will the result be (product or service)?’
207

‘If this task is completed successfully, what will it produce?’
•• The specific occupational/job responsibility regarding the identified product or service.

Occupational/job responsibilities will guide the learning designer to the skills required
to perform the occupational/job tasks. For each product/service, the learning designer
asks: ‘What specifically does the incumbent in this occupation/job do to deliver this
product or service?’
‘What specifically does the incumbent in this occupation/job do to deliver this product
or service?’
•• The specific context within which the product or service must be delivered. The
occupational/job context will direct the learning designer towards identifying the work
experience required within the specific organisational context. For each responsibility,
the learner designer asks: ‘What is the specific occupational/job context within which
the work is done?’
‘What is the specific occupational/job context within which the work is done?’
•• The learning designer also identifies the NQF/OQSF level for the specific occupational
or job tasks (see Chapter 1). Using the LARF tool, the NQF level guides the level of
cognitive complexity at which the learning programme will be pitched, which, in turn,
informs the formulation of the learning outcomes and assessment criteria.
2.3.2 Developing additional occupational/job tasks

This step involves a process of developing or identifying additional tasks that must be
executed within the occupation/job, as well as the tasks for each specialisation. Identifying
additional tasks will ensure that the total occupation/job is covered and that all the relevant
skills and knowledge components are identified. This is achieved by defining the additional
products and services that must be delivered and selecting the appropriate occupational/job
responsibilities regarding each product/service. The relevant contexts for each responsibility
are also described (Vorwerk, 2009 a,b).
2.3.3 Defining required knowledge, skills and work experience

This step involves analysing each occupational/job task and defining the skills and
underpinning knowledge that are required to execute the specific task. This step ensures that
the learning is structured to meet the required occupational/job outcomes. The learning
designer asks the following questions for each product or service (Vorwerk, 2009 a,b):
Knowledge/theory
•• What must a person know about it (the product or service) to deliver it effectively?
These could include disciplinary knowledge, practice-related knowledge and systems
and contextual knowledge.
208

•• What legal requirements must the person know or understand in order to deliver it?
•• What theories must the person understand and apply in order to deliver it?
•• What policies and procedures must the person know or understand in order to deliver it?
•• What else should the person know or understand to deliver it?
•• How will it be assessed?
Practical skills
For each occupational/job responsibility, the learning designer asks:
•• What are the required general and practical skills (including the skills underpinned in
the SAQA critical cross-field outcomes)?
•• What are the resource requirements: human resources (for instance, ratio of trainer to
learners) and physical requirements (for example, equipment, tools; and safety, health,
quality and environmental [SHE])?
Work experience
The work experience component ensures that the learning designer can structure workplace
learning that will lead to the demonstrated application of knowledge and skills.
To define the relevant work experience, the learning designer describes the work that a
person must be able to do in the workplace to demonstrate competence in applying the
knowledge and skills within a specific work or occupational context. Work experience
relates to the structured learning and prepares the learners for competence assessment. The
work experience component ensures that the learning designer can structure workplace
learning that will lead to the demonstrated application of knowledge and skills. Typical
questions that the learning designer asks in describing the relevant work experience are
(Vorwerk, 2009 a,b):
•• What must the person be able to do in the workplace to demonstrate application of
the various skills?
•• What workplace-specific knowledge will be needed (such as standard operating
procedures, code of conduct, organisational or product/service specific)?
•• Under what conditions and situations must the performance take place?
•• What settings must the learner be exposed to?
•• What interfaces must the learner engage with?
•• For what duration must the experience be maintained?
•• What is the scope for practice?
•• Where will the work experience and practical tasks be done?
•• What will be the outcome of the learning process?
•• What will inform the learning process and what is the focus of the learning?
•• What are the resource requirements: human resources (such as ratio of trainer to
learners) and physical requirements (for example, equipment/tools; and safety, health,
quality and environmental [SHE] requirements)?
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The occupation/job task analysis information is then captured on a template (Vorwerk,

2009 a,b), as shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 provides an example of an occupational/job task analysis of the knowledge,
skills and work experience required from a HR manager. An additional example is also
provided in the case study at the end of this chapter.
Table 4.2 A
n example of a knowledge, skills and work experience analysis: HR managers
(OFO version 6) (Straulino, 2010)
Occupational
task Planning, appraising and improving individual and team performance.
NQF level 6
Product or Appraised and improved Knowledge focus

service individual and team (Embedded or underpinning knowledge/subject or learning
performance. topics)
Process questions:
What theory must the learner understand and apply in order to
deliver the products/services?
What else should the learner know/understand in order to

deliver the products/services?
What legal requirements must the learner know/understand in
order to deliver the products/services?
Human capital management concepts
Job analysis methods
Leadership and management styles
Behavioural theories of learning and motivation
Strategic performance management processes
Performance appraisal methods
Individual and team performance indicators
Performance improvement methodology
South African labour legislation, including the Basic Conditions

of Employment Act, Skills Development Act, Employment Equity
Act and Labour Relations Act
Occupational Developed ability to Practical skills

responsibility research and integrate (Skills required to execute responsibility)
relevant information.
(NOTE: includes critical cross-field outcomes)
Demonstrated
Process question:
interpersonal and
communication skills, What are the skills that must be mastered in order to execute
such as listening, the responsibility?
questioning and Research and integration skills
persuasion skills.
Interpersonal skills
210

Occupational
task Planning, appraising and improving individual and team performance.
Applied planning, Communication skills, i.e. listening, questioning and persuasion
analytical and skills
problem-solving skills
Planning and organisational skills
to determine most
appropriate course of Performance gap-analysis skills
action.
Problem identification and problem-solving skills
Macro-vision skills, demonstrating understanding that problems

do not exist in isolation
Team work and co-operation skills
Leadership skills, such as motivation and empowerment

Work Business goals, Work experience
(occupational) organisational structure Process questions:
context and strategies.
What must be used/known in the organisation to gain the
Organisational culture experience?
and values.
To which settings must the learner be exposed?
HR business model and
With which interfaces must the learner engage?
levels of work.
What additional knowledge is required to perform the tasks in
Standard operational
the specific context?
procedures.
Service-level Exposure to HR strategy and goals
agreements. Understanding of HR business model
Implemented
performance Understanding of previous/current performance appraisal
management system. processes
Performance Exposure to HR and performance management system
management policy.
Exposure to service level agreements
Reward system and
remuneration policy. Understanding of relevant HR policies, including performance
management policy, remuneration policy, training and
Training policy and
development policy, incapacity policy
framework.
Incapacity policy. Understanding of reward system
Union considerations. Exposure to training framework
Specialised or contextual knowledge
Company-specific strategy/goals
Organisational culture and values
Stratified systems theory
Standard operating procedures
Understanding of union dynamics
211

2.4 Stage 4: Analysing the learners’ profile

experience

strategy
The planning and designing of learning materials and content, and delivery and assessment
methodology, are dependent on sound knowledge of the targeted audience and andragogy.
Outcomes-based and work-based L&D revolves around learners (it is learner-centric)

and their ability to achieve the learning outcomes of a particular work-based learning
programme. Because outcomes-based/work-based L&D follows a learner-centred approach,
the identified L&D needs in relation to the required occupation-/job-specific knowledge,
skills and work experience, and the level and preferences of the targeted learner audience,
will largely determine the learning content, structure, presentation and language level.
Planning and designing learning materials, course content, and delivery and assessment
methodology are dependent on sound background knowledge of the targeted learning
audience and the principles of adult learning (discussed in Chapter 2). Apart from the
aspects listed in the checklist below, L&D professionals are required by SAQA to record
the following information about their learners:
•• Learner’s prior experience;
•• Gender;
•• Generation, age;
•• Geographic location;
•• Socio-economic status;
•• Cultural background;
•• Educational background;
•• Employment status;
•• Language;
•• Technological literacy and experience;
•• Access to communication and social learning technology;
•• Physical disability; and
•• Unique L&D needs and motivation (personal reasons and expectations) for attending
a learning programme.
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Table 4.3 Quality checklist for analysing learners’ profile (Coetzee, 2007b)
Demographic information
What is the average experience of the learners?
What is the ratio of male to female learners? Indicate the percentages.
How many learners are employed?
In what different fields are the learners employed?
Where do most of the learners live – in rural or urban areas?
What is the ratio of the different cultural groups? Indicate the percentages.
Language level
Are they first-language, second-language or third-language English speakers? Indicate the percentages.
Do they have access to technology?
Do the learners have access to tape recorders, video recorders and/or computers?
Entry level of the learners

What is the highest level of education? If applicable, indicate through which education department of the previous
government they matriculated?
What are the prerequisites for each of the subjects?
Motivational information
Why did the learners enrol for the course?
How does the learning programme relate to their work/job/occupational tasks?
What is the learners’ attitude towards the learning programme?
What are the hopes and fears of the learners?
Information on learning
What previous experience do the learners have of learning by means of a study text?
How much time do the learners have available to study and master a programme?
Do the learners have enough time to study?
Do they have enough resources available for reference purposes, if necessary?
Skills programme information

What do most learners know about the learning programme?
Do they have any previous experiences of laboratory work, if applicable?
What personal interests and experiences relevant to the learning programme do the learners have?
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2.5 Stage 5: Defining the learning programme objective and

outcomes
experience

strategy
L&D professionals should keep the following in mind when designing the learning
embedded in the work-based learning programme:
•• The overall goal or objective of the learning programme;
•• The learning outcomes formulated for the programme;
•• The unique L&D needs of the targeted learner group in relation to their occupational/
job tasks, the expectations of stakeholders, and the required skills and performance
standards;
•• The education/cognitive level (NQF level) within the context of the OQF (see Table 4.1
and Appendix A)
•• The goals of the learning process;
•• The nature of the learning process;
•• The construction of knowledge;
•• The context of the learning;
•• Learners’ intrinsic motivation to learn;
•• The effect that motivation to learn will have on learners’ efforts; and
•• Individual differences between learners (Dooley et al., 2005; Vorwerk, 2009 a,b).
2.5.1 Determining the learning programme objective

Based on the information obtained from the occupational/job tasks, needs and learner
profile analyses, the next step is to define the learning programme objective. This is a
broad goal that explains the overall purpose of the learning programme, that is, what
the learning programme should achieve for the organisation. The objective of a learning
programme should, therefore, begin with a description of the intended purpose and results
of the training. The objective should state the desired organisational outcomes and success
indicators of training.
The objective of a learning programme should begin with a description of the intended
purpose (the desired organisational outcomes) and success indicators of training.
214

The following aspects need to be considered when determining the learning programme objective:
•• What kind of organisation do we want?
•• What are the needs of the organisation and the expectations of stakeholders?
•• What are the organisational and learning contexts? What are the requirements?
•• What types of learner will contribute to such an organisation?
•• Who are the stakeholders in the organisation and what are their expectations in terms
of learners’ education/cognitive and skills level and performance standards?
•• Who are the learners?
•• What are the business success indicators associated with this learning programme?
•• What organisational support is required to ensure the successful transfer of learning?
•• What are the needs of the learners?
•• What are the roles and tasks that learners will have to fulfil and what knowledge,
skills and work experience do they need to fulfil these roles and tasks at the required
educational/cognitive and skills level and performance standard?
•• What real-life, workplace-related problems do competent, responsible learners encounter?
•• What are the actions competent, responsible learners undertake?
•• What skills and tools do learners need to be effective?
•• What should the workplace conditions be like to support the transfer of learning to the
workplace and job?
Outcomes-based L&D focuses on the need for a new

society within the context of a productive,
competitive organisation (transformation).
Who are the learners?
What kind of
What is the context?
organisation do
What are the rules?
we want?
What type of learner Who are the

will contribute to stakeholders in the
such an organisation? Learning outcomes environment?
What problems do What are the roles

competent, responsible learners will have
learners encounter? to fulfil?
What are the actions What skills and tools

competent, responsible will learners need to
learners undertake? be effective?
Figure 4.3 A
spects to consider when determining the learning programme objective
(based on Prinsloo, 2007)
215

Table 4.4 Example of a learning programme objective and learning outcomes
Title of learning programme: Coaching for performance improvement

Objective: Learning outcomes:
The objective of the learning programme is to On completion of the learning programme, learners will
enhance the coaching skills of HR managers for the be able to:
purpose of improving employee performance. –– Conduct effective coaching sessions;
–– Coach an employee within a performance
discussion so that the employee is able to reflect
successfully on their performance and gain
insights on how they can perform better.
However, as shown in Table 4.4, a general objective statement is generally too broad to be
of much help in developing a set of procedures and activities that will lead to an effective
learning experience. The next step, therefore, is to formulate learning outcomes.
2.5.2 Formulating the learning outcomes

Learning outcomes are more specific and measurable than objectives in terms of what
learners should be able to do after participating in the learning programme. Formulating
the learning outcomes is based on the identified needs and required knowledge, skills
and work experience for performing the occupational or job tasks and responsibilities
competently at a particular educational/cognitive (NQF level).
Learning outcomes are more specific and measurable than objectives in terms of what
learners should be able to do after participating in the learning programme.
Learning outcomes are defined as specific, measurable learning results that learners have to
demonstrate at the end of each learning experience. Outcomes are things that learners can
actually do with what they remember, know, believe and understand. Learning outcomes
need to be formulated in such a way that they indicate the actions or demonstration process
required from the learner. Learning outcomes are regarded as appropriate if they are closely
related to the learning programme objective.
2.5.3 Developing learning outcomes

There are three requirements for developing a learning outcome:
1. An outcome needs to include a verb or ‘doing’ word. This indicates the type of learning
activity that will take place. This verb must indicate behaviour that can be observed
and measured. Examples of these verbs are: ‘develop’ (a business plan), ‘analyse’ (a case
study), ‘compile’ (a budget), ‘formulate’ (training needs) and ‘build’ (a wall).
2. An outcome also needs to include a noun. The noun indicates the object associated with
the verb. For the above-mentioned examples, we can use the following nouns: ‘business
plan’, ‘case study’, ‘budget’, ‘training needs’ and ‘wall’. In other words, learners need to
know what they have to develop, analyse, compile, formulate or build. These are the
objects linked to the verbs.
216

3. Lastly, an outcome must also include a qualifier, which indicates the scope, standard
or method of how the action indicated by the verb will be measured or should be
executed.
To formulate useful learning outcomes, the L&D professional should answer the following
questions:
•• What must the participants be able to do at the end of the training? The answer to this
question includes the verb and noun of the learning outcome.
•• How well must they be able to do this? The answer to this question includes the qualifier
for the learning outcome.
Let us take the building of a wall as an example: after completion of the learning programme,
the learners will be able to build (verb) a wall (noun) according to the relevant municipal
regulations (qualifier).
A learning designer can add more criteria to the three core criteria; for example, by
indicating how the learning facilitator will assess the outcomes; how the learner will
demonstrate the outcomes; and what learning activities and methodology will accompany
the learning experience.
Activity
Which of the following is an effective learning outcome for a course on conflict

resolution?
• The participants will be able to define the concept ‘conflict’ and describe all five
conflict management techniques.
• The participants will be able to identify correctly which conflict management
technique will be appropriate in a specific situation and utilise that technique to
resolve a conflict situation in a role-play.
Feedback
The second learning outcome will be more effective for a course on conflict resolution.
The second learning outcome focuses on resolving a conflict situation, while the first
focuses on knowledge of conflict, which is not necessarily what is required in the
resolution of conflict. As we learned in Chapter 3, we (and learners) cannot apply that
which we (they) do not know. The content to be covered in the first learning outcome
is therefore implicit in the second learning outcome, and the second learning outcome
will illustrate what the participant will be able to do and how well they will be able to do
it after the training course.
The learning outcomes help learning designers to design learning activities that give
learners extensive practice in achieving the outcomes. Furthermore, learning outcomes
form the foundation of the design of assessment activities, which help learners to build
up and provide evidence that the outcomes have been achieved.
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Activity
Write a learning outcome that contains all three criteria for a module on emotional
intelligence. Here is an example of such a learning outcome:
Verb: describe
Noun: five abilities (of the emotionally intelligent person)
Qualifier: as identified by Goleman.
At the end of this session, the learner will be able to describe the five abilities of the
emotionally intelligent person, as identified by Goleman.
Write an outcome for a module on L&D needs assessment. Here is an example:

After studying the first phase of the learning cycle, that is, L&D needs analyses, the
learner must be able to formulate training needs based on the discrepancy or gap
experienced in the workplace.
Identify the verb, noun and qualifier from this learning outcome.
Verb:
Noun:
Qualifier:
2.5.4 Classifying learning outcomes

All learning outcomes do not require the same level of knowledge, skills and attitudes to
achieve. As discussed in Chapter 1, unit standards are written at the various NQF levels.
Some learning outcomes refer to simple ideas, while others refer to more complex issues.
This means that learners can learn at different levels of complexity and may be required
to demonstrate abilities at different difficulty levels. Learning is, therefore, not only about
identifying information, but also about interacting with and applying the content in a
specific workplace or occupational context. The learning content will also determine the
complexity of the information or skills to be learned and, therefore, the complexity level of
the learning outcomes that will be formulated (O’Neil, 2008). Generally, learners interact
with or utilise information across three domains of learning:
1. The cognitive domain focuses on thinking processes. Learning outcomes for this domain
focus on learners’ knowledge needs (see Figures 4.4 and 4.5).
2. The affective domain focuses on feelings and emotions. Learning outcomes for this
domain focus on fostering certain values, attitudes and preferences in learners (see
Figure 4.6).
3. The psychomotor domain (see Figure 4.7) focuses on physical skills. Athletes and
dancers are highly skilled in this domain. Learning outcomes for this domain focus on
developing physical skills (such as using a computer keyboard) (Erasmus et al., 2015).
These domains of learning are generally classified according to levels of complexity (refer to
Table 4.5 and Figures 4.4, 4.5, 4.6 and 4.7). Such classification systems are referred to as
taxonomies. They describe how the different levels build on (and often include) previous
levels (O’Neil, 2008; Van der Horst & McDonald, 1997).
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Table 4.5 T
axonomy of learning outcomes (adapted from Gregory, 2005; Erasmus et al.,
2015)
Cognitive domain Knowledge Words commonly used in outcomes are:

(thinking) based on To know and remember information, name, list, define, label, select, state,
Bloom’s taxonomy but not use or apply it. Knowledge and identify.
of learning (Bloom is foundational – learners cannot
cited in Van der accomplish other levels if they do not
Horst & McDonald, have knowledge.
1997)
Comprehension Words commonly used in outcomes are:
Remembering and using information, describe, convert, illustrate, distinguish,
understanding the meaning of learning discuss, summarise, and give examples.
material.
Application Words commonly used in outcomes are:

Applying material already learned to calculate, demonstrate, construct, solve,
new, concrete, comprehensive situations. and apply.
To transfer information when needed and
use it in a new context.
Analysis Words commonly used in outcomes are:
Identifying and looking at the different analyse, classify, categorise,
parts of the information, indicating the differentiate, and compare.
relationship between the different parts
and recognising the principles involved in
the organisation of the different parts.
Synthesis Words commonly used in outcomes are:

Using different kinds of information plan, adapt, combine, create, compile,
or knowledge in new ways to create compose, construct, model, revise,
something unique to the learner. The end design, develop, formulate, and organise.
result should show that critical thinking
was involved, thus indicating planning.
Evaluation Words commonly used in outcomes are:

Considering alternatives and making a assess, judge, criticise, rate, argue,
judgement based on criteria that justify, recommend, and conclude.
the learner developed. Being able to
defend the decision by substantiating
the reasons.
Affective domain Receiving or attending Words commonly used in outcomes are:

(feeling) based The learner receives information but pays ask, choose, describe, follow, give,
on Krathwohl’s minimal attention to it. identify, locate, name, select, and use.
taxonomy
(Krathwohl cited Responding Words commonly used in outcomes are:
in Van der Horst & The learner reacts to the information and answer, assist, discuss, help, label, greet,
McDonald, 1997) enjoys reacting to it. perform, practise, present, select, read,
and write.
Valuing Words commonly used in outcomes are:

The learner attaches a certain value to complete, demonstrate, differentiate,
an activity or phenomenon and reacts explain, initiate, invite, join, justify,
voluntarily to increase participation in propose, report, share, and work.
the activity.
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Organising Words commonly used in outcomes are:

The learner organises values in a way arrange, alter, combine, compare, defend,
that is characteristic of the learner. integrate, modify, relate, and synthesise.
Characterisation Words commonly used in outcomes are:
The learner conceptualises the value to act, discriminate, display, influence,
which he or she is responding by forming listen, perform, qualify, question, revise,
characteristics to evaluate a matter. solve, and verify.
Psychomotor domain The learner receives information; the Words commonly used in outcomes are:
(physical) sense organs guide physical activity. detect, differentiate, choose, describe,
feel, relate, draw, select, and isolate.
The learner is physically ready to Words commonly used in outcomes are:

take action. begin, display, explain, move, process,
react, show, and volunteer.
The learner imitates actions from others, Words commonly used in outcomes are:
and uses trial and error. copy, trace, follow, reproduce, respond,
and watch.
The learner can do a task alone in less Words commonly used in outcomes are:
time and without describing the steps. assemble, calibrate, construct, dismantle,
display, fix, manipulate, measure, mix,
and sketch.
The learner can do a task without error, Words commonly used in outcomes are:
is skilful in performing physical acts assemble, calibrate, construct, dismantle,
that involve complex movements, and is display, fasten, fix, manipulate, measure,
highly co-ordinated. mix, and sketch.
The learner can do a task in a different Words commonly used in outcomes are:
way. Skills can be modified to respond to adapt, alter, change, rearrange,
special requirements. reorganise, revise, and vary.
The learner can do a task in an original Words commonly used in outcomes are:
way, or create a new pattern to fit a arrange, build, combine, compose,
specific situation or problem. create, design, and make.
Bloom’s taxonomy of learning outcomes, revised by Anderson (cited in Blumberg, 2009),

indicates that learning follows a hierarchy of cognitive processes. This hierarchy – indicating
Bloom’s traditional terms of the cognitive domain in brackets – is depicted in Figure 4.4.
The new descriptions of the cognitive learning levels take into account the kind of thinking
processes that are involved in individual learning. Bloom’s revised taxonomy also indicates
that four different types of knowledge are used and constructed at each of the six levels
of the taxonomy. This indicates that we (and learners) use and create various kinds of
knowledge at each level of the taxonomy and L&D professionals should keep this in mind
when formulating learning outcomes. In their role as learning designers, L&D professionals
should ask: ‘What kind of knowledge should the learners utilise and what kind of knowledge
should learners create, and what cognitive processes should they engage in the learning
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Create
(Evaluation)
Evaluate
(Synthesis)
Analyse Factual knowledge
(Analysis)
Conceptual knowledge
Apply Procedural knowledge
(Application)
Meta-cognitive knowledge
Understand
(Comprehension)
Remember
(Knowledge)
Figure 4.4 Cognitive domain (based on Bloom’s revised taxonomy of learning)
process to use and create the relevant knowledge?’ As can be seen from Figure 4.4, all four
types of knowledge are utilised and created at all six cognitive levels of the taxonomy.
1. Factual knowledge is what we would call foundational knowledge – the knowledge

of terms, definitions, elements and so on. This knowledge may be seen as surface
knowledge, but it forms the foundation for the development of the other three types
of knowledge. Therefore, learners need to possess factual knowledge before they can
understand, apply, analyse, evaluate or create in order to use and create the other three
types of knowledge. But, when learners possess only factual knowledge, they are unable
to use their knowledge in the working world to do their jobs efficiently and to solve
problems in the workplace.
2. Conceptual knowledge revolves around categories, principles, generalisations, models,
structures and theories. When learners possess this kind of knowledge, they thoroughly
understand the information content of a specific subject or field and can apply it to
perform a job better and to solve certain problems. This kind of knowledge is preferred
to factual knowledge.
Conceptual knowledge revolves around categories, principles, generalisations, models,

structures and theories and is preferred to factual knowledge.
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3. Procedural knowledge focuses on the knowledge associated with a specific discipline, and
the utilisation of the knowledge to perform jobs (demonstrate skills), or utilise methods
or techniques. This kind of knowledge is demonstrated through application and often
includes a sequence of steps.
Procedural knowledge focuses on the knowledge associated with a specific discipline, and the
use of the knowledge to perform jobs or use methods or techniques.
4. Meta-cognitive knowledge is about comprehending knowing and learning. It involves

thinking about one’s learning and thinking in order to know one’s self. It can also be
seen as strategic knowledge.
Meta-cognitive knowledge involves thinking about one’s learning and thinking in order to
know one’s self. It can also be seen as strategic knowledge.
The importance of Bloom’s revised taxonomy is the close fit that exists between the
cognitive levels and different kinds of knowledge that should be the focus of the learning
outcomes and the NQF level descriptors (discussed in Chapter 1, see Appendix A), which
indicate the level at which the learning outcomes of a learning programme should be
focused. NQF level descriptors provide a quality check to determine whether the content
that L&D professionals teach in their learning programmes is at the correct educational/
cognitive level. Figure 4.5 indicates how closely the levels of Bloom’s revised taxonomy of
the cognitive domain are linked with the NQF level descriptors for NQF Level 5 (refer
to Chapter 1). Learning outcomes can be formulated at all six levels using the associated
verbs indicated in Figures 4.4 and 4.5. Using these verbs will ensure that learning outcomes
accommodate all six levels of the cognitive domain and do not focus only on the first level
of the revised taxonomy.
In Table 4.5, the verbs in the various learning taxonomy levels are guidelines to assisting
learning designers to formulate appropriate learning outcomes. When writing learning
outcomes, learning designers should attempt to engage all aspects of each domain. For
example, if learners are required to demonstrate their ability to differentiate between two
theories, they should not only be required to describe those theories, but also be required
to discuss, evaluate and differentiate between the advantages and disadvantages of those
theories. Using the various domains as guidelines when writing learning outcomes will also
ensure that the learning design accommodates the needs of different learning styles and
preferences (as discussed in Chapter 3).
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Blooms taxonomy Associated verbs NQF level descriptors

(level 5)
Adjust application of a
Design, create, construct, solution within relevant
Create parameters; evaluate the
develop, devise, plan
change using relevant
evidence.
Use knowledge to solve

Judge, evaluate, criticise,
well-defined problems
Evaluate choose, estimate, predict,
(routine and unfamiliar)
argue
in a familiar context.
Analyse why, support, Interpret, convert and

Analyse categorise, classify, evaluate text and
put in order operational symbols/
representations.
Solve, choose, determine, Apply essential methods,

Apply employ, interpret, procedures and techniques
demonstrate, relay of the field.
Apply informed
Describe rephrase, relate, understanding of important
Understand
explain terms, rules, concepts,
principals and theories.
Obtain fundamental
Remember Name, list, recall, state, knowledge base of the main
identify areas of one or more fields
of disciplines.
Figure 4.5 L
inks between the NQF level descriptors and Bloom’s revised taxonomy
(cognitive domain) (Botha, Louw & Oosthuizen, 2011, unpublished)
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CHARACTERISATION
ORGANISING
VALUING
RESPONDING
RECEIVING/
Complexity
ATTENDING
Figure 4.6 The affective domain (Botha, 2007)
RECEIVES IS READY
INFORMATION FOR ACTION
CREATES NEW IMITATES ACTION

PATTERNS (Trial & error)
MODIFIES TASKS DOES TASK ALONE
DOES COMPLEX
MOVEMENTS
Figure 4.7 The psychomotor domain (Botha, 2007)
2.5.5 Critical cross-field outcomes

The eight critical cross-field outcomes (CCFOs) (discussed in Chapter 1) are the foundation
for developing learning outcomes. CCFOs are general life skills outcomes designed by
SAQA; they apply to all the learning areas. The CCFOs are broad statements of intent, and
of the learning activities that will lead to the achievement of those goals. These outcomes
should serve as broad, basic guidelines when formulating more specific learning outcomes
for a learning programme (SAQA, 2005). The traditional SAQA unit standards do not
include all the CCFOs. However, learners should achieve all the CCFOs during the course
of completing a full qualification (or at least the CCFOs relevant to the particular learning
programme). Within the context of the OLS and OQF, the CCFOs are integrated into the
occupational/job responsibility and practical skills components of the learning programme
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because they represent important work readiness skills (see Table 4.1 and Table 4.2). The
CCFOs are outlined in Table 4.6 below.
The CCFOs are broad statements of intent, and of the learning activities that will lead to
the achievement of those goals.
Activity
CCFOs and employer requirements

Careers24 (https://www.careers24.com/jobs) advertised the position of a recruitment
consultant. The job tasks of the position involve competency-based recruitment and
training; and the screening of interview applicants. Work readiness skills required by the
employer include problem-solving skills, initiative, written and verbal communication
skills, and being a team player. Review Table 4.6. Which critical cross-field outcomes do
the work ready skills address?
Visit the website of Careers24 and study the requirements of HR of L&D-related
positions. Can you identify the work readiness skills required by employers. Note how
the critical cross-field outcomes of various positions speak to general important work
readiness skills. L&D programme design must focus on developing these important
skills in all employees.
Table 4.6 The critical cross-field outcomes (SAQA, 2005)

Learners must be able to:
•• Identify and solve problems; •• Lifelong learning

•• Work effectively with others in teams; •• Explore strategies to learn more effectively;
•• Organise themselves effectively; –– Participate as responsible citizens in community
•• Collect, analyse, organise and evaluate information; life;
•• Communicate well orally or in writing; –– Be culturally and aesthetically sensitive;
•• Use science and technology responsibly; –– Explore education and career opportunities; and
•• Understand that the world is a set of related –– Become entrepreneurial.
systems.
Activity
Visit SAQA’s website: http://www.saqa.org.za. Source any unit standard.

Identify which CCFOs the unit standard addresses.
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2.6 Stage 6: Determining, sourcing and sequencing the learning

content
experience

strategy
Content refers to the underpinning knowledge, skills and values that learners have to
master, combined with the different ways in which the L&D professional, as a learning
facilitator, will convey it to the learners. In effect, the content that is decided upon in the
design phase will determine what the participants will learn and whether the learning
programme will have the desired organisational effect (Barker, 2008). In a learner-centred
approach, the L&D professional does not teach the content, but facilitates a learning
experience driven by outcomes. The selection of content for a learning programme is,
therefore, determined by the learning outcomes. As shown in Table 4.7 and Figure 4.8,
content can be classified into essential, helpful and peripheral. The discussion and practise
of essential content should be the main focus of the learning content, and helpful content
could be added to this. The discussion of peripheral content should be avoided. Learning
designers should avoid including all the information they have been able to gather in
the course content – only the content that will assist with the achievement of the course
learning outcomes should be included. A learning designer normally selects course content
from several sources. The content must then be arranged in a specific sequence to enable
learners to achieve the learning outcomes of the learning programme.
In a learner-centred approach, the L&D professional does not teach the content, but
facilitates a learning experience driven by outcomes.
Table 4.7 Categories of content (Erasmus et al., 2015)
Essential content Helpful content Peripheral content

Must know Should know Nice to know
What the learner must be able to Information that supplements Information that is not essential,
do after the learning programme. the essential information and but may have a bearing on how
can be included if time and other well a learner masters the learning
constraints permit. outcomes.
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WHAT/ WHAT/ WHAT/

HOW? HOW? HOW?
ATTENTION ___________ GUIDANCE ___________ PRACTICE ___________
___________ ___________ ___________
___________ ___________ ___________
___________ ___________ ___________
WHAT/ A _________ MUST

HOW? ___________ ___________
___________ B _________ SHOULD
ASSESSMENT ___________ CONTENT ___________ A ___________
___________ C _________
___________ ___________ NICE
___________
MUST MUST
___________ ___________
C SHOULD B SHOULD
___________ ___________
NICE NICE
___________ ___________
Figure 4.8 An example of a course mind map (Botha, 2007)
A number of factors influence a learning designer’s selection of relevant course content.

These factors will also influence the way in which the content is presented to the learners.
The factors that influence content selection include the following:
•• The type of subject presented;
•• Differences between learners;
•• The ability of the learning facilitator; and
•• The sources of the content.
Each of these factors will be discussed in the following section.
2.6.1 The type of subject presented in the learning programme

Each subject uses specific types of content, whether it is figures (such as in economics) or
words (such as in history). The same applies to areas within an organisation, such as sales
training (where the emphasis is on profit margins), human relations (where the emphasis
is on interpersonal relations) or management (where the emphasis is on processes and
structures). The subjects or topics of a learning programme are based on the identified
required knowledge component of the occupational/job task analysis (see Table 4.2).
2.6.2 Learner differences

It is impossible to know exactly how each learner learns. However, some key aspects in
respect of learner differences can be considered when selecting course content. These aspects
include the learners’ generation (i.e. background/exposure to technology, technological/
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digital literacy), access to technology, cultures and cultural differences, and language ability,
or the learners’ ability to understand the language of instruction and express themselves in
that language. The learners’ learning styles also influence the selection and presentation of
content (see Chapter 2).
2.6.3 The ability of the learning facilitator

L&D professionals who are experts in the field of study are the right people to select
content for a learning programme. But sometimes L&D professionals are not experts in
the field in which they have to train employees. They need to consult an expert to help
them to select the relevant content.
2.6.4 Sources of content

An L&D professional needs to investigate relevant sources to find the content for a learning
programme. The primary, or most important source, is occupational/job data which include
occupational profile information registered on the OFO, company-specific job analysis
reports and performance agreements. It is useful to use learners’ job descriptions as the
point of departure, as these consist primarily of a series of job outcomes, in other words,
what employees need to know and be able to do in their jobs. Other documents that can
assist the L&D professional to find appropriate content for a learning programme include:
technical and operator manuals; standard operating procedures; standard reference books;
textbooks in libraries or bookshops; and organisation and function manuals. (Table 4.9
provides a list of learning resources or online repositories of learning that could be used.)
Use the following question as a guideline when selecting content: Is the information from
this source (or the content that you wish to include in the programme):
•• Essential (absolutely necessary to reach the outcome)?
•• Helpful (adding some value to the programme, such as examples or case studies)?
•• Peripheral (not really essential or helpful, but nice to have and something that will
increase the performance level of trainees, such as a discussion given by some expert in
the field)? or
•• Unrelated (no relevance to the learning outcomes)?
An L&D professional needs to investigate sources to find the content for a learning
programme.
Table 4.8 The links between the training need, learning outcome and learning content
Training need Outcome Content

A number of employees are not After training this worker, she will •• Reading material on how to
able to make a garment (such be able to make (verb) garments interpret a pattern;
as a dress) according to specific (noun) from patterns (qualifier). •• Examples of different types of
measurements taken from a pattern;
pattern.
•• Instructions on how to measure
with a measuring tape.
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Table 4.9 Examples of learning resources (Landy & Conte, 2004)
Learning resources
•• Books and other printed matter, such as •• Subject matter experts and current professionals or
study guides; practitioners;
•• Video and audio tapes, CDs and DVDs; •• User or interest groups;
•• Hyperlinks to websites with open educational •• The work environment;
resources; •• Smart phone learning technology;
•• PowerPoint slides, photographs and video clips; •• Museums, art galleries and exhibitions;
•• Departmental procedures and checklists; •• Online repositories of learning;
•• Sales literature, magazines and newspapers; •• Government documentation;
•• Collection of raw data; •• The internet.
•• Email, newsgroups, chat rooms and list servers;
2.6.5 Sequencing the content of a learning programme

Proper sequencing of content can make a significant difference to the effectiveness of the
learners’ learning experience. There are various ways to sequence learning content and the
learning experience as a whole. These include:
•• Chronological sequencing. The content is arranged according to dates or a series of events,
for example, from past to present.
•• Step-by-step sequencing. Learners analyse how a task is performed, and then each step
of the process is explained. This sequencing is used in instructions on how to cook a
certain dish.
•• Whole-to-part sequencing. Learners are exposed to a whole model, situation or procedure.
Thereafter, the parts of the model, situation or procedure are explained in more detail. This
sequencing was used to explain Bloom’s taxonomy in this chapter (Figures 4.4 and 4.5).
•• Part-to-whole sequencing. Learners are exposed to each part of a model, process or
situation. The parts are combined into a whole at the end of the learning experience.
This kind of sequencing is often used in school textbooks.
•• Known-to-unknown sequencing. The learning experience starts out with material that is
familiar to the learner and then moves on to new material.
•• Unknown-to-known sequencing. Learners are exposed to new material at the start of a
learning programme or learning session (for example, by asking a question to which
the learners will probably not know the answer). Learners are then guided towards the
information that they do know. Some facilitators believe that this sequencing creates a
motivation to learn more.
•• General-to-specific sequencing. Learners are given an overview of a topic. Each aspect
of the topic is then discussed in detail. This sequencing is often used at conferences.
Speakers give an overview of what they will be talking about, and then continue with a
more detailed discussion of the content.
•• Specific-to-general sequencing. This type of sequencing starts with specific topics or
information the learner should have, and ends with a general overview of the topic.
•• Concrete-to-abstract sequencing. This type of sequencing starts with learning experiences
that are easy to understand and define. The learner is then guided through a learning
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experience that becomes gradually more complex, challenging and abstract. For
example, a learning experience may start out with a description of a theory (including
advantages and disadvantages, and applications of the theory) and end with a debate
between learners on the relative merits of two different theories on the same subject
(Erasmus et al., 2015).
Proper sequencing of content can make a significant difference to the effectiveness of the
learners’ learning experience.
Table 4.10 An example of a course outline
Learning outcomes At the end of the learning programme, learners should be able to:
Capture attention Ask a question, show a diagram or picture, describe a scenario, give learners a case
study or problem to solve, make an argumentative statement or let them play a game.
Content Must know Should know Nice to know
Learner guidance How will I help learners to understand the material? I can give examples, do a
demonstration, let them practise a skill, do a role-play or let them evaluate a situation.
Practice Provide exercises to practise.
Assessment How will I know that learners have mastered the material and that they are ready to
move on?
Table 4.11 provides guidelines on sequencing content.
Table 4.11 Guidelines on sequencing content (Erasmus et al., 2015.)
How to sequence content
•• Start out with information that is easy to learn.

•• Start out with broad terms and technical concepts or cover them as early as possible in the learning
experience.
•• Practise new concepts immediately after you introduce them.
•• Link new knowledge and skills by placing previous knowledge and skills just before the new material.
•• If certain knowledge and skills are essential for mastering later parts of the work, allow enough time and
opportunity for practise.
•• Use sequencing that makes sense to you and will make sense to the learners.
•• Complex tasks and tasks that need a lot of new knowledge should be placed later in the sequence.
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2.7 Stage 7: Designing learning activities

experience

strategy
Once the sequence of the content has been finalised, the L&D professional can focus on
designing the learning activities – those activities that will help the learners to understand,
practise and master the course content. Learning activities are the tools L&D professionals
use to expose learners to the knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviour they need to master
the learning outcomes. In this book, for example, there are various learning activities
designed to help you achieve the learning outcomes formulated for each chapter. Activities
differ in how information is transmitted, how the learners will practise the knowledge,
skills and attitudes, and how the practitioner will assess whether learners have enough
understanding of the content to move on to the next part of the content. Outcomes describe
what learners must be able to do with the information they receive and understanding they
develop during the learning process.
Learning activities are the tools L&D professionals use to expose learners to the knowledge,
skills, attitudes and behaviour they need to master the learning outcomes.
Outcomes describe what learners must be able to do with the information they receive and
understanding they develop during the learning process.
Well-designed activities can help learners to remember information for later recall and use,
practise new skills and provide feedback on their mastery of the information and skills.
Learning activities must do the following:
•• Allow the learner to take information (descriptions, rules, guidelines, advantages and
disadvantages, definitions, and so on) and apply it to practical situations;
•• Help learners to practise what they have learned;
•• Allow learners to make mistakes and guide them to deal with or correct them;
•• Refine knowledge and skills so that learning outcomes can be achieved;
•• Allow learners the opportunity to practise new knowledge, skills and attitudes in a safe,
non-threatening environment and in different contexts and situations.
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Examples of learning activities are provided in Table 4.12.
Table 4.12 Examples of learning activities
Learning activities
Examples of learning activities that L&D professionals can use include:

•• Reading materials independently to prepare for participating in discussions;
•• Summarising information to extract key points;
•• Exercises, such as listing advantages and disadvantages, or creating definitions;
•• Problem-solving, such as analysing a case study and making suggestions on possible solutions to problems;
•• Observing and noting what is happening in a role-play or on a video;
•• Making a drawing or other representation;
•• Conducting a survey; and
•• Simulating a real situation (this method is often used in management games).
Research has shown that a competitive advantage can be gained when learners are proactive
in the learning process (Rees & French, 2016). Following a self-directed, work-based
(occupational-based) process supports the idea of andragogy (adult learning) proposed by
Knowles (1990), which was discussed in Chapter 2. The notion of self-directedness in
adult learning suggests that learners (employees) within the organisation need much more
involvement in the learning process for it to be effective.
Research has shown that a competitive advantage can be gained when adult learners are
proactive (self-directed) in the learning process.
A learner-centred approach attempts to involve learners in the learning process; enables

learners to apply their knowledge to emerging issues; and helps learners to integrate
discipline- or subject-based knowledge in the learning process. A learner-centred
approach generally leads to a more positive attitude towards what is being learned, which
improves learners’ motivation to learn. It also leads to understanding at a deeper level
and, therefore, new knowledge is retained better. Learning materials should be clear and
understandable, support the ways in which adult learners learn, and communicate and
engage learners’ interests and motivations. By creating detailed, measurable learning
outcomes, selecting relevant course content, designing supportive and interactive learner
guides and incorporating support materials in the design of the learning programme,
L&D professionals guide learners to the knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviour they
need to master and be able to apply in the respective workplace or occupational context.
Effective designers of learning stimulate learners’ curiosity and think of ways to improve
learners’ motivation and confidence. Learners must have direct access to the knowledge
base. They should be allowed to work individually and in groups to master the material
by solving problems, trying to understand and apply the material, and memorising
important concepts.
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A learner-centred approach generally leads to a more positive attitude towards what is being
learned, which improves learners’ motivation to learn.
A learner-centred approach generally leads to understanding at a deeper level and, therefore,

new knowledge is retained better.
In the learner-centred approach, the L&D professional’s role (as a designer of learning) is
to develop work readiness skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving and decision-
making (see SAQA CCFOs). This can be achieved by helping learners to access, interpret,
organise and apply information to specific workplace or occupational situations (Dooley
et al., 2005). In a learner-centred approach, L&D professional are led by learners’
characteristics (such as learning pace, learning style and motivation to learn) when they
design the learning embedded in the learning programme. The learning design should
be flexible to allow learners to master the knowledge at their own pace and to address the
individual learner’s needs.
In the learner-centred approach, the L&D professional’s role is to develop work readiness
skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving and decision-making.
The learning design should be flexible to allow learners to master the knowledge at their
own pace and to address the individual learner’s needs.
2.8 Stage 8: Developing a learning delivery and assessment

strategy
experience

strategy
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A learning delivery and assessment strategy is a broad, detailed plan for achieving the
learning programme objective and enabling learners to master the learning outcomes.
Before starting to design learning materials, L&D professionals, as learning designers,
should have accomplished the tasks set out in stages 1 to 7 of outcomes-based learning
design. These stages help the L&D professional to gain important background insight in
terms of the following:
•• Understand their learners and their occupational/job tasks;
•• Identify or formulate the learning outcomes at the appropriate NQF/OQF level (see
the LARF tool);
•• Identify the learning content and assessment standards and criteria;
•• Decide which media they will use to deliver the learning content;
•• Organise (sequence) the content of the material;
•• Select methods that will create the required learning experience for the learners; and
•• Choose the environment or occupational/work context in which learners will be
engaging with the material.
L&D professionals need an outline or framework (such as those shown in Table 4.10 and
Figure 4.9) that sets out the different ways to guide the learners to achieve the learning
outcomes. (Boot et al., 2007; Coetzee, 2007b). Some of the basic principles that apply to
the learning delivery and assessment strategy are the following:
•• In outcomes-based/work-based learning, learning outcomes are the starting point in
learning design. Learning outcomes always determine the content and design of the
learning process. The number of learning outcomes is determined by the objective and
curriculum of the learning programme.
In outcomes-based/work-based learning, learning outcomes are the starting point in

learning design.
•• Include the content that will help the learners to master the basic knowledge, skills and
attitudes required at a specific level. If learners are required to delve deeper into some of
the information, optional activities or further reading suggestions can be included. It is
essential to keep learning focused on the learning outcomes.
•• Learners cannot learn everything there is to know about a certain subject in a single
learning programme.
Learners cannot learn everything there is to know about a certain subject in a single
learning programme.
•• It is important to capture the learners’ attention before presenting the content. This will
help learners to be more attuned to the experience of learning. Various methods can be
used to capture learners’ attention before presenting the content. These are discussed
in Chapter 6.
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Learning unit specification:

Learning outcome 04 – Assessing development needs
Self-study What Learning unit

Collect Assessment criteria
information Learning process description
Knowledge A presentation/
questionnaire lecture followed by The assessor will
group discussions and observe and confirm
presentations that are then that learners are able to:
consolidated by completing • design a process
Lecture self-assessment activities. for ensuring the
Analyse, effective development
plan of the department’s
Group discussions How employees;
and make
and presentations Learners attend a
decisions • design a process
presentation/lecture for determining the
regarding the process and departmental and
Case studies
principles of assessing employees’ training and
development needs. development needs;
Learners participate in • compile skills matrices
group discussions and for the department; and
Workplace
design a process model
assignments • contract learning with
for assessing development
employees.
needs.
Execute, Skills portfolio Learners compile skills
assess and matrices.
evaluate Complete self- Learners contract learning.
evaluation Notional
The learning is hours
questionnaire
consolidated when learners 20
complete self-assessment
Course evaluation activities.
Figure 4.9 P
lanning the learning delivery and assessment strategy: example (Coetzee,
2007b)
•• Present the learning content in a meaningful and understandable way and in ‘chunks’
(small manageable learning units). The learners should not only understand the
information, but also its context and meaning. They should also be able to use the
information to create their own meaning and understanding in different situations or
examples.
Present the learning content in a meaningful and understandable way and in small ‘chunks’.
•• Guide the learners through the material. This helps the learners to understand how the
material relates to their needs and helps with long-term memorisation.
•• Provide sufficient opportunity for learners to practise what they have learned. In this
way, information is captured in the long-term memory. Practice also provides feedback
opportunities on how well learners are mastering the learning outcomes (learning
facilitators should give feedback on this step so that learners know where they are in
the learning process).
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Provide sufficient opportunity for learners to practise what they have learned.
•• Identify and use appropriate assessment activities, criteria and standards to assess learners’
mastery of the content. Develop appropriate and relevant assessment guidelines.
Designing the learning delivery and assessment strategy involves planning the duration
of the learning programme, notional hours and credits. It further involves identifying the
most appropriate learning activities that will enable the learners to master the learning
outcomes of the learning programme. The assessment strategy is also developed for the
integrated assessment of occupational or job competence. The assessment strategy enables
the learning designer to formulate the assessment specifications by determining the
optimum combination of assessment tasks. The learning designer has to determine the
most economical and efficient way to assess learners’ achievement of the learning outcomes
(Stuart, 2011). The learning delivery and assessment strategy must be captured on a
template (Vorwerk, 2009a,b), such as those shown in Tables 4.13 and 4.14.
Designing the learning delivery and assessment strategy involves planning the duration of
the learning programme, notional hours and credits.
Table 4.13 E
xample 1: Develop the learning delivery and assessment strategy: HR
managers (OFO version 6: 1323) (Pauw, 2010)
Developing and implementing performance management systems

to plan, appraise and improve individual and team performance. A
Occupational task sub-task within the performance management system is coaching.
NQF level 6
Title of course Coaching for success
Total credits 3.5 (1 credit = 10 notional hours)
Total time frame 35 hours (3-day contact workshop and workplace experience)
Underpinning •• Revise performance management Learning activity guidelines

Knowledge and what it entails (Module 1).
Focus groups with experts –
Notional hours: •• Understand what coaching is and
people with extensive practical
why it is important.
10 hours experience who will be able to share
•• Understand when to use coaching stories and indicate the importance
and the benefits of coaching. and life-changing experience that
•• Understand the basic coaching coaching can bring about in each of
principles. the three coaching techniques.
•• Understand and apply the Focus groups – groups will work
‘coaching towards change’ together to discuss the role of a
technique. coach. They will put together a job
•• Understand and apply the ‘SMART description that will include the
GROW’ coaching technique. competencies, knowledge and skills
needed to perform it successfully.
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•• Understand and apply the Video clips – these will assist the
‘well-formed outcome’ coaching learners to remember what they have
technique. learned – visual examples make it
•• Be aware of pitfalls in coaching. a lot easier to remember. These are
also very practical and fun.
Reading and audio books – the

delegates will receive handouts to
read, as well as CDs with audio-book
recordings to transfer knowledge.
Formulating questions – this will

indicate an understanding of each of
the coaching techniques.
Role-play – practise each of the

three coaching techniques through
role-play exercised in front of the
class. The class will give feedback on
each person’s performance as coach.
Practical skills •• Listening skills; Learning activity guidelines

Notional hours: •• Communication skills;
Role-play – to practise to listen and
10 hours •• Interpersonal skills; to display the correct body language.
•• Body language – to come across in This will indicate some sense of
an open and approachable manner. interpersonal skills and if there is
a need to develop this skill to a
greater extent.
Comprehension/listening test – to
indicate the importance of listening in
the world of coaching and to see how
well delegates can listen.
Video clips – to indicate the

importance of the skills, as stated by
others in a different way, in order to
keep it interesting and exciting.
Focus groups – discussions will

assist employees to engage with
one another and will indicate a level
of communication. The discussions
with the experts at the end of the
three days will test the transfer
of knowledge through active and
engaged conversations.
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Work experience •• Exposure to organisational policies Learning activity guidelines
Notional hours: 15 hours and procedures;
Build up a portfolio of evidence
•• Exposure to the performance
with the following:
management process;
•• Conducting performance 1. Conduct nine coaching sessions –
discussions; three sessions with each of
the new techniques learned
•• Understanding the organisation’s
under the observation of an
performance management system;
executive coach.
•• Understanding the work performed
by the employee who will be 2. Reflect on how you felt during
coached and the context in which each of these different sessions –
it is performed. what you found difficult and what
you enjoyed.
3. Get feedback from people who

have gone through coaching
sessions. Include it in a portfolio
of evidence.
4. Put a development plan in place

for those aspects of your coaching
that you would like to improve,
as well as action plans on how to
address these.
Table 4.14 E
xample 2: Develop the learning delivery and assessment strategy:
HR managers (OFO version 6: 1323) (Straulino, 2010)
Occupational task Planning, appraising and improving individual and team performance
NQF level 6
Title of course Performance improvement: Within reach
Total credits 10 (1 credit = 10 notional hours)
Underpinning •• Human capital management Learning activity guidelines

Knowledge concepts;
Pre-course reading material.
Notional hours: 5 hours •• Job analysis methods;
•• Leadership and management styles; Pre-course research.
•• Behavioural theories of learning and Team-based quiz.
motivation;
•• Strategic performance management Group discussion: Pitfalls and benefits
processes; of performance management.
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•• Performance appraisal systems and
best practice methods;
•• Individual and team performance
indicators;
•• Performance improvement
methodology;
•• South African labour legislation,
including the Basic Conditions
of Employment Act, Skills
Development Act, Employment
Equity and Labour Relations Acts.
Practical skills •• Research and integration skills; Learning activity guidelines

Notional hours: 15 hours •• Interpersonal skills;
Translating job information to
•• Communication skills, i.e. listening, performance measures – individual
questioning and persuasion skills; task.
•• Planning and organising skills;
Developing a template to plan for
•• Performance gap analysis skills; performance appraisal – group task
•• Identifying and problem-solving and presentation.
skills;
‘Conducting a performance appraisal’
•• Macro-vision skills, demonstrating
– group task/role-plays.
understanding that problems do not
exist in isolation; Analysis of a scenario to identify
•• Team work and co-operation skills; performance issues and possible
solutions – group task.
•• Leadership skills, such as
motivation and empowerment. Case study – homework.
Translate performance gaps to action

plan – discussion group.
Psychometric assessment to identify

primary management style (15FQ+).
Training DVD – Solving performance

problems: The performance
improvement plan
Work experience Exposure to HR strategy and goals; Learning activity guidelines

Notional hours: 60 hours Understanding of HR business model
Research previous/current
and levels of work;
performance appraisal method used
Understanding of previous/current in department and prepare a report to
performance appraisal processes; provide to the supervisor to identify
Exposure to HR and performance the pros and cons of the method.
management system;
Research the performance appraisal
Exposure to service level agreements; method used in a different
organisation to identify the pros
and cons of the method. Include this
comparative information in the report.
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Understanding of relevant HR policies, Include section in report analysing
including performance management alignment of performance criteria for
policy, remuneration policy, training at least three different jobs to level of
and development policy, incapacity work and organisational strategy.
policy.
Practical skills Understanding of reward system; Learning activity guidelines

Notional hours: 20 hours Exposure to training framework.
Attend training on the use of the
performance management system
used in the organisation.
Read HR policies, highlight questions

and schedule short meetings with
relevant persons to answer questions.
Interview a manager to find out

hindrances and facilitating factors to
performance appraisal. Report findings
back to trainer by agreed deadline.
2.9 Stage 9: Choosing training and learning methods

experience

strategy
Once the learning programme objective, learning outcomes and activities, and delivery and
assessment strategy have been established, the next step in designing a learning programme
is to choose the most appropriate training method for the objective and learning outcomes,
and delivery of an assessment strategy. For example, if a learning outcome is to learn and
assess an actual skill, some type of hands-on training, such as role-play or simulation, will
be necessary, including building a portfolio of evidence of workplace experience in the skill
as assessment type. Most learning programmes have a number of learning outcomes and
various learning activities and forms of assessment (see Chapter 7), so the best learning
programmes use a variety of methods (Aamodt, 2007). The different training methods are
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discussed in more detail in Chapter 6, while Chapter 7 discusses assessment types. The
most common training methods are as follows:
•• Lectures deliver uniform information to a large group of people in a short time. It is
the most common method, but it is not interactive. It is not effective for teaching
behaviours or learning skills.
•• Discussions are structured conversations between learners and facilitators. They provide
immediate feedback on contributions, creating higher motivation levels and better
participation from the learners.
•• Case studies are written descriptions of an organisational problem that can be analysed
by a group or an individual. Recommendations are presented for further discussion in
the larger group.
•• Role-play is the simulation of organisational problems by learners, followed by
a discussion. This is a good method to teach and learn skills such as interpersonal
communication, conflict management, interviewing, performance appraisal and
assertiveness.
•• Management games are simulation exercises that replicate conditions in real organisations.
Teams compete against one another, making decisions about planning, organising,
financial issues, production and control of a hypothetical organisation.
•• In-basket exercises develop problem-solving skills. A manager or trainee manager is given
an in-basket filled with the typical problems that a manager should be able to solve. The
learner must make an immediate decision on how to solve the problems.
•• Demonstrations are actual displays of how to perform a specific task or set of tasks.
•• Sensitivity training focuses on feelings and how one person’s behaviour affects the
feelings, behaviours and attitudes of others.
•• Self-directed, independent learning through mobile technology-enabled, self-paced digital
books, microlearning videos, interactive real-life scenarios, collaborative online learning (i.e.
interactive discussions) and audio books.
•• Technology-based methods (see Table 4.15) include computer-based methods, social
learning, web-based training or e-learning, interactive multimedia and virtual reality
training (Grobler et al., 2006; King, 2017).
It is important to note that, while these methods differ in their specific applications, they
all have the learning principles discussed in Chapter 2 in common. Learners generally react
more positively to integrated learning (learning that uses a wide range of methods). Using a
wide range of methods will also require learners to use different learning styles. This ensures
that most of the learners get involved. Salas and Cannon-Bowers (2001) and King (2017)
note that most effective learning methods are created around eight basic principles:
1. They present relevant and meaningful information and content to be learned.
2. They represent learner-centric design.
3. The learning content and activities are presented micro-sized and modular (i.e. short
bursts of information).
4. Multiple methods are applied to encourage learner engagement and effective learning
and retention (reading, watching, sharing, interacting and applying).
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Table 4.15 Technology-based training methods
Web-based
Computer-based training or Interactive Virtual reality
methods e-learning multimedia training Social learning
•• Learning •• These methods •• This method •• With these •• Mobile
materials are offer training combines text, methods, technology
made available opportunities video, graphics, the learner enabled social
on computer that are animation and learns in an media as
and learners accessible sound to create artificial three- learning tools
can access the wherever the a training dimensional such as social
materials when learner can environment environment. web (i.e. blogs,
it is convenient access the with which the •• Situations that wikis, social
for them. internet. learner can the learner may networks that
•• Learners can •• Learners can interact. experience drive community
also set their develop their in the work building and
own pace for the skills and environment are collaboration).
learning. knowledge while simulated. •• Video-sharing
sitting at their •• The learner must sites, e.g.,
computers, at interact with Facebook,
any time and in the environment Twitter, Linkedln,
any place. to accomplish YouTube, Vimeo.
goals. •• Audio books and
e-books.
5. They are built for mobile access (i.e. provide for learning ‘on-the-go’ through mobile/
smartphone technology, e.g. microlearning videos, e-books, and audio books that can
be consumed while walking, talking, running, commuting)
6. They demonstrate a focus on work-related applied competencies (knowledge, skills,
abilities, attitudes and behaviour) to be learned.
7. They create opportunities for learners to practise the required skills.
8. They provide feedback to learners during and after practice.
Learners generally react more positively to integrated learning (learning that uses a wide
range of methods). This also ensures that most of the learners get involved.
When choosing training methods, L&D professionals should consider the aspects listed
in Table 4.16.
Table 4.16 Aspects to consider when choosing training methods (based on Galbraith, 1990)
The learners •• Characteristics; •• Learning styles;

•• Differences. •• Generational preferences.
The facilitator •• Strengths and weaknesses; •• L&D philosophy.

•• Facilitation style.
The content •• Nature of the content •• Resources that will be needed.
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The situation •• One-to-one; •• Group work;

•• Classroom-based; •• Computer-based or online, mobile or
•• Mobile, social media technology; social learning.
•• Web-based, online technology.
Other considerations •• How much time and money do I have? •• Can I create an appropriate learning
for L&D professionals •• Will I have adequate equipment and environment?
materials for development? •• Am I using the appropriate design,
•• Do I possess the required skills? given the learning content and the
learners?
•• How easy will it be to update the
material?
Activity
• Do you think that classroom lectures are an effective outcomes-based training

method?
• Think also about the training preferences of the various generations. Which training
method would you recommend for each generation? Give reasons for your answer.
2.10 Stage 10: Designing learning support materials

experience

strategy
Learning support materials must be relevant to the learning area and suitable for the target group.
Learning support materials include a complete package of learning resources that have
been designed to enable the achievement of learning outcomes (for example, online open-
educational resources, learner manuals, handouts, books, slides and posters). Learning
support materials must be relevant to the learning area and suitable for the target group.
Based on the profile of learners, the L&D professional designs a framework for the
learning support materials, ensuring that support materials are suitable for the learners.
The framework needs to include specific details, including the mode of delivery and media
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to be used; the content; the structure and sequence of learning activities and materials; and
training methodology. As with the learning programme, it is advisable to test the learning
materials with a representative sample of learners and practitioners, and to revise and adapt
the materials and methodology, if necessary. Refer to Table 4.17 for a checklist on what
elements to include in learning materials and Table 4.18 for tips on developing effective
learning materials.
It is advisable to test the learning materials with a representative sample of learners and
practitioners, and to revise and adapt the materials and methodology, if necessary.
Some examples of learning materials are:

•• Self-study materials;
•• Modules;
•• Handouts;
•• Workbooks;
•• Lesson plans;
•• Evaluation forms;
•• Checklists for course planning; and
•• Report formats and procedures.
Self-study materials
Self-study materials should be developed if learners need to gain some knowledge
before the training session. Learners work through self-study materials at their own pace
and without trainer assistance to bring all learners to the same level of understanding.
Self-study materials should:
•• Explain the aim of the particular study method to learners;
•• Define the objectives clearly and be set out systematically;
•• Ask appropriate questions and provide opportunities for self-evaluation;
•• Be relevant and related to actual practice; and
•• Provide support if the learner wishes to clear up uncertainties.
Self-study materials should be developed if learners need to gain some knowledge before the
training session.
Modules
The layout of a module should be neat, user-friendly and should provide a clear indication
of the structure of the module. Each module of learning material should consist of three
sections:
1. An introduction that provides learners with a motivational preview of the objectives
and material;
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2. The main section that contains explanations of the subject matter and includes examples
and exercises; and
3. The conclusion that reviews content and helps learners to remember and apply new
information.
Handouts
Examples of handouts include exercise instructions, written case studies or guidelines for
role interpretations. Handouts must be relevant to the subject matter. They should include
an introduction that clearly and logically sets out the aims of the programme/subject
matter, the content to be mastered and the assessment tasks and questions to be completed.
Workbooks
Workbooks should contain appropriate modules and/or handouts and possibly checklists,
self-evaluation questionnaires and other material. A workbook should be an organised
collection of relevant material and should save learners time.
Evaluation forms
Evaluation forms are used to assess the effectiveness of a learning programme by getting
feedback from learners. Evaluation forms should ensure that information is unbiased. The
layout should be neat and the results should be quantifiable. A combination of closed and
open questions should be used. Closed questions make use of multiple-choice questions
or rating scales (quantitative information). Open questions provide an opportunity for
respondents to give reasons, comments or suggestions (qualitative information).
Evaluation forms are used to assess the effectiveness of a learning programme by getting
feedback from learners.
Checklists for course planning

Drawing up checklists, as shown in Table 4.20, to plan, control and carry out a presentation
will ensure that the learning process runs smoothly.
Table 4.17 Elements of well-designed outcomes-based learning material (Coetzee, 2007b)
Elements of well-designed outcomes-based learning material

•• Skills programme title; •• Headings;
•• Guidance on how to use the material; •• Sub-headings;
•• Learning route map; •• Numbering system;
•• Flowchart showing progression to qualification •• Manageable chunks;
(qualification, standards and credit guide); •• Learning experiences and activities;
•• Personal record book; •• Portfolio activities and evidence;
•• Portfolio of evidence examples; •• Performance self-assessment activities and
•• Overview of learning programme; evidence;
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Elements of well-designed outcomes-based learning material

•• Purpose and learning outcomes; •• Assessment (formative and summative) process and
•• Content assumptions; evidence requirements;
•• Structure; •• Feedback and evaluation;
•• Methodology; •• Pictures or icons, flow diagrams and mind maps;
•• Learning outcomes; •• Interactive, learner-friendly text;
•• Specific outcomes; •• Summary;
•• Critical cross-field outcomes; •• Self-assessment (readiness for assessment/
achievement of learning outcomes);
•• Assessment criteria;
•• References;
•• Evidence requirements;
•• Glossary.
•• Discussions or explanations;
•• Content and theory;
Table 4.18 Characteristics of effective learning materials (based on Chang, 1994)
Characteristic Description
Stimulating They involve all the senses.
Understandable The content is easy to understand and limited in scope. Important words and
concepts are highlighted.
Accurate Information provided is accurate, factual, properly ordered and complete.
Interesting The layout is attractive and the sequencing makes sense to the learners.
Practical The programme is practical; learners can easily identify with it.
General guidelines Use headings in learning materials. Whether lectures, demonstrations, case studies
or computer-based methods are used, learners must be able to determine where
they are in the learning experience.
Keep the information short and to the point, real and accessible.
Involve the learners in the learning experience, right through the experience.
Tell a story. Stories are a good way to involve learners’ emotions and commit
learners to learning.
Be specific, especially when using examples. Link examples to experiences with
which the learners will be able to relate.
3. THE L&D FACILITATOR GUIDE

In terms of the QCTO’s requirements for quality outcomes-based workplace learning
design, L&D professionals need to demonstrate that the design of their learning programmes
complies with the quality requirements for provider accreditation. The L&D facilitator
guide is part of the evidence that the learning programme is aligned with the QCTO’s
requirements for NQF-aligned outcomes-based/work-based learning programmes.
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The L&D facilitator guide is part of the evidence that the learning programme is aligned
with the QCTO’s requirements for NQF-aligned work-based learning programmes.
Moreover, it facilitates quality assurance in respect of learning delivery, and facilitates the
evaluation of programme effectiveness. The L&D facilitator guide is a complete package
containing written descriptions of the learning delivery and assessment strategy, the
learning facilitation process and quality assurance aspects related to the programme design
and delivery (Coetzee, 2004).
Facilitator/Trainer Guide
• Learning programme strategy
• Process guide (lesson plan)
• Logistical information
• Training support material
• Worksheets
• Learner support information
• Policies/procedures
• Provider information
• Quality assurance information
FACILITATOR/ Facilitator/trainer
Learning programme TRAINER GUIDE process guide
strategy (lesson plan)
Learning programme strategy: Facilitator/trainer process guide:

• Learning programme • Description of learning facilitation process for
overview each module and each phase of the learning
• Unit standard alignment facilitation event
• Curriculum design • Description of learning support material and
• Learning programme delivery application in each phase of the learning
strategy facilitation event
• Assessment strategy • Description of learning activities, assessment events
• Learner support information and evaluation events
• Programme evaluation • Description of time interval for each activity
strategy • Description of roles/responsibilities of learners and
the trainers
Figure 4.10 Contents of the facilitator/trainer guide (Coetzee, 2004a,b)
3.1 The learning facilitation and assessment process guide

The process guide provides a broad outline of the learning facilitation strategy, which
generally describes how the learning facilitator plans to present, manage and monitor
the learning process and environment so that learners can be effectively and productively
engaged in learning (Coetzee, 2004 a,b). The process guide is a very useful document, not
only to guide inexperienced learning facilitators, but also to ensure the quality and cost
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effectiveness of the learning facilitation process. The L&D facilitator process guide (see
Figure 4.10) generally includes a description of the following:
•• Learning outcomes to be achieved during each phase of the learning programme;
•• Each stage of the experiential or practical learning programme;
•• Approximate duration of the learning programme;
•• When to introduce visual support material, exercises and handouts;
•• Roles of the learning facilitator and learners;
•• Learning and assessment activities relating to knowledge, skills and work experience
(captured on templates designed for this purpose and which serve as work-based
learning unit standards);
•• Formative assessment activities, materials and worksheets;
•• Detailed questions to be asked to promote learner participation in discussions;
•• Debriefing or planning activities to ensure that participants put into practice what they
have discussed and learned during the learning programme;
•• Training venue layout and equipment requirements;
•• Visual learning support material to prompt and help the learning facilitator/trainer;
•• Handouts that provide a record of the learning programme’s important messages, and
exercises and formative assessment activities, such as case studies;
•• Personal action plans for the participants, so that they may record their commitment to
improve in the areas identified during the learning programme;
•• Portfolio of evidence guidelines for work-based assignments;
•• Formative and summative assessment worksheets and marking memoranda;
•• RPL processes and procedures for assessing the learning programme.
The process guide is very useful, not only to guide inexperienced facilitators, but also to
ensure the quality and cost effectiveness of the learning facilitation process.
Figure 4.10 outlines the desired contents of a facilitator/trainer guide and Table 4.19 shows
an example of a facilitator process guide.
3.2 General quality assurance documentation

As discussed in Chapter 1, skills development providers and L&D professionals are
required by the QCTO to provide evidence that they manage the quality and relevance
of their learning programmes. Compiling a comprehensive facilitator/trainer guide,
which describes the learning delivery and assessment strategy and the learning facilitation
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Table 4.19 Example of a facilitator process guide
Trainer activity Learning support Approx. timing

DAY ONE
Welcome
Welcome the learners and take them through the agenda. PPT slides 1–5 10 mins
Explain the objective of the learning programme and the
learning outcomes.
Ice-breaker
Take the learners through the procedure for the icebreaker. 20 mins
Expectations
Go around the room getting course expectations from each Flipchart 10 mins
individual.
Reflection on pre-course work

Ask the group where they experienced difficulties with the pre- Flipchart 20 mins
course work and elicit discussion to determine what they have
learned. Also request any insights or questions on the reading
material provided.
Group quiz 30 mins

Based on the research and reading done, the following quiz will be facilitated. Divide
the group into a maximum of three teams and provide each team with a buzzer so they
can indicate if they know the answer. The following questions will then be posed and
members of the group are required to moderate one another to ensure that quality
answers are received.
Module 1: Strategic performance management

Introduce learners to the first module. Explain the different PPT slides 10–14 45 mins
aspects of strategic performance management, emphasising
the link to organisational objectives.
Invite and address any questions about the content of Module 1.
Group discussion – pitfalls and benefits of performance

management.
Request that the learners divide into groups again (different Flipchart 30 mins
groups) and discuss 10 reasons for and 10 against performance
management.
The groups are to feedback their findings, which you will 15 mins
transcribe to the flipchart.
Reference: http://managementhelp.org/perf_mng/benefits.htm
Module 2: Performance appraisal planning process

Introduce learners to this module by describing the elements PPT slides 16–20 45 mins
of planning for performance appraisal. Indicate that there are
various forms of performance measure types and rating scales.
These all have to be decided on before embarking on the
performance appraisal discussion. A process of goal-setting
and goal negotiation should also be undertaken in terms of best
practice criteria. Planning for performance measurement in team
settings is also described.
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Individual task – translating information to performance measures.
Provide every learner with a copy of handout 1, which includes Handout 1 30 mins
example job tasks for three different positions (secretary,
computer programmer, manager). Ask the learners to pick any
one position and define appropriate performance objectives.
Each person will then indicate one measure that they have
developed.
Group task – checklist/template creation

Explain to the learners that they will need to develop a Lined paper 30 mins
checklist or template to assist with the performance appraisal and rulers
planning process in their small groups.
Review the groups’ documents in the large group.
Homework
Provide every learner with the paper and pencil version of the 15FQ + question 5 mins
15FQ+, which is a psychometric assessment that identifies booklet and
primary management styles. They should complete this and answer sheets
return it in the morning to get scored. Ensure that you describe
the instructions for completing the assessment thoroughly
to learners.
Review of day one – expectations

Review the expectations to see if any were met on the first day Flipchart 10 mins
and to reflect on learning that has taken place thus far.
DAY TWO
Collect the homework for the previous day and co-ordinate the Psychometric 5 mins
scoring and report writing to be ready for day three. resource
Module 3: Conducting the performance appraisal

Introduce learners to this module by describing the PPT slides 23–28 45 mins
performance appraisal discussion and how to make it a more
effective meeting. The role of listening is also described and
the learners can be referred to a listening test in the appendix
of their manual to complete in their own time. Various rater
errors will also be described and tips for avoiding such errors
highlighted. Elicit group input into this process as this will be
necessary for the role-play exercise that follows. Some specific
theory to assist with difficult performance appraisal discussions
is also provided.
Group exercise – role-plays

The learners need to divide into groups of three to participate Handout 2 45 mins
in role-play exercises to allow them to demonstrate their
interpersonal skills in potentially difficult performance
discussion situations. Three role-play exercises are available
and can be distributed (one sheet for manager, one sheet for
employee, one sheet for observer) through the class, namely:
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•• John Langley – average performer;
•• Harry Jones – reticent about opening up with information;
and
•• Pam Reid – experiencing personal problems at home.
Evaluation of group exercise, whereby the observers are Flipchart 30 mins

requested to provide feedback to the larger group.
Module 4: Improving individual and/or team performance

– performance analysis and cause analysis
Introduce learners to this module by describing different PPT slides 31–32 1 hour
reasons for performance gaps and potential ways to address
these gaps. The various elements of the human performance
model are then also described, with examples, to illustrate a
logical analysis of performance issues.
Group activity – scenario analysis

Provide the smaller groups with a scenario in which they need Handout 3 1 hour
to follow a process to identify performance issues and possible
solutions.
Review the groups’ findings in the large group.
Homework
Provide every learner with the case study, which they need to Appendix of learner 5 mins
take home and work through, to be discussed the following day. manual or handout 4
This is also stored in the appendix of the learner manual.
Review of day two – expectations

Review the expectations to see if any were met on the second Flipchart 10 mins
day and to reflect on learning that has taken place thus far.
DAY THREE
Module 4: Improving individual and/or team performance

– implementing the plan of action (continued)
Continue with this module by describing methods to evaluate PPT slides 37–38 45 mins
and then improve on team performance and the individual
employee performance improvement plan. Consideration
should be given to the important aspects to ensure successful
implementation of such a plan.
Training DVD
Provide delegates with background and then play the DVD Training DVD 45 mins
entitled: Solving performance problems: The performance
improvement plan.
This DVD helps managers to tackle performance issues
willingly and constructively. It gives managers the skills, tools
and confidence to solve performance problems constructively
and swiftly.
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The Performance Improvement Plan (PIP) is shown to deal with
the next stage in performance improvement. Managers can
raise performance levels in their teams by using PIP in formal
and informal appraisals alike.
Using PIP, managers will be able to:
•• Recognise that there is a real performance issue;
•• Articulate clearly and concisely what the problem is;
•• Gain agreement that there is a performance-expectation gap;
•• Identify what needs to be done to improve performance;
•• Manage the steps the staff member will need to take; and
•• Monitor and support the staff member in his or her efforts.
Review of homework case study

Discuss the five issues for discussion that the delegates were Appendix of learner 45 mins
to prepare for today. Although the case study is American, manual or handout 4
relevant SA legislation should be referred to.
Module 5: Understanding different management styles

Feedback reports should be handed out to the learners at this PPT slides 41–46 45 mins
point, after which a qualified person should take the group
through the results of their assessments, providing a broad
understanding of the instrument and the different kinds of
management styles.
Continue this session by describing a further model of
management styles, namely, transactional and transformational
leadership and the defining characteristics of each.
Awareness of these styles is encouraged in order for learners
to adjust and practise different styles according to the
situation.
Guest speaker
Topic: A manager’s journey to performance excellence Guest speaker 45 mins
Introduce the manager who has been invited to speak to
the group in terms of employee performance improvement
initiatives s/he has undertaken. The intricacies of the process,
interpersonal aspects and influencing factors are to be
highlighted.
Review of day three – expectations

Review the expectations for the course and evaluate the extent Flipchart 15 mins
to which these have been covered. Address any outstanding
expectations or final questions from learners.
Workplace assignments (assessment)

Explain that, for learners to be assessed as competent against Learner manual 15 mins
the outcomes of this workshop, they will be required to – workplace
demonstrate the knowledge and skills (competence) that takes assignment
place both in this course and in the workplace. requirements
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Refer learners to the section in the learner manual headed:
Workplace assignment requirements. Explain the requirements
of the workplace assignments and assessment procedures.
Arrange dates for the submission of the skills portfolios. Record
any specific needs.
Invite any questions on the assignments and address these.
Workshop evaluation and closure

Hand out the workshop evaluation sheets for completion and Workshop evaluation 30 mins
collect them before the delegates leave. form – handout 5
Analyse and summarise participants’ feedback and compile a PPT slide 50
report for the HRD department.
Display PPT slide 50.
Thank learners for their participation, and adjourn the session.
process, helps to ensure that L&D professionals comply with the requirements for quality
outcomes-based learning design and delivery. In addition, L&D professionals are required
to record and document the following as part of the quality assurance process:
•• A learner information form;
•• An attendance register form;
•• Learning facilitator information, such as a curriculum vitae to describe the L&D
professional’s competence, educational background, expertise and experience;
•• Assessor and moderator information, such as a curriculum vitae to describe the
competence, educational background, expertise and experience of the assessors and
moderators involved in the learning programme;
•• Skills development provider information, such as accreditation or recognition status,
skills levy number and contact details;
•• An example of the certificate that successful learners receive for achieving the learning
outcomes (the certificate of completion) and/or the attendance certificate for learners
who participate in the learning programme;
•• A learning programme effectiveness evaluation form (evaluating reaction and learning
in the classroom context); transfer of learning/work experience learning; behaviour/
performance improvement on the job; return on customer expectations (ROE) and
return on economic investment (ROI) (see Chapter 8);
•• Learner achievement record forms;
•• Quality assurance checklists, as shown in Table 4.20;
•• Self-evaluation forms (quality checklists) for the learning facilitator and improvement/
development plan;
•• Moderator assessment report formats (as discussed in Chapter 7); and
•• Company training and development assessment and moderation procedures that
describe how these are aligned with the QCTO provider accreditation requirements.
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Table 4.20 Quality checklist: Skills programme design (Coetzee, 2007b)
In place: In
Standard Evidence required Yes/No progress Action
Are learning experiences designed in Skills plan;
accordance with identified training Formulated learning
needs or skills development needs? experience outcomes.
Are formulated learning outcomes Unit standards.

aligned with the occupational/job tasks
and the learning programme objective?
Are the knowledge, skills and work Unit standards.

experience components clearly
specified?
Do learning experiences consist of a Activities learning

series of activities that will enable outcomes.
learners to achieve the intended
outcomes?
Are reliable and valid assessment Assessment

methodologies in place to measure the methodologies and
intended outcomes to be achieved by procedures.
the learner?
Are learning support materials in place Learner support.

for each activity? Are these support
materials appropriate to the level
of learners and the purpose of the
activities?
Do the learning materials contain self- Self-assessment

assessment activities to enable learners activities.
to assess their own progress?
Are the learning materials designed Learning material.

in a way that will facilitate learner
comprehension, retention and
motivation/support to apply the
knowledge and skills?
Is the learning material content Learning material

non-discriminative, unbiased and (examples, case studies,
learner-centred? tasks, activities,
illustrations).
Are the learning materials evaluated Learning material;

and revised continuously to ensure Evaluation reports;
relevance? Assessment reports.
Are the learning materials customised Evaluation reports.

to ensure that the learner can relate the
materials to real-life situations?
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In place: In
Standard Evidence required Yes/No progress Action
Will the learning programme lead to Learning design;
a national qualification, or part of a Qualifications description.
qualification? Is it clear how learners
will progress through the qualification
(if applicable)?
Is the course outline clear? Is the Course outline.

purpose of the course clear? Are the
outcomes, assessment methodology
and mode of delivery specified?
Is the learning curriculum clearly Curriculum.

defined in terms of learning outcomes?
Is the assessment framework Assessment framework;

clearly defined? Assessment report;
Assessment plans.
Case study
Designing outcomes-based/work-based learning
A large private South African engineering company identified a number of their young
BCom (HRD) graduate interns as young talent they would like to train and develop as
potential future HR managers for their various office branches across the country. The
graduate interns had only recently been appointed and lacked the required skills and
experience they would need to function effectively in the role of future HR managers.
In a meeting with the executive management team of the company, the HRD
manager was requested to develop a range of learning programmes that would prepare
the graduate interns for their future roles as potential HR managers, and to help them
to develop the critical knowledge, skills and attitudes they would require to fulfil an
HR manager role successfully. The range of learning programmes would also ensure
that the graduate interns would be able to transfer the newly acquired knowledge and
skills to the workplace by ensuring that they gained the relevant workplace and job
experience in a relatively short time span.
Because the company had experienced quite a high turnover of HR managers, the
successful development of a future pipeline of potential talented HR managers was
regarded as a high priority. The executive management stated the following expectations
in terms of the learning programmes’ outcomes:
At the end of the L&D initiative, the graduate interns must:

• Show proven entry-level competence (knowledge, skills, attitude, abilities) in respect
of the relevant HR manager tasks in the company (NQF Level 6). This would allow
the graduate interns to do job shadowing with an experienced HR manager in the
near future.
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• Demonstrate ‘strategic’ readiness to step into the HR manager role within one to
three years; and
• Have a clear understanding of the purpose of the L&D that they would undergo and
develop realistic expectations regarding their future role as potential HR managers.
The L&D effort should be as cost-effective as possible, delivering ‘competent and

job-ready’ HR manager candidates to ensure return on investment (ROI).
The executive management team also stated that the HRD manager must report
on the effectiveness of the L&D effort and provide evidence that its expectations had
been successfully met – it wanted to see an official return on their expectations (ROE).
Due to the urgency of the L&D project and the current lack of skilled L&D
professionals in the company, the HRD manager decided to contract in the services
of a QCTO-accredited skills-development provider to develop the range of learning
programmes. This would ensure that the company appointed the services of a skills
development provider who was able to design and deliver quality, work-based learning
programmes. The invitation went out on a tender to ensure that only the best skills
development provider would be appointed – one that would ensure ROE and ROI.
The skills development provider, which was appointed to design and deliver the
range of learning programmes, was fully briefed on the expectations and needs of the
executive management team. The skills development provider appointed a number of its
experienced L&D professionals to assist in delivering the required product and service
to the company. This would also ensure that the company would be able to apply for the
Mandatory Skills Levy Grant by means of the workplace skills plan and annual training
report, which would bring an economic return on the L&D investment (ROI).
As a starting point, the team of L&D professionals met with the HRD manager to
ensure that it had clarity regarding the needs and expectations of the company. It then
requested to meet with the group of graduate interns identified to attend the learning
programmes. During the meeting with the graduate interns, team members ensured
that they got to know the needs and expectations of the intended learner group. The
L&D professionals also collected information on the current performance of the group
of interns, their current job roles, educational backgrounds and biographical profiles.
The L&D professionals then analysed the company’s job and competency profiles
for their HR managers in the various branches. Being aware of the purpose of work-
based learning design in the context of the OLS and OQF, they also downloaded the
occupational profile of an HR manager from the OFO version 10 and compared the
occupational tasks with the required job tasks and duties of the company-specific job
and competency profile for their HR managers. This allowed them to define the purpose
of the HR manager’s job in the company and occupationally wise. They summarised the
information as follows:
Occupation: HR manager – OFO version 10 (1212)

Human resource managers plan, direct and co-ordinate policies concerning the
personnel, industrial relations and occupational health and safety activities of an
enterprise or organisation, or of enterprises that provide human resource services to
other enterprises and organisations.
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Occupational descriptor: HR manager (121201)

Plans, organises, directs, controls and co-ordinates human resource and workplace
relations activities within an organisation.
Occupational tasks: HR manager (121)

• Consults with the chief executive and with managers of other departments
or sections.
• Controls expenditure and ensures the efficient use of resources.
• Controls the selection, training and performance of staff.
• Ensures compliance with relevant legislation, regulations and standards.
• Establishes and directs operational and administrative procedures.
• Formulates and administers policy advice, strategic and financial planning.
• Implements, monitors and evaluates strategies and policies.
• Prepares budgets and oversees financial operations.
• Provides advice to senior managers and board members on financial and
administrative policies and programmes and legislative issues.
• Represents the organisation in negotiations and at conventions, seminars, public
hearings and forums.
Company HR manager job/competency profile

Occupational/job description
Plans, directs and co-ordinates human resource management activities of an organisation
to maximise the strategic use of human resources and maintain functions such as
employee compensation, recruitment, personnel policies and regulatory compliance.
Job tasks
1. Administers compensation, benefits and performance management systems, and
safety and recreation programmes.
2. Advises managers on organisational policy matters, such as equal employment
opportunity and sexual harassment, and recommends needed changes.
3. Allocates human resources, ensuring appropriate matches between personnel.
4. Analyses statistical data and reports to identify and determine causes of personnel
problems and develops recommendations for improvement of the organisation’s
personnel policies and practices.
5. Analyses training needs to design employee development and health and safety
programmes.
6. Conducts exit interviews to identify reasons for employee turnover.
7. Develops, administers and evaluates applicant tests.
8. Identifies staff vacancies and recruits, interviews and selects applicants.
9. Maintains records and compiles statistical reports concerning personnel-related
data, such as hires, transfers, performance appraisals and absentee rates.
10. Negotiates bargaining agreements and helps to interpret labour contracts.
11. Facilitates change in the organisation to help transition all levels.
12. Forecasts future staffing and organisational needs.
13. Develops new programmes to attract and retain staff.
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Knowledge
The HR manager requires knowledge of:
1. Principles and procedures of personnel recruitment, selection, training, compensation
and benefits, labour relations and negotiation, and personnel information systems;
2. Business and management principles involved in strategic planning, resource
allocation, human resources modelling, leadership techniques, production methods,
and co-ordination of people and resources;
3. Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, calculus, statistics, and their applications;
4. Structure and content of the English language, including the meaning and spelling of
words, rules of composition and grammar;
5. Principles and methods for curriculum and training design, teaching and instruction
for individuals and groups, and the measurement of training effects;
6. Laws, legal codes, court procedures, precedents, government regulations, executive
orders, agency rules and the democratic political process;
7. Human behaviour and performance; individual differences in ability, personality
and interests; learning and motivation; psychological research methods; and the
assessment and treatment of behavioural and affective disorders;
8. Human resources programme development to attract, reward and retain employees; and
9. Resources available for referral of employees and how to quickly diffuse a critical
situation.
Skills, knowledge, abilities (competencies)

(Technical and functional expertise)
Skills
The HR manager would require the ability to:
1. Motivate, develop and direct people as they work; identify the best people for the job;
2. Communicate effectively in writing, as appropriate for the needs of the audience;
3. Talk to others to convey information effectively;
4. Understand written sentences and paragraphs in work-related documents;
5. Give full attention to what other people are saying, taking time to understand the
points being made, asking questions at appropriate times, and not interrupting at
inappropriate times;
6. Use logic and reasoning to identify the strengths and weaknesses of alternative
solutions, conclusions or approaches to problems;
7. Determine how a system should work and how changes in conditions, operations
and the environment will affect outcomes;
8. Use mathematics to solve problems;
9. Adjust actions in relation to others’ actions; and
10. Be aware of the reactions of others and understand why they react as they do.
Abilities
The HR manager requires the ability to:
1. Read and understand information and ideas presented in writing;
2. Listen to and understand information and ideas presented through spoken words
and sentences;
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3. Communicate information and ideas in speaking so others can understand;

4. Communicate information and ideas in writing so others can understand;
5. Speak clearly so others can understand;
6. Apply general rules to specific problems to produce answers that make sense;
7. Tell when something is wrong or is likely to go wrong. It does not involve solving the
problem, only recognising there is a problem;
8. Combine pieces of information to form general rules or conclusions (includes finding
a relationship among seemingly unrelated events);
9. Shift back and forth between two or more activities or sources of information (such
as speech, sounds, touch or other sources); and
10. Concentrate on a task over a period of time without being distracted.
Personality attributes
The occupations that HR managers deal with have enterprising, social and conventional
characteristics, as described below:
• Enterprising: Enterprising occupations frequently involve starting up and carrying out
projects. These occupations can involve leading people and making many decisions.
Sometimes they require risk-taking and often deal with business.
• Social: Social occupations frequently involve working with, communicating with,
and teaching people. These occupations often involve helping or providing service
to others.
• Conventional: Conventional occupations frequently involve following set procedures
and routines. These occupations can include working with data and details more
than with ideas. Usually there is a clear line of authority to follow.
Based on the occupation/job tasks and competency analysis, the L&D professionals
decided to design a range of learning programmes to address the themes/topics related
to the various occupational/job tasks. For the purpose of this case example, we shall
concentrate on the design of only one of the various learning programmes, namely
administering and controlling the performance management system and performance
of staff.
The L&D professional responsible for designing the learning programme on
performance management then analysed and unpacked the occupational/job tasks
related to administering and monitoring performance management. Using a template
designed for this purpose (see the example that follows), she identified:
• The unique product/service that would be delivered by executing the tasks;
• The specific occupational/job responsibility of the HR manager in terms of the tasks;
• The specific workplace context in which the product/service had to be delivered and
the tasks be fulfilled; and
• The required NQF level.
In terms of the OFO, the HR manager’s job tasks start at NQF Level 5/6 (as the entry/
basic level). The L&D professional also used the LARF tool to identify the time span of
work experience required at NQF Level 6 (see Table 4.1). The LARF indicated the time
span of discretion as three months to one year, meaning that the work experience
learning activities would have to be designed to give the learners exposure to HR
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manager-related tasks that allow them to address real-life problems and make decisions
over a period of at least three months.
Using the process questions in the template that follows, she then continued
to define the required knowledge, skills and work experience. Again, she inserted
the information into the template. She then reviewed the particular needs, current
performance information, and profile of the group of graduate interns and added any
additional knowledge, skills and work experience aspects that had to be addressed in
the learning programme.
Based on her analyses and taking the expectations of the executive management
team into account, she then formulated the title. To make the learning programme
more learner-friendly, she incorporated the objectives and the learning outcomes of
the learning programme on performance management into the title. In formulating
the learning outcomes, she used the NQF level descriptors (Chapter 1) and Bloom’s
taxonomy of learning (Figure 4.5). She also considered the critical cross-field outcomes
(see Table 4.6). She then continued to identify the learning content, performance
standards, learning and assessment activities, the learning mode, methods and media
that she added to the template designed for this purposes. Note that the templates
she completed were kept for quality assurance purposes and served as a form of unit
standard for the work-based learning programme.
Based on the learning and assessment strategy captured on the templates, the L&D
professional went ahead to source and develop the learning materials and sequence
the activities. She also developed the learning delivery (see Chapter 6) and evaluation
strategy (see Chapter 8), which she outlined in the learning facilitation process guide
designed for this purpose (see the example provided in this chapter). In the design
process, she also took great care to adhere to the professional code of ethics for L&D
professionals (see Chapter 10).
Note that the examples that follow do not contain all the learning outcomes and all
the learning and assessment activities.
Using your own creativity and insight, what would you have liked to add to improve
the learning content and activities of the programme?
Title of the learning programme: Giving an edge to your team’s performance

Objective of the learning programme
To develop candidate HR managers’ skills in planning, appraising and improving individual
and team performance in the company.
Learning outcomes
On completion of the learning programme, learners will be able to:
• Explain the principles of performance management and appraisal within the context
of the company performance management system;
• Explain the process of planning for performance appraisal;
• Critically evaluate whether performance criteria meet required standards;
• Assess and regulate their performance appraisal approach to identified principles;
• Explain factors underpinning performance issues and their impact on organisational
strategy;
• Critically evaluate whether appropriate action plans were identified to address
performance gaps;
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• Advise management on poor performance; and

• Critically evaluate the role of the HR manager in administering and controlling the
company performance management system.
Example: Analysing and unpacking the occupational/job tasks (Straulino, 2010)
Occupational task: Planning, appraising and improving individual and team performance
NQF level 6
Product or Appraised and improved Knowledge focus

service individual and team Embedded or underpinning knowledge/subject or
performance learning topics.
Process questions:
What theory must the learner understand and apply in
order to deliver the products/services?
What else should the learner know/understand in order
to deliver the products/services?
What legal requirements must the learner know/
understand in order to deliver the products/services?
Human capital management concepts.
Job analysis methods.
Leadership and management styles.
Behavioural theories of learning and motivation.
Strategic performance management processes.
Performance appraisal methods.
Individual and team performance indicators.
Performance improvement methodology.
Knowledge of South African labour legislation, including

the Basic Conditions of Employment Act, the Skills
Development Act, the Employment Equity Act and the
Labour Relations Act.
Occupational Developed ability to Practical skills

responsibility research and integrate Skills required to execute responsibility (Note: includes
relevant information; critical cross-field outcomes).
Demonstrated Process question:
interpersonal and
What are the skills that must be mastered in order to
communication skills
execute the responsibility?
such as listening,
questioning and
persuasion skills; and
Applied planning,
analytical and problem-
solving skills to determine
the most appropriate
course of action.
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Research and integration skills.
Interpersonal skills.
Communication skills, i.e. listening, questioning and

persuasion skills.
Planning and organising skills.
Performance gap analysis skills.
Identifying and problem-solving skills.
Macro-vision skills, demonstrating understanding that

problems do not exist in isolation.
Team work and co-operation skills.
Leadership skills, such as motivation and empowerment.
Work context Business goals, Work experience

(occupational) organisational structure Process questions:
and strategies;
What must be used/known in the organisation in gaining
Organisational culture the experience?
and values;
What settings must the learner be exposed to?
HR business model and
What interfaces must the learner engage with?
levels of work;
What additional knowledge is required to perform the
Standard operational
tasks in the specific context?
procedures;
Service level
agreements;
Implemented
performance
management system;
Performance
management policy;
Reward system and
remuneration policy;
Training policy and
framework;
Incapacity policy; and
Union considerations.
Exposure to HR strategy and goals.
Understanding of HR business model.
Understanding of previous/current performance

appraisal processes.
Exposure to HR and performance management system.
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Exposure to service level agreements.
Understanding of relevant HR policies, including

performance management policy, remuneration policy,
training and development policy, and incapacity policy.
Understanding of reward system.
Exposure to training framework.
Specialised or contextual knowledge.
Company specific strategy/goals.
Organisational culture and values.
Stratified systems theory.
Standard operating procedures.
Understanding of union dynamics.
Example: Learning and assessment strategy (Straulino, 2010)

Human resource managers
NQF level 6
Title of course Performance improvement – within reach
Total credits 10 (1 credit = 10 notional hours)
Underpinning •• Human capital management concepts; Learning activity

Knowledge •• Job analysis methods; guidelines
•• Leadership and management styles; and
Notional hours: •• Behavioural theories of learning and motivation.
5 hours
•• Pre-course reading material.
•• Pre-course research.
•• Team-based quiz.
•• Strategic performance management processes;
•• Performance appraisal systems and best practice
methods;
•• Individual and team performance indicators;
•• Performance improvement methodology; and
•• Knowledge of South African labour legislation,
including the Basic Conditions of Employment Act, Skills
Development Act, Employment Equity Act and Labour
Relations Act.
•• Group discussion: Pitfalls and benefits of performance
management.
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Practical •• Research and integration skills; Learning activity
skills •• Interpersonal skills; guidelines
•• Communication skills, i.e. listening, questioning and
Notional hours: persuasion skills;
16 hours •• Planning and organising skills;
•• Performance gap analysis skills;
•• Identifying and problem-solving skills;
•• Macro-vision skills, demonstrating understanding that
problems do not exist in isolation;
•• Team work and co-operation skills;
•• Leadership skills, such as motivation and empowerment.
•• Translating job information to performance measures –
individual task.
•• Developing a template to plan for performance appraisal
– group task and presentation.
•• ‘Conducting a performance appraisal’ – group task/
role-plays.
•• Analysing of a scenario to identify performance issues
and possible solutions – group task.
•• Case study – homework.
•• Translating performance gaps to action plan –
discussion group.
•• Psychometric assessment to identify primary
management style (15FQ+).
•• Training DVD – Solving performance problems: The
performance improvement plan.
Work Exposure to HR strategy and goals; Learning activity

experience •• Understanding of HR business model and levels of work; guidelines
•• Understanding of previous/current performance
Notional hours: appraisal processes;
80 hours •• Exposure to HR and performance management system;
•• Exposure to service level agreements; and
•• Understanding of relevant HR policies, including
performance management policy, remuneration policy,
training and development policy, incapacity policy.
•• Research previous/current performance appraisal
method used in department and prepare a report to
provide to supervisor to identify the pros and cons of
the method.
•• Research the performance appraisal method used in a
different organisation to identify the pros and cons of
the method. Include this comparative information in
the report.
•• Include section in report to analyse alignment of
performance criteria for at least three different jobs to
level of work and organisational strategy.
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Practical skills •• Understanding of reward system; Learning activity
•• Exposure to training framework. guidelines
Notional hours: •• Attend training on the use of the performance
80 hours management system currently used in the organisation.
•• Read HR policies, highlight questions and schedule short
meetings with relevant persons to answer questions.
•• Interview a manager to find out hindrances and
facilitating factors to performance appraisal. Report
findings back to trainer by agreed deadline.
Methods Mode Learning support

material (Media &
equipment)
•• Online pre-course material; •• Online learning; •• Media;

•• Instruction; •• 3-day contact workshop; •• Reading material;
•• Facilitation; •• Self-directed learning with •• Learner manual;
•• Group work; feedback from supervisor; •• PowerPoint
and slideshow;
•• Case studies;
•• Attendance of related •• Training DVD;
•• Role-plays;
learning course.
•• Individual exercises; •• Handouts;
•• DVD; •• Flip charts.
•• Guest speaker;
•• Homework.
Role/responsibility of learner Role/responsibility of trainer/facilitator
The learner must: The trainer/

Do pre-course preparation and complete facilitator must:
activities; •• Coach learners;
Participate actively in workshop; •• Guide and support learners;
Complete self-assessment activities; •• Provide information; and
Complete homework; and •• Monitor learner progress.
Reflect on learning and plan further
development.
Assessment guidelines
Scope of the module/course The learning in this module covers the total range
of planning for performance appraisal, conducting
appraisals to measure performance and developing
action plans to address identified performance gaps in
order to improve performance.
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What are the required standards of Standards of performance
performance and the most appropriate Check that learners can:
assessment methods?
•• Explain the principles of performance management
and appraisal;
•• Explain the process of planning for performance
appraisal;
•• Critically evaluate whether performance criteria meet
the required standards;
•• Assess and regulate their performance appraisal
approach to identified principles;
•• Explain factors underpinning performance issues and
their impact on organisational strategy; and
•• Critically evaluate whether appropriate action plans
were identified to address performance gaps.
Conditions of performance
Given the specific organisational context, learners should
be able to prepare for performance appraisal and, based
on the evaluation of performance, be able to develop
appropriate solutions and implementable action plans to
address gaps, both on an individual and team level.
Assessment methods
•• Quiz outcome;
•• Knowledge questionnaires;
•• Observation;
•• Group assessment;
•• Interviews;
•• Portfolio of evidence/report; and
•• Self-evaluation of on-the-job experiences.
Special requirements
Human resource requirements The facilitator of learning must have a good

understanding of the South African occupational learning
system and skills-based approach to training design
and assessment, including the organisational business
and structure, HR strategy and goals. In addition the
facilitator must have:
•• Knowledge and understanding of the company
mission and values and general climate; and
•• Knowledge of the relevant HR policies.
•• The facilitator of learning must have expertise and
have demonstrated competence in training design and
outcomes-based assessment (i.e. must be suitably
qualified).
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Physical requirements The facilitator of learning must have a good knowledge
of training venue layout, technology and equipment.
SHE requirements The facilitator of learning must have good knowledge of

safety and health operating procedures and evacuation
routes.

1. What are the benefits of adopting a learner-centred approach to occupational/
work-based learning design?
2. Why is it important to formulate accurate and appropriate learning outcomes? What
are the characteristics of well-formulated learning outcomes?
3. Explain the 10 stages of outcomes-based, work-based learning design.
4. Why is it important to align learning outcomes of a work-based learning programme
to the NQF levels? What is the purpose of the LARF tool?
5. What are the characteristics of well-designed learning activities?
6. Which aspects do L&D professionals need to consider when they choose training
methods for their learning programmes?
7. What is the purpose and benefit of the L&D facilitator guide?
Summary
In this chapter, we examined how the outcomes-based L&D philosophy directs and
informs the design of workplace learning programmes. L&D professionals, in their
role as learning designers, follow a ‘design-down, deliver-up’ approach to the design
of learning programme curricula. Skilful learning designers recognise that few, if any,
of the desired outcomes will be achieved unless learners are actively involved in the
learning process and perceive the learning as valuable to them. This implies moving
away from a content-driven approach to a learner-centred approach. The effectiveness
of the learning process depends on developing learning outcomes that are meaningful
and appropriate to the needs of learners.
L&D professionals are also required to develop a comprehensive facilitator/trainer
guide to demonstrate that the design of their learning programmes complies with the
QCTO’s requirements for NQF-aligned, outcomes-based, occupational/work-based
learning. The facilitator/trainer guide also facilitates quality assurance of learning delivery
and assessment, and facilitates evaluation of the value added. Strategies for delivering
quality outcomes-based learning programmes are discussed in Chapter 6. The various
ways of evaluating the effectiveness of learning programmes are explored in Chapter 8.
Tell me and I’ll forget; show me and I may remember; involve me and I’ll understand
(Chinese proverb).
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CHAPTER
5
ONLINE LEARNING DESIGN
Key points of e-learning design

•• The Fourth Industrial Revolution (Second Machine Age) or digital era is fundamentally transforming
the nature of learning and development (L&D) design and delivery.
•• L&D professionals have to adopt modern learning approaches, especially when the L&D intervention
involves the younger generation employees (Millennials and the post-Millennials or Generation Z/
iGeneration) who are digital natives.
•• E-learning can be synchronous or asynchronous, or blended.
•• A learning management system (LMS) is the program used to create, manage and deliver an online
learning programme.
•• L&D professionals need a sound knowledge base of psychological theories when designing online
•• L&D professionals need to understand the advantages, disadvantages and barriers to online
learning design.

•• Describe synchronous, asynchronous and blended e-learning and give examples of each.
•• Explain the concept of a learning management system (LMS) in online learning design.
•• Evaluate the contribution of various theories to online learning design.
•• Differentiate between an e-learning programme needs analysis and a needs analysis for face-to-face
•• Explain the importance of investigating the characteristics of participants in e-learning programmes
prior to learning design.
•• Explain the steps in designing an online learning programme.
•• Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of online learning.
•• Identify barriers to e-learning.
1. INTRODUCTION
Online learning (also referred to as e-learning/electronic learning) is quickly becoming a
dominant characteristic of the 21st-century workplace (Workplace 4.0). As an era of rapid
technological advancement (i.e. artificial intelligence, mobile platforms, sensors and social
collaboration systems), the 21st-century workplace is branded as the Fourth Industrial
Revolution (Second Machine Age) or digital era, which is fundamentally transforming the
broader economy and world of work, society and business, including the nature of learning
and development (L&D) design and delivery (Deloitte, 2017). Moreover, people’s (young
and old) increasing interaction with the digital environment and smart information

Chapter 5 | Online learning design
technology, such as computers and smartphones, are changing how they think and process
information. In Chapter 2, we explained how information processing influences people’s
capability for learning. L&D professionals therefore need to consider the impact of the
digital era on their approaches to L&D design in Workplace 4.0. They have to adopt modern
learning approaches (see Chapter 6), especially when the L&D intervention involves the
younger generation employees (Millennials and the post-Millennials or Generation Z/
iGeneration), who are digital natives, that is, they naturally speak the digital language of
computers, video games and the internet. Social learning as a modern form of learning, via
the use of smartphone technology and socially sharing and learning new information, is a
way of life for them (Vai & Sosulski, 2011; King, 2017). Today’s digital-era learners, also
called modern learners, are used to high levels of engagement, collaboration, interactivity,
speedy access, visual stimulation and instant feedback. They prefer to be players in multi-
user environments and use their imagination and creativity freely and openly in working,
playing and competing with people around the globe (Vai & Sosulski, 2011; King, 2017).
Modern-day L&D professionals therefore need to consider basic principles of online or
e-learning in their L&D design and delivery.
Today’s digital-era learners are used to high levels of engagement, collaboration, interactivity,
speedy access, visual stimulation and instant feedback.
E-learning is growing globally and is frequently offered as a solution to the need for quick
and easy access to opportunities to update competencies in Workplace 4.0 (Arthur-Mensa,
2014). The human resource development function (HRD) and L&D professional can
utilise the advantages offered by e-learning technology effectively and efficiently in the
provision of just-in-time learning opportunities (Arthur-Mensa, 2014). Economies of
scale, in that e-learning can reach many learners at a reduced eventual cost, is one of the
drivers for the implementation of e-learning in organisations. For adult learners, one of the
drivers is the flexibility and relatively easy access to learning, while they also adopt other life
roles, such as work and family commitments (Arther-Mensa, 2014).
Economies of scale, in that e-learning can reach many learners at a reduced eventual cost, is
one of the drivers for the implementation of e-learning in organisations.
2. THE NATURE OF E-LEARNING

Online or e-learning refers to any type of learning situation in which instructional content
is delivered through the use smart mobile and computer networked technology such as over
the intranet or through the internet where and when required (Bondarouk & Ruël, 2010).
E-learning comprises learning opportunities offered via integrated information communication
technology (ICT) such as computers and smartphones (Horton, 2012; Arthur-Mensa,
2014). E-learning can be either self-paced or facilitated, depending on the content to be
communicated and the competence levels of the intended participants. In addition, e-learning
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can be synchronous or asynchronous. Synchronous e-learning requires of all participants

to be engaged in the learning programme at the same time. Asynchronous e-learning
allows participants to engage in the learning programme at a time that is suitable to each
individual, instead of at the same time. Self-paced e-learning is an example of asynchronous
learning, while facilitated e-learning is an example of synchronous e-learning.
E-learning can be either self-paced or facilitated, depending on the content to be

communicated and the competence levels of the intended participants.
Table 5.1 Synchronous and asynchronous e-learning
Form of learning Description

Synchronous online •• Real time facilitated e-learning;
learning •• All participants are engaged in the learning programme at the same time (may
be online or on-site);
•• Learners and instructors/learning facilitators communicate/interact within
same time frame (i.e. scheduled time/meeting).
Asynchronous online •• Self-paced e-learning;

learning •• Flexible learning space in terms of time, place, pace and participation;
•• Learners participate at a time of day that is convenient for them (i.e., it follows
the personal schedule of each participant within a time period stipulated by
the instructor);
•• Class meets at no particular time and is of no specific length (i.e. learners do
not need to be online together at any particular time);
•• Learners who may be situated anywhere in the world can access the material
and respond to it any time within a defined number of days.
Blended online learning •• Combines asynchronous and synchronous online learning.
Asynchronous e-learning allows participants to engage in the learning programme at a time

that is suitable to each individual, instead of at the same time.
2.1 Self-paced e-learning

Self-paced e-learning is usually aimed at participants who possess the required technical
and cognitive capacities and self-directedness to manage their own learning experience.
Self-paced e-learning is useful to update competence when changes in policies, procedures
and practices are implemented. Self-driven e-learning is based on learning outcomes.
Various media are incorporated into the learning design, for example, written information,
graphic representations, audio and video clips, game-like interfaces and simulations. The
learning support is usually incorporated into the learning material to allow participants to
learn as independently as possible. In some instances, a measure of support using email or
e-tutoring is incorporated into the learning programme (Arther-Mensa, 2014).
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Self-paced e-learning is usually aimed at participants who possess the required technical and
cognitive capacities and self-directedness to manage their own learning experience.
2.2 Facilitated e-learning

Facilitated e-learning is applicable for learning programmes aimed at geographically
distributed learners who need a measure of guidance and collaboration to ensure deep
learning. The learning programme follows a planned structure, with learning content and
activities that include opportunities for collaboration and reflection, and culminate in
some form of final assessment. Various tools for communication and collaboration can be
used, depending on the learning management system in use in the organisation (Arther-
Mensa, 2014).
Facilitated e-learning is applicable for learning programmes aimed at geographically

distributed learners who need a measure of guidance and collaboration to ensure
deep learning.
2.3 Blended learning

Blended e-learning relates to the use of a combination of delivery methods (such as face-
to-face and e-learning delivery in one learning programme). However, blended delivery can
also include a classroom-based learning programme where rich media are used to enhance
the learning experience, or the use of interactive technologies is combined with face-to-
face learning experiences. Blended delivery is mainly used to address the shortcomings of
e-learning while harvesting its benefits. Blended learning increases interaction between
participants and creates a rich learning environment where knowledge building is
facilitated. Furthermore, blended learning incorporates learning contexts in which most
participants can feel comfortable and safe to learn. Since e-learning will probably not
replace face-to-face learning in workplace contexts, the use of blended delivery options is a
viable alternative to expensive and inflexible face-to-face learning (King, 2017).
Blended e-learning relates to the use of a combination of delivery methods (such as face-to-
face and e-learning delivery in one learning programme).
E-learning is changing continuously as information communication technologies

(ICTs) advance. In addition, the refinement or advancement of learning theories affects
the evolution of e-learning programmes. Learning management systems (LMS) are the
foundation of the e-learning process. The LMS is used to deliver and manage the e-learning
content, can keep track of individual participants’ progress through the learning material
and can be used to provide support to the participants. In addition, the LMS determines
the e-learning development software that is used to develop the e-learning programmes.
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Irrespective of the LMS used, the creation of an environment in which meaningful learning
can take place and foster learner self-management is imperative (Gros & García-Peñalvo,
2016).
A learning management system (LMS) is the program used to create, manage and deliver
an online learning programme.
2.4 Learning management system

A learning management system (LMS) is the program used to create, manage and deliver
an online learning programme (Vai & Sosulski, 2011). L&D professionals involved in
online learning design must be computer/digitally literate and have a working knowledge
of online ICT to manage an LMS. Table 5.2 provides a summary of some of the most
popular LMSs used by online learning programme designers (Keleş &Őzel, 2016).
Table 5.2 Examples of learning management systems (LMS)
LMS Description Typical online tools

ATutor •• Free, open-source learning programme system; Blog, forum, photo gallery,
•• Web-based learning content management glossary, site map, chat,
system (LCMS) under GNU General Public directory, tests surveys,
License; myTracker.
•• Can be used in any type of computer system
and all operating systems;
•• Includes facilities for instructors/learning
facilitators and learners;
•• Support Sharable Content Object Reference
Model (SCORM) standards and instructional
management systems (IMS).
Blackboard •• Web-based commercial distance education Various multimedia and

system dedicated to education containing interaction tools.
teaching resources and user hierarchy;
•• Instructors can post programme information and
materials as well as readings and assignments;
•• Flexible system – facilitates interactions
between users, such as basic discussions and
other collaboration tools;
•• Focus on teachers delivering programme
content (especially large programmes).
Claroline •• Open source e-learning and e-working platform; Interaction tools such as chat,
•• Can be used to manage public education forum and wiki.
activities on the web and to create effective
online programmes;
•• Support Sharable Content Object Reference
Model (SCORM) standards and instructional
management systems (IMS).
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Desire2Learn •• Commercial educational system based on Exams, discussions,
(Brightspace LMS) competency education and promotes cloud- assignments, quizzes, grades,
based learning suite; portfolio-based activities,
•• Supports mobile learning and web-conferencing; learning repository, course-
creation tools, e-portfolio
•• Supports foreign languages and mathematical
module, mobile delivery,
notations.
analytics, lecture capture
facilities.
Sakai •• Free open-sourced learning system designed for Various multimedia and
educational institutions (course design platform) interaction tools, e.g.
– Educational Community License (ECL); calendar, additional resources,
•• Java-based LMS; announcements, discussions,
forums, tests, learning units,
•• Web-based and platform independent;
assignments, blogs, wiki,
•• Can be downloaded from internet free; statistics, email, dropbox.
•• Sakai version 11.4 has computer, tablet and
mobile learning interface platforms.
Moodle •• Free, online course management system under Assignments, chat, choice,
(Modular Object GNU General Public License; database, external tool,
Oriented Dynamic •• Designed for internet-based courses and feedback, forum, glossary,
Learning Environment) websites; lesson, quiz, SCORM, survey,
wiki, workshop.
•• Supports mobile learning (Moodle Mobile
application).
OLAT •• Java based open source LMS under Apache 2.0 Forums, chat, blogs, surveys,
(Online Learning and Open Source License; grading and submission
Training) •• Effectiveness of learners and tutors can be modules, wikis, quizzes,
monitored. discussions.
Docebo •• Based on SaaS/cloud platform; Interface video conferences,

•• Users can organise, track and distribute online blogs, course catalogues,
courses for formal learning; labels, discussions.
•• Instructors can create users as well as groups
and create reports about them;
•• Used in education and corporate sectors;
•• SCORM, Aviation Industry CBT Committee and
xAPI compatible;
•• Mobile-ready platform, includes mobile
learning.
Dokeos •• Free online open-source course management E-learning templates,

system; e-learning course authoring
•• Learning content management system. tools, documents,
announcements, tests,
agendas, forums, links,
tracking tools, chats.
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eFront Modern e-learning course management system; Project management,
Virtual learning environment; extended statistics, files
management, reports
Supports blended learning;
generators, assignment
Educational platform; builders, internal messaging
Designed to help create online courses; system, forum, calendar, chat,
Supports Sharable Content Object Reference surveys.
Model (SCORM) standards.
Activity
Exploring Sakai version 11.4 LMS

Visit Sakai website at https://www.sakaiproject.org/. Watch the video that explains the
Sakai 11.4 LMS. Which of the asynchronous tools do you find most appealing?
2.4.1 LMS asynchronous e-learning tools

As you can note from Table 5.2, an LMS contains typical asynchronous e-learning tools,
the most popular being the following (Vai & Sosulski, 2011):
•• Syllabus/programme overview: an overview of the modules of the learning programme/
course and their content, including purpose, objectives, assignments, requirements;
•• Calendar: schedule of deadlines for assignments, online collaborative learning tasks/
discussions, self-assessment tasks (e.g. tests, quizzes), reading tasks and course events;
•• Instructor/learning facilitator announcements: learning facilitator/instructor updates
and reminders;
•• Course email: correspondence between instructor/learning facilitator and learners;
•• Lessons: learning units (modules), organised by topic and themes;
•• Discussion forums/chats: collaborative tasks, debates, forums among learners/class
group. Instructors/learning facilitators usually monitors learner interaction and debates
and provide feedback to the collaborative learning group;
•• Wiki: online environment that can be shared and edited by all members of a
collaborative team;
•• Blog: online learning space where one author (i.e. learner or instructor) creates a
posting (i.e. article, critique, some type of narrative) and others comment;
•• Testing/quizzing: assessments that determine how successfully outcomes have been
achieved. Ungraded or graded self-assessments help learners adjust the pace of and
reflect on their learning;
•• Additional resources: instructors/learning facilitators post learning materials and/
or links to open educational sources (e.g. free YouTube, video clips, audio e-books,
e-books, and other online learning materials) for learners;
•• Dropbox: an online dropbox for submitting documents by learners;
•• Assignments: an online tool for submitting assignments by learners. Learners can also
track grading of assignments
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Activity
Self-reflection
Review the characteristics of synchronous versus asynchronous online learning. Which
form of online learning do you prefer? Give reasons for your answer. Now look at
asynchronous online learning tools available on an LMS. Which of those tools do you
find most useful? Give reasons for your answer.
2.4.2 LMS online material

Developing an online learning programme on an LMS requires clear, concise writing that
will address the needs of all types of online learners. Clear, concise writing in an accessible
style supports good communication and learning. The focus should be on simplicity,
clarity and openness. White space, bold and italic fonts and different typefaces and type
sizes are used purposefully to make distinctions and to emphasise and enhance readability,
comprehension and learning. Moreover, online material should be attractive and graphically
appealing to keep learners actively engaged in the learning experience. Colour should be
used with purpose and there should be good contrast between text and background. Visual
elements such as icons, shading and colour are used consistently to distinguish between
different types of course elements (e.g. learning units/modules, assignments, audio and
video) (Vai & Sosulski, 2011).
Online material should be attractive and graphically appealing to keep learners actively
engaged in the learning experience.
2.5 Evolution of e-learning design models

Although we discussed the LMS here because of its usefulness in online learning design
and delivery, L&D professionals should note that researchers distinguish between diverse
e-learning models based on different aspects of the learning experience. First, the e-learning
model was material-intensive, using e-learning or online content that was supported by
written material and augmented with digital resources. The second e-learning model focuses
on LMSs, and makes huge amounts of online and e-resource learning materials available,
which supplement existing learning resources (called learning objects). Learner interaction
is enabled using discussion forums and/or messaging systems. Lastly, the flexible e-learning
model focuses on specialised content made available to learners from diverse sources, including
the learning participants. The flexible learning model utilises gaming tools, reflective activities,
e-portfolios and interactive quizzes to create rich learning environments (Gros & García-
Peñalvo, 2016). The various models of e-learning are illustrated in Figure 5.1.
Material-intensive LMS Flexible learning
Figure 5.1 The various design models of e-learning
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Modern learners are self-directed, taking ownership of their learning, and prefer the
self-paced learning offered by asynchronous learning platforms.
Progressive L&D professionals, who engage with modern learning approaches to online
learning design, embrace diverse learning modalities that offer the flexibility in learning which
modern learners find appealing. Time pressures, work habits and pervasive technology are
driving the flexibility offered by digital learning via the internet, social media and smartphone
technology (King, 2017). Modern learners are self-directed, taking ownership of their
learning, and prefer the self-paced learning offered by asynchronous learning platforms. An
effective LMS with well-developed and well-utilised asynchronous online learning tools and
platforms (e.g. interfaces between computer, tablet and mobile smartphone technology) may
help to empower learners and keep them more engaged throughout the learning experience.
Using emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence, gaming and virtual realities via
mobile platforms may help to create rich asynchronous learning spaces, which especially
the younger generational workforce may find appealing. Blended e-learning approaches
may also offer rich learning experiences that learners may find engaging and supportive of
learning (King, 2017). L&D professionals must ensure they keep abreast with technological
developments in learning design and develop the technological/digital literacy they need to
create engaging and meaningful learning experiences for learners of all generations.
L&D professionals must keep abreast of learning design and develop the technological literacy
they need to create engaging and meaningful learning experiences for learners of all ages.
3. THE EVOLUTION OF E-LEARNING CONTEXTS

The evolution of e-learning contexts is frequently described within the context of scholarly
generations. Some researchers report that e-learning was first based on a behaviourist
approach to learning (discussed in Chapter 2), which focused on learning materials, followed
by a cognitive basis for e-learning, focusing on independent or learner-driven activities and
harnessing the power of computer technology. The next scholarly generation of e-learning uses
the constructivist approach in e-learning as the basis, focusing on the benefits of interaction
between participants, harnessing the possibilities of the internet. Later, the availability of
content on the internet and the flexibility provided by powerful technologies, combined with
almost unlimited online resources, drove e-learning development (Gros & García-Peñalvo,
2016). A diagram of the scholarly generations approach is provided in Figure 5.2.
Behaviourism Cognitivism Constructivism Humanism Flexible learning

•• Learning •• Engagement •• Interaction •• Self-motivated; •• Harnessing
materials and available
Andragogy resources
•• Self-directed
Figure 5.2 The various scholarly generations of e-learning
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The theories that stem from the various scholarly generations play an important role in
the design of online learning. L&D professionals need a sound knowledge base of these
theories (as discussed in Chapter 2) when designing online learning programmes.
3.1 Behaviourism
Behaviourism believes that learning is achieved through external stimuli and the subsequent
response. Knowledge acquisition and observable behaviour are emphasised at the expense
of individual differences in learning. Some of the positive implications of behaviourism for
online learning design include (Arghode et al., 2017):
•• Immediate feedback can be provided for improved learning;
•• Assessment activities should be built into online instruction;
•• The content can be designed to promote learning through improved practice.
Behaviourism emphasises knowledge acquisition and observable behaviour at the expense of

individual differences in learning.
3.2 Cognitivism
Cognitivism focuses on organised, structured and logical presentations, and the engagement
of all learners, regardless of their motivation. Cognitivism neglects the affective and
motivational domain in learning by its emphasis on the cognitive domain. The emphasis
is also more on the instructor to engage learners in the learning experience. Some of the
positive implications of cognitivism for online learning design include (Arghode et al.,
2017):
•• The presentation of material should be engaging, interesting and stimulating to grab
the learner’s attention;
•• Micro-learning (chunks of learning, e.g. short video clips) may be more appealing to
maintain learner attention;
•• Online activities should be structured logically and systematically to grab learners’
attention.
Cognitivism neglects the affective and motivational domain in learning by its emphasis on
the cognitive domain.
3.3 Constructivism
Constructivism believes that learners create their own learning and emphasises the
active involvement of learners in the learning experience through experiential learning
experiences. The theory relies on differences among learners in creating/constructing their
own meaning. Some of the positive implications of constructivism for online learning
design include (Arghode et al., 2017):
•• Online activities can be designed to promote creative thinking in constructing meaning;
•• The focus should be on real-life problem-solving, creative writing and meaning-making;
•• Principles of social constructivism are relevant to creating online learning tasks, such
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as communities of collaborative learning (e.g. discussion forums and online group

tasks); individuals are autonomous in their self-expression, in the authoring of their
own content and in sharing that content with others in efficient and meaningful ways
(Arquero & Romero-Frias, 2013; Coetzee, 2016).
Constructivism believes that learners create their own learning and emphasises the active
involvement of learners through experiential learning experiences.
Table 5.3 provides an overview of four social collaboration preferences when learners are
engaged in online discussions, for example: (1) active-initiator, (2) independent-evaluator,
(3) reflective-evaluator and (4) passive-independent (Coetzee, 2016 a, b).
Table 5.3 Social collaboration preferences
Preference Description
Active-initiators •• Take the lead in initiating discussions and debates because they see the
collaboration as an opportunity to demonstrate their own insights and originality;
•• Regulate the contributions of others by taking a critical evaluative stance and
commenting on other members’ ideas and viewpoints;
•• Invite debate from other members because their contributions are seen to stimulate
new insights.
Independent- •• Regulate others by preferring to ignore the ideas and viewpoints already posted;
evaluators •• Contribute their own unique ideas about the subject matter to bring a new
perspective to the debate;
•• Are often seen by other members as dominating the debate by their preferred critical
and argumentative stance and questioning of other members’ contributions and
viewpoints.
Reflective- •• Regulate others by responding to the ideas and viewpoints of other members;
evaluators •• Build on and add to the contributions of the group members;
•• Encourage other members by showing their appreciation for members’ contributions;
•• Search for and find new ideas and information that may help the group to complete
the joint task successfully.
Passive- •• Avoid regulation of other members;

independents •• Prefer to work on their own, independent from other group members, in completing
the task;
•• Act as an impartial observer of the group’s ideas and debates, and tend to focus on
other members’ responses and comments rather than contributing their own ideas;
•• Slow to catch up with the group debate and tend to be the last one to make any
contributions;
•• Find it difficult to participate in collaborative social activities and would prefer to
keep their ideas and viewpoints to themselves.
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Activity
Social collaboration preference

Think of when you were involved in an online learning discussion forum or online
collaborative group task. Review the four styles of social collaboration. Which style
do you typically exhibit when having to participate in an online group discussion or
collaborative learning task such as debating a topic?
3.4 Humanism
Humanism focuses on behaviour and believes that people control their own destiny; they
are inherently good and self-motivated with unlimited potential for growth; behaviour
is, therefore, a consequence of human choice and free will. Some of the implications of
humanism for online learning design include (Arghode et al., 2017):
•• Online learning content should be made relevant to learners’ interests, feelings and
attitudes;
•• It may be difficult to decipher learners’ interests in an online environment as feedback
and interaction are asynchronous.
3.5 Andragogy
Andragogy assumes that all adults learn identically. This ideology focuses on intrinsic
motivation and sees adults as being self-directed. Adults are seen to learn best when they
choose the content and method of learning. Variations in learners are ignored as the theory
focuses more on process and less on content. Prior conditioning, serendipity and play in
the lives of adults are mostly ignored. Some of the positive implications of andragogy for
online learning design include (Arghode et al., 2017):
•• Create online discussion forums to encourage self-directed learning;
•• Design online instruction to provide unique learning opportunities;
•• Allow flexibility for learners to learn at their own pace;
•• Blogs, online activities and videos can help L&D professionals to design online activities
that encourage self-directed learning.
Andragogy assumes that all adults learn identically. Variations in learners are ignored as the
theory focuses more on process and less on content.
3.6 Flexible learning

Modern learning theory believes that digital and smartphone technologies should be
used to create rich, flexible and engaging online learning experiences for learners. Flexible
learning approaches use a blend of synchronous and asynchronous forms of learning
and online learning tools to engage the learner in appealing, meaningful and interesting
learning experiences. Flexible online learning reflects the positive principles embedded in
the scholarly generations of behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism, humanism and
andragogy.
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Flexible online learning reflects the positive principles embedded in behaviourism,

cognitivism, constructivism, humanism and andragogy.
4. WHEN TO DEVELOP E-LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES

E-learning will not replace traditional, face-to-face workplace learning opportunities, but
will be used to augment face-to-face learning and to provide opportunities for updating
competencies (Carruth & Carruth, 2013; King, 2017). To establish whether to use face-
to-face delivery or e-learning, consider the following:
•• What is the specific training need and what would be the most suitable learning
delivery method?
•• How complex is the content that should be delivered? More complex content is best
delivered over a period of time instead of in one or two crowded sessions. (You will have
learned about distributed learning in Chapter 2.)
•• Will all the individuals identified in the target group have access to the required
technology?
•• Will all the individuals in the target group possess the required technological competence
to benefit from an e-learning opportunity?
•• Do the learners that will participate in the e-learning programme possess the necessary
self-directedness competence?
•• How geographically distributed are the intended participants?
5. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF E-LEARNING

Although e-learning is often offered as the solution to the requirements of employee
training and development and the costs involved, the decision to use e-learning should be
carefully considered, as stated earlier. The following advantaged and disadvantages should
also be borne in mind (Carruth & Carruth, 2013; Stephens & Daley, 2015).
Table 5.4 Advantages and disadvantages of e-learning
Advantages Disadvantages
The flexibility of the e-learning design and delivery E-learning is not appropriate for all learners and/or or
model allows for easy revision as training needs learning contexts.
change.
E-learning can reach a large number of participants at The initial investment in the technological backbone
a reduced cost. of an e-learning system is substantial and often
underestimated by organisations.
E-learning opportunities are accessible by a It is difficult to ensure the authenticity of the

geographically distributed workforce. participation, particularly where certification is
concerned.
The use of rich resources in e-learning design allows The development of e-learning is more expensive than
for the provision of simulated experiences, which the development of traditional training programmes,
allows realistic practice and contributes to deep although cost savings are achieved once the
learning experiences. development is completed.
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Collaborative learning is possible when collaboration Not all employees possess the necessary technological
opportunities are included in the design of the learning competencies to use e-learning effectively.
programme.
Employees develop technological competence that is E-learning requires well developed self-directed learning
not necessarily available to them prior to entering the competence, self-motivation and organisation capacity,
workforce in developing economies. which cannot be assumed to be present in all employees.
Employees can schedule learning and development for Unless the learning programme is developed to
times that suit their lifestyles and needs. incorporate collaborative experience, participants can
feel alienated.
Integration of the e-learning management system with The effectiveness of e-learning in workplace learning
the knowledge management system facilitates talent has not yet been established.
management and retention.
Employers can implement just-in-time training Maintaining learner engagement may be challenging,
opportunities. but can be addressed through development of learning
programmes.
Compression of learning – the time taken to deliver

training programmes is reduced.
6. NEEDS ANALYSIS FOR E-LEARNING

The proposition of e-learning requires additional needs analysis before the decision is made
to develop and implement an e-learning programme. In addition to the learning outcomes,
which should inform the delivery method, the learners’ technological competence (ICT/
digital literacy) and access to the technology involved should be considered carefully.
In addition, the LMS being utilised and system technological requirements have to be
taken into account. As indicated in the disadvantages (Table 5.4), the initial investment
in the technology to implement and support the e-learning programmes is expensive and
should be investigated carefully to ensure that the chosen LMS is up to date and can be
adapted easily to changing demands.
In addition, the limitations of the required LMS should be evaluated within the context
of the learning content to be delivered (Stephens & Daley, 2015). For example, a learning
programme that requires synchronous learning should have the required technological
basis to ensure seamless synchronous learning.
Lastly, an analysis of the stakeholders that will be involved in the e-learning programme
design should be made. The development and implementation of an e-learning programme
requires the involvement of a learning materials developer; a graphic designer; a content
matter expert; an editor; a project sponsor; a technical expert who can translate and transfer
the learning content in the correct way into an e-learning programme that addresses the
identified needs; and a quality expert to ensure that the content is at the required level and
of the required standard. Some e-learning courses also employ a narrator when needed.
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7. E-LEARNING DESIGN
When designing e-learning opportunities, the focus should be on creating valid, up-to-date
and engaging learning material. Since the participants are geographically dispersed, the
content should include opportunities for collaboration if the programme is to be offered as
synchronous learning. In addition, opportunities for reflection and self-assessment should
be included in all e-learning programmes. Furthermore, clear instructions, which can be
easily understood, should be provided to all participants (Sinclair et al., 2017).
7.1 Know the participants

Knowledge of the participants in the learning is essential. Since interaction between the
participants and the facilitator is limited, even in synchronous e-learning, the developer
of the learning content should be conversant with the participants’ levels of competence
with respect to technology, as well as the learning content. A clear differentiation should
be made between novice learners and advanced learners (Sinclair, et al., 2017).
The principles of adult learning should guide the development of the learning content.
In Chapter 2, the principles of adult learning were explained. The principles are as follows
(Green et al., 2015):
•• Adult learners willingly participate in learning when the purpose is clear and they
experience a need to acquire the relevant knowledge and experience.
•• Adult learners have a rich collection of life experiences, which can be used fruitfully in
the learning experience, particularly to engage the learners in the experience.
•• Adult learners possess diverse capacities for self-directed learning, but still expect to
be treated as autonomous individuals who can control their own learning experiences.
•• Adult learners may be inhibited by negative past learning experiences and need to feel
secure in their learning environment.
•• Adult learners may be either intrinsically or extrinsically motivated to participate in the
learning experience.
•• Adult learners have a well-developed capacity for critical personal reflection.
Adult learners willingly participate in learning when the purpose is clear and they experience
a need to acquire the relevant knowledge and experience.
7.2 Identify learning goals (outcomes)

Identify the learning goals (outcomes) that will achieve the course objective (which will
address the training need identified in the needs analysis phase). The work performance
problem identified in the training needs analysis phase indicates the learning content. The
learning content is broken down into learning outcomes (discussed in Chapter 4). Each
learning outcome should address one specific piece of knowledge and/or experience that
the learners should master in order to achieve the course objective. The learning outcomes
determine the delivery method to be used. If e-learning is the preferred delivery method,
the learning outcomes will also indicate the type of e-learning opportunity that should be
developed.
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Each learning outcome should address one specific piece of knowledge and/or experience that
the learners should master in order to achieve the course objective.
7.3 Develop an e-learning strategy

Once the learning outcomes have been finalised, the design process can commence. The
e-learning design strategy starts with the development of a story board, which indicates
the content to be developed, the media to be used to augment the content, the graphics
and narration that may be required and the team that will be involved in the development
of the e-learning programme, along with each individual’s responsibilities in the process.
The design of learning experiences for adults usually comprises four segments, namely
(Merrill, 2015):
1. Presenting the learning content in such a way that it harvests past knowledge and experience;
2. Allowing several progressively difficult practice opportunities to apply the new
knowledge in order to develop competence;
3. Presenting a problem related to the learning content that learners have to solve;
4. Developing learning practice opportunities to integrate the new knowledge into
real-world activities in order to facilitate a transfer of learning.
In e-learning programme design, a fifth segment is added, namely designing the interface
– where the participants will access and interact with the learning content. Interface design
depends on the LMS and the specific application for interface design that will be supported
by the particular LMS, and will, therefore, not be discussed in this chapter. However,
the individuals involved in the e-learning interface design should form part of the team
that develops the e-learning programmes for organisations. The elements of the e-learning
design process are illustrated in Figure 5.3.
Link learning content to

harvest past knowledge
Develop progressively
Design the learner–e-content
more difficult practice
interface
opportunities
Develop practice Present a content-related

opportunities that relate to problem that should
real-world problems be solved
Figure 5.3 Elements of the e-learning design process
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7.4 Determining and sequencing learning content

Determine the learning content, learning activities and sequencing of content. Learning
content is determined by the learning outcomes. As discussed in Chapter 4, the content
should be restricted to what the learners need to know (essential content). Learning activities
provide practice opportunities to assimilate the learning content. Learning activities can
be clustered into three main types, namely engaging activities, action activities and linking
activities. Engaging activities include activities that expose learners to the learning content in
various ways, such as presentations, examples and reading. Action activities actively involve
the learners in the learning programme since they require some kind of action/response from
them. Linking activities link the new learning content to what the learners already know
(lived experiences) and to what they will need to do in the workplace (Horton, 2012). In
addition to deciding on the learning content and the learning activities that will facilitate
mastery and transfer of the learning content, the e-learning design team should decide on the
sequencing of the content and activities. Sequencing is discussed in Chapter 4.
Learning activities can be clustered into three main types, namely engaging activities, action
activities and linking activities.
Activity
E-learning strategy
Use the following link to watch a video on important considerations in developing an
e-learning strategy: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u29ZjZvSG2o
• Why should you consider the business requirements in the development of an

e-learning strategy?
• What is an integrated learning environment?
• How can you create quality content at an affordable price?
• How can you integrate on-the-job learning, social learning and formal learning in your
business context?
7.5 Assess learner progress

Decide how the e-learning programme will assess learner progress on mastering the
learning outcomes. Assessments can be used to assess learner progress, to enable learners
to assess their own progress, to assess knowledge and/or competencies developed and
to ensure continued motivation to complete the learning programme (Horton, 2012).
Assessments can focus on tests using true/false questions, requiring learners to sequence a
process correctly, matching lists, questions and multiple choice questions. Questions that
require written answers can also be incorporated into the e-learning design, but a strategy
for marking or grading these questions should then be developed.
Assessments can focus on tests using true/false questions, requiring learners to sequence a
process correctly, matching lists, questions and multiple choice questions.
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7.6 Provide meaningful feedback

Provide meaningful feedback on activities and assessments. Meaningful feedback is timely
and provides an indication of whether the learner has mastered a significant part of the
specific chunk of learning. Provide the correct answer and indicate why that specific answer
is correct. Refer back to the original content and learning activity(ies) that preceded the
assessment. Ensure that the feedback is brief and continues to engage the learners’ attention
and motivation.
7.7 Design the e-learning programme

Table 5.5 presents the elements of the design process that facilitate the design of learning
material, which will engage learners, utilise their previous experience and allow for deep
learning that can be transferred to the workplace context.
Table 5.5 Steps in designing e-learning programmes
Design element Examples of relevant activities

Develop a storyboard; The storyboard serves as a guideline for the team involved in the
Use the following link to watch a development and production of the e-learning programme.
video on storyboard design: It indicates the content that should be covered, how participants will
https://www.youtube.com/ be assessed, which animations, rich media and other resources will
watch?v=73Wbwxp3yC8 be required.
The storyboard provides an indication of the technological support
required in the development of the learning programme, as well as the
support the participants will need once the course is rolled out.
In addition, the storyboard provides an early indication of the budget
requirements to develop and implement the e-learning programme.
The learning outcomes, developed after the training needs analysis,
are used in the storyboard to guide the development of the learning
programme.
Create a template. E-learning content is developed using a template, similar to the

templates one finds in the Microsoft PowerPoint option in the
MS Office package.
The e-learning content development application used will determine
how the template is developed.
The template should be simple to navigate, ensure that participants can
easily read the text and retain their attention.
The navigation options and instructions should be clearly explained to
avoid frustration.
The e-learning template should be consistent to ensure that the learners’
attention is retained and to avoid frustration.
Chunk the learning content. The e-learning environment requires that learning content should be
broken down into manageable chunks – pieces of knowledge that focus
on one element of the subject matter to be mastered.
Learning content can be chunked according to the learning outcomes
that were developed as a result of the training needs analysis.
Prioritise the information to be communicated in the learning programme.
Chunk screen to screen (or slide to slide) – try to contain all the information
relevant to a specific chunk of information on one screen or slide.
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Engage participant attention. Use video clips, Infographics, diagrams, animation or other visuals
that will attract the learners’ attention and pull them into the
learning material.
Ensure that the participants’ attention remains engaged throughout the
learning programme by periodically, and at appropriate stages, using a
variety of the relevant options.
Indicate the purpose of the learning Draw a timeline or roadmap to indicate the content learners will master
programme and the content learners in the learning programme. A mind-map can also be used.
will master. Learning objectives are The narrative style and content to be mastered will inform the specific
useful in this situation, but there is artifact used at this stage.
no reason for offering all the learning
Place the learning objectives in a context with which learners can identify.
objectives the participants will
master at this stage.
Assess the participants’ current Use a quiz or a collaborative discussion to establish learners’ prior
knowledge of the content. knowledge.
Gamification techniques can be used fruitfully in all e-learning
assessment activities, depending on the LMS and the amount of
collaboration required in the learning programme.
Gamification is useful to ensure continued learner engagement and
motivation.
Facilitate the learning process Support is required for mastery of the learning content.
to guide participants through the Options to access explanations of certain concepts are useful.
learning material.
Indicate progress so that participants remain motivated to continue and
for guidance.
Use rich media to engage Visual aids such as graphs, charts, diagrams, photos and animations
participants and aid retention. support content explanation and comprehension.
Video and sound clips provide auditive support.
Interactive learning features engage participants in active learning and
prevent loss of interest.
All learner supports included in the learning programme should serve a
purpose. Avoid inserting graphs, charts and pictures for their aesthetic
value and only use those that contribute to learning.
Provide practice opportunities. Allow learners to apply their new knowledge throughout the learning
programme.
Develop practice opportunities that are progressively more difficult
and provide proportionally limited support so that learners can gain
competence as well as develop self-efficacy, self-management and
self-directedness capacities.
Simulations and virtual reality activities are useful for applying
knowledge and practising new competence.
Reflective activities and recapping what has been learned using a quiz
are useful activities for practice.
Recapping activities, such as requiring a one-sentence summary or using
a quiz can be used to identify participant knowledge at specific intervals.
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Provide sufficient, relevant and Provide feedback after every practice opportunity.
timely feedback. Feedback should be relevant, supportive and motivate participants to
continue with the learning programme.
Assess participant progress and Implement appropriate assessments to determine learner competence
competence developed. development.
Assessments should be aligned with learning outcomes and should
focus on significant content.
Assessment can include collaborative work and reflective activities to
cultivate deep learning.
Augment retention of content and Elements that can assist with retention and transfer are checklists,
transfer to the work context. examples from the work context and opportunities to discuss content
with peers in collaborative learning experiences.
Pilot the programme. Pilot the e-learning programme on a selected group of participants to
identify and solve any content, comprehension and technical issues that
may hamper mastery of the learning material.
Evaluate the programme E-learning programmes should be evaluated regularly to ensure that
the content is still applicable, useful and up to date. In addition, links to
video clips, other online material (such as subject matter, expert blogs
and professional bodies) should be checked to ensure that the links are
still usable.
Activity
Assessing e-learning content

Use the following link to a free Open University online course in creating open education
e-sources. Please note, you have to register as a user to access the content. It takes
about 15 hours to complete the course.
http://www.open.edu/openlearn/education/creating-open-educational-resources/
content-section-0?intro=1
Assess the value of the content in terms of the following:

• Did the initial page grab your attention?
• Did the pages following retain your attention?
• Did the pages provide you with the necessary information about the creation of
open-education resources (OERs)?
• Was the information clear and easy to understand?
• Could you navigate the site easily?
• Did the site provide timely and useful feedback on assessments?
• Did the course use rich media to support learning?
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8. S
PECIFIC REQUIREMENTS FOR E-LEARNING PROGRAMME
DESIGN
E-learning programmes are delivered using media with which learners are not necessarily
familiar, and that require competencies that differ from those needed in a face-to-face learning
programme. E-learning content is written, not spoken, and interactions and collaborations
should be carefully planned to ensure a rich and rewarding learning experience for the
participants. Keep the following in mind when designing e-learning experiences:
•• The template used for conveying the course content should be uncluttered. Participants should
focus on the content and not be distracted by unnecessary decoration of the template.
•• Allow for sufficient white space on the template. White space indicates what is important
in the text, promotes improved design of the template and assists with participant
comprehension of the text.
•• Use meaningful images that support or complement the text. Images are valuable for
facilitating retention, but only when they are appropriate and communicate a message
similar to that of the text.
•• Be conservative with the use of colour. Colour is a significant factor in the design of visual
learning content. Various colours evoke diverse emotional reactions from participants.
Preferably use quiet background colours and darker colours for the text. Avoid creating
a rainbow effect – simplicity is best.
•• Be consistent in the various design elements. Use the same font type and colours for
headings and text, and use graphics that are similar in lay-out and sequence to avoid
frustration on the part of the participants. Use the same background theme and the
same theme for navigating the site.
•• Ensure that the visual impact of the template is sufficient to maintain participant
engagement and motivation.
•• Break up the content into manageable sections. Remember that not all relevant information
can be communicated on one template.
•• Avoid crowding the template. Ensure that only significant content is communicated in
the text.
•• Be aware of all areas of ambiguity and ensure that no ambiguity exists in the final design.
Ambiguity will lead to learner frustration and withdrawal from the course.
Activity
Scriptwriting and storyboarding

Use the following link to access a video clip on storyboarding:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=73Wbwxp3yC8
• Assess the first section of the video clip. How well does the narrator/facilitator
indicate how to navigate the site?
• List the eight people who are involved in e-learning design and who are discussed in
the video clip.
• As an L&D professional, which of those roles would you fulfil?
• How is this an example of a synchronous e-learning opportunity?
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9. E-LEARNING TRENDS
Recent research tends to describe e-learning in the context of an ecology and ecosystem
(Gros & García-Peñalvo, 2016). The technological ecosystem is allowed to evolve and grow
by using input from the participants in the ecosystem. The ecosystem approach attempts to
capture the complex nature of the continued development of learning and learning systems
through relationships, activities, innovation and contexts to generate value. A learning
ecology, on the other hand, is an open, adaptive system comprising diverse dynamic and
interdependent elements. The diversity contributes to the adaptability of the learning
ecology, making it both a powerful learning tool and a driver for change (Gros & García-
Peñalvo, 2016).
A learning ecology is an open, adaptive system comprising diverse, dynamic and

interdependent elements, making it both a powerful learning tool and a driver for change.
Learning ecologies consist of diverse learning possibilities augmented by learning methods

and content that support individual learning needs and situations. The various elements
of the learning ecology should be dynamic, interdependent, relevant and chunked in such
a way that they can be reorganised easily when the need arises. Individual participants
in e-learning ecosystems can develop their own learning ecologies, consisting of
learning materials, learning activities and interactions that combine to provide learning
opportunities. Learning ecologies consequently include both formal and informal learning
(Gros & García-Peñalvo, 2016). Learning is driven by the interactions between the learners,
the content and the facilitator, and knowledge is constructed from these interactions.
Consequently, knowledge is personal.
Individual participants in e-learning ecosystems can develop their own learning ecologies,
comprising learning materials, activities and interactions that combine to provide learning
opportunities.
Activity
E-learning trends
Use the following link to access a video clip on e-learning trends:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=darOvcpbU8M
• The video clip illustrates current e-learning trends.

• What are the six e-learning trends illustrated by the video clip?
• How did the developers of this video clip use animation and colour to retain the
participant’s attention?
• Can you list three different e-learning design tools featured in this video clip?
• Why are organisations using e-learning for customer support?
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10. BARRIERS TO E-LEARNING

Adult learners may be willing to participate in learning experiences that they find
personally meaningful and which they can control to a greater or lesser degree. However,
the designers of learning experiences for adult learners should take heed of the factors that
create barriers to successful adult learning. Incorporating factors that will break down the
barriers to successful learning is of particular importance in e-learning, since the retention
and completion rate of e-learning opportunities are low (Monaco, 2014).
Incorporating factors that will break down the barriers to successful learning is of particular
importance in e-learning, since the retention and completion rate of e-learning opportunities
are low.
Senior managers in organisations frequently display resistance to e-learning, consequently

influencing subordinates’ attitudes to e-learning. Senior managers should be the front-
runners in the adoption and support of e-learning in order to motivate employees to use
the e-learning opportunities offered by the organisation (Walsh, 2014). Furthermore,
technology can create a barrier to e-learning in an organisation. E-learning relies on
dependable, stable internet connectivity and technical support when required to support
the flexibility of the learning opportunity (Walsh, 2014). An e-learning context is
highly complex and requires the development of employees’ technical competence to
ensure successful implementation and a positive impact on employee and organisational
performance. Inadequate financial support of the required technological infrastructure can
create a huge barrier to the successful implementation and continued use of e-learning in
organisations. Funding of required upgrades in technology, when required, is paramount
to ensuring success (Walsh, 2014).
Senior managers in organisations frequently display resistance to e-learning, consequently

influencing subordinates’ attitudes to e-learning.
Inadequate financial support of the required technological infrastructure can create a huge
barrier to the successful implementation and continued use of e-learning in organisations.
Individual internal characteristics can create barriers to the learning of adults. Motivation
plays a vital role in learning – an unmotivated adult who does not see the personal benefit
of a learning experience will learn with difficulty (Green et al., 2015). In addition, adult
learners fear failure and can easily be influenced negatively by a learning experience,
learning material that is difficult to navigate and negative feedback from the facilitator.
Motivation plays a vital role in learning – an unmotivated adult who does not see the
personal benefit of a learning experience will learn with difficulty.
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11. T
HE PROCESS OF THE ADOPTION OF E-LEARNING
IN A WORKPLACE
The implementation of e-learning opportunities in workplace contexts tends to follow
three phases, namely, the initial need to adopt e-learning, the need to build competence in
e-learning development and the need to support learning opportunities, irrespective of the
delivery method and learning context (Walsh, 2014).
During the first stage, organisational L&D professionals realise the benefits of offering
e-learning opportunities, but are not fully informed of the technological requirements and
the new competencies necessary to produce the required e-learning content. E-learning
programmes and technological support is investigated and implemented in this phase.
The second phase is one of realisation. L&D professionals who deliver e-learning
opportunities require a different approach to the design of the learning material and have to
consider the technological expertise and capacity for self-directed learning of the intended
participants. At this stage, L&D professionals start investigating the learning theories that
support and inform the development of e-learning content.
By the third phase of e-learning, L&D professionals have come to understand that the
role of e-learning (and L&D in general) is to support employee learning in various ways;
for example, by supporting knowledge dissemination, informal learning experiences and
formal learning experiences alike.
Based on recent research findings, it is necessary to include a fourth stage, namely that
of continued support – financial support, technological upgrades and the redevelopment
required as a result of changing needs and technological requirements (McGill et al., 2014).
The four stages of e-learning adoption are illustrated in Figure 5.4.
Provide continued support

FUTURE on all fronts
Virtual HRD
loading...
Use e-learning platforms to

support all types of learning
in organisation
L
+
CIA
CH
Improve L&D professional’s

SO
+
–
CH
–
I-Q
competence in e-learning
6
0
9
5
1
T
SE
4
CH
development
7
K
PIC
E–
LEARNIN
G
Implement e-learning
Figure 5.4 The phases of e-learning adoption in an organisation
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12. ORGANISATIONAL SUPPORT FOR E-LEARNING

Learning and development (L&D) plays a significant role in an organisation’s continued
growth and sustainability. Consequently, organisational support of e-learning is vital to
ensure success. The following types of support have been found to be essential in the
support of e-learning programmes (Schultz & Correia, 2015):
•• Financial support. Continued financial support for the development and revision of
e-learning, as well as for the technological upgrades that may be required, is essential to
ensure the success of e-learning programmes.
•• Organisational support in the form of support from senior managers, as well as support
for the application of new knowledge in the work context.
•• Time to participate in e-learning is essential. Some organisations may provide flexible
working hours to accommodate e-learning.
•• Technological support. The technology on which the e-learning programme is hosted
and accessed should function effectively to avoid frustration.
•• Learner support from peers, technological experts and the learning facilitator is vital to
ensure continued engagement and successful completion of an e-learning programme.
•• Maintaining participant motivation through engaging, interesting and personally
meaningful learning material, assessments and interaction with peers.
L&D plays a significant role in an organisation’s continued growth and sustainability.

Consequently, organisational support of e-learning is vital to ensure success.
13. VIRTUAL HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

When engaging in online learning design, L&D professionals need to understand the
concept of virtual human resource development (VHRD). VHRD attempts to encapsulate
formal and informal employee and organisational learning processes in a computer-based
context, which is strategically, horizontally and vertically aligned with the organisation’s
vision, mission, strategic goals and objectives, for the organisation as a whole and all its
employees (McWhorter, 2014). Virtual HRD comprises a computer- or internet-based
learning environment that can incorporate and support – in a media rich context –
informal learning as part of employee learning and as part of the organisational culture.
A computer- or internet-based environment exists where computer applications, digital
contexts and employees co-operate to create learning opportunities through the exchange
of ideas, knowledge and experience. The virtual environment supports the work of virtual
teams and knowledge management (McWhorter, 2014).
Media-rich learning contexts include visuals, audio and virtual-reality supports or add-
ons to learning opportunities to support a rich learning experience by engaging as many
senses as possible. Informal learning comprises social learning, workplace learning and
experiential learning. Some researchers indicate that informal learning is a powerful source
of learning because of the availability of information via ICTs.
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Organisational culture drives individual behaviour in organisations because it provides

a framework of shared assumptions, beliefs and values that indicate acceptable and
unacceptable behaviours.
Organisational culture drives individual behaviour in organisations because it provides

a framework of shared assumptions, beliefs and values that indicate acceptable and
unacceptable behaviours (McWhorter, 2014). Organisational policies and practices that
support employee wellness in the form of work–life balance in a virtual HRD context
should form part of the organisational culture. In addition, VHRD can contribute to the
cultivation of a community of learning and knowledge sharing in an organisation, which
could be a vital component of the organisational culture (McWhorter, 2014).
VHRD can contribute to the cultivation of a community of learning and knowledge sharing
in an organisation, which could be a vital component of the organisational culture.
14. T
HE COMPETENCIES REQUIRED FROM L&D PROFESSIONALS
IN AN E-LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
The design and implementation of e-learning programmes requires competencies from L&D
professionals that are technology-oriented to ensure the development and implementation
of useful and viable programmes. The following competencies are required:
•• Competence in e-learning design and implementation;
•• Social media skills for e-learning contexts;
•• Competence in media-rich e-learning design;
•• Project management;
•• Knowledge of the technological requirements for an e-learning design and
implementation platform;
•• Theories of learning (e.g. behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism, andragogy and
modern flexible digital learning);
•• Ethics in online learning design and delivery (see Chapter 10).
E-learning has taken the business and education worlds by storm, to such an extent that
the use of e-learning in both contexts has outpaced research on its efficacy for deep learning.
Case study
Mandoza Mines
Mandoza Mines was established 10 years ago as an affiliate of Polyus Gold, a Russian-
based gold mining company. Mandoza Mines was affected severely in the global
financial crisis of 2007 and 2008 and is struggling to recover. Over the past five years,
the mine has had to lay off about 2 000 employees, and may have to lay off even more if
the mine does not start producing a profit. The capital investment required to establish
and run a gold mine is tremendous and the mine is currently struggling to show a profit.
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However, Polyus has offered Mandoza Mines a financial helpline, provided it reduces
the number of accidents in the mine caused by mineworkers’ carelessness and ignoring
safety mechanisms and safety requirements. On investigation, the management team
has decided to invest in the infrastructure to develop and deliver online safety training
courses to all mineworkers, as well as refresher courses every six months.
You are the L&D manager and have been tasked with developing a strategy for the
design and delivery of the e-learning programmes.
Questions:
1. Given the financial situation at Mandoza Mines, would you recommend the use of
an e-learning approach? Provide a motivation for your answer.
2. Based on the needs analysis for e-learning design, what information do you need to
collect before starting the e-learning design?
3. Identify the members of the team that should be involved in the design of the
e-learning programme.
4. Develop a template for the design of the e-learning programme
5. Indicate which rich media will be used to engage participant attention and ensure
continued participation.
6. Indicate how assessments will be used to track participant progress and how
feedback will be provided to participants.
7. In which phase of the adoption of e-learning is Mendoza Mines currently? Would you
advise Mendoza Mines to move to one of the other phases? Support your answer
with examples and sound reasoning.
Review and discussion questions:

1. What is the difference between synchronous and asynchronous e-learning and give
examples of each.
2. How does the e-learning programme needs analysis differ from the needs analysis
for face-to-face learning programmes?
3. Why is it particularly important to investigate the characteristics of participants in
e-learning programmes prior to learning design?
4. What are the requirements of a template that encourage participation without
confusing or overstimulating the participants?
5. Which types of organisational support are needed to ensure the successful
implementation of e-learning programmes and why are these types of support
necessary?
6. What steps must be followed in designing an online learning programme?
7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of online learning?
8. In which phase of the adoption of e-learning is the organisation in which you are
employed? Support your answer with examples.
9. Which barriers to e-learning can you identify in the organisation in which you are
employed? How can these barriers be addressed?
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Summary
E-learning has taken the business and education worlds by storm, to such an extent
that the use of e-learning in both contexts has outpaced research on its efficacy for
deep learning. L&D in Workplace 4.0, in particular, has used the benefits of e-learning
by rolling out learning programmes that are easily accessible, flexible and harness
knowledge resources distributed throughout the internet. However, the successful
implementation and continued use of e-learning programmes for organisational learning
and development depends on its integration into the HRD and L&D practices and
processes of the organisation and on continued support on a human, technological and
financial level. E-learning delivery can be augmented by blended learning to reduce the
disadvantages and harness the advantages offered by e-learning, but will most likely not
replace face-to-face learning opportunities.
Just as collective generations have evolved, so must the formula for modern learning design
in a fast-evolving digital era.
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CHAPTER DELIVERING LEARNING AND
6 DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS
Key points of learning and development intervention delivery

•• The effective delivery of learning and development (L&D) interventions in the workplace depends on a
number of factors considered in the design of a learning programme.
•• Design and delivery decisions are influenced by the characteristics of the target group and the
dynamics of the learning facilitation process.
•• Learning facilitation means making the learner more of an active and vital component in the training
or learning facilitation process.
•• L&D professionals and training instructors apply principles of learning facilitation to ensure optimal
transfer of learning to the workplace.
•• Effective L&D professionals are skilful in managing the delivery of learning programmes.

•• Describe the various methods of learning and development (L&D) intervention delivery, including their
uses and advantages in the workplace context.
•• Explain the elements and characteristics of various forms of learning delivery.
•• Explain the influence of digital technological advancement on modern learning and the social learning
ecosystem elements.
•• Describe how L&D professionals in their role as learning facilitators can ensure the effective transfer
of learning to the workplace.
•• Explain how the characteristics of learners and L&D facilitators influence the learning facilitation process.
•• Evaluate the importance of applying L&D principles to learning facilitation.
•• Describe the skills and characteristics of a skilled L&D facilitator.
•• Explain the responsibilities of L&D professionals/facilitators in managing delivery of learning programmes.
1. INTRODUCTION
As pointed out in Chapter 3, learning and development (L&D) professionals use a
systematic approach to L&D facilitation and delivery, which includes assessing L&D needs,
incorporating principles of learning in the design and delivery of learning programmes,
assessing learner achievements and evaluating the effectiveness of learning programmes.
This scientific approach is also referred to as the learning cycle. This aspect is the focus
of chapters 3 to 8. The delivery of L&D interventions, as a specific way of facilitating
learning in an organisation, is introduced in this chapter. Learning and development in the
workplace occurs in a variety of situations, some of which are planned and structured and
others that are spontaneous and seemingly automatic (Swart et al., 2005).

Chapter 6 | Delivering learning and development interventions
Phase 1
L&D needs analysis
Phase 5 Phase 2
THE LEARNING CYCLE
Phase 4
achievements
The focus of this chapter is formally planned L&D. It is a structured process characterised
by an L&D professional acting as a learning facilitator, who aims to accelerate and structure
learning through the delivery of well-designed, outcomes-based learning programmes.
The effective delivery of L&D interventions in the workplace depends on a number of
factors that have to be considered in the design of a learning programme (such as learning
outcomes, the characteristics of the learners, the interactions between learners, the skills of
the L&D professional, resources and facilities available, the management of the delivery
process and the dynamics within the group of learners). Even the best designed L&D
intervention is doomed to fail if the L&D professional cannot deliver it effectively.
2. LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT DELIVERY METHODS

Historically, classroom training and on-the-job training have been the most common
methods of delivering L&D interventions in the workplace. These two methods are
often blended with programmed-instruction and technology-based training (e-learning
or online learning) approaches to enhance the transfer of learning to the workplace
(Cascio & Aguinis, 2005). Research has shown that being trained on-the-job was the
most appealing learning method for 46% of recipients and was regarded as being most
effective by 43% of recipients. On-the-job learning is still regarded as the most effective
method because it enables learners to practise and gain feedback in real time. Learner-
centred activities, such as practice and feedback in the workplace context, are regarded
as essential for skills to become embedded (Rees & French, 2016). Similarly, although
e-learning has long been heralded as the ultimate individualised learner-centred technique
and has grown dramatically in popularity and effectiveness in recent years (Noesgaard &
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Ørngreen, 2015), the adoption of blended learning (i.e. a combination of face-to-face and
technology-mediated instruction) has increased exponentially (Porter et al., 2014).
Although on-the-job training and blended learning methods are still relevant in many
workplaces today, accelerated technological advancements have seen an increasing emphasis
on social media and the importance of social learning as an L&D strategy in workplaces.
Contemporary L&D delivery approaches now incorporate social media, gaming, real-time
feedback and advanced on-the-job and social training methodologies in their L&D delivery
strategy (Meister & Willyerd, 2010). The younger generations (Millennials or Generation
Y and Post-Millennials or Generation Z) are used to interacting via social media: they value
the community and knowledge-sharing opportunities afforded by formal on-the-job and
social training (e-learning and mobile learning) via digital technology, which allows them
to collaboratively problem-solve, brainstorm and form relationships with peers and older
generations (Andriotis, 2017).
The transfer of learning to the workplace is recognised as essential for effective L&D
intervention delivery. Modern approaches to learning and development recognise learning
as an ecosystem that brings formal, informal and social collaboration into a continuous
learning environment to help transfer knowledge and learning back into the workplace.
Adult learners of all generations want meaningful work and opportunities for learning
new skills as part of their career growth and lifelong learning goals. Any form of L&D
intervention delivery must, therefore, be fit for purpose, that is, it should address the
learner’s L&D needs in order to facilitate engagement in learning and transfer of knowledge
and skills (King, 2017). On-the-job training and self-directed learning are effective because
they are learner-centred and tailored to the learner as an individual as well as to the unique
workplace context. These are all characteristics that increase the effectiveness of the learning
transfer (Rees & French, 2016).
Modern approaches to L&D recognise learning as an ecosystem that brings formal, informal
and social collaboration into a continuous learning environment – transferring knowledge
back into the workplace.
On-the-job training and self-directed learning are effective because they are learner-centred
and tailored to the learner as an individual and the unique workplace context.
Activity
You will have experienced learning and development in various contexts in your life, be it
on the job, at school or in the university context. Think back on these experiences. Which
of these made the most impact on you; i.e. can you remember a particular instance
that caused your behaviour to change, or a particular instance that sits strongly in your
memory? Why was this the case? What were the main reasons for this? Keep these in
mind as you work through the following sections.
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2.1 Classroom training

Classroom training refers to seminars, conferences, lectures and training sessions; all are
forms of direct instruction. Direct instruction has strong research support as a method for
enabling learners to achieve the learning outcomes of a programme. Direct instruction
gives learning facilitators the most control over what, when and how learners learn, and it is
also the most appropriate strategy for actively involving learners in developing the required
foundational, practical and reflexive competencies (Killen, 2007). Classroom training –
when matched with clearly defined learning outcomes – is regarded as a powerful means of
enhancing job performance (Aamodt, 2007; Yelon, 1992). However, like all other training
or learning facilitation methods (see Table 6.1), the success of classroom training depends
on the L&D professional’s efforts and expertise.
Table 6.1 Advantages and limitations of classroom training (Killen, 2007)

Advantages
•• Trainers are in control of the content and sequencing of information, so they can maintain a clear focus on
the outcomes.
•• It is an effective way of teaching factual information and highly structured knowledge.
•• It can be effective in all cultures, particularly those in which the trainer is seen as an authority figure.
•• It can be used equally effectively with large and small groups.
•• It allows trainers to present a large amount of information in a relatively short time; all learners are given equal
access to this information.
•• It is one of the most effective approaches for teaching explicit concepts and skills to low-achieving learners.
•• It allows trainers to convey personal interest in the subject (through an enthusiastic presentation). This can
stimulate the interest and enthusiasm of learners.
•• Direct instruction that emphasises listening (for example, lecturing) and observing (for example,
demonstrations) help learners who prefer to learn in these ways.
•• Direct instruction allows trainers to provide a role model for learners in a particular field. They can show how
to approach problems, how to analyse information or how to generate knowledge.
Limitations
•• The success of classroom training depends heavily on the image that the trainer projects. If the trainer does not
seem well prepared, knowledgeable, confident and enthusiastic, the learners may become bored or distracted.
•• Classroom training depends heavily on the communication style of the trainer. If the trainer is a poor
communicator, not much learning will occur.
•• It is difficult to cater for individual differences between learners’ abilities, prior knowledge, rates of learning,
levels of understanding, learning styles or interest in the subject.
•• The high level of structure and the trainer’s control of learning activities may have a negative impact on
learners’ problem-solving abilities, independence and curiosity.
•• If the classroom training does not involve some learner participation (such as asking and answering questions,
experimentation and demonstrations), learners will lose interest and remember little of the content.
•• Some things (such as psychomotor skills) cannot be taught through classroom training alone.
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2.2 Selecting appropriate classroom training methods

Effective classroom training requires extensive planning and preparation, preferably using
a broad range of activities to keep the participants involved (Sullivan & Wircenski, 2006).
There are a wide variety of training methods available to the trainer. An L&D delivery or
training method is chosen in the design stage of the learning cycle. However, design and
delivery decisions are influenced by the characteristics of the target group and the dynamics
between learners during the learning facilitation process. Trainer-centred methods focus
on presenting the learning material, whereas learner-centred methods rely on learning
facilitation.
It is important to select an appropriate training method based on the nature of the
learning outcomes, the characteristics of the learners and the dynamics in the classroom
situation. Trainer-centred methods might work for some learners, while learner-centred
methods will be more appropriate for others. The processes within the group (for
example, the levels of energy) will also influence the choice of training method. A training
delivery technique is adequate to the extent that it provides the minimum conditions
for effective learning to take place. Minimum conditions for an effective training
method include:
•• Motivating the learners to improve their performance;
•• Clearly illustrating the desired skills;
•• Providing for the learners’ active participation;
•• Providing an opportunity to practise;
•• Providing feedback on performance while learners learn;
•• Providing some means to reinforce the learner while they are learning;
•• Structuring learning from simple to complex tasks;
•• Being adaptable to specific problems; and
•• Enabling the learners to transfer what is learned in training to other situations (Cascio
& Aguinis, 2005).
The effective delivery of training in the classroom depends not only on the selection of an
appropriate delivery method, but also on the selection of learning materials that support
the delivery of training.
2.3 Learning support materials in classroom training

Learning support materials are any materials that support the trainer in the delivery of the
learning programme. Materials vary from technologically advanced PowerPoint or other
digital presentations such as Prezi, for example, to pieces of paper used during a training
game. The most important requirement for the selection of learning support materials is
that materials should enhance and increase the effectiveness of the learning experience.
To a large extent, this is achieved by stimulating a wider range of the learners’ senses.
The more senses that are stimulated, the greater the impact the learning experience will
have on the learner. Here are some general points to keep in mind when using learning
support materials:
•• Make learning support materials visible to all the learners in the class;
•• Use a variety of learning support materials;
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•• Prepare and set up learning support materials before the training begins, and make sure
that they work properly;
•• Support materials are there to enhance content, not to replace it; and
•• Face the audience rather than the learning support materials.
The more senses that are stimulated, the greater the impact the learning experience will have
on the learner.
The most commonly used learning support materials in classroom training are PowerPoint
and Prezi presentations, overhead slides, flip charts, whiteboards or chalkboards, handouts,
videos and DVDs.
(a) PowerPoint/Prezi or other electronic presentations

Microsoft PowerPoint and Prezi are electronic (and enhanced) versions of traditional
overhead transparencies. They are fast becoming the standard for learning support material
used in a classroom context. They have a number of advantages:
•• It is easy to transport and store files;
•• Presentations can be made colourful and exciting;
•• Errors can be corrected during the presentation;
•• There are numerous resources available online (for example, sound and video can be
incorporated into presentations); and
•• There are also a number of open source (free) slide presentations available, including Prezi.
The main disadvantages include:

•• The cost of computers and data projectors;
•• If trainers rely too much on technology in the classroom, the classroom situation will
foster passive learners (look on YouTube for ‘Death by PowerPoint’ videos);
•• If the equipment fails, the whole learning process is interrupted (or even stopped); and
•• Since presentations are more effective in a darkened room, learners’ attention might wander.
The following guidelines apply when using PowerPoint/Prezi or other electronic presentations:
•• Use keywords. Slides are used as an adjunct to a lecture to highlight key points; they
should not be read.
•• Use the default text style to prevent the presentation from becoming too busy.
•• Use animations and GIFs (Graphics Interchange Format) to make slides more
interesting.
•• Practise the slide show beforehand to ensure that the animations and layout have the
desired effect.
•• Use an attractive background (various backgrounds are included with the software).
•• Pace the slides. In other words, do not include too many slides in a presentation.
•• Check the equipment beforehand to ensure that it is working properly.
•• Use a laser pointer to focus learners’ attention on particular points.
•• Ensure that the slides are visible and legible.
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•• Be careful when using colours such as red, yellow and orange. These colours become
unreadable if they are shown with a data projector.
•• Keep to the 6 x 6 rule for slides: maximum 6 words per line x 6 lines per slide.
Activity
Go onto YouTube and put in the following search term: ‘Death by PowerPoint’. You will
find a wide range of videos on the topic of avoiding this; i.e. keeping your participants
actively involved in training. List 10 factors that will help you use PowerPoint/Prezi
effectively in the classroom. Also, search for examples of Prezi presentations as an
alternative to PowerPoint presentations.
(b) Handouts
Handouts are printed sheets that the trainer can use to supplement training. The following
points must be kept in mind regarding the use of handouts:
•• Handouts of PowerPoint/Prezi/other presentations will ensure that the learners focus
on the presentation, rather than continuously copying from the slides. Leave blank
spaces on the handout to enable learners to record information from the lecture.
•• When using games or exercises in class, hand out a prepared outline to learners. This
saves time, structures the exercises and ensures some form of consistency between the
various types of responses from the learners.
•• Handouts can also provide additional information, such as chapters from books and
articles from journals.
Mitchell (2014) suggests a number of guidelines for developing effective handouts:

•• Prepare them well beforehand.
•• They should not simply be a printout of the PowerPoint/Prezi slides.
•• The handouts should reflect the content of the presentation.
•• The handouts should provide additional relevant information.
•• Include references so that the participants can access additional materials.
•• Create an action sheet that requires the participant to actively engage with the handouts.
•• The handouts should stand alone, i.e. they should make sense to someone who has not
attended the presentation/class.
•• Provide spaces for notes and comments.
•• Make the handouts look professional, both in their layout and their printing/binding.
•• Consider providing the notes electronically as many learners now use tablets,
smartphones and laptops.
•• Distribute the handouts when relevant in the presentation as they can create surprise,
be used for brainstorming and discussion, and the presentation can be adapted to the
needs of the learner as the topic progresses.
(c) Flip charts

Flip charts are powerful learning support materials and can be used for a number of
purposes. The most popular use is to record the inputs of learners. The flip-chart pages are
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then placed on the wall of the training venue so that the learners or facilitator can refer
back to inputs later. The facilitator can also use flip charts to illustrate diagrams or record
important points. Flip charts have a number of advantages, including the following:
•• They allow spontaneity;
•• They do not require electricity, so they can be used anywhere;
•• They are relatively economical; and
•• Colour can be used effectively and easily.
Issues to take note of when making use of flip charts are:

•• They are better for smaller groups of learners (preferably fewer than 30), otherwise it
becomes difficult for all the learners to see.
•• Do not write in cursive, as this is difficult to read.
•• Write in large, legible text. The 7 x 7 rule should be applied: no more than seven words
in a line and no more than seven lines on a flip chart.
•• Use colours that stand out to make the flip charts easy to read. Avoid colours such as
yellow, light green and orange. Confirm with learners that the colours are easy to read.
•• Use two or three colours on a flip chart, but use colours in a logical way (such as one
colour for headings and another for content).
•• Use flip-chart pens that do not bleed through to the next page or damage the page.
•• If the pages need to be put up on the wall, use a tape or adhesive that does not remove
paint from the wall.
(d) Whiteboards/chalkboards
Whiteboards and chalkboards are used to record learner inputs, summarise key points or
illustrate diagrams. The rules that apply to flip charts also apply here. The main difference
is that the information is lost when the board is erased.
(e) Videos/DVDs
Videos/DVDs can be used at any point in the delivery of a learning programme. They can
serve as ice-breakers, provide an introduction to a topic, illustrate a particular outcome or
serve as a powerful conclusion to a learning programme. Issues to consider when using
videos include the following:
•• When using a video/DVD as part of the training, it is critical that the video/DVD
relates directly to the topic.
•• The video/DVD must be viewed beforehand. This ensures that the facilitator is familiar
with the content and that there are no surprises with regards to quality and content.
•• Learners should not be expected to understand and remember everything in the
video/DVD.
•• Discuss the video/DVD with learners afterwards to gain maximum learning from the
video/DVD. Learners can be asked to record key points during the video/DVD, or a
discussion can take place afterwards about the key learning points in the video/DVD.
A handout that summarises the key points can also be helpful.
•• It is sometimes helpful to divide a video/DVD into smaller segments and to deal with
these separately.
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•• The quality of the video/DVD should be such that technical aspects do not distract the
learners from the content.
•• Make sure that the quality of the speakers in the venue is adequate so that all the
learners can hear the dialogue.
Videos/DVDs can serve as ice-breakers, provide an introduction to a topic, illustrate a

particular outcome or serve as a powerful conclusion to a learning programme.
With the increasingly connected nature of the world it is becoming ever easier to access
good quality training videos on YouTube and similar sites, many without cost. All you need
to do is put in your desired topic and a wide variety of videos will be sourced. It is, however,
important to make sure that the video you select is relevant, related to your topic and that
it will achieve the outcomes for which it is intended.
Using a blended learning approach to complement classroom training has been found to be
more effective than relying on one particular method only.
3. BLENDED LEARNING METHODS

Using a blended learning approach to complement classroom training has been found
to be more effective than relying on one particular method only. Blended learning is an
integrated approach to the training of adults. It allows L&D professionals to use a wide
range of training methods, including information presentation techniques, simulation
methods, small-group methods, self-instruction and on-the-job training methods (Cascio
& Aguinis, 2005; Porter et al., 2014; Yelon, 1992). Blended learning allows trainers to
involve more of the learners’ senses and accommodate a variety of learning preferences.
Table 6.2 G
uidelines for designing blended learning classes (adapted from Galvin &
O’Neil, 2013)
Don’t double-up work for either the facilitator or students.
Divide learning activities and content based on their suitability to either online or face-to-face delivery. It is
important not to duplicate the online with face-to-face formats or vice versa.
Don’t get carried away with the multitude of opportunities offered by technology.
The online component should remain relevant to learning and not distracting ‘nice-to-haves’. Focus on the course
outcomes and whether online component is likely to improve the experience. It is useful to review similar case
studies and to speak to experienced colleagues about their experiences, or to refer to ‘Teach Online’ episodes on
YouTube dealing with choosing technology, designing assessment and using online resources.
Ascertain which activities would benefit from or be better suited to online presentation.
Move these to the online context and then enrich the key activities that benefit from a face-to-face environment
such as those that allow for interaction, use games, videos or require completion of an activity.
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Start slowly.
Introduce content in a graded fashion, i.e. add a few components initially to your blended class or programme;
assess and evaluate how well they work and adjust your practices accordingly; and then gradually add more
online components or more depth to the existing component, as required.
Clearly explain the rationale of going online to your learners.
Outline what you hope to achieve, and what the benefits might be for them. Learners are generally more willing to
try new methods of learning when they can see the reasons for these creating a positive learning environment.
Make sure your learners have access to electronic devices and data.
Don’t assume that all your learners have access to computers and data. At the same time, most learners have
access to smartphones, so make sure online content is suitable to use on a phone. Given that data is still quite
expensive in South Africa, do not automatically assume that learners have access to large amounts of data.
Make sure your learners are computer literate.
The assumption is made that all learners are computer literate in the modern world. Owning a device does not
always mean that the learner will necessarily be able to make full use of the online activities.
3.1 Programmed instruction

Programmed instruction is a training method in which learners acquire information at
their own pace (Aamodt, 2007). Programmed instruction – whether offered through
books, technology-based training or e-learning – is an effective method, because it takes
advantage of several important learning principles (Goldstein & Ford, 2002):
•• Learning is self-paced, that is, each learner proceeds at their own pace.
•• Each learner is actively involved in the learning.
•• Information is presented in small units or chunks, because learning smaller amounts of
material is easier than learning larger amounts.
Activity
You have to write an examination on the learning outcomes described in each chapter
of this book.
Would you do better in the examination if you read and reviewed one chapter each
week, or if you waited until the night before the examination to read and study nine
chapters?
3.2 Technology-based training

Common forms of technology-based training methods include multimedia learning
environments, intranet- and internet-based instruction, e-learning, full-scale simulations
and virtual reality training. Technology-based training is characterised by its flexibility and
adaptability with regards to:
•• Customising a learning programme to accommodate the characteristics of learners; and
•• Allowing learners to control or modify the learning environment to suit their learning
needs (Cascio & Aguinis, 2005).
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Technology-based training methods include multimedia learning environments, intranet-

and internet-based instruction, e-learning, full-scale simulations and virtual reality training.
As shown in Table 6.2, technology-based learning may be self-paced and may be

asynchronous (it does not involve a ‘live’ trainer) or may be synchronous (it does involve a
‘live’ trainer, subject matter expert or facilitator) (Ward & LaBranche, 2003).
3.3 Internet-based programmed instruction or e-learning

E-learning is a popular internet-based training method. Most e-learning programmes
provide learning material in small chunks and then pose a series of questions to the
learner. If the learners do not answer enough questions correctly, the program informs
them about the areas in which they need more work, and returns them to the appropriate
material (Aamodt, 2007). While the design of e-learning programmes varies considerably,
the most effective e-learning experiences provide for some form of interaction between
the learners and trainer (for example, online chat, email or discussion forums). Resources
such as internet links, glossary of terms, frequently asked questions and references are
also commonly available. Often, online students are asked to complete assignments and
exercises and take quizzes. Various media are used to convey educational material, including
text, dynamic graphics, video/DVD and audio (Ward & LaBranche, 2003).
The most effective e-learning experiences provide for some form of interaction between the
learners and trainer, for example online chat, email or discussion forums.
3.4 Workplace training methods

Workplace training is informal training provided by experienced peers and supervisors.
It occurs on the job and during job tasks (DeRouin et al., 2005). Workplace training
methods are popular in basic skills training and management training and development.
Broadly, they include:
•• Orientation training;
•• Learnerships and apprenticeships;
•• On-the-job training (see Table 6.3);
•• Near-the-job training;
•• Job rotation;
•• Understudy assignments;
•• Coaching;
•• Mentoring; and
•• Performance appraisal feedback (Cascio & Aguinis, 2005).
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Table 6.3 On-the-job training methods (Aamodt, 2007; Cascio & Aguinis, 2005)
Method Description and uses

Orientation training Introduces new employees to organisational aspects, such as behaviours,
attitudes, norms, culture and systems;
Also known as induction or socialisation.
Learnerships/ A structured learning programme that leads to a nationally recognised

apprenticeships qualification on the NQF;
An integrated, occupation-directed programme that combines learning at
a training institution with practical, on-site experience and learning at the
workplace.
On-the-job training This is informal training by experienced peers and supervisors that occurs on
the job and during job tasks.
Near-the-job training This is training that duplicates the materials and equipment used on the job,
but that takes place away from the actual job situation.
Job rotation Employees are given the opportunity to perform several different jobs in an
organisation.
Understudy assignments An understudy relieves a senior executive of selected responsibilities,

thereby allowing him or her to learn certain aspects of the executive’s job.
Coaching A new employee is assigned to an experienced employee, who is told to

familiarise the new employee with the workplace and job.
Mentoring This builds relationships between a mentor and inexperienced employee;

It provides the inexperienced employee with an adviser and tutor in the
workplace.
Performance appraisal It is an effective training method in which supervisors meet with an

feedback employee to discuss the strengths and weaknesses of job performance;
The supervisor and employee determine what training methods would help
employees to improve their job knowledge or skills.
3.5 Team training

A team is a group of individuals who work together to achieve a common goal. The changing
nature of work has led to an increasing emphasis on team performance. Interactions
between team members make team training unique. Team training always uses some form
of simulation or real-life practice, and always focuses on the interaction of team members,
equipment and work procedures. As with individual training, opportunities for guided
practice and constructive feedback are particularly important for team training. Forms of
team training include the following:
•• Team co-ordination training focuses on teamwork skills that facilitate information
exchange, co-operation and co-ordination of job-related behaviours.
•• Cross-training provides exposure to and practice with other teammates’ tasks, roles and
responsibilities in an effort to increase shared understanding and knowledge among
team members.
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•• Guided team self-correction guides team members in reviewing team events, identifying
errors, exchanging feedback, and developing plans for the future (Cascio & Aguinis, 2005).
Team training always uses some form of simulation or real-life practice, and always focuses
on the interaction of team members, equipment and work procedures.
4. MODERN LEARNING
Modern learning approaches recognise that, collectively, all generations have evolved
socially to adjust to technological and digital advancements, which have influenced the way
people prefer to learn in the workplace. Progressive L&D professionals embrace learning in
the workplace as an ecosystem of social learning and adopt multiple modalities to deliver
L&D interventions. Social learning is a form of collaborative learning that is immediate,
relevant and presented in the context of an individual’s unique work environment (Meister
& Willyerd, 2010: 34).
Social learning is a form of collaborative learning that is immediate, relevant and presented
in the context of an individual’s unique work environment.
Whereas classroom and online training are typically event-centric, separated from the work
itself, the social learning ecosystem is learner-centric and offers diverse learning modalities
that more readily enable access to knowledge and the transfer of learning to the workplace
(King, 2017; Meister & Willyerd, 2010). With the advent of social media, modern-day
adult learners view collaboration and interdependence as a way of life. Mobile and smart
digital technologies enable independent learning and emphasise the importance that
modern learners place on the value of self-directed learning. Research shows that 41% of
companies use social media for internal purposes while 34% connect with their customers
through social media. Social networking software providers have found that modern-day
knowledge workers greatly value the use of social media and digital technologies to find
the information they need. Learning for today’s knowledge workers has become more
participatory, collaborative, social, fun, engaging and integrated with work. For example,
a text message, a post on Facebook or Twitter, a comment on a blog post, an entry on a
wiki, a lecture accessed via Google on a mobile phone, or insight gained from viewing and
commenting on a YouTube video are just some of the multiple modalities of social learning
that yield new knowledge and insights (Meister & Willyerd, 2010).
Learning for today’s knowledge workers has become more participatory, collaborative, social,
fun, engaging and integrated with work.
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As also discussed in chapter 5, are some of the key elements of the modern learning
ecosystem include the following (Katambur, 2018; King, 2017; Meister & Willyerd, 2010):
•• Learner-centric. Learning experiences must provide personalised (individualised) ‘just-
in-time’, ‘just-for-me’ options and opportunities to gain new skills or take on new
challenges. Learners want to be able to not only know where to find information,
but also be able to choose what, how and when they want to learn. Learners also like
flexibility in learning and prefer to follow their favoured learning path. The same
learning content should be presented in different ways to address the varied needs of
learners.
The attention span of modern learners is generally short, so they appreciate on-demand
training that is short and to the point.
•• On-demand, micro-sized and modular. Due to limited uninterrupted time, learners want
short bursts of information that can stand alone or combine into broader programmes.
The attention span of modern learners is generally short, so they appreciate on-demand
training that is short and to the point. They prefer microlearning, that is, learning that is
delivered in small chunks. Modern-day learners also tend to be more impatient because
of the easy access to information afforded by digital technology. If learning demands are
not met instantly, a learner may, for example, just hop onto YouTube or Google and get
the information they need. E-learning should be accessible 24/7. Self-directed learning
is encouraged by additional content such as microlearning videos, e-books (digital
books) and blogs. However, learner-support materials, such as handouts, PowerPoints/
Prezi/other slides and other written materials posted online or in print, are also valued.
•• Incorporate varied treatments and formats. Combining varied interactive multimedia
formats increases engagement and more effective learning. Game-based learning,
learning simulations, animation, interactive real-life scenarios, virtual realities, artificial
intelligence and facilitated online discussions that are ‘fit-for-purpose’ are examples of
multimedia formats that make learning more fun and facilitate learner engagement.
Integrate rich visuals for especially the younger generation learners such as Generation Z
(Post-Millennials) whose brains are wired to sophisticated, visual images. GIFs, images,
memes and videos may more readily capture the attention of Generation-Z learners
who have been connected with technology since their developmental years. Research
shows that more than 35% of Generation-Z users of mobile devices spent an average
of 6–10 hours on their mobile devices every day. They would want the flexibility to
access information on multiple devices and multiple platforms. Learning design should
include learning apps that help learners download content and view it offline.
Research shows that more than 35% of Generation-Z users of mobile devices spent an
average of 6–10 hours on their mobile devices every day.
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•• Drive retention. Learning must offer opportunities for continuous application of formal
and informal learning by reading, watching, experiencing and interacting. Ongoing
practise and application help learners recall new knowledge and use that knowledge to
change how they work.
•• Embedded in and connected to learner’s work. Advancements in digital technologies help
connect learners to content that is just right for them. Data about the learner should be
leveraged to push and recommend the right resources at the right time. The content of
resources should be relevant to the learner’s work (professional job role), personal and
social lives so as to be regarded as personally meaningful enough for them to engage in
the learning and transfer the knowledge to the environmental context.
•• Learning must be built for mobile access. Learning must evolve with technology and
learners’ increasing access to smartphones, and provide the most appropriate mode for
access on the go. Although traditional e-learning programs still have a place, videos,
e-books and audio-books, which can be consumed while walking, running, commuting
and biking, are becoming compelling options for engaging the modern learner.
Learning must evolve with technology and learners’ increasing access to smartphones, and
provide the most appropriate mode for access on the go.
•• On-demand mentoring, microfeedback and peer-to-peer learning: Mentoring and

feedback remains important to provide information on the progress and impact of
learning. Learning through mentoring and feedback should be continuous and enable
learners to chart their progress easily. Modern learners still require face-to-face or online
mentoring, as required by the individual. Digital technology allows remote mentoring
via Skype and YouTube, for example. Online mentoring can also be anonymous and
confidential. Microblogging and microfeedback, for example, allow users of digital
devices to gather instant feedback from others. Social networks can be used to facilitate
peer-to-peer learning and mentoring.
5. THE TRAINER AS LEARNING FACILITATOR

In conventional training, the emphasis is on the trainer or L&D professional. The L&D
professional is seen as a competent person who has superior knowledge and skills. It is
the trainer’s task to convey the knowledge and skills to the learner, while the learner has
to pick up and master whatever the trainer can offer. The usual method sees the L&D
professional actively disseminating information, while the learner remains mostly passive.
In this trainer-centred approach, the trainer is an instructor and presenter. The L&D
professional is responsible for what learners should learn, how and when they should learn,
and the effectiveness of their learning. In the context of the outcomes-based approach to
workplace learning and training, with its emphasis on learner-centred training methods,
the trainer has to adopt a facilitative approach to training. A facilitative approach changes
the relationship between the L&D professional and learners to one in which there is an
interdependent sharing of experience and a flow of information. In the outcomes-based
context, the trainer is seen as a learning facilitator when delivering a learning programme.
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Facilitation involves getting people to work together to achieve a specific outcome. One of
the fathers of the facilitative approach to learning, the psychologist Carl Rogers (in Laird,
1993), identifies facilitative trainers (as opposed to instructors or presenters) as:
•• Less protective of their own beliefs;
•• Able to listen to learners;
•• Able to accept ideas that are different or even troublesome;
•• Able to pay as much attention to the relationship with the learners as to the content of
the programme; and
•• Able to accept both positive and negative feedback and to use this to gain insight into
and improve their own behaviour.
Learning facilitation is a means of making the learner more of an active and vital
component of the learning process. Facilitation is an L&D intervention delivery strategy
that deliberately involves learners and maximises their input and importance in the
learning process. Learners take a greater degree of responsibility for their own learning.
Facilitation corresponds to the concept of andragogy. Malcolm Knowles (1972) introduced
this concept; it comprises the following core principles:
•• Adults need to direct their own learning.
•• Learners’ prior experiences are a rich resource for learning.
•• Adults will learn something when they need to; this is normally related to their roles
and responsibilities.
•• Adults’ orientation to learning is problem-centred rather than subject-centred. In other
words, they seek to acquire skills that can be applied to real-life problems.
Facilitation is an L&D intervention delivery strategy that deliberately involves learners

and maximises their input and importance in the learning process.
Purposes of learning facilitation (based on Yelon, 1992)

The purpose of learning facilitation is to:
• Motivate learners to learn and apply the performance in the workplace;
• Help learners to become mentally ready to learn;
• Enable learners to practise;
• Enable learners to improve their performance;
• Help learners to retain learning and transfer what they have learned to the workplace;
• Facilitate the integration of newly acquired skills with existing skills; and
• Certify that learners have accomplished the learning outcomes.
The concept of learning facilitation has several advantages:

•• It shifts the focus of training from the trainer to the learners’ needs and skills.
•• It uses learners’ knowledge, experience and frame of reference as a valued and critical
input to the learning process. The learners’ knowledge and experience serve as a basis
for further learning experiences.
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•• It allows learners to become active partners with a vested interest in their own learning.
Learning success is shared with other learners and the learning facilitator.
•• It promotes experiential learning that is relevant, significant and meaningful. Facilitated
learning relates more directly to everyday, real-life situations.
•• It promotes learning that lasts beyond the immediate training sessions. Learning
facilitation encourages learning that is readily transferable to the workplace.
Simple rules for facilitating learning in the classroom (based on Cameron, 1998)
• The facilitator must make the learning in the classroom interesting and stimulating
to encourage contributions. Use a variety of facilitation techniques to achieve this.
• The classroom training must have a clear purpose.
• Learners attend because they have something to contribute.
• The classroom training should run according to the agenda.
• The classroom training should be designed to achieve specific, predetermined
outcomes.
• Everyone should be included in the discussion and encouraged to participate.
• Learners are encouraged to listen to one another and understand one another’s
points of view.
• The facilitator should be well informed and unbiased, and should help the learners to
distinguish between fact and opinion.
• The classroom training should be part of a larger process; everyone should be kept
informed of progress.
• The facilitator must summarise or conclude learning experiences by asking questions
about the experience, comparing and contrasting learners’ responses, and helping
learners to draw conclusions about the objectives of these experiences.
5.1 Learning facilitation skills
Facilitators have to be skilful in gauging the attitudes and anticipations of the group, and
act accordingly.
The L&D professional, as a facilitator of learning, should know how learning takes place
and how the learner can be assisted to make learning easier. Learning facilitators should
be able to make the subject matter, learning content and learning process interesting. A
facilitator needs the following general skills:
•• Knowledge of and skills in group processes and group dynamics. Facilitators should
understand group behaviour and should have the skills to handle conflict. They
have to observe the group carefully and try to determine the mood of the group. It
is important to know why the group or individuals in the group behave in particular
ways. Facilitators have to be skilful in gauging the attitudes and anticipations of the
group, and act accordingly.
•• Listening skills. By listening to the learners’ answers and reactions to discussions,
facilitators can determine how they think. Not only the answers are important – the
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attitude and emotions with which they are given, and the ways in which the learners
arrive at the answers, are equally as important.
•• Questioning skills. Learning facilitators need to be skilful in asking questions that reflect
the learners’ opinions and feelings, as well as questions that lead to problem-solving
and interpretation of information. Open questions that require learners to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate, and that may have more than one correct answer, are important
to evoke discussion.
Learning facilitators need to be skilful in asking questions that reflect the learners’ opinions
and feelings, and that lead to problem-solving and interpretation of information.
•• Feedback. The facilitator should be able to summarise, interpret, and communicate

the group’s performance to the group. At critical and convenient moments during
discussions, important information, opinions and conclusions should be summarised
and shared with the group. This gives recognition to what was said and achieved and
forms the basis for further discussion.
At critical and convenient moments during discussions, important information, opinions

and conclusions should be summarised and shared with the group.
•• Flexibility. An effective facilitator is not rigid, but flexible and open-minded. Facilitators
must be able to adjust, act and react according to the circumstances of the group and
the group procedures. The facilitator should be provocative, supportive, serious or
light-hearted as the situation requires, but always be in command of the situation.
The facilitator should be provocative, supportive, serious or light-hearted as the situation

requires, but always be in command of the situation.
•• Time management. Facilitation must not deteriorate into lengthy, aimless and inefficient
discussions. The facilitator should be able to use and manage time in such a way that
the group can finish its learning tasks effectively.
The wisdom of learning facilitation (based on Clement, 1992)

Listed below are a number of important guidelines on learning facilitation:
• A wise learning facilitator lets others have the floor.
• A good learning facilitator is better than a spectacular learning facilitator. Otherwise,
the learning facilitator outshines the learning.
• Facilitate what is happening rather than what you think needs to happen.
• Silence says more than words; pay attention to it.
• Continual classroom drama inhibits inner or psychological learning processes.
• Allow time for genuine insight.
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• A good reputation arises naturally from doing good work. But do not nourish the
reputation: the anxiety will be endless. Instead, nourish the work.
• To know what is happening, relax and do not try to figure things out. Listen quietly,
be calm and use reflection.
• Let go of selfishness. Let go of your ego, and you will receive what you need. Give
away credit, and you will get more. When you desire nothing, much comes to you.
The less you make of yourself, the more you are.
• Instead of trying hard, be easy. Teach by example, and more will happen.
• Trying to be brilliant does not work.
• The gift of a great learning facilitator is to create an awareness of greatness in others.
• Because the learning facilitator can see clearly, light is shed on others.
• Teach as a leader and a healer. Constant force and intervention will backfire, as will
constant yielding.
• One cannot push the river; a leader’s touch is light.
• To manage other lives takes strength; to manage your own life takes real power.
Be happy, content and at peace with yourself.
5.2 Characteristics of effective learning facilitation

Effective learning facilitation means that learners are active partners in the learning
experience and are actively involved in learning new knowledge and skills. Credible and
effective learning facilitators inspire learners to learn by demonstrating expertise in the
field, using learning facilitation skills effectively and clearly linking the course content to
the outcomes. The outcomes are then clearly linked to the learners’ work performance. The
characteristics of effective learning facilitation are summarised in Table 6.4.
Table 6.4 C
haracteristics of effective learning facilitation (adapted from Goldstein &
Ford, 2002)
Establishing and maintaining credibility
•• The facilitator negotiates learners’ needs and expectations at the beginning of the training programme.
•• Together with the learners, the facilitator sets rules so that the learners know what is expected of them and
what they can expect from the facilitator. The ground rules include roles, responsibilities, expectations and
group norms. It is important that the facilitator models the agreed-upon behaviours.
•• The facilitator briefly refers to his or her own experience and qualifications to build credibility with the group.
•• The facilitator arrives early and is ready when the learners arrive.
•• The facilitator interacts with the learners individually and uses their names. Name tags are effective.
•• The facilitator is well organised and prepared.
Learning facilitation is structured and organised for impact
•• An outline of the course is presented, which links the content to the learning outcomes.
•• Materials are sequenced to achieve maximum impact. This may mean that the facilitator adapts the sequence
of activities from time to time to match the energy levels of the group.
•• The facilitator gives lectures that are well organised and that follow a clear pattern.
•• The facilitator clearly links the topics to one another.
•• The content in the lectures is linked to other aspects of the course.
•• Conceptual learning is emphasised as opposed to simple rote learning.
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Learning facilitation is conducted in a responsive and collaborative manner
•• The facilitator builds responsive and collaborative relationships with the learners.
•• Realistic and challenging goals are set.
•• Training and communication styles are adapted to meet the needs of the learners.
•• The facilitator exhibits energy and enthusiasm.
•• The facilitator responds to problems and learners’ needs as they arise.
A safe and comfortable learning environment
The facilitator answers questions thoroughly and clearly and creates a non-threatening environment.
Positive feedback
•• The facilitator encourages the learners to participate through positive feedback.

•• The facilitator encourages the learners to engage with the material.
•• Feedback should be positive and timely when learners have performed well.
•• Follow the learners’ progress during exercises and activities and provide specific feedback to reinforce correct
responses and to correct inaccurate responses.
•• Preserve the learners’ dignity and self-esteem when giving feedback.
•• Actively listen to the feedback of the learners and respond accordingly.
Effective communication and presentation skills
•• The facilitator uses examples that are relevant to the learners’ frame of reference.
•• Class discussions are stimulated and encouraged.
•• The facilitator is accessible outside the class situation.
•• The facilitator:
–– Manages the physical environment to ensure that it supports the learning process;
–– Uses audio-visual equipment effectively and has a back-up plan in case of problems;
–– Adapts the media used to accommodate the needs of the learners and the realities of the situation;
–– Manages the time available to ensure that all learning outcomes are achieved;
–– Actively listens to the learners for evidence of learning and engagement;
–– Monitors individual and group behaviour;
–– Asks for feedback on content and delivery and encourage learners to share new ideas to improve the
learning experience; and
–– Interacts with learners during meals and other free time.
Provide opportunities for application of knowledge and skills
•• The practical use of the content is emphasised.

•• Assessments that identify strengths and weaknesses are used.
•• The learners are given opportunities to demonstrate what they have learned through simulations, role-plays,
games and case studies.
•• The facilitator demonstrates skills using anatomical models, role-plays and commonly available equipment.
•• The facilitator shows, in a variety of ways, the on-the-job benefits of meeting the learning objectives.
•• The facilitator develops practical plans to enable the learners to apply their new knowledge and skills on the job.
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6. DELIVERING CLASSROOM TRAINING

Classroom training has two distinct attributes. Firstly, classroom training is the training
of a group of learners. Secondly, it requires the physical separation of the classroom from
the workplace. Separation from the workplace distinguishes classroom training from on-
the-job training. Although classroom training differs in certain aspects from other training
methods, its purpose is the same: to provide learners with the skills or knowledge they need
to perform successfully on the job (Yelon, 1992). L&D professionals choose classroom
training as a solution for the following reasons:
•• People lack the skills or knowledge to do a job well;
•• People must learn and practise the required skills and knowledge;
•• On-the-job training cannot provide the amount or degree of learning necessary to
acquire the skills or knowledge (Yelon, 1992).
Classroom training should form part of a comprehensive, co-ordinated and continuous

system for improving performance. Such a system includes training inside and outside
the classroom, as well as interventions before and after formal training. In the pre-class
intervention, L&D professionals obtain information from learners and their supervisors
before training begins. Next, L&D professionals combine training in and out of the
classroom to teach learners the desired performance. After the training has been completed,
L&D professionals maintain contact with learners and their supervisors to facilitate the
transfer of learning to the workplace (Aamodt, 2007; Yelon, 1992).
6.1 Pre-class intervention

In the pre-class intervention, L&D professionals obtain information from potential learners
– through an L&D needs analysis (discussed in Chapter 3) – to make classroom training
meaningful, transferable and understandable. The purpose of a target group analysis is to
identify the characteristics and specific needs of the group of potential learners. A target
group analysis is more specific than the L&D needs analysis, which determines the overall
need for training. The following biographical details are important when conducting a
target group analysis (Buckley & Caple, 2004):
•• Size of the group. This will have an impact on the logistical arrangements and the
methods that can be used to deliver training.
•• Experience. What is the learners’ level of experience with the topic of the training
programme?
•• Age. What is the average age of learners? Are learners more or less the same age, or are
there big differences in age? Age often implies experience.
•• Skills and qualifications. What is the learners’ current level of skills relating to the
topic of the learning programme? This will determine the level at which the training
is presented.
•• Gender. What is the distribution of male and female learners?
•• Language proficiency. What is the learners’ level of proficiency in the language that will
be used during the training? Is it their first, second or third language?
•• Cultural groupings. Which cultures do the learners represent? Are there particular
cultural practices that need to be considered (for example, diet), or do some topics
need to be treated with sensitivity and understanding?
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•• Geographical location. Are the learners all located in one area, or are they spread over a
wide geographical area?
•• Specific needs. Do a particular group of learners have specific needs (for example, a
particular focus in the course content, or some specific logistical requirements)?
•• Disabilities. Are there learners with disabilities? What are their specific needs?
•• Learning styles. Is there a particular learning style that is dominant?
These and any other relevant characteristics of the learners will have an impact on the
delivery of the training and the logistical arrangements of the learning programme. The
most effective way to conduct a target group analysis is to send out detailed questionnaires
to the potential learners, and then to compile a profile of the learners based on the results
of the questionnaires. This approach will help L&D professionals to determine whether the
learners identified for the training programme actually need the training.
Another helpful approach is to conduct a session at the beginning of the learning
programme during which specific needs are identified. Alternatively, focus groups can be
conducted. Another option is to interview learners to identify their specific needs. However,
interviews are time consuming. The main advantage of interviews is that it gives the trainer
an opportunity to build relationships with individual learners. Once the characteristics and
needs of the learners have been identified, the trainer needs to choose the most appropriate
training methods.
The target group analysis allows L&D professionals to assess prerequisite skills and
knowledge and bring all participants up to the same level of understanding (regarding
basic ideas and skills) before the classroom training starts. If L&D professionals know
and understand their learners, they can relate the desired performance to learners’ needs
and set the emotional climate for the rest of the learning facilitation process. The pre-class
intervention also encourages learners to prepare for the training and helps to remove any
barriers to the transfer of learning.
How to get the most out of the pre-class intervention (based on Yelon, 1992)
• To facilitate learning and assess prerequisites, an L&D professional gathers
information from, for example, managers and their supervisors, about managers’
performance in meetings.
• To relate the desired performance to the learners’ needs, the L&D professional
might describe what new ideas and skills will be learned and how the resulting
performance will be likely to increase productivity.
• To reduce anxiety, the L& D professional also explains that meeting procedures will
be learned quickly and painlessly.
• To encourage learners to prepare for the formal parts of training, the L&D professional
might ask managers and their supervisors to choose the next series of meetings as
learning programme projects.
• To remove barriers to the transfer of learning, the L&D professional discusses with
managers and their supervisors ways to eliminate or work around possible blocks to
using the new skills on the job.
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6.2 Learning facilitation

Learning facilitation in the classroom is characterised by three distinctive elements. These
elements are an introduction, the actual learning facilitation process and a conclusion to
the classroom training. Each of these elements is discussed in the section that follows. In
addition, Table 6.5 provides a summary of these three elements.
(a) Introduction
A well-planned introduction captures attention and motivates learners. Good introductions
achieve the following criteria:
•• Establish expectations at the start of the training session by specifically stating what
learners must be able to do by the end of the session and how they will be assessed.
For example, the L&D professional could say, ‘For your final assessment, you will be
required to conduct real meetings according to the meeting performance qualities
checklist.’
•• Orient learners by showing how the content of the learning material and activities are
organised. For example, the L&D professional provides a content framework by saying,
‘A good start to a meeting consists of two steps. Firstly, give an introduction to provide
context and motivation for the meeting. Next, specify ground rules for the meeting to
promote efficient progress.’
•• Provide a schedule of events (also called an agenda) to help learners follow the progress
of the training session. For example, the L&D professional says, ‘You will hear a short
lecture about starting a meeting. Then you will see a demonstration. Finally, you will
plan, practise and get feedback on the start of your meetings.’ An example of an agenda
is shown in Table 6.5.
Table 6.5 Example of an agenda
Day 1 Time Module Learning theme Learning activity

08:30–09:00 Welcome and Introductions;
orientation. Needs and expectations;
Programme learning; outcomes;
Assessment guidance;
Agenda.
09:00–10:30 Module 1 Reflection on Small-group reflections on pre-course

Skills development pre-course learning learning activity;
legislation activity. Completion of Activity 1.1 in the learning
manual (competency self-assessment).
10:30–11:00 Break
11:00-12:30 Module 1 Module activities. Small-group reflections on pre-course

Skills development learning activity;
legislation Report back to large group (discussions
and learning reflections).
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Day 1 Time Module Learning theme Learning activity

12:30–13:30 Lunch
13:30–15:00 Module 1 Learning activity;

Skills development Small-group discussions;
legislation Large-group reflections and discussion.
15:00–15:30 Break
15:30–16:30 Module 1 Workplace Refection on the day’s learning;

Skills development application briefing; Discussion of workplace application;
legislation Homework activity Homework activity.
briefing;
Closure of day.
A useful way to record learners’ expectations is to write them down on a flip chart.
The trainer should try to ensure that all expectations are addressed during the learning
programme. If some of the expectations fall outside the scope of the programme, this needs
to be stated before the training begins. Use the list of expectations as a checklist at the end
of the learning programme to ensure that all the expectations have been addressed.
Establish ground rules with the group, or learning contracts with individual learners.
Ground rules are put in place at the beginning of the programme to serve as guidelines on
how the programme is run and how the learners should interact. These rules are normally
recorded on a sheet of flip-chart paper and displayed prominently for the duration of the
training programme. Examples of ground rules are: responsibility for learning; administrative
arrangements, such as starting times, breaks and submission dates for assignments; mutual
respect and tolerance. If the nature of the programme allows it (for example, if the programme
takes place over a long time) individual learning contracts can be established. In these
contracts, the expectations and responsibilities of the learner and facilitator are stated.
(b) Techniques for starting off on a positive note

•• Use an ice-breaker exercise to gain the attention of the learners and to help build
rapport. There are numerous ice-breakers freely available on the internet and in books
that specialise in training games.
•• Relate an anecdote (a short story that is related to the training topic).
•• Tell a joke or show a humorous video clip or cartoon. The humour should be related to
the topic and it should not be offensive or discriminatory.
•• Show a short video that contextualises the topic.
•• Ask thought-provoking questions about the topic that challenge the learners and
encourage discussion and debate.
•• Illustrate the topic graphically (with diagrams or mind maps).
•• Quote a startling statistic or make a powerful statement relating to the topic. The aim
is to stimulate discussion and debate.
•• Get a senior manager to welcome the learners and explain the importance of the
learning programme.
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(c) Facilitating learning

During learning facilitation, L&D professionals prepare learners for the most realistic
practice possible of new skills and knowledge. In their role as learning facilitators, L&D
professionals do the following:
•• Explain what the learners need to know to benefit from a demonstration of the desired
performance;
•• Demonstrate the skill;
•• Allow learners the opportunity to practise the desired performance; and
•• Provide feedback and guidance on improving skills by giving more explanations,
demonstrations or practice, as necessary (Yelon, 1992).
(d) Concluding the classroom training

Learning facilitators conclude classroom training in such a way that learners are likely to
recall and use what they have learned:
•• They summarise the main ideas.
•• They relate the new skill to other job skills and to the job situation in which it will
be used.
•• They remind learners of the knowledge and skills they have learned and why these
are important.
•• They provide a final supervised practice as a test to assess what learners have learned, to
reinforce the new skills and to instil confidence in learners (Yelon, 1992).
Table 6.6 Elements of learning facilitation in the classroom (based on Yelon, 1992)
Element Description
Introduction Motivation
Used to start training State or show learners why they should learn to achieve the learning outcomes,
session, learning units where the knowledge, skills, values and behaviour are used, and what the
and lessons consequences are.
Objective and learning outcomes
State or show learners what performance (knowledge, skills, values and behaviour)
they will learn to do and how their performance will be assessed.
Advance organiser
State or show learners the main parts of the performance, how the parts are related
to one another, and where this performance fits into their jobs.
Review of past
Remind learners of what they know, and how they can use the existing knowledge
to learn this performance (achieve the learning outcomes).
Agenda
State or show learners the order of the learning activities.
Facilitating learning Explanation

State or show learners the essential information that they need to perform
(that is, the steps to take when performing and the ideas needed to take each
step properly).
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Element Description
Demonstration
Show learners how to do the required performance (apply the knowledge, skills,
values and behaviour) on the job.
Practice
Ask each learner to try (experiment with) the required performance on the job.
Formative assessment
Assess learners’ progress towards mastering the learning outcomes.
Feedback and remediation
Tell learners openly what they did well, what they need to improve on, and what
they should do. Include more practice, as needed.
Conclusion Summary of main ideas

Used to end training Remind learners of the main parts of the performance, how the parts relate to one
session, learning another, and where this performance fits into their jobs.
units, lessons Integration with other segments
State or show learners how this performance relates to other performances already
learned or to be learned.
Motivation
State or show learners why they have learned the learning outcomes.
Summative assessment
Assess learners’ performance (achievement of learning outcomes) and provide
guidance for further learning and development.
Example of a classroom activity for the training of trainers (based on Coetzee &
Jansen, 2007a)
Improving my effectiveness as trainer by letting go of old behaviours
Method
1. Before the activity, encourage participants to consider behaviours they wish to change to
improve their effectiveness as trainers. Ask them to complete Document 1, included in
this document. If people have difficulty defining aspects of behaviour, some discussion
might be needed. Examples could include:
• Aggressive outbursts;
• Talking too much;
• Being insensitive to learners’ problems;
• Being defensive when perceiving criticism; or
• Always saying yes to requests.
2. Encourage participants to discuss the progress they made with their pre-class work.
Ensure everyone has done enough preparation to continue with the remainder of
the activity.
3. Working in pairs, allow participants time to help each other (through good listening
and support) to decide on one behaviour they would like to change. The following
pointers may be helpful in briefing participants:
• Choose a behaviour that is easy to describe.
• Choose something that can be practised during the training session.
• Help each other to identify possible benefits of making the change.
• Agree on and record a ‘contract’ that describes what the individual is aiming to
achieve, and how the partner is prepared to assist.
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4. Bring participants together and ask them to declare their intentions for new
behaviours. If possible, each participant should get a commitment from another
participant to observe and give feedback about progress. The participants now need
to practise their new behaviours. Conduct a short decision-making phase to discuss
the different ideas and opportunities available to participants.
5. Ask participants to return to their pairs and help each other to reflect on the decision-
making phase.
6. Ask participants to discuss their perceptions of the activity, their aims for further
change and any opportunities for mutual support in the future.
Timing
Average total estimated time: 30 minutes.
Materials required
1. Sufficient copies of Document 1;
2. Enough space for people to work undisturbed; and
3. Paper, pens and flip chart.
Trainer/facilitator guidance
The activities create opportunities for participants to reflect on their personal
characteristics and beliefs, and to give and receive feedback. You need to promote
an atmosphere of openness and trust. This may be difficult if the prevailing culture is
resistant to these qualities.
Your contribution to this process is as follows:

• Help participants to understand and apply the skills of seeking and receiving
feedback. Encourage the group to think about ‘feedback contracts’.
• Assist people to define clearly the behaviours they wish to modify.
• Give attention and support when new behaviours are being practised.
• Encourage group members to offer support to one another.
The most important point of the activities is to encourage participants to be honest, to
take a longer-term view and identify behaviours that will help to unlock their potential
ability to improve their effectiveness as trainers. Participants may find it difficult to detach
themselves from their immediate situations. You may need to encourage them to think
of the activities as an investment in their personal growth. Some may be reluctant to
share their personal information and others may feel threatened.
You are well placed to encourage participants to share their concerns within the group.
Participants need to know that their right to privacy and confidentiality will be respected
and honoured at all times.
A maximum group size of six to eight is recommended, owing to the complexity of
the tasks.
Document 1
Improving my effectiveness as a trainer by letting go of my old behaviours:___________
��
��
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Behaviour(s) being considered: _________________________________________________

��
��
Example of behaviour(s) to sharpen focus:_______________________________________
��
Perceived consequences of these behaviours:____________________________________
��
��
New behaviour (what could I change)?___________________________________________
��
��
Perceived benefits of new behaviour(s):_________________________________________
��
��
��
Assistance/support available to me?_____________________________________________
��
��
(e) Post-class intervention

In the post-class intervention, L&D professionals aim to keep former learners interested
in using what they have learned. They also help learners to continue to improve upon
their new skills and to remove barriers to the use of the desired performance. For example,
the L&D professional accompanies learners and observes them on the job. After each
observation, the L&D professional discusses learners’ strengths and further development
areas with them and their supervisors. To remove possible barriers, the L&D professional
asks learners and their supervisors if anything interferes with the use of the newly acquired
skills. If barriers are discovered, the ways to remove them are explored (Yelon, 1992).
7. THE LEARNING FACILITATION PROCESS

Learning facilitation emphasises the principles of experiential learning. The learning
facilitation process should therefore assist learners in their progress through the learning
phases described by Kolb’s (1985) cycle of experiential learning, as shown in Figure 6.2.
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DOING
Concrete experiences
ASSESSING SELF THINKING

Assessment of mastering of Recalling and reflecting on
new competencies experiences
Learning cycle
EXPERIMENTING MAKING SENSE

Testing new ideas and Forming concepts and
concepts in new generalisations
situations
Figure 6.2 Experiential learning cycle (based on Kolb, 1985)
Learning facilitators consider the points outlined in Figure 6.2 before and during the
training process. When using activities, facilitators need to think of ways to assist learners
to progress through the learning cycle. Examples of these are given in Table 6.7.
Table 6.7 E
xamples of behaviours to facilitate throughout the learning cycle (Coetzee &
Jansen, 2007a)
Stage of learning Behaviours to facilitate the learning cycle

Recall concrete Guide participants (or pairs helping each other) to recall previous experiences
experiences and record these. Use role-plays, case studies and video clips as concrete data.
Also use group discussions and brainstorming techniques to let thoughts and
memories flow.
Share aspects of Guide pairs/threes to share experiences and the associated thoughts and
experiences feelings. Encourage participants to listen, be sensitive towards others’ needs
and to show care. Help participants to give and seek feedback (and see the
value of this).
Reflect/process Help participants to reflect in depth. Encourage and seek further feedback in
the information areas that are still not clearly defined.
Arrive at understanding, Help participants to ‘see it’ and ‘believe it’ for themselves. Make sense of the
concepts and feedback and other data.
generalisations
Test out new ideas and Use theoretical information and models to support this process. Encourage
concepts in new situations others to share the understanding and insights reached.
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Stage of learning Behaviours to facilitate the learning cycle

Move on to further concrete Express thoughts on areas for improvement and further practice. Use
experiences and continue experiential techniques to reinforce and consolidate the learning.
the learning cycle
Evaluate mastering Help participants to draw up action plans for implementing newly acquired
of newly acquired competencies. Encourage learners to share plans with others. Help the
competencies and ability learners to feel confident about overcoming any perceived obstacles. Agree on
to apply in real-life a support structure and networks. Assist learners to reflect on their learning.
situations by means of Identify areas for further training and development. Provide guidance on further
self-assessment activities development resources and networks.
and further development
planning
7.1 Group dynamics in the learning process

Group dynamics, or the manner in which learners interact with one another, are influenced
by the characteristics of the individual learners. In addition, trainers (L&D professionals) will
often have to deal with learners from different generations. Different generations have unique
needs and preferences, as shown in Table 6.8. Learners’ characteristics have a strong impact
on how they interact with one another and how they react to the learning process. Newstrom
and Lengnick-Hall (1991) identify 10 ways in which learners differ from one another:
1. Instrumentality is the degree to which learners are concerned with the immediate
applicability of the knowledge and skills being taught.
2. Scepticism is the degree to which learners exhibit a questioning attitude that requires
logical explanations, evidence and practical examples.
3. Resistance to change is the degree to which learners fear the process of moving to
the unknown.
4. Attention span refers to the length of time that learners are able to pay attention.
5. Expectation level is the level (quality) and quantity (content) that learners expect from
the training.
6. Dominant needs are the internal and external needs that drive learners.
7. Absorption level is the pace at which learners can absorb new information.
8. Topical interest is the degree to which the learners have a personal or job-relevant interest
in the topic.
9. Self-confidence refers to the degree to which learners view their abilities positively, and
the accompanying level of feedback, reinforcement and support required.
10. Locus of control is the degree to which learners regard their ability to implement new
learning with or without organisational support.
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Table 6.8 L
earning environment preferences of various generations (based on Codrington
& Grant-Marshall, 2004; Jenkins, 2017)
Generation Learning environment preferences

Silents Tend to enjoy conformity, consistency, logic and discipline;
(born 1920s–1940s) Do not like taking risks and want a clearly understood structure established from
the moment they walk in;
Like a classroom-style layout for training sessions and prefer conservative
trainers who establish the ground rules early on and then stick to them;
It is a good idea to send Silents a list of books and any other reading matter prior
to the course; and
Like trainers to stick to agendas.
Baby Boomers Prefer collaborative learning in large classrooms and enjoy opportunities for
(born 1940s–1960s) interaction, networking and teamwork;
Excel at working in small teams;
Turned off by an authoritarian approach; and
Respond to brainstorming, lateral thinking and want to provide their own input.
Generation Xers Do not prefer classroom-style interaction;

(born 1960s–1980s) Prefer training that is related to personal skills development and increased
marketability;
Like to absorb learning with CDs, videos (DVDs) and computer-based training
with access to a human guide and expert when they get stuck;
Want training to be fun and multi-styled; and
Have high need for developing life skills.
Millennials Care about manners and believe in civic action;

(born 1980s–1995) Look for attention and structure;
Prefer personal challenges and team work;
Prefer informal training room structure adaptable to quick seating changes; and
Prefer electronic equipment to be part of training.
Generation Z/iGeneration More realistic about the world and their prospects;
(Post-Millennials) Are more independent than Millennials;
(born 1996–2015) Are digital natives who live online;
Make public their opinions, thoughts and even menial life events;
Are less personable, often preferring to communicate digitally;
Are willing to explore alternative forms of education;
Prefer to perform multiple roles that stimulate them;
Tend to be global citizens who share global characteristics and values;
Value innovation, uniqueness and originality;
Value opportunities for collaboration and competition; and
Embrace change and flexibility (adaptability).
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Activity
Review Chapter 2, in particular multiple intelligences and stimulation of intelligences.

• How could L&D professionals make use of the concept of multiple intelligences and
mobile technology to increase learners’ participation and learning?
7.2 Increasing learners’ participation by asking questions

It is important to ask questions in the right way. The number and type of questions and the
way in which the trainer asks questions influences the level of participation by individual
learners, as well as the group dynamics. The aim of asking questions in training is to get
input from the learners, to get them to participate in the learning process and to guide
them through the learning process.
The aim of asking questions in training is to get input from the learners, to get them to
participate in the learning process and to guide them through the learning process.
Table 6.9 Guidelines for asking questions (based on Cameron, 1998)
Guidelines Types of question

Make the meaning clear. If the learners do not Open-ended, broad questions that cannot be answered
understand the question, rephrase it. by a simple yes or no;
Do not ask questions simply to use up time. Probing questions, with additional questions to get a
Pitch questions at the level of your audience. more in-depth response;
Ask questions that will result in insight and Clarifying questions to check understanding of learners’
reflection, rather than questions that have responses, with additional questions and reflection
straightforward answers. (repeating in own words) of learners’ responses;
Example questions that ask learners to provide
examples of something;
Reflective questions that ask learners to reflect on their
feelings or understanding;
Closed questions that require a simple yes or no
answer; and
Questions to which the facilitator genuinely does not
have the answers.
7.3 Giving and receiving feedback

Feedback plays an important role in learning facilitation. Learning facilitators give feedback
on progress, the results of assessment or questions, and class discussions. The way in which
feedback is given will determine the learners’ future participation; feedback may either
build or obstruct insight and understanding. Most importantly, feedback should treat every
input by learners with dignity and respect. It is irrelevant whether the facilitator agrees with
learners’ inputs or not. Keep the following guidelines in mind when giving feedback:
•• Give feedback to learners’ answers immediately; encourage learners and tactfully correct
when necessary.
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•• Do not interrupt while a learner is answering a question, even if you do not agree with
the answer.
•• Rather than simply correcting answers with which you do not agree, probe these
answers to understand the reasoning behind the learner’s conclusion.
•• Always start with a positive remark.
•• Be as specific as possible.
•• Provide reasons for feedback.
•• Address the topic; do not attack the learner personally.
•• Be realistic (Erasmus & Van Dyk, 2003).
Feedback is an integral part of the learning process.
Feedback is an integral part of the learning process. Handled skilfully, both in terms of
how it is given and received, feedback shows learners the effect they have on others and
provides an opportunity for them to make changes in their behaviour. The learning process
will benefit from this.
A feedback contract, as shown in Table 6.10, is an agreement between all the people
involved in the learning programme, including the trainer, on how to give and receive
feedback during the learning process (Coetzee & Jansen, 2007a). Body language is a good
indication of how feedback is received.
Table 6.10 Example of a feedback contract (Coetzee & Jansen, 2007a)
Receiving feedback Giving feedback

I agree to: I agree to:
•• Be prepared to receive feedback as information; •• Check that the other person is receptive to
•• Decide for myself what to do with the information; feedback;
•• Avoid arguing with the person giving feedback; •• Address the other person directly;
•• Seek clarification only if I do not fully understand •• Take responsibility for the feedback;
the feedback; •• Be specific about which aspect of the other person
•• Avoid justifying those aspects of my behaviour that I am giving feedback;
led to the feedback; and •• Be clear that these are my reactions to the other
•• Avoid denying the feedback. person’s behaviour;
•• Avoid blaming;
•• Offer feedback as information, free from attached
conditions; and
•• Offer as much feedback as I think is useful and
avoid giving long lists.
7.4 Reading the body language of learners

Body language, also known as non-verbal communication, is the way in which people
give information through conscious and unconscious gestures, body movements and
facial expressions (Lambert & The Diagram Group, 1996). Our body language expresses
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our thoughts, attitudes, feelings and intentions. It is an important source of feedback for
learning facilitators. Among other things, body language tells facilitators when learners
need a break, when they are bored or confused, and whether they agree or disagree with the
facilitator. The universal facial expressions, such as happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, anger
and disgust, are examples of body language.
Our body language expresses our thoughts, attitudes, feelings and intentions. It is an
important source of feedback for learning facilitators.
Examples of negative body language include:

•• Making gestures such as shaking the head, crossing the arms and frowning may indicate
negativity and disagreement with the learning points;
•• Supporting the head with a hand under the chin, looking away, leaning back, stretching
out legs and making bland facial expressions may indicate boredom;
•• Drumming the fingers or fidgeting could indicate impatience;
•• Stroking the throat, putting the hands in pockets, pulling at trouser legs or pulling an
eyelid may indicate disbelief; and
•• Fidgeting, showing a lack of attention and sleepiness could indicate tiredness.
Positive body language includes positive facial expressions, such as smiling, leaning forward,
eye contact, nodding and upright heads. These signs all show that learners are interested
and involved in the material. Beware: body language is not universal. Different cultures
have their own gestures and ignorance can cause offence.
Beware: body language is not universal. Different cultures have their own gestures and
ignorance can cause offence.
Apart from reading learners’ body language (see Table 6.11), learning facilitators also need
to be sensitive to how they come across to learners. When people communicate, they rely
more on the message contained in the body language of the communicator than what is
actually said. The body language projected by trainers (including posture, gesture and facial
expression), and even their physical appearance (the way they dress) send messages about
who they are, how they feel and what they think.
Table 6.11 Reading body language (Coetzee & Jansen, 2007a)
Body language Possible meaning

Eyes looking down or away: Self-consciousness or guilt.
Raised eyebrow: Disbelief.
Rubbing the nose or pulling the ears: Learners do not understand, even if they say they do.
Smiling when greeting someone: Friendly intentions, positive attitude.
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Body language Possible meaning

Hand touching the mouth: Anxious or trying to deceive someone.
Folded or crossed arms: Nervous or shut off from someone (or feeling cold).
Hands on hips or active gesturing: Aggression.
Tapping on the desk or chair: Nervousness or impatience.
Tremor in voice: Nervousness.
Shrugging the shoulders: Indifference to what someone says.
Facing you squarely, full height, smiling, head forward: Confidence.
Activity
How do you come across?

There is a special technique that uses a video camera and monitor to explore the effect
you have on your learners, particularly in relation to non-verbal communication. You need
another person to help you with this.
• Sit in a chair facing the monitor, while your assistant focuses the video camera
on you.
• Your camera operator then invites you to talk about yourself for about four minutes.
During the four minutes, the focus of the camera should be changed slowly
to include close-ups and angles that concentrate on particular areas of your face
and body.
• While you are still looking at yourself on the monitor, your assistant should gently
ask the following questions:
–– Does this person draw your attention?
–– Do you dislike what you hear?
–– What are your feelings toward him or her?
• Think about the things that help or hinder your message.
• Does your body language support your message, or does it distract from your
message?
• How could you improve your presentation?
• At the end of the exercise, replay the whole video and explore the feelings that the
video brought forth in you.
(Source: Coetzee & Jansen, 2007a)
Learners often feel accepted or rejected based on what they read in the body language
of trainers. Trainers’ body language and tone of voice can often determine the general
classroom atmosphere. L&D professionals who smile and greet learners in a friendly way
make learners feel respected and welcome in the classroom. On the other hand, those who
are moody and grumpy make learners feel rejected and negatively influence their ability
to concentrate on learning tasks. Table 6.12 describes dysfunctional and emotionally
intelligent trainer responses to classroom behaviour.
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An L&D professional’s body language and tone of voice can often determine the general
classroom atmosphere.
Table 6.12 D
ysfunctional and emotionally intelligent L&D professional responses to
classroom behaviour (based on Coetzee & Jansen, 2007a)
Dysfunctional behaviours Emotionally intelligent behaviours

Alienating Empathic
•• Continually stressing conformity; •• Building rapport;
•• Failing to encourage; •• Identifying feelings; and
•• Failing to give verbal responses; and •• Being sensitive to emotional needs.
•• Listening passively.
Critical Supportive
•• Pointing out inconsistencies; •• Acknowledging problems, concerns and feelings;
•• Repeatedly mentioning weaknesses; and •• Accepting differences of opinion;
•• Belittling. •• Showing understanding;
•• Communicating availability;
•• Committing support; and
•• Expressing trust.
Directive Exploring
•• Prescribing; •• Asking open questions;
•• Giving orders; •• Reflecting;
•• Threatening; •• Sharing; and
•• Failing to provide options; •• Probing.
•• Quoting rules and regulations; and
•• Pointing out only one acceptable way.
Language patterns Language patterns

•• ‘You had better listen to me or I’ll kick you out of •• ‘How are you all feeling today?’
my class!’ •• ‘I really appreciate the effort you’ve made.’
•• ‘I’m the boss in this class. If you are not interested •• ‘I’m confident we can achieve these goals.’
in this work, you don’t need to attend this class,
•• ‘What do you think?’
anyway. I just want to finish this lesson.’
•• ‘You really have done a good job, thank you!’
•• ‘Don’t even think about asking questions. Don’t
waste my time.’ •• ‘I am really pleased with what we have
accomplished.’
•• ‘Don’t expect me to remember your names. I have a
lot of work to cover.’ •• ‘How can we improve the learning process?’
•• ‘Don’t try to act smart with me. I don’t have time for •• ‘I really like the idea. It will help us.’
smart guys.’ •• ‘I am really proud of you!’
•• ‘Thank you for helping me.’
•• ‘I appreciate how we all work as a team.’
•• ‘Now I understand what you have been trying to
tell me.’
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Techniques to encourage positive behaviours (based on Leatherman, 1990)

• Nod your head affirmatively to encourage learner inputs.
• Voice agreement with learners’ constructive inputs.
• Ask the group to comment on points.
• Repeat important points.
• Get learners to repeat or explain statements to the group.
• Ask learners to lead discussions or demonstrate models to the group.
• Smile and make eye contact.
• Listen attentively to questions and inputs from the learners.
• Use positive comments to reinforce learner participation.
7.5 Dealing with problem behaviour in the classroom

While learners’ inputs, comments and participation are desirable in most instances,
some behaviour interferes with the learning process. The facilitator should deal with bad
behaviour in a timely and efficient manner. Examples of problem behaviour and suggested
solutions are set out in Table 6.13.
Table 6.13 T
echniques for handling problem behaviours in the classroom (adapted from
Leatherman, 1990)
Behaviour Techniques for handling problem behaviours

Learners arriving •• Establish ground rules or individual learning contracts;
late or missing •• Privately discuss reasons for lateness with the learner;
sessions
•• Stress the importance of punctuality;
•• Offer assistance to the learner; and
•• Make sure you always start on time.
Challenges to the •• Establish your credibility at the start of training by referring to experience and
trainer’s credibility qualifications;
•• Redirect questions to the group or supportive learners;
•• Deal with the issues in private; and
•• Point out that learning is a joint experience that involves all the participants.
Negative comments •• Redirect questions to the group;

regarding the course •• Emphasise the positive aspects of the content;
content
•• If the learners already have knowledge and experience in the course, involve them
in the presentation; and
•• If there are mistakes or gaps in the content, make an effort to correct these
between sessions.
Undermining •• Actively involve the learner in the presentation of the class;

the course outside •• Confront the learner privately;
the class
•• Express your concern and explain the negative impact; and
•• Ask the learner what could be done to address his or her concerns.
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Behaviour Techniques for handling problem behaviours

Learners who •• Tactfully interrupt the learner and redirect to other learners;
dominate the •• Draw other learners into the discussion by asking them for their inputs; and
discussions
•• Point out to the learner that everyone should have an opportunity to participate.
Individuals who do •• Direct questions at the individual;

not participate •• Make eye contact;
•• Give the learner specific tasks to perform; and
•• Positively reinforce any contribution by the learner.
Lack of participation •• Probe the reasons for non-participation;

by the group as •• Change the nature of the activities (e.g., change from a lecture to group activities);
a whole and
•• Actively involve the learners in the learning process.
Belligerent attitude •• Let the group handle the learner by asking them for solutions;
or responses •• Probe the reasons for the learner’s behaviour;
•• Deal with the issue in private; and
•• Appeal to the learner’s sense of fairness.
Distracting side •• Set clear ground rules at the beginning of the programme and refer the learner back
discussions to these;
•• Give comments to the group;
•• Ask the learners who are having discussions on their own to share their ideas; and
•• Stop and wait for the learners to quieten down.
Group becomes •• Redirect the learners back to the topic;

side-tracked •• Ask questions related to the topic; and
•• Take a break, if it is at an appropriate time.
8. CREATING AN ENVIRONMENT CONDUCIVE TO LEARNING

The classroom environment, or emotional climate, refers to the conditions, circumstances
and influences affecting the learning and performance of learners in the classroom. These
include the physical conditions of the classroom and the trainer’s physical appearance,
body language, language patterns, behaviour and attitudes towards learners. The personal
values of trainers influence how they treat and interact with their learners. Values are
the norms, beliefs, principles, and preferences that determine how people in a particular
society, community or family behave and relate to one another (Coetzee & Jansen, 2007a).
The values that L&D professionals model through their behaviour create a particular
emotional climate. The emotional climate is the learners’ shared perception of the
classroom environment, in other words, how they think and feel they are being treated by
the facilitator and how they experience the general classroom conditions. The emotional
climate can range from warm, welcoming and nurturing to cold and indifferent (Coetzee
& Jansen, 2007a).
The emotional climate has a significant impact on the learners’ attitudes and willingness
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to learn. In an emotionally warm climate, learners feel accepted for their uniqueness;
their self-esteem is enhanced. Emotionally warm behaviour helps to create an emotional
climate that facilitates optimal learning and performance. On the other hand, emotionally
cold or distant behaviour slows down facilitation and learning, and negatively affects the
performance of the trainer and the learners. The distinctive characteristics of emotionally
warm and cold behaviour are summarised in Table 6.16.
The emotional climate is the learners’ shared perception of how they think and feel they are
being treated by the facilitator and their experience of the general classroom conditions.
L&D professionals with an emotionally warm style are able to create a warm emotional
climate in which learners feel accepted and safe. Such an atmosphere is characterised by
feelings of mutual goodwill, empathy and co-operation between the trainer and learners.
L&D professionals with a warm style are aware of learners’ cognitive and emotional needs,
and accept and respect learners unconditionally. Furthermore, they show a real interest in
learners’ well-being through open and honest communication (Coetzee & Jansen, 2007a).
Emotionally warm behaviour is linked to emotional intelligence. Research indicates that
the ability to manage emotions contributes positively to the quality of social interactions.
Individuals who are socially well adapted tend to display emotionally intelligent behaviour.
That is, they are aware of their own emotions and how they affect others. Emotionally
intelligent people also express their emotions more appropriately and read and respond
better to the emotions of others. Emotionally intelligent trainers use their emotional and
cognitive presence to monitor the emotional climate and engage in behaviour that facilitates
emotional security within themselves and their learners (Coetzee & Jansen, 2007a).
Table 6.14 C
haracteristics of emotionally warm and cold behavioural styles (Coetzee &
Jansen, 2007a)
Emotionally warm behavioural style Emotionally cold behavioural style

This style shows: This style shows:
Real interest in the learners, which results in the Emotional indifference, often characterised by an
development of trust and emotional closeness; attitude of mistrust and coldness toward learners;
Unconditional acceptance of and respect for learners, Insincerity and disrespect for learners, characterised
which makes them feel safe and sheltered in the by superficial, hostile, vindictive, malicious and
classroom context; aggressive behaviour toward learners;
An optimistic and positive attitude with a sense of A negative outlook with closed and secretive
humour, allowing honest communication between behaviour, resulting in an atmosphere of distrust and
trainer and learners; dishonesty;
How authority can be exercised in a reasonable, Authority used to elicit submission inspired by fear
consistent and fair manner, which demonstrates and disrespect for the learners. Behaviour typically
respect for learners; includes unreasonable and unjust methods to maintain
discipline (for example abusive language);
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Emotionally warm behavioural style Emotionally cold behavioural style

This style shows: This style shows:
How the trainer cherishes and embraces the No concern for the relationship with learners, resulting
relationship with learners, resulting in feelings of in disturbed relationships characterised by squabbles
mutual goodwill, empathy and co-operation between and negative criticism; and
the trainer and learners; and
An understanding of and empathy for learners’ unique A lack of understanding of and no interest in the
cognitive and emotional development needs. unique cognitive and emotional development needs
of learners.
8.1 Creating an accepting and safe atmosphere
It is important to create a non-critical atmosphere in which learners feels safe and accepted.
It is important to create a non-critical atmosphere in which learners feel safe and accepted.
Optimal learning occurs in an environment in which learners feel comfortable in expressing
opinions, joining discussions and experimenting. Some strategies to help the learners feel
relaxed and comfortable during the learning process include the following:
•• Focusing on the value of mutual respect between participants, emphasising that issues
should be addressed and that personal attacks are not acceptable;
•• Pitching language at a level that is appropriate to the level of the learners. Remember
that, although the majority of learning programmes are presented in English, this is
often a learner’s second or even third language;
•• Using name boards (on the tables) or name tags. By using names, learners can personalise
their interactions with other learners and the facilitator;
•• Emphasising that everyone has the right to an opinion. Encourage only constructive
criticism that relates to the issues under discussion.
Activity
Developing a positive learning climate

Think about a training session you would like to present on a favourite topic. How would
you ensure that learners will enjoy and learn from the session?
First thoughts
An appropriate starting point for the trainer is to focus on his or her own preferred
approach to learning. Where are you in relation to the following statements?
1. ‘I feel the focus is initially on me and others learn when I show them what to do.’
2. ‘I help others learn. It is okay if I am not in the limelight.’
It is no doubt fashionable to be much closer to statement 2 than 1. It is more of a learner-

centred approach than the first statement. The occasional inward look can help you to
establish what feels right and what is appropriate.
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Getting a few basics right

Trainers should ensure that they have prepared everything before the start of the activity.
The extent of the trainer’s preparation will vary, depending on the level of experience and
willingness to take risks. You will need to think in advance of the activity so that when
it starts, you feel confident and that this is transmitted to the participants. Consider the
participants’ possible needs and expectations and set out a probable agenda. This may
be changed according to the needs of your participants, your own flexibility and your
ability and willingness to take risks.
Consider the size of the group. Ideally, the total group size for training sessions is
six to 12 participants.
The start
The start can determine the success of your training event. This does not mean that
a poor start will automatically lead to disaster. Consider using ice-breakers, and think
about the mood you wish to set. Do you want everyone to relax as soon as possible or
do you want people to learn under pressure?
Your approach
1. Feelings. Some questions you might ask:
• How am I feeling at the moment?
• How would I feel if I were a participant?
• How do the participants feel?
2. Your behaviour. By being sensitive to the participants’ feelings, you can demonstrate
empathy. Your behaviour demonstrates that you care for the participants. This is not
easy if you feel anxious yourself. Be aware of the effect of your anxiety on others.
3. Your material and how you use it. You will already have considered this at the planning
stage. Consider the following:
• Involving participants at an early stage;
• Encouraging participants to voice their expectations of the training session;
• Giving an indication of the specific outcomes for the training session at an early
stage (but not too much, and being prepared to be flexible with the activities);
• Being prepared to use the ‘here and now’ method of participants’ feelings and
experience;
• Being ready and willing to change direction; and
• Not working straight through your programme without considering the effect on
and needs of the participants.
4. Observing the individuals and their reactions, using your senses to decide how
the individuals or group are developing, gauging their reactions and feelings, being
sensitive to the participants’ needs.
Final thoughts
The learning climate you create is likely to be more significant than all the learning
material you have put together. Remember that each group is unique. If you feel
frustrated at the rate of progress, do not forget that, even though you might have done
20 similar training sessions, this is the first time for them.
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8.2 Arranging the physical learning environment

The venue is an important element of the learning environment. A well-prepared venue
gives a professional impression and assists in the transfer of learning. Conversely, a poorly
prepared venue has a negative impact on the whole training experience.
L&D professionals often have to make do with what is available, though, and this is
frequently less than desirable. But creating a physical environment that is conducive to
training is only part of the job. Learning facilitators can prepare the most comfortable
and well-equipped training venue possible, but if their learners do not feel safe in an
environment that encourages participation and learning, the training programme will fail.
Guidelines for creating an environment conducive to learning (based on

Leatherman, 1990)
• Set out the learning intervention at the start so that the learners know exactly
what is expected of them. Deal with the outcomes and how these will be achieved
at the beginning of the programme. Revisit outcomes at important points during
the training.
• Create a physical environment that is as comfortable as possible for the learners.
This includes comfortable chairs, enough working space, a comfortable room
temperature and sufficient stationery.
• Make sure that all learning support materials are available and working.
• Keep distractions, such as noise and visual stimuli, to a minimum.
• Make sure there is adequate lighting.
• Make sure that sufficient learner manuals and other learning support materials are
available and that these materials are free from errors.
Issues that a trainer will need to consider when deciding on the layout of the venue are:
•• The number of learners;
•• The training method;
•• The physical layout of the venue; and
•• The available resources.
The training venue can be arranged in a number of ways. The trainer can use different
layouts in the course of a training programme. In other words, the layout of the venue can
be rearranged to suit the various outcomes of the programme. Different layouts are used
for different purposes; the various options are shown in Figure 6.3. These layouts include:
•• The theatre or classroom;
•• The herringbone;
•• The boardroom;
•• The open boardroom or U-shape;
•• The V-shape;
•• The circle; and
•• Clusters/syndicates.
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Each of these layouts is shown in Figure 6.3 and is discussed below.
The theatre or classroom The herringbone
Trainer/facilitator Trainer/facilitator
The boardroom The open boardroom/U-shape
Trainer/facilitator Trainer/facilitator
The V-shape The circle
Facilitator
Facilitator
(either position)
Clusters/syndicates (little/no lecturing) Clusters/syndicates with lecturing
Trainer/
Facilitator
Facilitator
Figure 6.3 The layout of training venues
(a) The theatre or classroom

This is the traditional layout for learning. The trainer stands in front and learners are
arranged in rows. It is suitable for large groups of learners where the mode of instruction
is a lecture or presentation. The interaction between the trainer and learners is limited to
questions and answers.
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(b) The herringbone

This is similar to the theatre or classroom. The main difference is that the rows are angled
diagonally, which allows for greater visibility among learners.
(c) The boardroom

Learners are arranged around a large table or a number of smaller tables put together. This
layout is appropriate for small to medium-size groups where interaction is required. It is
used in training where learning is facilitated.
(d) The open boardroom or U-shape

Similar to the boardroom, the U-shape leaves a space in the centre in which the trainer can
move around. This layout works with or without tables and it allows for greater interaction
between the trainer and the learners. It is also easy for the trainer to inspect the progress of
learners in written exercises.
(e) The V-shape

The V-shape is similar to the U-shape. It can also be used with or without tables. The main
advantage is that visibility problems are minimised.
(f) The circle

Seats are arranged in a circle. This format is particularly useful for discussions and
debriefings. It also has the advantage of putting the learners on an equal footing with one
another.
(g) Clusters/syndicates
Learners are placed together in small groups (usually of six to eight members). The groups
are separated from one another and placed in various parts of the room. The placing of
the groups will depend on the type of training. If there is little or no lecturing, they may
be placed randomly. A variation of the U-shape can be used where lecturing occurs. This
format is useful if there are a number of group exercises and learning is predominantly
facilitated. The trainer can move freely between the groups. Attention must also be paid to
the age, race and gender composition of the groups.
Factors to be considered when choosing the physical environment (based on

Michalak & Yager, 1979)
Consider the following when setting up your training venue:
• Arrange the seats to ensure maximum visibility of the trainer, while enabling
interaction among the learners.
• Provide adequate lighting, preferably natural light.
• Always lay out training materials and the chairs and tables beforehand.
• Make sure there are no papers or other materials lying around.
• Minimise noise and visual distractions.
• Regulate the temperature in the venue to ensure that it is comfortable for
the learners.
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• Schedule training and adequate break times. When you break and for how long will
generally depend on the type of content and training methods being used. Rather let
the training process guide you than rigidly sticking to times for breaks.
• If food is provided, select light meals and snacks that will not sit heavily and induce
sleepiness.
Table 6.15 Quality checklist for the training environment
The training venue Yes/No

Venue booked
Enough syndicate/breakaway venues available
Venue laid out properly
Signs up to indicate to the learners where the training will take place
Adequate toilet facilities that work properly
Distractions minimised
Contact details of person responsible for the venue to assist with problems
Equipment Yes/No
All equipment required available and working properly
Materials Yes/No
Name boards for tables and name plates/stickers for shirts
Sufficient quantities of learning materials
Sufficient quantities of consumables, such as flip chart paper, notepads and pens
Physical needs Yes/No
Meals and refreshments
Cold water and glasses on each table
Comfortable sleeping arrangements for learners (if relevant)
Facilities for the learners to complete self-study work
9. PRINCIPLES OF CLASSROOM TRAINING

Given the extent and complexity of training delivery, the success of effective classroom
training delivery depends on the L&D professional’s flexible use, revision and adaptation
of the following set of general learning facilitation principles (Yelon, 1992).
(a) Meaningfulness
When learners find a topic personally relevant, the topic is considered meaningful to them.
When learners can associate a new skill or a new idea with their experience, interests, values
or aspirations, it is meaningful to them.
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(b) Assumed learning

Learners are said to have the assumed learning (knowledge and skills) for a task when they
have mastered all contributing and related basic knowledge and skills. When learners have
the assumed learning, they can readily understand instructions for the next level of skills
and can learn the new skills without remediation.
(c) Open communication

Learners must know what they are to learn, how they are to learn, and how they will be
assessed before they put their attention and energy into learning. Learning facilitators/
trainers must tell learners everything that will help them to focus their attention.
(d) Essential content

Time is a precious resource in learning facilitation. There is always more content than time
to learn. One way to be efficient in learning facilitation is to select and give priority to
essential content (in other words, the ‘must know’ content elements).
(e) Provision of learning support material

Learners understand messages more quickly and recall them more completely and
accurately when learning facilitators use mechanisms that simplify and organise complex
content and connect new ideas to old ones. In the design phase, L&D professionals create
learner support material, and in the delivery phase, they use the support material. During
explanations, demonstrations and practice, learning facilitators provide several different
types of learning support materials:
•• Mnemonics, to recall a list of ideas and steps;
•• Flow diagrams,
•• Decision trees or drawings, to show the path to take in a task;
•• Highlighted examples on slides or transparencies;
•• Animated PowerPoint slides or DVDs, using arrows, colours, stars and subtitles to
focus attention; and
•• Checklists, to summarise the qualities of an acceptable performance.
(f) Novelty
People cannot pay attention constantly in a classroom situation. L&D professionals can
incorporate novelty into the learning facilitation process by varying the format, content
and style of learning support materials. In the delivery phase, learning facilitators vary what
they do, what they say and how they say it. They change volume, tone or pace when they
want to gain and direct attention to important points. They gesture, move and continue to
make moderate changes to maintain learners’ attention for the duration of a training session.
Learning facilitators use humorous stories and novel experiences to focus learners’ attention.
(g) Modelling
Learners can gain the most from practice if, in addition to listening to an explanation,
they can observe a good demonstration. Learners are likely to imitate the demonstrated
performance if they pay attention to the demonstration, if they perceive all the steps, and
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if they commit the steps to memory before practice. Therefore, demonstrations should
capture attention, focus on the important aspects of each step and create a mental image
of the skill. Behaviour modelling is based on social learning theory, which asserts that
people learn by observing others (discussed in Chapter 2) (Cascio & Aguinis, 2005). These
principles are summarised in Figure 6.4.
MODELLING
Learners watch, for example,
video/DVD of model people
behaving effectively in
problem situation
TRANSFER
OF TRAINING • Learner attention ROLE-PLAY
Learners apply the newly • Learner retention Learners get opportunity to
learned behaviour in the job • Learner’s ability to practise and rehearse the
(with support and reproduce learning effective behaviours
encouragement • Learner motivation (as demonstrated)
from supervisor)
SOCIAL REINFORCEMENT
The learning facilitator provides
reinforcement to learners in the
form of praise and constructive
feedback
Figure 6.4 Principles of modelling (based on Aamodt, 2007; Cassio & Aguinis, 2005)
(h) Active and appropriate practice

L&D professionals build in active practice to ensure that learners gain applied competence
over learning outcomes. Learning facilitators apply the principle of active and appropriate
practice by giving each learner the opportunity to practise the whole skill in a way that
matches the performance required on the job. Practice must be challenging. It should allow
learners to go beyond previous levels of competency in each practice set. Practice must also
be distributed to promote retention and reduce fatigue and error. Learning facilitators,
therefore, schedule skills practice in short sessions over time, and proceed from basic to
advanced practice.
L&D professionals build in active practice to ensure that learners gain applied competence
over learning outcomes.
Learning facilitators encourage learners to provide their own feedback (as they would on
the job). When actual practice is inconvenient or inappropriate, learning facilitators teach
learners how to relax and visualise the correct performance.
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When learners are given the opportunity to practise far beyond the point at which they
perform a task correctly several times, the task becomes second nature (this is discussed in
more detail in Chapter 2). This is known as overlearning. For some tasks, such as those
that must be performed infrequently and under great stress (for example, CPR performed
to save a patient’s life), overlearning is critical. It is less important in jobs in which workers
practise their skills on a daily basis (such as mechanics, technicians and language editors).
The advantages of overlearning include:
•• An increase in the length of time that learned material will be retained;
•• Learning becomes more reflexive, so tasks become automatic with continued practice;
and
•• Learning is effective for both cognitive and physical tasks (Cascio & Aguinis, 2005).
(i) Goal setting

Teaching learners to set goals for their learning helps to improve their motivation and their
performance. When learners set explicit, challenging goals, they become highly motivated
and committed to the training. They put in greater effort and learn more efficiently (Cascio
& Aguinis, 2005). The effects of goal setting on performance can be enhanced even more
by explaining to learners how to work on a task and why the goal and task are important.
When learners set explicit, challenging goals, they become highly motivated and committed
to the training and learn more efficiently.
(j) Pleasant conditions

People naturally want to learn. When people learn in a comfortable setting, they associate
the good feelings they have with the subject and the process. From then on, the subject is
associated with pleasant feelings. Learning facilitators provide pleasant conditions during
all phases of learning facilitation. Before training, learning facilitators establish a pleasant
climate by being friendly and showing interest during interviews. They should maintain a
pleasant atmosphere during training by attending to the appearance, location and comfort
of the classroom. Learning facilitators also create a safe or emotionally warm atmosphere
by respecting and supporting learners in their learning process.
(k) Pleasant consequences

To learn from practice, learners need to know how well they have performed. To be willing
to perform again, learners must feel confident. Learning facilitators apply the principle
of pleasant consequences by providing objective feedback through the use of checklists.
They give complete feedback about what was performed correctly, what needs further
development, what should have been done, and how to improve. To enhance confidence
and self-esteem, learning facilitators add verbal encouragement, emphasise positive
qualities of performance and point out positive consequences of proper performance.
Learning facilitators also encourage self-assessment by asking learners to review their own
performance before anyone else does. When commenting on inadequate performance,
learning facilitators refer only to the performance and its consequences; they do not
comment on a learner’s personality.
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Learning facilitators should encourage self-assessment by asking learners to review their own
performance before anyone else does.
(l) Knowledge of results (feedback)

If learners know their results or learning achievements, they can use the information to
correct mistakes. Learners need to know why they have not achieved the learning outcomes
of a programme or task, and how they can correct the behaviour in the future. Learners
also need reinforcement. Knowledge of results may be intrinsic (stemming directly from
the performance of the task itself ) or extrinsic (communicated by an outside individual).
It may be qualitative (for example, ‘that new advertisement is quite pleasing to the eye’),
quantitative (for example, ‘move the lever two inches down’), informative (for example,
‘that new machine has just arrived’) or evaluative (for example, ‘you did a good job on that
report – it was clear and brief ’) (Cascio & Aguinis, 2005).
10. TRANSFER OF LEARNING

Transfer of training refers to the learners’ ability to apply the behaviours and competencies
learned in training to the job itself. Transfer may be positive (for example, improve job
performance), negative (that is, it may hinder job performance) or neutral (Cascio &
Aguinis, 2005). To maximise positive transfer, L&D professionals should consider doing
the following before, during and after training (Machin, 2002):
•• Ensuring that the work climate is positive (for example, that there is management
support or on-the-job support);
•• Maximising the similarity between the training situation and the job situation by
providing a strong link between training content and job content;
•• Providing learners with as many opportunities as possible to experience and practise the
tasks, concepts or skills being taught;
•• Ensuring that learners thoroughly understand the principles being taught, particularly
in jobs that require the application of principles to solve problems;
•• Maximising transfer in the context of team-based training as follows:
–– Giving teams open, unrestricted access to information;
–– Including team members who have diverse job functions and administrative
backgrounds; and
–– Ensuring that a team has sufficient members to draw on to accomplish its activities.
•• Ensuring that what is learned in training is used and rewarded on the job.
Table 6.16 summarises a number of different barriers to learning.
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Table 6.16 Barriers to the transfer of learning (Coetzee, 2006a)
Barriers to the transfer

of learning Description
Training takes place in Training conditions cannot accurately reflect the reality of the job
artificial conditions situation. Irrespective of how much the facilitator tries to recreate
the actual situation (through scenarios, role-play or simulations), the
training venue, the participants, the learning tasks and other variables
will be different.
The training setting is a safe and Learners are able to disclose and exchange ideas freely, without
controlled learning environment cynicism or personal attacks. The facilitator manages conflict and
poor interpersonal skills. The workplace is different. Training allows
for mistakes and failure. In real-life situations, mistakes often have
immediate consequences and there is little opportunity to try again.
Learners were not really committed Learners may not be totally committed to the ideas and strategies
developed on the course and may quickly slip back into the old way of
doing things.
There is a lack of opportunity to If learners do not immediately have the opportunity to practise new
practise acquired skills competencies in the job situation, they will find it difficult to relate the
training to their jobs.
There is no direct support for the The opportunity to apply newly acquired knowledge and skills may
transfer of learning not arise immediately. Learners’ efforts may not be supported by
managers, friends or colleagues. Others may persist with old ways of
thinking and hinder progress.
10.1 Self-management to maintain changes in behaviour

Teaching learners to monitor their own behaviour reduces the likelihood of relapse or
falling back on previous behaviour (Cascio & Aguinis, 2005). The first step is to make
learners aware of the relapse process itself. Thereafter, learning facilitators ask learners to
identify situations that are likely to sabotage their attempts to maintain the new learning.
Teaching learners to monitor their own behaviour reduces the likelihood of relapse or falling
back on previous behaviour.
For example, in a study designed to control the abuse of sick leave (Frayne & Latham
cited in Cascio & Aguinis, 2005), learners listed family problems, incompatibility with
supervisors or co-workers and transportation problems as the biggest reasons for using sick
leave. Then learners were taught to monitor their own behaviour by recording their own
attendance, the reason for missing a day of work, and subsequent steps to get to work.
Learners did this using charts and diaries. In addition, learners were also taught coping
skills to increase a feeling of mastery and to decrease the probability of relapse. Learners
identified their own reinforcers (for example, self-praise, purchasing a gift) and punishers
(a disliked activity such as cleaning the garage) to administer if they achieved or failed to
achieve their goals. This system of self-management increased the responsibility of learners
and their attendance significantly increased as well.
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10.2 Adaptive guidance

Adaptive guidance is relevant, particularly in technology-based learning. It guides learners
about future directions they should take in sequencing study and practice to improve their
performance (Bell & Kozlowski, 2002). For example, in internet-based training, learners
can customise the material they work with, determine the sequence of learning and control
the amount of time they spend on a particular topic. Adaptive guidance includes evaluative
information (formative assessment activities and feedback) to help each learner evaluate
their progress and individualised suggestions about what the learner should study and
practise. Adaptive guidance improves the acquisition of basic knowledge and performance
capabilities early in training. It also improves the acquisition of strategic knowledge and
performance skills later in training. Adaptive guidance develops the capacity to retain and
adapt skills in a more difficult and complex situation (Cascio & Aguinis, 2005).
Adaptive guidance develops the capacity to retain and adapt skills in a more difficult and
complex situation.
11. MANAGING CLASSROOM TRAINING

L&D professionals apply learning facilitation principles to the design and delivery of
training. Managing training delivery in the classroom requires that the trainer effectively
performs the following functions:
•• Presents lectures;
•• Facilitates groups (dyads, small groups and large groups);
•• Administers self-instructed learning;
•• Follows customised procedures;
•• Applies principles of learning and learning facilitation;
•• Deals with easy and difficult learners;
•• Answers questions;
•• Creates schedules covering all learning facilitation elements;
•• Accounts for possible interference;
•• Allows time to work, practise, think and relax;
•• Identifies, prepares and informs learners;
•• Fills out the proper forms for training;
•• Plans and creates a comfortable environment;
•• Chooses and controls factors such as venues, rooms, facilities, furniture and air
temperature;
•• Secures and maintains learning materials, supplies, equipment and staff;
•• Assesses, evaluates and certifies learners;
•• Evaluates the training programme;
•• Reports outcomes and results; and
•• Implements actions to improve learning facilitation (Yelon, 1992).
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L&D professionals in their role as learning facilitators or trainers have several responsibilities
regarding managing classroom training. These include reading and reviewing learning
materials before the start of a training session; preparing training session activities; checking
the classroom and seating; arranging for equipment; preparing learning materials and
learning support materials; announcing the programme/training session; and reflecting on
the learning. Table 6.17 sets out the responsibilities learning facilitators have in respect of
classroom management.
Table 6.17 Responsibilities in managing classroom training (Coetzee & Jansen, 2007a)
Responsibility Description
Preparing training •• Select the activities that will be used and modify them, if necessary, to meet
session activities the needs of target audience.
•• Plan the agenda for the training session, including the learning outcomes,
schedule and time for breaks.
•• Arrange for refreshments.
Check the room •• Reserve a room that is large enough to arrange seats in a way that is
and seating conducive to group discussion.
•• Ensure that there are enough comfortable seats.
Arrange for equipment •• Arrange for a working overhead projector, screen and extra transparencies and
markers if needed (or for a laptop computer, data projector and screen).
•• Provide a flip chart, Prestik®, markers and an eraser for a whiteboard.
•• Arrange for a working video machine and monitor if video material will
be used.
•• When using electronic hardware, such as laptop computers and video
machines, make sure that you have all the plugs, adapters and leads you need
for the machines. Check that the machines work, and check that the electrical
outlets in the room are in working order.
Prepare materials •• Print handouts and reading material for all participants.
•• Comply with copyright laws for reading material.
•• Prepare overhead transparencies.
Announce the •• Give sufficient notice and clearly specify the date, time and location of the
programme training sessions. Remind participants to bring along course material, pencils,
pens and notepads.
Reflect on learning •• Reflect on the questions or issues that are raised during the training session.
Record personal thoughts in a journal. Conclude each training session with an
entry on any new insights on how to improve the learning facilitation process.
Activity
You were requested to deliver a learning programme called ‘Attitudes to HIV/AIDS in the
workplace’, using classroom training. The following outcomes have been formulated for
the learning programme:
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After completing the learning programme, learners should be able to:

• Understand the nature of HIV/AIDS.
• Distinguish between myths and facts regarding HIV/AIDS (including how one can
get infected and how one can avoid infection).
• Understand the experience of a colleague infected with HIV/AIDS.
• Understand the process that a diagnosed person will go through, from infection
to possible death.
• Know the ways in which an infected person can maintain a healthy lifestyle (way of
living, eating, medication, etc.).
Questions
• What issues would your L&D needs analysis focus on?
• How would you arrange the training venue? What are the different factors that you
need to consider?
• How would you create a positive learning environment?
• What characteristics would be important in terms of the learning facilitator tasked
with running this programme?
• Analyse the outcome ‘Understand the experience of a colleague infected with HIV/
AIDS’ and apply the various stages of the experiential learning cycle. Explain what
you would do in each of the steps to optimise the learning facilitation process.
• While conducting the training, you encounter the following problems:
–– Learners arriving late and returning late from breaks;
–– A learner who continually makes negative comments about the course content;
–– Two learners who are often involved in side discussions while the rest of the
class is busy with the activities.
Explain how you would deal with each of these problems.

• Assume that the learners are entry level employees with little experience. What would
be the most effective training delivery methods? Give reasons for your answer.
• Which learning support materials would be particularly useful in the delivery of the
programme? Give reasons for your answer.

1. Discuss five different approaches used in workplace learning.
2. Compare five different approaches/techniques used in classroom-based training and
the key uses of each.
3. What is blended learning?
4. Explain the core elements of modern learning.
5. How do the characteristics of learners and L&D professionals influence the learning
facilitation process?
6. Discuss the different barriers to learning in the workplace.
7. Describe five different ‘emotionally intelligent responses’ that a trainer can use to
create a positive learning environment in the classroom.
8. Why is the physical layout of a classroom important? What are the various options
available to trainers?
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9. Describe the key characteristics that an effective learning facilitator needs to

demonstrate.
10. Explain the different functions that a training manager needs to perform to ensure
the effective delivery of a training programme.
Summary
The effective delivery of L&D interventions in the workplace depends on a number of
factors that have to be considered when designing a learning programme. Design and
delivery decisions are influenced mostly by the characteristics of the target group and
the group dynamics during the learning process. In this chapter, classroom training and
on-the-job training – the most common methods of delivering training in the workplace
context – were explored. These two methods are often blended with programmed
instruction and technology-based training approaches to enhance the transfer of learning
to the workplace. The influence of digital technological advancement on modern learning
and the social learning ecosystem elements were also explained.
Learning facilitation was examined as a delivery strategy that deliberately involves
the learners and maximises their input and importance in the learning process. L&D
professionals apply principles of learning facilitation to create a learning environment that
is conducive to learning and to ensure the optimal transfer of learning in the workplace.
Managing the delivery of learning programmes effectively is crucial in helping learners
achieve the outcomes of a learning programme. The next phase in the learning cycle,
namely the assessment of learners’ achievements, is examined in Chapter 7.
‘If you want to teach people a new way of thinking, don’t bother trying to teach them. Instead,
give them a tool, the use of which will lead to new ways of thinking.’ (R. Buckminster
Fuller)
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CHAPTER ASSESSMENT AND MODERATION IN
7 LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT

Kiru Truman and Melinde Coetzee
Key points of assessment and moderation in learning and development

•• Assessment and moderation of learning achievements are significant elements of outcomes-based
learning and development (L&D).
•• Valid and reliable assessment procedures, methods and instruments are required to measure whether
learners have achieved the learning outcomes of a workplace-based learning programme.
•• Assessors must be qualified subject-matter experts who are registered with the relevant
assessment body.
•• Outcomes-based assessment assesses learners’ ability to combine foundational, practical and
reflexive competencies with critical cross-field outcomes, and then to apply these in real-life
(practical) contexts or for a defined purpose.
•• Moderation is the action of assuring that assessment practices comply with SAQA/QCTO quality
requirements.

•• Explain the purposes of assessment and moderation in the context of outcomes-based L&D in
the workplace.
•• Identify the various role-players in the assessment process.
•• Discuss the various different types of assessment and their uses in the assessment process.
•• Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of various assessment methods and instruments.
•• Discuss the various steps in the assessment process.
•• Explain the functions and purposes of the assessment plan and assessment guide.
•• Explain the requirements for assessors.
•• Explain the purpose of moderation in assessment.
1. INTRODUCTION
Outcomes-based workplace learning and development (L&D) focuses on the learner’s
achievement of learning outcomes. Assessment and moderation of learning achievements
are, therefore, significant elements of outcomes-based workplace L&D. Accreditation
of L&D (skills development) providers is dependent on the quality of their assessment and
moderation practices (see Chapter 1). Valid and reliable assessment procedures are required
to measure whether learners achieve the learning outcomes defined for their particular
learning programme. As discussed in Chapter 3, assessment is the fourth phase of the
systematic learning cycle. It is an integral part of all L&D planning and design. Assessment
procedures should, therefore, give a clear indication of what learners are intended to learn
and achieve. Assessment methods need to be flexible and fair, and should be designed to

Chapter 7 | Assessment and moderation in learning and development
match the learning outcomes learners are striving to achieve (SAQA, 2014a,b; Van der
Horst & McDonald, 1997).
Phase 1
L&D needs analysis
Phase 5 Phase 2
THE LEARNING CYCLE
Phase 4
achievements
In this chapter, the general requirements for outcomes-based assessment and moderation
are identified. The legislated approach to assessment of occupational qualifications within
the Occupational Learning System (OLS) was discussed in Chapter 1. These legislated
requirements should be taken into account when reading through this chapter in which
the general functions, principles, types and methodology of assessment are discussed.
Sound assessment and moderation practices are essential tools to ensuring that learning
programmes lead to measurable outcomes that add value for stakeholders and learners.
Assessment in South Africa is regulated by government policy. L&D professionals who
are involved in learning design, delivery, assessment and moderation must have a sound
knowledge of the following national policies:
•• The National Policy and Criteria for Designing and Implementing Assessment for
NQF Qualifications and Part Qualifications and Professional Designations in South
Africa (SAQA, 2014a);
•• The National Qualifications Framework (NQF) Level Descriptors developed by the
South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA, 2012 – see also Appendix A);
•• The National Policy for the Implementation of the Recognition of Prior Learning
(RPL) (SAQA, 2013);
•• The National Policy for Credit Accumulation and Transfer (CAT) within the National
Qualifications Framework (NQF) (SAQA, 2014b);
•• The assessment policies developed by the Department of Higher Education and
Training; the Department of Basic Education; the Council on Higher Education; the
Quality Council for Trades and Occupations; and Umalusi (see Chapter 1).
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The national RPL, CAT and Assessment policies have been developed in an integrated
manner to draw on a common conceptual basis and strengthen the interrelationships
between assessment, RPL and CAT (SAQA, 2014b).
Activity
Visit SAQA’s website: www.saqa.org.za to access the National Policy and Criteria for
Designing and Implementing Assessment for NQF Qualifications and Part Qualifications
and Professional Designations in South Africa. Review the purpose, scope and standards
for assessment practices in South Africa.
The National Policy and Criteria for Designing and Implementing Assessment for NQF
Qualifications and Part-Qualifications and Professional Designations in South Africa
(hereafter referred to as the National Policy for Designing and Implementing Assessment
or the Policy) outlines minimum criteria and provides guidance for effective, valid, reliable
and consistent, fair and transparent, and appropriate assessment in the context of the NQF.
The specific context of each quality council (QC, see Chapter 1) and its sub-framework
must be considered in the interpretation of the Policy (SAQA, 2014a). SAQA initially
developed policy, criteria and guidelines for assessment in 2001 and 2005. These documents
have been used widely but a need arose for these to be updated to align them with the NQF
Act 67 of 2008, which replaced the SAQA Act 58 of 1995. The Policy (SAQA, 2014a)
achieves the revision needed and takes into account the roles of the Department of Higher
Education and Training, the Department of Basic Education, SAQA, the QCs, recognised
professional bodies, providers at all levels in the system, and learners. Assessment is integral
to a curriculum; and a curriculum together with assessment is integral to the quality of
qualifications and the extent to which qualifications articulate with one another. The NQF
Act 67 of 2008 mandates SAQA to develop, after consultation with the QCs, national
policies on Assessment, Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL), and Credit Accumulation
and Transfer (CAT).
‘Quality Council’ means that one of the three councils is tasked with developing and
managing the sub-frameworks of the NQF to ensure that agreed quality standards are
met, namely:
• The Council on Higher Education (CHE) for the Higher Education Qualifications
Sub-Framework (HEQSF);
• Umalusi for the General and Further Education and Training Qualifications
Sub-Framework (GFETQSF); and
• The Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO) for the Occupational
Qualifications Sub-Framework (OQSF) (see Chapter 1).
The basic premise of the National Policy for Designing and Implementing Assessment
(SAQA, 2014a) is that assessment should take a holistic approach toward the development
of learners’ competence to enable them to successfully fulfil their occupational and work
roles, as members of society and the economy. The overarching goal of lifelong learning
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and development is fundamental to assessment practices in South African workplaces

(SAQA, 2014a).
2. PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT
The National Policy for Designing and Implementing Assessment (SAQA, 2014) describes
assessment as ‘the process used to identify, gather and interpret information and evidence
against the required competencies in a qualification, part-qualification, or professional
designation in order to make a judgement about a learner’s achievement.’ Assessment can
be formal, non-formal or informal; assessment can be of learning already done, or towards
learning to inform and shape teaching and learning still to be done’ (SAQA, 2014a: 4).
An assessor is ‘the person able to conduct high-quality internal and external assessment
for specific qualifications, part-qualifications, or professional designations. Appropriately
qualified lecturers, teachers, educators, trainers, examiners, moderators, chief markers,
markers, Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) specialists, and Credit Accumulation and
Transfer (CAT) officials are all examples of assessors’ (SAQA, 2014a: 4).
An assessor is the person able to conduct high-quality internal and external assessment for
specific qualifications, part-qualifications, or professional designations.
Assessment is a data-gathering strategy for measuring knowledge, skills, behaviour or

performance, values and attitudes.
Put simply, assessment is a process that a qualified and registered assessor follows to
collect evidence of a learner’s learning achievements. Assessment is a data-gathering strategy
for measuring knowledge, skills, behaviour or performance, values and attitudes. Assessors
use the data gained from the assessment of collected evidence to make informed judgements
about the learners’ competence and learning achievements. In outcomes-based L&D, the
evidence is assessed against national standards registered with SAQA. As explained in
Chapter 1, within the occupational learning system (OLS), the Quality Council for Trades
and Occupations (QCTO) requires that the evidence be assessed by assessment quality
partners (AQPs), in accordance with the criteria outlined in the modules for the three
curriculum components: knowledge, skills and workplace experience (see Chapter 1). This
is referred to as the formative and summative assessment of learner achievements toward a
whole or part occupational qualification. In the context of the QCTO, formative assessment
of the three curriculum components is not sufficient to confirm competence to perform an
occupation and the associated occupational tasks. Summative assessment of occupational
competence, in terms of whole or part qualifications, is also conducted by AQPs applying
nationally standardised assessment instruments and procedures at accredited assessment
centres or registered sites. It is important to note that this book (and this chapter) does not
focus on the assessment of learner achievements in terms of occupational qualifications
(see Chapter 1). Although assessment, as outlined in the national policy, focuses on
standards that apply to the assessment of all formal programmes (unit standards-based
and occupational standards-based, e.g. learnerships and skills programmes), the focus
of the book is on the assessment of learner achievements in terms of skills and learning
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programmes. As discussed in Chapter 4, the design of workplace learning programmes

must also adhere to the OLS principles that underpin workplace-based learning design.
Assessment in the context of this book and chapter thus focuses on the internal formative
and summative assessment of the three curriculum components: knowledge, skills and
workplace experience by the accredited L&D professional.
Assessment focuses on the internal formative and summative assessment of the three
curriculum components: knowledge, skills and workplace experience by the accredited
L&D professional.
Learning is no longer something that is ‘done to’ the learner, but something in which
the learner is actively involved. As such, the role of the assessor has changed from that of
gatekeeper (who uses assessment to prevent learners from developing further) to that of
supportive guide (who has the success of the learner at heart). The goal of assessment in
outcomes-based L&D is to give learners access to further learning (SAQA, 2000a).
Learning is no longer something that is ‘done to’ the learner, but something in which the
learner is actively involved.
The role of the assessor has changed from that of gatekeeper (using assessment to prevent
learners from developing further) to that of supportive guide (with the success of the
learner at heart).
The content of assessment is informed by its purpose, as a systematic method of
gathering information regarding the desired knowledge, skills and values. The scope of any
assessment covers the programme’s curriculum, that is, the relevant knowledge, skills and
values; relevant levels of cognitive challenge and complexity at the appropriate NQF level.
The programme’s curriculum must be benchmarked in appropriate ways. Distinctions
are made between quantity (volume of learning) and quality (type of learning) achieved.
The goal of assessment is to focus on both – how much learning has taken place and what
kind of learning has occurred – and the extent to which all of this learning is successful
(SAQA, 2014a).
Assessment requires a range of competencies such as the following, all of which are
considered over time: (SAQA, 2014a,b):
•• The reproduction of knowledge, skills and values;
•• The application of knowledge, skill and values in known settings;
•• The application of knowledge, skills and values in new contexts; and
•• New ways of doing based on application and development of knowledge and skills,
and evidence of deep analysis, synthesis and understanding, which enables making new
connections.
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Assessment provides ways to assess the current skills and knowledge of a learner. Assessment
also helps to identify further training needs by determining a learner’s current level of
competence. Used appropriately by qualified L&D professionals, assessment can assist in
the recruitment and selection of job candidates and can be used to monitor employees’
performance. Distinctions must be made between capabilities that learners actually
demonstrate in relation to curriculum, and the potential they have to develop latent
(hidden) capabilities in relation to curriculum, should suitable opportunities exist. Where
possible and appropriate, efforts are made to assess learners’ latent abilities. Assessment
also takes into account learners’ prior learning and experience, which should be used to
facilitate learning. Assessment with instruction, engagement and feedback is adopted
wherever feasible and appropriate (SAQA, 2014 a,b). Assessment requires the support of
the organisation’s management team and can be costly and time consuming if it is not
managed and supported at the appropriate levels.
Used appropriately by qualified L&D professionals, assessment can assist in the recruitment
and selection of job candidates and can be used to monitor employees’ performance.
Outcomes-based assessment is sometimes referred to as authentic assessment. It is the

measurement of complex performances and higher-order thinking skills in real-life
contexts. Authentic assessment requires learners to demonstrate complex tasks rather
than individual skills practised in isolation. This requires a holistic approach to measuring
learning achievements (Van der Horst & McDonald, 1997). Modern e-learning approaches
(see chapters 5 and 6) use the digital tools that are readily available via the internet or web
environment for multiple alternative forms of authentic assessment that further engage
the learner in the learning process. Alternative forms of assessment are often referred to
as blended learning. The National Policy for Designing and Implementing Assessment
(SAQA, 2014a) views blended learning as learning and assessment based on a variety of
modes, types, sites, outputs, contexts, platforms and other aspects, including contact and
technology-mediated learning.
SAQA views blended learning as learning and assessment based on a variety of modes,
types, sites, outputs, contexts, platforms and other aspects, including contact and technology-
mediated learning.
In the modern learning context (see Chapter 6), authentic assessment involves real-world
knowledge and skills (Crisp, 2012) and is:
•• Personalised by being tailored to the knowledge, skills and interests of each learner;
•• Engaging because tasks involve the personal interests of learners;
•• A tool that assesses deep knowledge and not memorisation;
•• Problem-oriented as tasks are original and require the application of genuine
problem-solving;
•• Collaboratively produced, and in partnership with fellow learners; and
•• Based on self- and peer-assessment by self-reflection.
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The main purpose of assessment is to measure learning outcomes and to improve learning
facilitation, the curriculum, learning design and conditions for learning.
The main purpose of assessment is to measure learning outcomes. Additional purposes

are to improve learning facilitation, the curriculum, learning design and conditions for
learning (Van der Horst & McDonald, 1997). Assessment is also used to encourage learners
through the feedback they receive. Learners need the feedback that assessment provides:
information about their learning, their understanding and their accomplishments, and
input into their further development (Freiberg & Driscoll, 1996).
Learners need the feedback that assessment provides on their learning, their understanding,
their accomplishments and their further development.
Assessment will improve learning only if it provides an overall picture of what learners
know and are able to do. Assessment should always respect learners’ different ways of
understanding. Furthermore, sound assessment practice should suggest actions that L&D
professionals can take to enhance the development of their learners and the quality of their
learning programmes. L&D professionals have a broader range of assessment techniques
available to them than ever before to accomplish these goals. Using these techniques
requires an understanding of assessment goals and procedures for constructing assessments,
and criteria for judging and improving the quality of assessments.
3. ASSESSMENT REQUIREMENTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES

As shown in Table 7.1, various role-players are involved in the assessment process. Not
all of these role-players are involved at the same time, but it is important to understand
their roles and responsibilities within the assessment process. The National Policy for
Designing and Implementing Assessment (SAQA, 2014a) extends the role of assessors
to include any person able to conduct high-quality internal and external assessment for
specific qualifications, part-qualifications or professional designations. Assessors may, for
example, include appropriately qualified lecturers, teachers, educators, trainers, examiners,
moderators, chief markers, markers, RPL specialists and CAT officials (SAQA, 2014a: 4).
Table 7.1 Role-players in assessment (SAQA, 2001a,e)
Role-player Roles and responsibilities

Assessor An assessor:
•• Must be registered with the relevant assessment body or QCTO and must be a
subject-matter expert;
•• Plans and prepares for the assessment by reviewing the assessment
requirements against the standard being assessed;
•• Prepares the candidate and informs the relevant role-players involved in the
assessment process;
•• Conducts the assessment in accordance with the assessment plans and
instructions;
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Role-player Roles and responsibilities

•• Evaluates the evidence and makes an assessment decision in accordance with
the assessment criteria and guidelines;
•• Provides the learner with developmental feedback and support.
•• Records the assessment results in accordance with the organisation’s quality
management systems (policies, procedures and practices in [L&D/HRD]
management, planning and delivery); and
•• Reviews the assessment to ensure that strengths and weaknesses in the
learning programme design and process are captured and implemented in future
assessments.
Learner/candidate The learner (or candidate):

•• Is the person whose knowledge, skills and performance are to be assessed
against a particular standard, outcome or criteria; and
•• Provides the assessor with as much evidence as possible of competence of the
relevant assessment criteria.
Moderator A moderator:
•• Must be registered with the relevant assessment body (e.g. QCTO);
•• Ensures consistency and quality of assessments;
•• Ensures that the choice of evidence required, and the methods chosen for the
assessment, meet the assessment criteria of the unit standard;
•• Samples various assessments by different assessors to ensure that the quality
of the assessments is maintained within the organisation; and
•• Conducts regular meetings with assessors to ensure that the principles and
process of assessments are maintained.
Designers and •• Design and develop assessment guides and tools to be used in an assessment.
developers
Witness or independent •• Ensures objectivity of the assessment process.

assessor
Workplace supervisor •• Supports the learner throughout the assessment process;

or manager •• Ensures that the assessment does not disrupt the learner’s obligations in the
workplace.
Activity
Role-players in assessment
For each point below, write down which role-player is best suited. Choose from the
following options: Assessor, Learner, Moderator, Supervisor, Designer, Witness.
Roles and responsibilities Role-player

1. Ensures consistency and quality of assessments.
2. Tebo was furious that Nancy was constantly late for work because she was
practising for her assessments.
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Roles and responsibilities Role-player

3. Michael Mtabo sat in on his colleague’s assessments and thoroughly enjoyed the
experience.
4. Reviews the assessment to ensure that strengths and weaknesses in the

learning programme design and process are captured and implemented in future
assessments.
5. Samples various assessments to ensure that the quality of the assessments is

maintained within the organisation.
6. Provides evidence to indicate competence against relevant assessment criteria.
7. Explores various methods and instruments to ensure that the best is developed.
8. Must be registered with the relevant assessment body and must be a subject
matter expert.
9. Conducts regular meetings to ensure that the principles and process of

assessments are maintained.
10. Jess was confident of her knowledge but concerned that she did not have enough
experience so her performance would be weak.
3.1 Assessor competence

According to SAQA (2001a,d,e), assessors should have technical and/or occupational
expertise related to the field of learning that will be assessed. In general, all assessors should:
•• Be registered against the national generic assessors’ unit standard. The unit standard
(US 263976) can be accessed on SAQAs website: www.saqa.org.za.
•• Know exactly what the unit standard or learning outcome expects learners to achieve;
•• Have subject matter and/or occupational expertise;
•• Have evaluative expertise;
•• Understand the types of assessment that are appropriate to their field and to the NQF
level being assessed;
•• Understand the language, or jargon, of the field they are assessing;
•• Keep up to date with developments in the field;
•• Know the curriculum;
•• Get to know the trainers through regular contact, and provide them with detailed
feedback;
•• Consider the rights and special needs of learners;
•• Ensure that learners know what is expected of them;
•• Treat learners with respect and sensitivity; and
•• Demonstrate a broad understanding of outcomes-based assessment and the NQF.
According to SAQA, assessors should have technical and/or occupational expertise related to
the field of learning that will be assessed.
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Activity
Visit SAQA’s website at: www.saqa.org.za and review the assessor unit standard (US
263976). Make a list of the key competencies required by an assessor to achieve the
learning outcomes described in the unit standard.
Assessors also need to demonstrate planning, administrative and management skills. They
need to manage assessment documentation and systems in a reliable, efficient and secure
manner. Furthermore, assessors need good interpersonal skills and must communicate
effectively with learners. The assessor must, therefore, be an excellent listener and observer.
The assessor should also have questioning, feedback and evaluation skills. The learner needs
to know that:
•• The assessment is fair;
•• The assessor acts with integrity;
•• The assessor maintains confidentiality;
•• The assessment is conducted according to the principles of good assessment;
•• The assessor is working on the basis of a relationship built on trust; and
•• The assessor has the learner’s best interests at heart.
Assessors need to demonstrate planning, administrative and management skills, have good
interpersonal skills and be able to communicate effectively with learners.
Activity
Assessor competence
You have decided to become a qualified assessor. You have achieved your certification
from the provider of training. Now what?
1. Decide which SETA you would need to register with. You will have to log onto the
internet to conduct this research.
2. Once you have identified which SETA you would like to register with, explain the
registration process you would need to follow.
3. Submit the forms or documents that may help you with this process.
3.2 The rights and special needs of learners

All assessment candidates have certain rights. Chapter 1, section 6 of the South African
Constitution states:
•• The official languages of the Republic are Sepedi, Sesotho, Setswana, siSwati, Tshivenda,
Xitsonga, Afrikaans, English, isiNdebele, isiXhosa and isiZulu.
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•• Recognising the historically diminished use and status of the indigenous languages of
our people, the state must take practical and positive measures to elevate the status and
advance the use of these languages.
Chapter 2, section 29 of the Bill of Rights deals with the language of instruction and states
the following:
Everyone has the right to receive education in the official language or languages of their
choice in public educational institutions where reasonably practicable. In order to ensure the
effective access to, and implementation of, this right, the state must consider all reasonable
educational alternatives, including single medium institutions, taking into account:
•• equity;
•• practicability; and
•• the need to redress the results of past racially discriminatory laws and practices.
It is worth noting that section 29 of the Bill of Rights is subject to certain internal
limitations: a learner may receive instruction in a language of his or her choice to the extent
that it is ‘reasonably practicable’.
These legislative provisions give learners the right to determine the languages of their
teaching and assessment. It is important that the organisation’s quality management and
assessment policies take this into account. The rights of learners should be respected as far
as possible. Learners are also entitled to the following:
•• Learners should know how the assessment process works; they may not be pressured
into being assessed when they are not ready.
•• Learners may withhold past results.
•• Learners have a right to an impartial observer.
•• Learners have a right to appeal the assessment decision and should know the procedure
to follow if they wish to appeal.
•• Learners have a right to an interpreter, where appropriate.
•• Learners must know to which qualification the assessment will lead, and should know
how to further their learning on completion of the qualification.
Learners’ special needs vary from matters related to the work environment to issues that
affect an individual. These are some of the barriers to assessment:
•• Special permission may be needed for an assessment to take place in a particular area.
•• The environment can be noisy.
•• The learner has poor hearing or vision.
•• The learner is in a wheelchair.
•• The learner is shy, ill or tired.
•• The learner is experiencing personal problems that affect concentration.
•• The learner needs a special apparatus for the assessment to take place.
The assessor should consider all the rights and special needs of all learners if the assessment
is to be fair, reliable and sufficient.
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4. TYPES OF ASSESSMENT
The National Policy for Designing and Implementing Assessment (SAQA, 2014a)
differentiates between the following six forms of assessment: formative assessment, dynamic
assessment, summative assessment, integrated assessment, diagnostic assessment and RPL
assessment. Impact assessment is an additional form of assessment that is encouraged by
the national skills development legislation (see Chapter 1).
4.1 Formative assessment

Formative assessment is a range of formal, non-formal and informal ongoing assessment
procedures used to focus teaching and learning activities on enabling learner attainment of
learning outcomes. Formative assessment is, therefore, a form of engaging the learner in the
learning process. Formal formative assessment involves recording results which count towards
promotion marks. Assessment processes, tools and results are recorded towards the achievement
of a qualification, part-qualification or professional designation. Non-formal and informal
formative assessment involves dynamic assessment that focuses on a variety of alternative
teaching and learning approaches which enable the learner to successfully achieve the learning
outcomes of a programme (SAQA, 2014a). Formative assessment helps learners to improve
their performance, maximise their learning and reflect on and improve their own learning.
Formative assessment helps learners to improve their performance, maximise their learning
and reflect on and improve their own learning.
Formative assessments help L&D professionals to make decisions about the learners’
readiness to do a summative assessment. Credits may or may not be awarded. Formative
assessment credits usually carry a weight towards the summative assessment results. These
assessments do not have to be conducted by a registered assessor. The assessments use a
range of assessment methods, such as observations, oral or written tests, interviews and
demonstrations. In some instances, learners can include formative assessments in their
portfolios of evidence.
Formative assessments help L&D professionals to make decisions about the learners’ readiness
to do a summative assessment.
Formative assessment is conducted during instruction. The assessment takes place formally
(for example, a test) or informally (for example, the learning facilitator’s questions or
observations). Facilitators and learners all receive information, which they can use to
adapt learning strategies and methods during the learning session. Formative assessment,
therefore, has a teaching, a coaching and a development function. Figure 7.2 provides a
detailed breakdown of the formative assessment process.
Formative assessment has a teaching, a coaching and a development function.
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Activities, for example:

1 • project
Design a task to produce • presentation
evidence of learning. • class work
• drawing up checklists/evidence
Tools, for example:

2
• checklist
Design a tool to assess
• rating scale
evidence of learning.
• memorandum
3 Assessor/facilitator gives
Give learners the task. directions to learners.
4 Learners do tasks, for example:

Gather evidence from • presentation
learners. • project
M O D E R AT I O N
5
Apply assessment tools
to evidence.
6 C – Competent
Make judgement/ NYC – not yet competent
recommendations. And possible grading
Fill in:
7 • Formative assessment grid
Record the judgement. • Summary of specific outcomes
and unit standards
Mediation of results
8
and/or
Give feedback to learner.
Appeals procedure
Improve by doing again

9
Undertake further action. Learner goes for summative
assessment
These steps are repeated continuously during the learning programme

and
all the evidence collected into a portfolio, which is kept by the learner.
Figure 7.2 S
teps and processes involved in the formative assessment of a task
(Coetzee, 2007b)
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4.2 Dynamic assessment

Dynamic assessment involves formative assessment practices in which ‘mediation, learning,
testing, frequent feedback to learners and systematic monitoring of changes in learning are
explicit parts of the learning context’ (SAQA, 2014a: 5). Dynamic assessment consciously
seeks to consolidate existing learning to build further learning through continuous
feedback and learner-L&D professional interaction. The goal of dynamic assessment is to
see whether, by how much and in what ways those being assessed change as a result of being
presented with opportunities to learn (SAQA, 2014a: 15).
The goal of dynamic assessment is to see whether, by how much and in what ways those
being assessed change as a result of being presented with opportunities to learn.
4.3 Summative assessment

A summative assessment is usually a formal assessment to evaluate a learner’s achievement
of learning outcomes toward the certification of learning that has already taken place, and
the extent to which this learning has been successful. As shown in Figure 7.2, summative
assessments are usually conducted at the end of a learning programme, a set of outcomes
or a single outcome (a unit standard) within the learning programme, to evaluate learning
related to a particular qualification, part-qualification or professional designation (SAQA,
2014a: 15). It is the final measurement of what was learned and achieved.
Summative assessments should include formative assessment evaluations and a final
overall assessment of whether the learners have achieved the learning outcomes.
A summative assessment contributes to the final grade of a learning outcome or
qualification. This type of assessment summarises the learning process. It results in a formal
statement declaring whether a learner has achieved competency or not.
A summative assessment contributes to the final grade of a learning outcome and results in
a formal statement declaring whether a learner has achieved competency or not.
Summative assessments are not only in the form of written examinations. Summative
assessments often include projects and performance tasks conducted in a real-life context
after attending the practical component of a learning programme. A range of assessment
methods can be used, such as observations, interviews, questioning the learner, listening
to the learner and reviewing written material. These assessments provide evidence
of the learner’s knowledge, application of this knowledge and evidence of the learner’s
understanding and reflexive abilities. A summative assessment can be done only when:
•• The assessor and learners agree that they are ready for the assessment;
•• The assessor and learners have decided whether they are doing a summative or formative
assessment;
•• The learners know when and where the assessment will be held; and
•• The learners are informed that the results will be formally recorded and reported.
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Table 7.2 highlights the differences between formative and summative assessment.
Table 7.2 Formative and summative assessment (SAQA, 2001a,d,e)
Formative assessment Summative assessment

•• Designed to support the teaching and learning •• Occurs at the end of a learning programme;
process; •• Determines whether the learner is competent or not
•• Assists with the planning of future learning; yet competent;
•• Diagnoses the learner’s strengths and weaknesses; •• Learner readiness determines when the summative
•• Provides the learner with feedback on progress; assessment will take place;
•• Helps to make decisions on the learner’s readiness •• Carried out when the learner and assessor agree
to do the summative assessment; that the learner is ready for assessment;
•• Developmental in nature; •• Credits are awarded when the learner is declared
competent; and
•• Credits or certificates are not awarded; and
•• Is conducted by a registered assessor.
•• Is conducted by the L&D professional.
4.4 Integrated assessment

An integrated assessment is a holistic set of assessment tasks (e.g. diagnostic, formative,
dynamic, summative) needed for a qualification, part qualification or professional
designation. Integrated assessment could consist of a written assessment of theory together
with a practical demonstration of competence – where a learner’s conceptual understanding
of something is evaluated through the approach s/he takes to apply it practically. The
intention is to assess learners in the modes in which they are expected to display particular
competencies (SAQA, 2014a: 15).
An integrated assessment is a holistic set of assessment tasks (e.g. diagnostic, formative, dynamic,
summative) needed for a qualification, part qualification or professional designation.
As shown in Figure 7.3, integrated assessment implies that an assessor should focus on
assessing a learner’s ability to combine foundational, practical and reflexive competencies
with critical cross-field outcomes (CCFOs) and apply these in a practical context or for
a defined purpose. Developing guidelines for the assessment of the three curriculum
components (knowledge, skills and work experience) now forms an integral part of the
integrated assessment of occupational or job competence. The context of assessment should
be as close as possible to real-life application. Integrated assessment refers to the following:
•• Using one assessment activity for more than one outcome;
•• Using one assessment activity for more than one unit standard;
•• Integrating the critical outcomes with the learning outcomes in learning and assessment
activities;
•• Teaching and assessing theory and practice within the same activities;
•• Using a complex assessment task (for example, a project) to integrate all the outcomes
learners have dealt with throughout the learning period; and
•• Assessing across learning areas (SAQA, 2005).
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Purpose/rationale/exit
level outcomes/specific
outcomes of the unit standard or
qualification
(What does the learner need to
know, do and understand?)
Assessment strategy Learning and teaching

(What methods of integrated strategy
assessment will enable learners to (What methods and activities will best
demonstrate help learners achieve applied
applied competence?) competence?)
Unit standards/
fields of learning and
assessment criteria
(How will the trainer know if the
learner has achieved the learning
outcomes?)
Figure 7.3 Teaching, learning and assessing in an integrated manner (www.saqa.org.za)
Assessing each outcome individually is a long and costly process. Furthermore, the
principles of the NQF call for a unifying approach to education and training. If assessments
are not integrated, the assessments become fragmented, place undue stress on all the role-
players and produce a disjointed learning experience. It is important to note that integrated
learning comes before integrated assessment. Figure 7.3, which details how assessment
should be integrated, is taken from SAQA’s Guidelines for Integrated Assessment.
It is important to note that integrated learning comes before integrated assessment.
Integrated assessment demonstrates how teaching, learning and assessment activities can
be developed as a coherent process while still upholding the principles of the assessment.
The process emphasises the importance of carefully planning integrated teaching, learning
and assessment. Other than integrating assessments, there are various ways to ensure that
assessments are cost effective. These include:
•• Not involving too many people in the assessment process. This can cause the assessment
to become complex and time consuming.
•• Ensuring that productivity in the workplace is not interrupted by the assessments.
A time should be chosen that suits all the role-players.
•• Keeping the resources needed for the assessments to a minimum.
•• Encouraging learners to do self-assessments. Self-assessments help learners to determine
whether they are ready for their final assessment.
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4.5 Diagnostic assessment

Diagnostic assessment (or pre-testing) is a measure of the learner’s prior knowledge, skills,
attitudes and values before teaching or training starts. Diagnostic assessment is done for
the purpose of identifying learners’ strengths and weaknesses, in order to use the associated
information for the purposes of creating suitable learning environments (SAQA, 2014a: 15).
Diagnostic assessment identifies the learners’ strengths and weaknesses so the associated
information can be used to create suitable learning environments.
Informal and formal methods are used (in the form of questions) to assess the learners’
entry levels. Formal diagnostic assessments are scheduled and structured. A commonly
used formal diagnostic assessment is a pre-test, which is a measure of a learner’s knowledge,
skills, attitudes and values with regard to the curriculum. This form of assessment is also
known as a baseline assessment; it helps to determine a learner’s level of competence before
starting a learning programme.
A diagnostic assessment can also be used during a learning session. If the learning
facilitator identifies a problem, but cannot pinpoint the exact nature of the problem,
diagnostic assessment is used to determine the nature of the problem or need. It is essential
for L&D professionals, in their role as learning facilitators and assessment practitioners, to
monitor learners’ understanding and interest continually. This ongoing type of assessment
is called formative assessment, because it helps to shape or form the learning.
4.6 Assessment for recognition of prior learning

Assessment for recognition of prior learning (RPL) involves evaluating the prior knowledge
and skills of a person for the purposes of guiding the learner towards alternative access and
admission, recognition and certification, or further learning and development. Assessment
for RPL does not occur in isolation but as part of the RPL process, which includes candidate
support before, during and after the RPL process; preparation for an RPL process or sub-
process; mediation of knowledge obtained informally or non-formally and that which is
required formally; assessment of competence, and certification (SAQA, 2014a: 14).
4.7 Impact assessment

Impact assessment is a post-assessment activity that is included in the assessment process
to ensure the quality of the overall process. L&D professionals may use learner feedback to
evaluate the effectiveness of the assessment process. Evaluative assessment procedures help
the L&D professionals to explain to learners and moderators how assessment decisions
were reached.
Evaluative assessment helps L&D professionals to identify gaps in unit standards
and to make recommendations to managers and the QCTO. Information about learner
achievements can be used to assist in curriculum development and evaluate the effectiveness
of learning programmes.
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Evaluative assessment measures the impact of occupationally directed and work-based

learning programmes on the performance and competence of learners in the workplace.
The OLS and QCTO emphasise the assessment of the impact that occupationally directed
and work-based learning programmes made on the performance and competence of
learners in the workplace. When assessing the effectiveness of a learning programme, the
following criteria are the most important (Tshilongamulenzhe, 2012):
•• Quality research and data analysis must inform the impact assessment of skills
development delivery in the workplace.
•• Learners must have demonstrated competence in having acquired the professional/
occupational/job knowledge, skills and work experience relevant to an occupation/job
after completing the programme.
•• An occupationally directed learning programme must expose learners to a wide range of
skills and work experience that they can apply and use in the workplace.
•• Learners must have demonstrated the ability to apply and use the knowledge/theory
acquired during the learning programme in the workplace.
•• An occupationally directed learning programme must prepare learners to relate their
training to the relevant occupation and job in the particular workplace context.
•• Learners must be able to deliver occupationally/job relevant products and services after
completing the learning programme.
•• Learners must be able to perform occupational/job tasks after completing the learning
programme.
•• The occupationally directed learning or work-based learning programme must be
designed to develop the work-based level of competence required in the workplace.
Activity
Types of assessment
Read through the scenarios below:
1. Decide whether or not assessment would be an appropriate response.
2. Decide what kind of assessment is taking place in each scenario. Justify your answer.
The new CEO at ABC Factory is determined to make the factory globally competitive,
and is keen to upgrade workers’ skills. He plans on spending at least 5% of the
payroll on training and decides to start the process by organising a full-scale audit
throughout the factory.
Rivers Khumalo is excited as she has been short listed to be interviewed for her
dream job. She is told that after the interview she will be assessed in a simulated
working environment.
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Makgathi Mokwena is an NQF Level 5 engineering student at a college. She has been
granted a six-month placement with Electric Vision as part of her apprenticeship.
Halfway through the placement, the training manager organises an assessment to
see how she is doing.
Marc Whitmill has worked at the Mont St Claire Hotel as assistant chef for more
than 20 years. He has filled in as head chef on more occasions than he cares to
remember. He now feels that his skills should be acknowledged financially. He
approaches the HR manager who says that she will arrange for him to be assessed
using the new assessment methods.
Jayberries Pharmaceuticals has had a problem with weak management in the

production department for a long time. Systems are poor and out of date and, in
particular, Andre Maharaj, the manager in charge of the department, is known to be
dictatorial and prejudiced. The union is actively raising the issue of the management
problems in the company. The union’s shop steward, Ashley Harris, is called in by
Andre Maharaj and told that he is going to be assessed.
5. ASSESSMENT METHODS AND INSTRUMENTS

Assessment methods are tools that an assessor uses to gather evidence of a candidate’s
performance. Assessment methods relate to what an assessor does to gather and evaluate
evidence. Examples of assessment methods include observing learners, questioning learners,
interviewing supervisors, colleagues or managers of learners, listening to learners, reviewing
written material, and testing products. Assessment activities are the actual activities
the learner is supposed to perform when following a particular assessment method. If
observation is the assessment method, the actual assessment activity might, for example, be
that the learner is required to strip the paint off the wall, or the learner cashier is required
to pay out money to the customer.
Assessment methods relate to what an assessor does to gather and evaluate evidence of a
candidate’s performance.
Assessment instruments are designed to make the assessor’s use of assessment methods
more practical, consistent and effective. For example, a written test (method) needs a test
paper and assessment criteria (instrument) to be assessed effectively. Other examples of
assessment instruments are scenarios with questions, case studies, descriptions of tasks to
be performed and descriptions of role-play scenarios.
Assessment instruments are designed to make the assessor’s use of assessment methods more
practical, consistent and effective.
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Table 7.3 shows which methods can be used with which instruments.
Table 7.3 Assessment methods and instruments (SAQA, 2001a,d,e)
Assessment methods Possible assessment instrument

Assignments Assignment sheet and rubric clearly indicating the assessment criteria
against which learners are measured.
Case studies Printed case studies and questions based on the case study.
Written exams or tests Examination paper, answer sheet and memorandum.
Multiple-choice questions A bank of multiple-choice questions and answers.
Oral exams Questions and possible answers, assessment criteria and a rating scale.
Personal interviews Interview format, questions and a clear job description or description of what
is required of the candidate.
Practical demonstrations List of expected activities and prescribed levels to indicate required level
of competence.
Projects Clear purpose statement, scope of responsibilities, team members and

instructions.
Role-plays Clear instructions and outcomes to be achieved.
The assessment method (or blend of methods) chosen will depend on the type of evidence
required, the number of learners and the resources and time available for the assessment. It
is important to understand the strengths, weaknesses and uses of the assessment methods.
Learners should have a say in the type of method used to assess them. Therefore, describe
assessment instruments clearly, as this will determine their effectiveness during the
assessment process.
Table 7.4 Uses of assessment methods (SAQA, 2001a,e)
Assessment
methods Description Examples
Observations Recording evidence of a candidate’s •• Judging performance against
competency in carrying out a process or checklists;
developing a product. •• Logbooks;
•• Diaries.
Written tests Answering questions set by an independent Aimed at remembering and recalling
assessor. information, as well as analysing,
reporting on and discussing issues
and debating viewpoints.
Oral presentations Communicating verbally about a researched Reporting on a project, briefing other
and prepared topic. employees and informing a supervisor
on work done.
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Assessment
methods Description Examples
Interviews Discussing issues in a structured way. Aimed at finding out whether an
employee understands and can apply
knowledge and skills.
Documents Supplying evidence of competence in written •• Job reports;

(reports, portfolios or form, clearly demonstrating competence •• Scientific articles;
case studies) over a period of time.
•• Certificates;
•• Completed and assessed
assignments;
•• Letters of recommendation
from employer;
•• Course outlines of previously
studied courses;
•• Rough notes and drawings;
•• Photographs;
•• Computer software;
•• Proof of seminars attended;
•• Letters from peers.
Simulations Imitating a real-life situation and a •• Work-based practical assignments;

real‑life task. •• Rehearsals;
•• Role-plays;
•• Poster presentations;
•• Models;
•• Simulators.
Projects Tasks undertaken by an individual or group, •• Reports;

unique in terms of outcomes, parameters •• Dissertations;
and criteria.
•• Models;
•• Computer programs;
•• Exhibitions;
•• Portfolios;
•• Posters.
Performance tests Performing in a natural situation (such as a Assessing life-saving attempts by a

hospital, factory floor or classroom). nurse, fire-fighter or paramedic.
Table 7.5 identifies the relative strengths and weaknesses of the various assessment tools
available.
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Table 7.5 Uses of assessment instruments
Evidence authentic
Evidence sufficient
Evidence current
Evidence valid
Instrument Strengths and weaknesses
Alternative response ✓ ✓ ✓ Assesses the learner’s ability to recall
questions information and discriminate.
Knowledge test ✓ ✓ ✓ This does not test the learner’s practical skill;
Encourages rote learning and favours learners
with good writing skills;
Assesses theoretical outcomes and can be cost
effective if assessing a number of people.
Assertion/reason ✓ ✓ ✓ Assesses the learner’s ability to weigh up

questions options and discriminate.
Simulations ✓ ✓ ✓ Provides the learner with opportunities to make

risk-free and non-threatening decisions;
Depending on the simulation, this can produce
evidence of all competencies;
Is not a true indication of the actual situation.
Role-play ✓ ✓ ✓ Learners act out a role with other role-players;

It does not necessarily test the learner’s
theoretical, practical or reflexive knowledge,
hence the evidence is not sufficient;
Can be cost effective.
Practical ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Depending on the practical, this can produce

evidence of all competencies – involves the
learners performing actual tasks;
If conducted in real-life situations, it can provide
authentic evidence;
Learners may feel self-conscious and nervous
when they carry out their practical tasks.
Assignments ✓ ✓ Written evidence is required for an

assigned task;
Depending on the assignment, this cannot
always be verified as the learners’ own work;
Favours learners with good writing skills.
Portfolio of evidence ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ This method allows the learners to produce a

written portfolio of the work they have done;
Allows the learner to submit evidence of all
applied competencies if signed off by role-
players who have observed the learner’s
practical abilities.
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Evidence authentic
Evidence sufficient
Evidence current
Evidence valid
Oral presentation ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Allows the learner to prepare a presentation in
the form of an oral to an audience;
Depending on the oral, this can produce
Favours those who speak well;
Can make learners feel nervous or
self-conscious.
Examination ✓ ✓ ✓ Usually given at the end of a programme;

Tests the learners’ foundational and reflexive
competencies.
Case study ✓ ✓ This activity can be done orally or in writing, in

groups or individually;
Allows for creative problem-solving;
Does not test the learners’ ability to actually
perform the skill.
Questionnaire ✓ ✓ The competencies of a number of people can

be assessed;
It does not test the theoretical knowledge
and practical skill of the learners; hence the
evidence is not sufficient.
Demonstration ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ This activity allows the learners to assess all

competencies – it can include all aspects of
VACS. (Evidence of requirements.)
Oral tests ✓ ✓ ✓ Depending on the oral, this can produce

Favours those with good communication skills.
Personal interviews ✓ ✓ ✓ This method does not test the learners’ abilities
to actually perform the task.
Structured questions ✓ ✓ ✓ Set questions are asked to determine the

learners’ competence – reflective and
foundational skills may be assessed.
Extended response ✓ ✓ ✓ Assesses the learners’ problem-solving or

questions analysing skills and ability to recall information.
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Evidence authentic
Evidence sufficient
Evidence current
Evidence valid
Grid questions ✓ ✓ ✓ Presented in a grid format;
Learners are given two lists – a statement list
and a response list and they have to match the
responses to the statements given;
Each statement may have more than one
given response;
This method is usually used to simulate
open-ended debates and arguments.
Multiple-response ✓ ✓ ✓ Comprises a choice of questions with a

questions possibility of a few answers;
Learners have to choose the correct answer.
Oral questions restricted ✓ ✓ ✓ The form and the content of the responses
response questions are limited by the way in which the questions
are asked;
They do not have to have specific answers and
the assessor can use personal judgement when
interpreting a response;
This style of questioning allows for self-
expression and creative thinking.
Log books ✓ Used to assess the learners’ historical evidence;

Authenticity cannot always be verified.
Projects ✓ ✓ ✓ Depending on the project, this can assess most

competencies.
Peer assessment ✓ ✓ ✓ Evaluations done by the learners’ peers or

co-workers;
Does not provide direct evidence of the learners’
competencies – can be used as supplementary
evidence.
Self-assessment ✓ ✓ ✓ Cost- and time-effective methods of

assessment;
Can be done before an assessment to ensure
that the learners are ready for the assessment.
5.1 Portfolio assessment

A portfolio is a folder that contains samples of the learner’s work for a specific learning
programme. The portfolio serves as evidence of the learner’s ability to demonstrate competency,
as stipulated in the learning outcomes. Portfolios provide evidence of a learner’s knowledge,
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skills, attitudes and academic development; they can be assessed through formative and
summative assessment. Portfolios also allow learners to evaluate their own work. When
learners are responsible for deciding what to include in a portfolio, they are forced to examine
their work from a new perspective (Van der Horst & McDonald, 1997).
Portfolios have the potential to enhance learning facilitation and learning, because they
engage the trainer and learners in reflective self-evaluation. Portfolios also accomplish an
alignment of curriculum, instruction and assessment, which is seldom achieved with other
assessment methods.
Portfolios have the potential to enhance learning facilitation and learning, because they
engage the trainer and learners in reflective self-evaluation.
The main reasons for using portfolios are to:

•• Assess learners’ accomplishments of learning outcomes;
•• Assess the quality of learners’ sustained work;
•• Allow learners to turn their own special interests and abilities into a showcase;
•• Encourage the development of qualities such as pride in quality workmanship;
•• Improve learners’ ability to self-evaluate and accomplish meaningful tasks;
•• Provide a collection of work that learners may use in the future for university
applications, employment seeking and continued professional development; and
•• Document improvements in work (Van der Horst & McDonald, 1997).
Portfolios provide important formative assessment data. A portfolio is an accumulated body

of work in a real-life context. It provides evidence of the learning and growth that learners
have achieved. Portfolios emphasise strengths, the development of skills, improvement and
personal reflections. They provide a broad picture of a learner’s learning (Coetzee, 2007b).
Today, learners can also use portfolios as a tool to involve their coaches and mentors in
gathering evidence of their on-the-job experience and competencies in the workplace; in
other words, it becomes a sort of enabler that encourages managers (who can sometimes be
reluctant) to provide information and knowledge to learners.
5.2 Recognition of prior learning

The revised National Policy for the Implementation of Recognition of Prior Learning
(RPL) (SAQA, 2013) provides for the implementation of RPL within the context of
the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) Act 67 of 2008. The new RPL policy
replaces the policy document Recognition of Prior Learning in the Context of the South
African NQF developed in 2002 by the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA)
within the context of the SAQA Act, 58 of 1995. RPL is a multi-contextual assessment
practice, which refers to principles and processes through which the prior knowledge and
skills of a person are made visible, mediated and assessed for the purposes of alternative
access and admission, recognition and certification, or further learning and development
(SAQA, 2013; 2014). SAQA (2013) differentiates between two main forms of RPL: (1)
RPL for access, which provides alternative access routes into programmes of learning; and
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(2) RPL for credit, which involves obtaining credit towards a qualification, part-qualification
or professional designation, for learning/experience obtained informally or non-formally.
RPL can be carried out at any NQF level.
Activity
National RPL Policy

Visit SAQA’s website at www.saqa.org.za and obtain a copy of the National Policy for the
Implementation of Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) (SAQA, 2013). Study the various
standards for RPL outlined in the policy.
Recognition of prior learning

Imagine that you are an expert in a particular field but have no formal qualifications. You
decide to be assessed for RPL. List a step-by-step process you would follow in order to
get an RPL assessment. Be sure to give a background, current qualifications you could be
assessed against, evidence you could submit. This activity will require internet research.
RPL means that a person’s competencies are recognised and acknowledged. (This is discussed
more fully in Chapter 1.) It does not matter how the competencies were obtained; in other
words, competencies acquired through experience are equal to competencies acquired
through a formal course. In practice, there is no fundamental difference in the assessment
of previously acquired competencies and the assessment of competencies achieved through
a full learning programme. RPL involves the following:
•• Comparing the previous learning and experience of a learner against the learning
outcomes required for a qualification;
•• Accepting that those learning experiences meet the requirements to obtain the
qualification;
•• Allowing for accelerated access to further learning;
•• Assessing and giving credit for evidence of learning that has already been acquired in
different ways.
RPL means that a person’s competencies are recognised and acknowledged: it does not matter
how the competencies were obtained.
As shown in Figure 7.4, the RPL process is about:

•• Identifying a learners’ competencies;
•• Matching the learners’ skills, knowledge and experience to standards and the associated
assessment criteria of a qualification;
•• Assessing learners’ achievements against these standards by evaluating the collected
evidence; and
•• Crediting learners for skills, knowledge and experience built up through formal,
informal and non-formal learning that occurred in the past.
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Identify
Match
Recognition of
prior learning
(RPL)
Assess
Credit
Figure 7.4 The RPL process
According to SAQA, RPL is important for the following reasons:

•• It ensures that people’s skills and knowledge are current.
•• It redresses the historical disadvantages, such as the exclusion of people from education,
training and employment.
•• It enhances the development of individuals.
•• It facilitates access to jobs and progression in career paths.
•• It assists recognition in terms of grading and salary.
•• It assists planning through skills audits.
•• It promotes employment equity.
6. THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS

All assessments follow the same basic processes:
•• Planning the assessment;
•• Preparing the learner for assessment;
•• Conducting the assessment, documenting the evidence;
•• Evaluating the evidence and making assessment judgements;
•• Providing feedback to the relevant parties; and
•• Reviewing the assessment.
6.1 Planning the assessment
Planning Preparing Conducting Documenting Evaluating Providing Reviewing

feedback
Figure 7.5 shows the application of assessment planning for RPL.
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Application for RPL
RPL evidence facilitator meets candidate to conduct If not viable, i.e. candidate will
pre-screening to ascertain viability of application clearly not meet the minimum
requirements in terms of
language/numeracy and/or other
competencies, the candidate is
referred for further advice on
If viable, then pre-assessment stage: alternative pathways.
RPL evidence facilitator takes candidate/s through
preparation for assessment:
• Portfolio development and related workshops,
and/or
• One-on-one advising
• Assessment approaches, tools, mechanisms
• Guidance on collecting evidence, which
candidate then does
Assessor (preferably with facilitator present) and
candidate develop assessment plan:
• Review unit standard(s) and requirements
• Type and sources of evidence
• Assessment tools to be used in this assessment
• Dates and times of assessment
Assessment stage:
• Candidate undergoes practical assessment,
and/or
• Candidate sits knowledge test, and/or
• Candidate goes through pre- and post-interview, Related aspects assumed to be
etc. in place:
• RPL policies, procedures and
systems in place.
Judgement stage: • Information on RPL is readily
Evidence judged by assessor available.
• The provider has developed a
criteria framework within which
prescreening takes place; pre-
Moderation stage screening criteria are readily
available to candidates.
• Assessment instruments have
been developed and moderated.
Feedback stage • Alternative pathways/options,
as well as additional counselling
services.
• Where no facilitators are available,
Credit not awarded Credit awarded assessors will undertake all
functions.
Note: Credit awarded could be replaced with
‘access’; ‘advanced status’, etc. depending
Appeal process Post-assessment on the context and purpose of RPL within
may be initiated support the institution.
Figure 7.5 The RPL assessment process
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There are various steps that an assessor should follow when planning the assessment. If
the assessor’s planning is not adequate, the assessment process will not achieve its goals.
Assessors must be familiar with the learning programme and the learning outcomes against
which learners will be assessed. To do this, assessors should:
•• Familiarise themselves with the overall purpose that has to be achieved. The learning
outcomes in terms of the three curriculum components, knowledge, skills and work
experience (see chapters 1 and 4), critical cross-field outcomes, assessment criteria, and
other requirements that will influence the design of the assessment should be identified.
•• Discuss assessment with other facilitators and assessors to gain as much information as
possible about the learning programme, the type of work done with the learner during
the teaching and learning phase and resources used.
•• Evaluate and revise previously used assessment processes and materials.
•• Develop assessment instruments (if the organisation does not have existing instruments).
•• Draw up an assessment plan that addresses all the requirements of the standard being
assessed. The purpose of an assessment plan is to provide clarity to relevant role-players
on the assessment and moderation processes.
Assessors must be familiar with the learning programme and the learning outcomes against
which learners will be assessed.
The assessment plan should cover the following:

•• The performance to be assessed;
•• The types of evidence that is required to declare the learner competent;
•• The assessment methods and instruments that will be used to conduct the assessment;
•• The strengths and weaknesses of assessment methods and instruments;
•• The sequence of events;
•• The period of assessment, indicating the time allocated for each assessment, deadlines
and availability of results;
•• The physical and human resources that will be required;
•• The logistics of the assessment;
•• The role-players involved in the assessment, and their roles and responsibilities;
•• The moderation of the assessment;
•• The need for cost-effectiveness in the assessment;
•• The special needs of learners and possible barriers to the assessment;
•• The plans that are in place in case of unforeseen circumstances;
•• The assessment context and strategy;
•• The organisation’s assessment, moderation, RPL and appeals policies and procedures;
•• The accessibility and safety of the environment; and
•• The assessment documentation that will be needed.
Table 7.6 provides a detailed example of an assessment plan.
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Table 7.6 Assessment plan
Assessor’s name
Assessor’s contact details
Email
Cellphone
Telephone
Learner’s name
Learner’s contact details
ID number
Telephone
Cellphone
Email
Address
Learner’s position in organisation
Manager’s name
Manager’s contact details
Email
Cellphone
Telephone
Assessment context Give the context of the assessment to be conducted. Describe what is
being assessed.
Assessment strategy State the assessment strategy to be followed. Describe how outcomes will
be assessed.
Purpose of assessment State the purpose of the assessment as given in the learning outcomes
or unit standard. Also state whether the assessment is formative or
summative. Describe why the outcomes will be assessed.
Performance to be assessed Mention the specific outcomes to be assessed.
Evidence required Describe the type of evidence needed to declare the learner competent (for
example, direct evidence, indirect evidence and supplementary evidence).
Give a thorough explanation of the requirements for evidence.
Methods and instruments to Discuss the methods and instruments needed to determine the learner’s
be used (including strengths level of competence. Also describe the strengths and weaknesses of
and weaknesses) each method.
Date, time and period of Mention how long each assessment will take. Give an approximate date for
assessment the assessment and confirm it with the learner.
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Availability of results Give an approximate date for the availability of results after the final
assessment.
L ogistics of assessment, Discuss the logistics of the assessment, including where, when and how it
including safety of the will take place. Consider the safety of the environment.
environment
Role-players in the Mention all the role players involved in the assessment. Give their names
assessment and contact details, and state how they are involved in the assessment.
Moderation Describe the role of the moderator in the assessment. Explain exactly
how the moderator is involved in pre-assessment and post-assessment
moderation.
Policies and procedures State the organisation’s assessment, moderation, RPL and appeals policies
and procedures. Note any important matters to be considered in this regard.
Physical and human State what resources you will need for this assessment. Note that this
resources aspect may already be covered in the section on logistics and role players in
the assessment.
Cost-effectiveness Consider ways to keep costs low. Include integrated assessment in the
discussion.
Special needs of learners and Note any special needs that have to be considered. Consider any barriers
barriers to the assessment that might impede the assessment.
Contingency plans Consider contingency plans in the event of circumstances that might hinder
the assessment.
Principles of assessment Indicate how these principles are applied in the assessment.
Documentation Consider the various documents needed for the assessment, including policy
documents and appeals forms. The candidate must have some knowledge
of SAQA, QCTO and the NQF. Ensure that they know the difference
between the traditional learning and outcomes-based learning. Prepare this
information for the candidate learner. If the candidate does not have this
information, they will not understand the assessment process.
Sequence of events Give a step-by-step explanation of the assessment process.
Quality assurance Explain how feedback will be recorded and stored in keeping with the
organisation’s quality assurance system.
Assessors are required to compile a comprehensive assessment guide. This should form part
of the facilitator/trainer guide (discussed in Chapter 4). The assessment guide is the result
of a thorough analysis of the learning outcomes and assessment criteria for the learning
programme. Assessors use assessment guides to conduct an assessment. Assessment guides
address the following aspects in detail:
•• How will the assessment take place?
•• What is needed to make the assessment happen?
•• How will evidence be gathered, recorded and judged (SAQA, 2007)?
Assessment guides include descriptions of the approach to the assessment, assessment

conditions, assessment activities, instructions to assessors and learners, assessment
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methods, assessment instruments, resource requirements, guidance for contextualising

assessments, relevant standard operating procedures, administrative procedures,
moderation requirements, assessment outcomes and criteria, observation sheets, quality
checklists, possible or required sources of evidence and guidance on expected quality of
evidence (SAQA, 2007).
Activity
Planning an assessment
1. Log onto the SAQA website at www.saqa.org.za and find a simple unit standard that
you, as an assessor, would like to use to assess a work colleague.
2. Decide what evidence you would require from your colleague in order to deem them
competent in the unit standard. In other words, what you would require from your
colleague in order for them to ‘pass’.
3. Decide how you would go about getting this evidence. What methods would you
use to assess the learner? What instrument would you use to assess each method?
4. Draw up an assessment plan for this activity. Attach your unit standard to your
feedback.
6.2 Preparing the learner for assessment

feedback
When assessors have planned and prepared the assessment process, the relevant role-players
must be informed of the assessment. The most important role-player is the learner. The
learner will probably be unfamiliar with the assessment process and terminology; it is
therefore important for the assessor to explain the assessment thoroughly, in a manner and
language that sets the learner at ease. Assessors may use the assessment plan as a guide to
inform the learner of the process. This plan will inform the learner about the requirements
for the assessment and the learner’s role and responsibilities during the assessment. It is
important for the assessor to reach an agreement with the learner on how the evidence will
be collected and presented. Learners should be made aware of the following:
•• The process of the assessment and why the assessment will be conducted in a
particular way;
•• The key elements of outcomes-based assessment within the context of the NQF;
•• The kinds of assessment activities they need to perform;
•• The standard and level of performance required;
•• The type and amount of evidence to be collected;
•• Their rights as learners and their responsibilities regarding the collection of evidence;
and
•• The reassessments and appeals procedure to be followed, if learners are not satisfied
with the assessment result.
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The assessor and learner must reach an agreement on the assessment process. The assessor
and learners sign off the assessment plan (or any other document that constitutes an
agreement). This gives the assessor documented proof of the learner’s readiness to proceed
with the assessment. This is an important step in the assessment process. If learners later
feel that they were forced into the assessment, they may appeal against the assessment
decisions on the grounds that they were not ready for the assessment.
The assessor and learner must reach an agreement on the assessment process and sign off the
assessment plan.
Table 7.7 includes an example of an assessment strategy an assessor might adopt for a
particular assessment.
Table 7.7 Example of an assessment strategy (Coetzee, 2006a)
Unit Standard 114924: Demonstrate understanding of the outcomes-based education and training
approach within the context of the NQF.
Specific outcomes Method of Reference Method of Reference in manual
facilitation in manual assessment (section where
assessment occurs
in course)
Specific outcome 1 Pre-course Pre-course Questions Relates to all

Explain the outcomes- and manual activities pre-course activities
based approach to activities Module 1 Activity 1.11
Learning manual
education and training. activities Workplace application
Presentation (Portfolio 1.2)
Specific outcome 2 Pre-course Self-assessment Relates to all

Group work activities pre-course activities
Describe the NQF.
Module 1 Workplace Workplace application
assignments (Portfolio 1.2)
Specific outcome 3 Module 1 Activity 1.11

Describe and explain Module 3 Activity 3.2
standards.

Describe and explain
qualifications.

Develop a broad plan for
implementing the NQF
within an organisation.
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Unit Standard 114924: Demonstrate understanding of the outcomes-based education and training
approach within the context of the NQF.
Essential embedded Method of Reference in Method of Reference in manual
knowledge facilitation manual assessment
The entire unit standard Pre-course Pre-course Questions Relates to all activities
addresses issues of and manual manual Learning manual and assignments
knowledge relative to the activities Module 1 Activities
outcomes-based approach Presentation
and the NQF, thus all the Self-assessment
outcomes and criteria Workplace
define the knowledge assignments
explicitly.
Critical cross-field Method of Reference in Method of Reference in manual

outcomes facilitation manual assessment
CCFO Communicating Questions Relates to all activities

CCFO Demonstrating Learning manual and assignments
Activities
Self-assessment
Workplace
assignments
6.3 Conducting assessment

feedback
Assessment is a structured process of gathering evidence about learners’ achievements in

relation to specific learning outcomes.
Assessment is a structured process of gathering evidence about learners’ achievements in

relation to specific learning outcomes. This evidence is used to make assessment decisions
about the learners’ competence. The collection of evidence is the main focus of the
assessment process. Assessors are required to do the following:
•• Ensure that the assessment is conducted in an appropriate, non-threatening manner,
and in accordance with the assessment plan.
•• Collect evidence that is valid, authenticated, current and sufficient to determine the
learners’ competence. Ideally, collect evidence that is directly observed by the assessor.
Other types of evidence are also acceptable, but only if they are verified (Tables 7.8 and
7.9 show ways to verify the authenticity of learners’ evidence).
•• Collect evidence that covers all the assessment criteria of the programme or unit being assessed.
•• Collect evidence from a variety of sources to ensure a consistent and reliable assessment
decision. This may include evidence of the learners’ previous or current work
performance, testimonials and performance appraisals.
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•• Gather enough evidence – including evidence generated over time – to reach a valid,
consistent and fair assessment decision.
The collection of evidence is the main focus of the assessment process.
Table 7.8 Example of candidate declaration of authenticity (Coetzee, 2006a)
Ethics and authenticity declaration

Please complete the following and sign in the space provided.
Sign the declaration and ask your manager or a senior colleague to sign the endorsement section. The contents
of this portfolio will be verified. The person who signs the endorsement should be willing to stand by their
endorsement of authenticity.
Candidate declaration
I declare that I have compiled this portfolio. This is my own Signed:

work and the contents reflect evidence that I have gathered to
demonstrate my competence as an assessor. Date:
Workplace endorsement
Name of person giving the endorsement:
Position in the organisation:
Tel (w): Email (w):
I confirm that this portfolio of evidence is the work of: Signed:

Date:
Table 7.9 Example of a witness declaration of authenticity (Coetzee, 2006)
Witness declaration of authenticity

Candidate’s name:
Please ensure that all witnesses who sign the candidate’s evidence, observe any activities performed by the
candidate or write a report are included on this witness status list.
Name and contact details Status of Relationship Specified activities Witness‘s Date
of witness witness to learner witnessed signature
To ensure that the entire assessment process is credible, certain principles of assessment, as
outlined in Table 7.10, must be followed. These principles provide guidelines to ensure the
integrity of the assessment process.
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Table 7.10 Principles of assessment (SAQA, 2001a,e; 2014a)

Accountability All role-players in assessment processes acknowledge and account for their areas of
responsibility.
Appropriate The methods of assessment are suited and appropriate to the performance being
assessed.
Assessment range The full range of relevant competencies needed for a qualification, part-qualification
or professional designation is assessed.
Authentic The work being assessed and the evidence produced must belong to the learner. In
other words, the work submitted must be the work of the person being assessed. The
learner or a witness can sign the work to indicate that it is authentic.
Consistent The evidence produced must be consistent and reliable. Consistency means the extent
and reliable to which the same judgement will be made in the same or similar situations. The
results of the assessment must be the same if given by another assessor under similar
circumstances; similar assessment-related judgements are made across similar
contexts in consistent ways about:
•• assessment tools and tasks;
•• marking;
•• moderation
•• recording and dissemination of results;
•• certification; and
•• record keeping.
Credibility in the Physical and other conditions under which assessment is conducted do not unfairly
form of supportive prejudice assessment activities and outcome.
administration Supportive administration procedures include clear and accessible information;
procedures standardised conditions under which assessment is conducted; and standardised
appeals processes which are the same for all similar instances within an institution.
Fair The assessment process must be fair. The assessment methods must not present any
barriers to achieving the learning outcomes. Assessment methods should be suited to
the learning outcomes and the evidence required. Learners are assessed on what they
know and have been taught, and the purpose of assessment is to enhance learning.
An appropriate assessment range, where the full range of relevant competencies and
levels of cognitive demand needed for a qualification, part-qualification or professional
designation is assessed. This range includes types and levels of competence required
at each NQF level (see Level Descriptors for the South African NQF [SAQA, 2012]).
The assessment provides equal assessment opportunities for all learners regardless
of their ethnicity, age, gender, culture, disability, social class, language and other
contextual features.
Absence of bias Assessment practices do not in any way advantage or disadvantage particular
learners or groups of learners.
Sensitivity Care is taken to ensure that language does not become a barrier to learning;
to language An accessible language of learning and teaching is used, which is mediated for those
learners for whom it is not their mother tongue;
Care is taken to use appropriate language that is free of ambiguity and technical
jargon; and
In cases of translation into different national languages, the assessment is consistent
and the alternate forms comparable.
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Integrative The purpose of assessment is to evaluate and enhance learning;

The evidence collected must be integrated into the job or field of learning, where
appropriate;
Integrated assessment should assess the ability to combine foundational, practical
and reflexive competence with critical cross-field outcomes and apply these in a
practical context;
The three curriculum components – knowledge, skills, workplace application and
experience – are assessed;
A range of modes of teaching and learning, including assessment, such as face-to-
face, distance, e-learning, full-time, part-time, portfolio, block release, mixed-mode
and multi-modal approaches is attempted to facilitate lifelong learning and to
maximise inclusivity.
Manageable The assessment must be manageable and practical. In other words, it must not be
or practical expensive and time consuming, or interfere with any learning.
Relevant The evidence must be relevant to the outcome; for example, if the aim of an
assessment is to assess a learner’s ability to drive a truck, it is not necessary to
assess a learner’s ability to drive a car;
The assessor must ensure that only the required outcomes are assessed.
Sufficient The assessor must collect enough evidence to make an accurate judgement;
The amount of evidence needed will depend on the type of assessment;
The assessor will know sufficient evidence has been collected only if the evidence
assesses the learner’s foundational knowledge, practical skill and reflective thinking.
Systematic The assessment process must be planned and recorded in a systematic way;
The user-friendliness and availability of assessment-related documentation
is ensured.
Transparent or open The assessment process should be transparent and open to all;
Learners must be able to contribute to the assessment process and give their input
regarding the collection of evidence;
All relevant stakeholders, learners and educators have a clear understanding of the
relevant purposes, processes, criteria and consequences of assessment;
Evidence of the development and moderation of assessment tasks and instruments,
where appropriate, is provided.
Valid The assessment measures what it sets out to measure;

Procedures, methods, instruments and materials are appropriate, useful and meaningful;
There is a match between content to be assessed, learning outcomes, and purpose of
assessment;
The assessment relates to its stated purpose, learning outcomes, and assessment
criteria (content and construct validity);
Validation of assessment tools involves ensuring the match between what is to be
assessed and the suitability of the tools chosen to measure this aspect;
Validation of assessment tasks involves ensuring the match between what is to be
assessed and the suitability of the tasks to make this aspect visible/audible;
Validation of assessment processes includes developing assessment tools and tasks,
marking, moderation, and providing feedback on assessment conducted – ensuring a
match between the processes and goals of assessment; and
Enhancing credibility or validation through a peer-review process where all aspects of
the assessment process are documented and available for scrutiny.
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Integrity There is honesty in every part of the assessment process;

Assessment questions are based on work actually covered, or to enhance learning in
a genuine way;
Learners are honest about what they offer to be assessed;
Markers strive to understand what is being offered by learners for assessment, and
grading it fairly at all times;
Moderators moderate a fair sample of cases; and
Feedback is given to learners and educators after moderation.
The purpose of assessment is to evaluate and enhance learning.
Activity
Assessment tools
You have already decided on a unit standard you would like to assess.
You have decided on the evidence that would be required and on the methods and
instruments you would use for this assessment.
1. Draw up one of the assessment tools. Be sure to draw up the questions and
the checklist.
2. Indicate if this assessment tool is valid, authentic, current and sufficient.
6.4 Gathering and documenting evidence

feedback
Gathering evidence is a crucial part of the assessment process. Assessment evidence can
be defined as evidence collected from workplace performance, supplemented by other
performance. This evidence is weighed against the assessment criteria in the unit standard.
The evidence that assessors are looking for may differ from one type of assessment to the next.
Evidence will be different for assessing technical competence, occupational competence,
critical outcomes, team performance or a learner’s ability to transfer knowledge as outlined
in Table 7.11. There are many different ways to collect evidence. These include:
•• Direct evidence is obtained when you directly observe learners’ performance in a normal
or non-routine workplace situation, and in the execution of specific tasks.
•• Indirect evidence is the opposite of direct evidence. It is collected through simulations,
projects and the assessment of products or services.
•• Supplementary evidence may be required to see whether a learner can perform in a
variety of situations. Learners will have to give proof of their competence, and evidence
can be gathered in a variety of ways (such as through written or oral exams). Third-
party reports (from supervisors, fellow learners and clients) may also contribute to
the evidence.
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Gathering evidence of performance is a crucial part of the assessment process. This evidence
is then weighed against the assessment criteria in the unit standard.
Table 7.11 Types of evidence
Direct evidence Indirect evidence Supplementary evidence

This is the preferred type of Indirect evidence can be used Supplementary evidence may
evidence. It is valid, authentic, to supplement or support the include additional evidence that
current and sufficient. Direct direct evidence. It is evidence supports direct or indirect evidence
observations give the assessor about the learner, usually from and historical evidence. Historical
direct evidence of learners’ another source. evidence informs the assessor
competence. how learners performed in the
past. It does not necessarily prove
learners’ current competence.
Assessment documents should be developed to collect and record evidence. This will
ensure the consistency of assessment results, especially if more than one assessor is involved
in the assessment process. Assessors are required to record all the evidence collected in
the learner’s portfolio of evidence. It is best to keep an assessment record for each learner,
stating the outcomes assessed, the date and time of the assessment and the assessor’s details.
These documents should be dated and signed by the learner, assessor and moderator.
Assessment documents should collect and record evidence to ensure the consistency of
assessment results, especially if more than one assessor is involved in the process.
Table 7.12 Example of a summative assessment form (Coetzee, 2006a)
Learning programme: Developing people

Unit standard title: Analyse the skills development legislation and apply it in the workplace
(US 14551)
NQF Level: 4 Credits: 4
Candidate’s name:
Learning Unit 1 Assessor’s Candidate’s Date

initials initials
Outcome title
Demonstrate an understanding of the social contexts and

values underpinning skills development.
Assessment criteria
The principles and values underpinning the institution are

identified and explained in terms of their operations.
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Learning programme: Developing people

Unit standard title: Analyse the skills development legislation and apply it in the workplace
(US 14551)
NQF Level: 4 Credits: 4
Current skills development legislation is identified and a

summary of the underpinning principles and values is given
in writing.
Batho Pele principles are explained, with examples.
Skills development priorities are linked to labour market

opportunities.
Application
Interpret the objectives of the NSDS, HRDS and Batho Pele

principles as they apply to the public service.
Explore the challenges regarding people development

within the public service and the specific department.
Explore the roles of the various stakeholders in

implementing the NSDS, HRDS and Batho Pele principles
in the public service.
Competent Not yet competent
General
comments:
Assessor: Candidate:
Signature: Signature:
Date: Date:
Evidence is the tangible proof that learners produce to show that they meet the criteria
of the applicable learning outcomes or unit standard. The evidence must include the
following:
•• Evidence of knowledge. Learners should provide evidence of theoretical knowledge of the
work (foundational knowledge). For example, a chef has theoretical knowledge about
planning menus.
•• Evidence of application of knowledge. Learners should show that they can actually apply
the knowledge to practical situations (practical knowledge). For example, a chef plans
the menu for a dinner.
•• Evidence of understanding and reflection. In addition to foundational and practical
knowledge, learners must show that they understand the work (reflective knowledge).
For example, a chef designs and creates menus for various different events.
Evidence should meet certain criteria before it can be used in the assessment process. These
are shown in Table 7.13, which presents the VACS analysis of evidence.
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Table 7.13 The VACS analysis of evidence
Valid The evidence must be relevant to the standard or outcomes assessed.
Authentic The evidence must belong to the learner.
Current The evidence must indicate the current competence of the learner.
Sufficient The learner must provide enough evidence (as defined by the performance criteria and the
range statement) to enable the assessor to declare the learner competent.
6.5 Evaluating evidence and making assessment judgements

feedback
When the evidence has been gathered and documented, assessors need to judge learners’
competence. This judgement is based on an evaluation of the evidence. Assessors are
expected to evaluate the evidence against each assessment criterion. The assessment
decision must take into account any unexpected circumstances that may compromise the
fairness and correctness of the assessment. In other words, learners must not be penalised
for something that was not their fault.
The assessment decision must take into account any unexpected circumstances that may
compromise the fairness and correctness of the assessment.
The assessment decision must be consistent. Consistency is the extent to which the same
result will be reached if the assessor uses different methods to assess the learner or if someone
else assesses the learner. If the results are not consistent, the assessor must reconsider the
assessment methods and activities and reassess the learner. If the assessment takes place
within an organisation, the assessors are required to store assessment records safely within
the quality assurance system. This is done in case the assessment results are questioned, and
for moderation and quality assurance purposes.
6.6 Providing feedback to the relevant parties

feedback
Assessment is considered to be a learning tool, because it provides learners with continuous

feedback on their performance. Assessors are required to provide written and oral feedback
to the learner and other role-players. However, assessors should handle assessment results
with confidentiality.
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During the feedback phase of assessment, assessors provide detailed, clear and accurate
feedback on the learner’s achievements. Feedback gives learners information about their
performance on each assessment criterion and learning outcome.
Assessors should provide positive and constructive criticism, because feedback has a
significant impact on learners’ further learning. The assessor should also advise learners
on further learning opportunities or, if the learner has been declared not yet competent,
discuss ways to improve performance and opportunities for reassessment.
Assessors should provide positive and constructive criticism, because feedback has a significant
impact on learners’ further learning.
Activity
Case study
Read carefully through the case study and answer the questions that follow.
Sibongile and Pamela must each assess three supervisors in the organisation. The unit
standard that the supervisors worked towards is US 10981, Supervise work unit.
Sibongile calls the three supervisors in for a meeting on Friday afternoon. She asks
them to prepare themselves for their assessments on Monday. She asks all three to be
available for a group interview at 10h00 on Monday.
They ask her if they should prepare any documents or observations with their
floor staff, and she says no. The assessment will be in the form of a 20-minute group
interview. She tells the group that, as they have been with the company for more than
two months, they do not have to worry about having to do additional assessments. Their
work records can be drawn from the HR department; this can be their evidence.
One of the employee’s states that she is not comfortable with this process; everything
seems too quick and rushed. Another employee, Crystal, had received a written warning
a year before. She does not want this to influence the assessor’s decision.
Sibongile tells the whole group that time is money – they have no reason to worry.
She ends the meeting abruptly.
The second assessor, Pamela, contacts the HR department for more information
about the three supervisors she has to assess. She reads through their files and the unit
standard, and draws up a detailed assessment plan. She then approaches the manager
of the division and reviews the timetable with him.
Finally, she contacts the three supervisors and invites them to a meeting to discuss
their assessments. At the meeting, she informs them that their prior learning will be
recognised (RPL) in the assessment. She explains the process and arranges a time on
the following Friday with each supervisor. Pamela asks the group for their suggestions
on the assessment. There are none. She then gives them a detailed breakdown of her
plan for the RPL. She asks the three supervisors to read the documents and contact her
if they have any questions. All the employees leave her office excited about the prospect
of being assessed.
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Questions
1. Compare Sibongile and Pamela’s assessment planning and preparation.
2. Discuss the assessment method Sibongile used.
3. Sibongile says the supervisors can be assessed because they have been with the
organisation for more than two months and their work records can be drawn from
the HR department. Explain why her reasoning is flawed.
4. Discuss Sibongile’s approach to the assessment.
5. How should she have conducted this assessment?
6. Why do you think Pamela decided that her group could be recognised for their
prior learning?
7. What methods and activities do you think Pamela suggested to the group that made
them excited about the assessment?
8. Explain how you would conduct this RPL assessment.
6.7 Reviewing the assessment process

feedback
Assessors are required to review the assessment process. They do this by identifying the
strengths and weaknesses in the process to improve future assessments. An evaluation of
the assessment process will include the following:
•• Consulting the learner and other relevant role-players for feedback about, and
suggestions to improve, the assessment;
•• Evaluating the impact the assessment process may have had on the results of the
assessments;
•• Reviewing the entire process with other assessors and moderators;
•• Making appropriate changes, including recommendations about the learning outcomes
or qualification; and
•• Using the assessment results to evaluate the learning programme and strategies.
The aim of reviewing the assessment process is not to be negative, but rather to influence
future assessments and ensure that errors are not repeated.
The aim of such a review is not to be critical and destructive, but rather to influence future
assessments and ensure that errors are not repeated. The positive aspects of the assessment
process must also be noted. These positive aspects add to the quality of future assessments
and support the overall quality assurance of the organisation’s practices. An example of a
candidate evaluation form is shown in Table 7.14.
Reviewing the assessment process adds to the quality of future assessments and supports the
overall quality assurance of the organisation’s practices.
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Table 7.14 Example of candidate evaluation of the assessment process (Coetzee, 2006)
Candidate evaluation
Please answer the questions below.
Was your assessor’s manner encouraging and designed to put you at ease?
Was the assessment procedure explained and agreed with you?
Was it clear and understandable?
Were you encouraged to participate and be involved?
Did your assessor ensure that all specific outcomes and the appropriate range were covered?
Were you given clear, evaluative feedback against each specific outcome?
Were all pieces of evidence considered?
In what manner were assessment decisions communicated to you?
Did you agree with the decisions?
Was all the appropriate documentation completed and signed?
Did you receive copies for your records?
Candidate’s name:
Candidate’s signature: Date:
7. MODERATION OF ASSESSMENT
Moderation in assessment means internal and external verification that an assessment
system is credible and that assessors and learners behave in an ethical way; and that
assessments are fair, valid, reliable and practicable (SAQA, 2014a: 7).
Moderation means internal and external verification that an assessment system is credible
and ethical, and that assessments are fair, valid, reliable and practicable.
Verification is a form of quality assurance which gives everyone involved in the particular
learning programme confidence in assessment decisions. Internal moderation is one aspect
of quality assurance. It is the process of monitoring and verifying assessment practices to
ensure that assessment decisions are consistently accurate.
Moderation and verification involve:
•• Monitoring the conduct of assessment;
•• Evaluating assessment design, instruments and methods;
•• Sampling candidate evidence to verify assessment decisions;
•• Assuring quality of the assessment and moderation system and procedures;
•• Supporting and advising assessors;
•• Keeping verification and assessment records up to date; and
•• Providing information for analysis by the assessment centre and or QCTO) (Coetzee, 2007a).
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The National Policy for Designing and Implementing Assessment (SAQA, 2014a: 15)
states that checking for validity/validation (i.e. verification) through moderation practices
includes the documentation of internal moderation procedures and outcomes. In the case
of statistical moderation, moderation includes procedures that – at minimum – present and
explain the distribution of learner performance and the techniques used to moderate this
performance. Moderation also includes documentation of processes for the appointment of
external moderators with expertise and experience; documentation of external moderation
procedures and outcomes; and documentation of processes by which internal or external
grading irregularities or sources of error are or will be corrected.
According to SAQA, the following points need to be considered when establishing a
moderation system: the management structure; the functions of the moderation system;
the components of the moderation system; and the moderation methods to be used.
7.1 Management structure

The management team in the organisation is responsible for ensuring the implementation of
a moderation policy and procedure that complies with SAQA’s requirements, the QCTOs,
and the national unit standard for moderation and verification. Moderation is an integral
part of the L&D provider’s quality assurance. External moderation of the company’s QA
compliance with required standards in L&D provision is also conducted by professional
bodies or other accredited moderation bodies, as relevant to the company’s type and the
form of L&D provision.
7.2 Functions of the moderation system

Organisations may use internal L&D professionals (who are not involved in presenting
the learning or learning programme) as internal moderators. The QCTO, SETAs and
professional bodies, for example, act as external moderators of the assessment procedures,
methods and learner achievements. Internal moderators are responsible for:
•• Checking the credibility of assessment methods and instruments;
•• Checking the assessment system for effectiveness (including the use of resources);
•• Monitoring and observing assessment processes and candidates’ evidence (through
sampling);
•• Checking assessors’ decisions;
•• Providing advice and guidance to assessors on system improvements;
•• Checking that all the staff involved in assessment are appropriately qualified and
experienced; and
•• Assuring that learners with special needs have been accommodated in the assessment process.
The QCTO, SETAs and professional bodies act as external moderators of the assessment
procedures, methods and learner achievements.
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The QCTO refers to assessment quality partners that assist with moderation matters
relevant to occupational qualifications. The QCTO Assessment Quality Partners (AQP)
Criteria and Guidelines document (QCTO, 2013: 8) stipulates that an AQP has the
necessary credibility in the relevant constituency (industry/sector/profession) to assist with
external, integrated summative assessment, which may include a moderating function.
Depending on their current functions and areas of expertise, any of the following existing
bodies may be appointed as AQPs for specific occupations or groups of occupations:
•• Moderating bodies;
•• Examining bodies;
•• Professional bodies;
•• Legislated boards; and
•• Occupational associations.
7.3 Components of the moderation system

The components of the moderation system include appropriate timing, extent, materials
and personnel.
7.3.1 Timing
Assessment guides should be moderated before assessment takes place and after the final
assessment decisions have been made. Moderation must be conducted on an annual basis.
7.3.2 Extent
The moderation activities should be evaluated in terms of the extent to which they protect
the integrity of unit standards. Unit standards, assessment materials, assessor competence
and learner evidence are assessed in the moderation process.
7.3.3 Materials
Moderation materials should include the following:
•• Assessment activities;
•• Assessment guides;
•• Case studies; and
•• Learners’ worked samples (for example, portfolios of evidence, knowledge questionnaire
answer sheets, assignment answers, case study solutions, observation checklists and
self-assessments).
7.3.4 Personnel
The personnel chosen as moderators need to have unquestionable expertise in the curriculum
and assessment practices. Moderators should understand the expectations of all users.
Moderators also need to be registered with the relevant assessment body and or QCTO.
Moderators need to have expertise in the curriculum and assessment practices, and be
registered with the relevant assessment body or QCTO.
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7.4 Methods
Moderation methods that must be employed are:
•• Revising moderation materials and benchmark materials;
•• Recognising expert assessors;
•• Doing statistical moderation;
•• Reviewing common assessment activities and assessment guides;
•• Getting external moderators to do site visits;
•• Getting external moderators to conduct panel meetings;
•• Establishing site consultative committees; and
•• Reviewing the moderation system for effectiveness.
7.5 Moderation tools

The moderation tools that must be employed are:
•• A moderation plan;
•• A moderation report (see Table 7.15);
•• The national unit standard for moderation; and
•• The QCTO’s requirements of the assessment and moderation of work-based learning
programmes.
Table 7.15 Example of a moderation report (Coetzee, 2006a)

Compliance
Scope of moderation Evidence Yes/No Recommendations
Assessment instruments covered the Assessment guide
curriculum and unit standard
Assessment design and methodology Assessment guide

relevant to the unit standard and
curriculum design and consistently
applied by all assessors
Assessment decisions recorded Assessment records
Report and feedback mechanisms Assessment records and

in place reports
Assessment decisions: Assessment records and

•• Fairness reports
•• Reliability Worked samples
•• Appropriateness Learner evidence (portfolios,
case studies, assignment
•• Validity
answers, knowledge
•• Sufficiency questionnaire answer sheets)
•• Practicality
Candidates with special needs and Assessment records and

RPL cases considered reports
Candidate feedback
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Compliance
Scope of moderation Evidence Yes/No Recommendations
Assessment practice reviewed for Quality review report
quality assurance purposes;
Improvement areas identified
Learner support and guidance Assessment guide

practices regarding assessment
in place
Assessor registered and competent Assessor registration and

qualifications
Assessment decision outcomes Moderator’s report

confirmed/rejected
General comments:
Moderator’s name:
Moderator’s signature: Date:
Assessor’s name:
Assessor’s signature Date:
Case study
Providing feedback to the relevant parties
Vallen and Thabiso are both assessors for a major retail company and are based at
the head office in Cape Town. The company has branches nationally and employs over
30 000 people. Vallen is responsible for the assessments conducted in the Eastern
Cape and Thabiso for the Northern and Western Cape. They are under pressure to round
off assessments that were conducted six months previously.
Thabiso contacts the managers of his 154 learners and arranges for a teleconference
in which he plans to give each learner feedback on their assessment – 14 of his learners
are not yet competent. He plans on speaking to learners in groups of 20. He explains that
due to tight time frames, he is unable to fly to their training venue in the Northern Cape
or to their individual stores in the Western Cape to give feedback. Plus, his feedback
is simple and should not take too long. He has it all written down and can quickly read
through the most important points during the teleconference. He then asks the groups
to sign off the feedback form and fax it to him within 24 hours.
Vallen has 101 learners and simply faxes the results to each store with a note asking
the learners to sign off the feedback forms and return them via fax within 24 hours –
seven of his learners are not yet competent.
Questions
1. Compare the processes followed by Vallen and Thabiso. Do you think they are
acceptable or is one more acceptable than the other?
2. Explain whether you think the processes followed by the two assessors were
flawed or not.
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a) What did Vallen do that is unacceptable in terms of assessment?

b) What did Thabiso do that cannot be accepted?
3. Describe how you would conduct the feedback to the learners in:
a) Eastern Cape and Northern Cape;
b) Western Cape.
Note, you are under tight deadlines and have no financial budget.
4. Draw up the feedback form that Vallen and Thabiso want their learners to sign off.

1. Why does outcomes-based L&D emphasise quality assessment and moderation
practices?
2. Why should L&D professionals take the various role-players in the assessment and
moderation process into account? What are the functions of these role-players?
3. How can assessors and L&D professionals apply the various types of assessment
to enhance the quality of learning?
4. How do the various assessment methods and instruments help to assure valid and
reliable assessment practices?
5. What is the function and purpose of drawing up a comprehensive assessment plan
and assessment guide? What aspects of assessment should be included in these
documents?
6. What are the various steps involved in the assessment process?
7. What are SAQA’s and the QCTO’s requirements for assessors?
8. How does moderation support the assessment process?
Summary
Assessment and moderation of learning achievements are significant elements of
outcomes-based L&D. Outcomes-based assessment assesses learners’ ability to
combine foundational, practical and reflexive competencies with critical cross-field
outcomes and to apply these in real-life (practical) contexts or for a defined purpose.
In this chapter, the importance of identifying and applying valid and reliable
assessment procedures, methods and instruments to measure learners’ achievement
of learning outcomes are discussed. Assessors must be qualified subject matter experts
who are registered with the QCTO or relevant SETA.
Moderation (as an aspect of quality assurance) was explored. Assessment and
moderation of learners’ achievements are important to ensure that a learning programme
adds value and contributes to the overall HRD strategy of a company. Methods of
evaluating the effectiveness of learning programmes are explored in Chapter 8.
‘I never teach (my learners); I only attempt to provide the conditions in which they can
learn.’ (Albert Einstein)
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EVALUATING LEARNING CHAPTER
INTERVENTION EFFECTIVENESS
Jerome Kiley and Melinde Coetzee 8
Key points of evaluating learning intervention effectiveness
•• Evaluation is a significant component of learning and development (L&D) provision. Compliance
evaluation and value-added evaluation of L&D interventions and practices allow L&D professionals
and managers to collect descriptive and judgemental information. This information is used to make
effective L&D decisions regarding the selection, adoption, modification and financial evaluation of
various L&D activities.
•• L&D evaluation can take place before, during, at the conclusion of or sometime after a skills/training
programme.
•• Evaluation models are useful frameworks to determine the L&D evaluation dimensions and criteria to
be measured.
•• The L&D evaluation process should be planned properly and executed in a systematic manner to
ensure the validity and reliability of compliance and value-added measurements.

•• Explain how properly planned and executed learning and development (L&D) evaluations help L&D
professionals and managers to prove the quality of and value added by their learning programmes
and other L&D interventions.
•• Explain the purpose of compliance evaluation and value-added evaluation in the South African
workplace.
•• Evaluate the factors that discourage L&D evaluation in the workplace.
•• Describe the steps that L&D professionals follow to ensure that their evaluations produce valid and
reliable data.
•• Describe how L&D professionals demonstrate to management the cost-effectiveness, resulting
change and impact of learning programmes.
•• Describe how the various evaluation models guide L&D professionals to determine evaluation
dimensions and criteria.
•• Explain the timing of conducting an L&D evaluation.
1. INTRODUCTION
As the fifth phase in the learning cycle, the evaluation of learning programmes is a
significant component of learning and development (L&D) provision. The aim of any
L&D intervention, in particular work-based learning programmes, is to sustain employee
and organisational performance capability, including present and future performance, or to
solve problems that occur in the organisation. Organisations invest in L&D initiatives, such
as work-based learning programmes, because they want to improve performance, reduce

costs or improve working conditions. In this regard, L&D evaluation (simply called learning
intervention evaluation) is the process of determining whether the learning intervention
has achieved its goals in the most effective and efficient manner possible (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016; Swart et al., 2005). Basarab (2011) argues the importance of running the
training function as a business, demonstrating real returns on the company’s investment.
The long-term success of L&D initiatives and the human resource development (HRD)
function is dependent on the following three principles:
1. L&D professionals need to excel at their job.
2. They need to plan, design, manage and evaluate learning programmes that not only
have a positive influence on the mission and purpose of the organisation, but also add
value for stakeholders.
3. They need to use information about their performance to prove to the organisation and
its stakeholders that they are doing an excellent job and that they should be provided
with the necessary resources to sustain their performance.
Learning intervention evaluation allows L&D professionals and managers to collect

descriptive and judgemental information. This information is used to make effective
L&D decisions. Such decisions include the selection, adoption, modification and financial
evaluation of various L&D activities (La Duke 2017; Goldstein & Ford, 2002).
Phase 1
L&D needs analysis
Phase 5 Phase 2
THE LEARNING CYCLE
Phase 4
achievements
This chapter clarifies what evaluation means in L&D and describes the various stakeholders
involved in learning intervention evaluation. In addition, the various types, criteria
and models of training evaluation relevant to the workplace are discussed. We explore
the evaluation process, examine data-collection tools and discuss factors that discourage
training or learning intervention evaluation in general.
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Chapter 8 | Evaluating learning intervention effectiveness
2. LEARNING INTERVENTION EVALUATION

Learning intervention (training) evaluation is a set of planned, information-gathering
and analytical activities. L&D professionals undertake these activities to provide those
responsible for the management of the strategic HRD effort with a satisfactory assessment of
the effects, progress, quality and added value of L&D interventions. Learning intervention
evaluation also means placing a value on the L&D initiatives, in particular, the work-based
learning programmes that employees attend. Evaluations of the effectiveness of learning
programmes are usually done to provide information and influence a decision that has to
be made about the HRD strategy, practices and procedures. Evaluation provides diagnostic
information that shows where remedial actions should be undertaken and whether the
L&D intervention should be continued. More broadly, the purpose of training evaluation
is to identify performance solutions to improve the organisation as a whole.
The purpose of L&D evaluation is to identify performance solutions to improve the

organisation as a whole.
L&D evaluation is a continuous process. It requires proper planning and a clear statement,
in the form of objectives, of what is to be evaluated. It is a systematic process of making
judgements about the quality of a programme in terms of effectiveness (how well it works
and whether it adds value to the organisation’s bottom line) and efficiency (how well it is
designed, delivered and managed). L&D/training evaluation also makes use of valid and
reliable measuring instruments, or data-collection tools, to achieve its objectives. Validity is
the extent to which the measuring instrument reflects the concept it is intended to measure.
Reliability is the extent to which scores obtained on a measure are reproducible in repeated
administrations under similar measurement conditions (Rossi et al., 1999; SAQA, 2014a).
L&D evaluation is a continuous process. It requires proper planning and a clear statement,
in the form of objectives, of what is to be evaluated.
Similar to assessment (see Chapter 7), evaluation can take place at different times: before
a training (learning) intervention (known as diagnostic evaluation), during a training
intervention (known as formative evaluation), at the conclusion of a learning programme
(known as summative evaluation), or sometime after a learning programme (known as
longitudinal evaluation) (Rothwell et al., 2016). Assessment focuses on evaluating collected
evidence of learners’ achievements against a set standard. Evaluation, on the other hand,
makes judgements about the quality and added value of learning programmes and whether
changes and/or improvements in learners’ performance in the workplace occurred as a
result of the learning programme. The moderation of assessment practices, methods and
instruments and learners’ achievements is an example of an evaluation activity.
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Advantages of L&D/training evaluation (based on Phillips et al., 2016)

• L&D evaluation measures the difference between what was required and what has
been achieved. The purpose of training is to improve performance in the organisation
on an individual, group or organisational level. Evaluation shows to what extent this
has been achieved.
• It justifies the HRD department’s budget. Evaluation gives the department the
opportunity to justify its existence to management.
• It improves the design and delivery of learning programmes. Evaluation serves as a
feedback system to judge the design and delivery of learning programmes.
• It improves the transfer of learning. Evaluation measures the extent to which learning
is transferred to the workplace and helps to identify barriers to transfer.
• It identifies unnecessary or ineffective programmes. Evaluation helps the
organisation to identify learning programmes that do not contribute to the goals of
the organisation or do not achieve their purpose.
• It improves the credibility of the HRD department. Evaluation data build respect and
credibility for the HRD department and its staff.
• It meets the needs of management and gains their support. Evaluation data
illustrate to management that their needs have been met by the HRD department.
This creates loyalty and support.
• It shows the financial return on training. Depending on the type of evaluation
conducted, evaluation data provide information on the return on investment (ROI)
in training.
L&D evaluation has many advantages, including that the data provide information on the
return on investment (ROI) in training.
2.1 Diagnostic evaluation

Diagnostic evaluation is relevant in the design phase of a learning programme (design is
discussed in Chapter 4). Some of the questions that can be asked in the evaluation are:
•• Are the selected training and learning facilitation methods appropriate to achieve the
outcomes? In other words, will the training methods be effective in providing the
learners with the necessary knowledge, skills or attitudes?
•• Do the training methods coincide with the learners’ preferences and learning styles?
•• Has the programme been designed in the most efficient manner? In other words, is
the programme curriculum designed to achieve the programme objective and learning
outcomes in the shortest time and most cost-effective manner possible, without
sacrificing quality?
The most effective method to review these issues is to run a pilot learning programme.
Diagnostic evaluation is relevant in the design phase of a learning programme.
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2.2 Formative evaluation

Formative evaluation is relevant to the delivery phase of a learning programme (delivery
is discussed in Chapter 6). During this phase, L&D professionals need to respond
appropriately to these questions:
•• Are the learners enjoying the delivery of the programme?
•• Are the methods being used in the delivery of the programme effective in achieving the
programme objective and learning outcomes?
•• What is the quality of the delivery of the programme? In other words, are the trainers
doing their jobs properly?
•• Are all the administrative arrangements running smoothly?
The most important time to discover errors or problems with a learning programme is
while it is being implemented. The piloting or testing of a learning programme is, therefore,
recommended to ensure that the most obvious problems are identified and corrected before
the learning programme is implemented.
The most important time to discover problems with a learning programme is while it is
being implemented, so piloting is recommended.
2.3 Summative and longitudinal evaluation

A number of important issues need to be evaluated during the summative and longitudinal
evaluation processes. These evaluations occur when the learning programme has been
completed. Summative evaluation occurs immediately after the learning programme.
Longitudinal evaluation occurs sometime after the learning programme (from a few weeks
to a year). Questions that need to be posed during these evaluations are:
•• Have the learners achieved the learning outcomes? What are learners’ assessment results?
•• Was the learning programme effectively delivered?
•• Did the learning programme achieve its overall objective?
It is important for L&D professionals and learners to reflect on the learning programme
after it has been completed. Questions such as the following can be asked:
•• What could we have done differently?
•• What needs to be changed?
•• How can we improve the learning programme?
Diagnostic and formative evaluations provide an opportunity to address and rectify the
identified shortcomings during the training delivery process.
However, it is a lot more effective to identify problems before (diagnostic evaluation) or

during the process (formative evaluation). Diagnostic and formative evaluations provide an
opportunity to address and rectify the identified shortcomings during the training delivery
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process. The timing and purpose of evaluation are crucial to the relevance of and value
added by an evaluation effort.
As shown in Table 8.1, learner assessment data and other measures are used to
determine the effectiveness of a learning programme. The L&D evaluation process not
only determines whether a learning programme has achieved its objective, but also whether
the assessment instruments were effective or appropriate for assessing learners. As pointed
out in Chapter 4, the learning programme objective and learning outcomes are used to
judge the effectiveness of the learning programme.
L&D evaluation needs to be planned in advance, based on the overall learning
programme objective and learning outcomes (Landy & Conte, 2004). The analysis of
L&D needs (discussed in Chapter 3) and the design of learning programmes (discussed in
Chapter 4) therefore form the foundation of any L&D evaluation activity.
Table 8.1 Timing of evaluation and its related purpose
Evaluation timing Focus of evaluation

Diagnostic evaluation •• The design of the programme;
Before the delivery of the L&D intervention •• Existing skills levels of learners as part of the L&D
needs analysis.
Formative evaluation •• The quality of the delivery process;

During the L&D intervention •• The adequacy of the learning material;
•• The appropriateness of the delivery methods.
Summative evaluation •• Satisfaction of the learners with the learning

Directly after the L&D intervention programme;
•• The achievement of the outcomes by the learners;
•• The overall effectiveness of the learning
programme.
Longitudinal evaluation •• Transfer and application of learning in the

On the job workplace;
Three to 12 months after completion of the L&D •• Support for new knowledge, skills and attitudes in
intervention the workplace;
•• Impact on individual performance in the
organisation;
•• Impact on the performance of the organisation.
Table 8.2 Example of formative classroom training evaluation (Coetzee, 2006a)
Module 6 Management and evaluation of L&D practices

Name
Assess your own skills by rating yourself with a ✓ on each aspect mentioned.
I can ... Poor Fair Excellent
•• Conduct an analysis of learning needs within the

current and potential scope of provision.
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I can ... Poor Fair Excellent
•• Evaluate the provider’s current management

of learning.
•• Plan the development of learning programmes and

learning provision.
•• Contribute to and promote L&D policies and quality

assurance procedures within the organisation.
•• Support the HRD team.
•• Monitor and review learning provision and

related systems.
•• What did you like about the module and learning process?
•• What about the module and learning process did you not like?
•• What additional learning support do you require from the facilitator to achieve the learning outcomes set
for the programme?
3. S
TAKEHOLDERS IN LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT
EVALUATION
The criteria for involving stakeholders in an evaluation should relate to whether they have
a significant interest in the success of that learning programme.
Stakeholders in L&D evaluation refer to those individuals, groups or organisations that

have a significant interest in a learning programme or L&D intervention (Rossi et al.,
1999). Any of the following people may be regarded as stakeholders in the context of a
training evaluation:
•• Present and past learners are the direct customers of any learning programme. They are
directly affected by the quality of the programme.
•• Learners’ supervisors and managers. Learners are sent on a learning programme to
change or improve their performance. Learners’ managers or supervisors depend on
the performance of learners in the workplace; they are thus directly affected by the
effectiveness of learning programmes.
•• Top management. The performance of learners affects the overall performance of the
organisation. As this is the responsibility of top management, they will have an interest
in the overall effectiveness of learning programmes.
•• L&D professionals in the organisation. The L&D professionals are affected by the quality
and effectiveness of learning programmes. This is their job, so evaluations may influence
their future within the organisation.
•• Representatives of labour unions represent the interests of their members (the learners).
They are concerned with the quality and effectiveness of interventions that have an
impact on the skills levels of their members.
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•• The training committee. As discussed in chapters 1 and 4, the Skills Development Act,
97 of 1998, states that each organisation is required to have a training committee that
is responsible for L&D (skills development) matters within the workplace.
•• SETAs are concerned with the development of skills within their particular sector.
To this effect, organisations develop workplace skills plans (read more about this in
Chapter 1). The SETAs’ success is influenced by the effectiveness of learning and
learning programmes in the organisation.
•• The Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO) is concerned with the standards
of qualifications and learning programme design, delivery and management. L&D (skills
development) providers are, therefore, required to comply with the national standards
for NQF-aligned outcomes-based L&D practices. They have to apply for recognition
and accreditation of their learning programmes, qualifications and HRD management
systems with the QCTO. Read more about the requirements for accreditation and
quality management in Chapter 1.
•• Customers of the organisation are affected by the performance of the learners in the
workplace.
•• L&D professionals in other organisations may have conducted similar learning
programmes or may be planning to do so in the future.
•• Academic experts and consultants are valuable sources of expertise. They may be consulted
for advice and support in conducting training evaluations.
•• Professional associations, such as the South African Board for People Practice (SABPP)
and the Institute for People Management (IPM), are valuable sources of information
and expertise.
•• Communities and the broader society. The communities within which organisations
operate and the broader society are affected by these organisations. By implication,
they are affected by the performance of the learners (Rothwell & Sredl, 1992).
The list of stakeholders is exhaustive. All of these will not necessarily be involved in every
evaluation. The criteria for involving stakeholders in an evaluation should relate to whether
they have a significant interest in the success of a particular learning programme.
Table 8.3 Example of summative evaluation (Coetzee, 2007a)
Name of learning programme:
Name of trainer/facilitator(s):
Date learning programme was attended:
Evaluate your learning experience

Questions Absolutely Fairly so In a small Absolutely
yes measure not
Was the purpose of the programme clear to me?
Do I understand the learning outcomes I have to

achieve to successfully complete this programme?
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Did the learning objectives of the programme help

me to achieve the learning outcomes?
Was the time we spent on the various activities

appropriate?
Did the learning material help me to improve my

understanding of what I needed to learn?
Were instructions for learning activities clear?
Did the learning experience satisfy my personal

learning needs?
Could I relate the learning activities, case studies

and examples to my work situation?
Was I encouraged to participate in the learning

activities?
Was I treated with respect?
Was the facilitator professional and approachable

at all times?
Was I given plenty of help and support to complete

the programme activities?
Were the venue, time, refreshments and breaks

well organised?
Did the facilitator help me to identify ideas/actions

that could assist me to learn more effectively?
Was the assessment of my competencies well

planned and clear to me?
Did I know what evidence to provide to prove my

competence in terms of the learning outcomes?
Was the assessment of my competence fair and

objective?
Was I given the opportunity to ask questions about

the assessment results?
Did the feedback provided by the facilitator help

me to know how to build on my strengths and how
to develop my weaknesses?
Do I feel confident in applying the knowledge and

skills I have learned on-the-job?
•• My learning points from the learning programme are ...

•• The most useful part of the learning programme was ...
•• The least useful part of the learning programme was ...
•• The actions I am going to take as a result of the learning programme are ...
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As shown in Figure 8.2, there are two types of evaluation in the workplace, namely
compliance evaluation and value-added evaluation:
1. Compliance evaluation emphasises the organisation’s compliance with international and
national quality standards for outcomes-based L&D practices.
2. Value-added evaluation addresses the organisation’s bottom line. It measures the
cost-effectiveness of L&D interventions (Coetzee, 2007a).
Compliance Value-added
evaluation evaluation
Compliance with quality standards for

Measurement of changes in learners
L&D practices, processes, products
and organisational pay-offs
and services
Training content, design

Self-evaluation
and delivery
Changes in learners’
Peer evaluation
performance/transfer
External review
of learning
Tangible and intangible

QCTO/Standards body pay-offs/Impact on
Formal evaluation bottom‑line/Return on
investment
Figure 8.2 Integrated L&D evaluation (Coetzee, 2007a)
Compliance evaluation emphasises the organisation’s compliance with international and

national quality standards for outcomes-based L&D practices.
4. COMPLIANCE EVALUATION
Compliance evaluation emphasises the organisation’s compliance with international and
national quality standards for outcomes-based L&D practices. In terms of the national
requirements for quality outcomes-based learning and learning programme design,
delivery and L&D management, compliance evaluation (also called quality audit or quality
evaluation) is a compulsory activity for all L&D/skills development providers.
In terms of national requirements, compliance evaluation (also called quality audit or

quality evaluation) is a compulsory activity for all L&D professionals.
Compliance evaluation is a three-step process:

1. L&D providers first conduct a self-evaluation of their L&D practices, procedures and
processes against the QCTO or professional body quality requirements/standards for
the delivery of learning programmes in the workplace. Self-evaluation will typically
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comprise evaluating the effectiveness of learning and learning programme design,

delivery, assessment, moderation, evaluation and management practices. Based on the
findings of such a self-evaluation, L&D providers compile and implement an action
plan aimed at improving the identified aspects.
2. The second step is to arrange a peer evaluation by external quality reviewers, based on the
self-evaluation. This is done in preparation for the external compliance evaluation by
the QCTO or standards body.
3. The third step is to prepare for and undergo a formal quality audit by the QCTO or
relevant standards body, such as the South African Bureau for Standards (SABS), for
accreditation and recognition. L&D quality assurance refers to all the activities that
assure the quality of the design, delivery, management and evaluation of learning and
learning programmes and their outcomes. These activities include the following:
•• Clarifying and describing customer expectations and needs;
•• Ensuring L&D providers, practitioners, assessors and moderators have a
comprehensive and accurate understanding of the quality standards;
•• Ensuring that the required resources are available for the design, delivery and
management of qualifications and learning programmes, and that they meet the
required standards;
•• Ensuring that L&D providers, practitioners, assessors and moderators have the
necessary skills, knowledge and motivation to make the products or deliver the service;
•• Ensuring that quality assurance evaluation systems are in place to monitor the design,
delivery, management and evaluation of qualifications and learning programmes; and
•• Ensuring that the independent auditing and monitoring of quality and feedback
systems by providers of learning and learning programmes, as well as by other
stakeholders, who are in a position to contribute to enhancing quality, takes place
(SAQA, 2001a).
Table 8.4 SAQA quality requirements for L&D providers (adapted from SAQA, 2001a)
1. Policy statement
What are the values and principles of your L&D/HRD department?
Are these values and principles aligned with those of the NQF?
What structures, systems and activities are in place in your department to apply these values and principles?
2. Quality management systems
How does your L&D department/organisation create and sustain a quality culture?
How, when and by whom is information collected about the workings of your L&D/HRD department?
What processes are in place to ensure that you meet the needs of your learners?
How often are the programmes delivered by your L&D/HRD department reviewed?
What processes are in place to ensure that the facilitators are competent to facilitate and assess the learning
standards, according to the requirements of the NQF?
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What processes are in place to monitor and review assessment activities?
What processes are in place to ensure that the information gathered from reviews, audits and monitoring lead to
improvements in your L&D/HRD department?
What mechanisms exist for your L&D/HRD department to report back to people within your organisation?
How does your L&D/HRD department ensure that its resources are utilised effectively and efficiently?
How does your L&D/HRD department report to and generally relate to the ETQA (e.g. the QCTO)?
How does your L&D/HRD department relate to other providers in the subject area in which they work?
3. Review mechanisms
What review, monitoring, research and/or auditing mechanisms are in place in your L&D/HRD department?
What process do these mechanisms follow?
How often are reviews, research and audits carried out?
Who is responsible for carrying out the reviews, research and audits?
What process is used for reporting back findings within the organisation?
How do the findings of the reviews lead to improvements in your L&D/HRD department?
4. Programme delivery
What types of learning programme does your L&D/HRD department deliver?
On which level/s of the NQF do these programmes fall?
What are the different components of these programmes?
How frequently are the programmes delivered?
What processes are used to deliver the programmes (for example, classroom-based instruction, distance learning,
computer-based instruction)?
To what extent is the delivery of the programmes flexible?
How do you ensure learner-centredness in the delivery of the programmes?
How do you ensure that the delivery methods are relevant to learners?
What assessment processes are used (when, where, how often and by whom)?
What are the processes used to give the learners feedback on their performance?
5. Staff policies
Who is responsible for the selection of the staff in your L&D/HRD department?
What are the criteria used for selecting L&D/HRD department staff?
What selection procedures are used for the selection of staff?
How is the Employment Equity Act applied in the selection process?
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6. Learner policies
What processes are followed to select learners for training programmes?
How is recognition of prior learning applied in the selection procedures?
What processes are in place to ensure that programmes are relevant to the needs and aspirations of learners?
How is learner participation encouraged through the delivery of the programmes?
What processes are in place to identify the nature of the support that learners require?
What is the nature of the support given to learners?
What guidance is offered to learners? What is the motivation for this?
What opportunities for further learning are provided for by your L&D/HRD department?
What process is used to give the learners feedback on their performance?
7. Assessment policies
What is your L&D department’s approach to assessment?
How are assessments conducted, by whom and how often?
How is your department’s assessment policy aligned with the NQF’s principles and QCTO’s requirements?
How does your L&D/HRD department/organisation’s assessment policy incorporate principles of lifelong learning,
recognition of prior learning and integration of theory and practice?
What mechanisms are in place to ensure the quality of assessments?
How are learners given feedback on their assessments? Who does this and how often?
How are assessments used to identify and provide the support and guidance that learners require?
How are assessment results used in programme development?
8. Management systems and policies
What is the management and administrative structure of your L&D/HRD department?
What decision-making processes are used in your organisation?
What process is used to allocate financial resources to your L&D/HRD department?
Does your L&D/HRD department have adequate resources (physical, human and financial resources) to carry out
its intended functions?
What systems does your L&D/HRD department use to manage and account for its finances?
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Table 8.5 Steps to establish a L&D quality assurance system (Coetzee, 2006a,b)
Action Evidence
1. Review current training practices, policies and procedures. Review report
2. Evaluate these practices, policies and procedures in terms of alignment Review report
with the NQF outcomes-based and QCTO quality system requirements.
3. Ensure that the curriculum of learning programmes addresses the three

aspects: knowledge, skills and work experience.
4. Identify areas for improvement. Improvement plan
5. Draft a quality plan containing: Quality plan

•• Quality statement; Quality manual containing plan
•• Goals, objectives and performance targets; and policies
•• Resource plan (people, finance, administrative and physical
resources);
•• Quality areas to be managed;
•• List of policies that need to be written;
•• Customer relations plan;
•• Communication plan; and
•• Quality audit plan.
6. Draft an organogram (structure of people required). The structure should Organogram in quality manual
address the following functions:
•• Manager/co-ordinator of quality assurance;
•• Assessors;
•• Internal and external assessors;
•• L&D professionals;
•• Mentors;
•• RPL advisers;
•• Administrative support; and
•• Quality auditors.
7. Draft occupational/job profiles for the identified positions. Job profiles
8. Draft a selection, screening and appointment plan. Recruitment plan
9. Appoint identified people. Follow formal authorisation and accreditation Advertisements

procedures. Interview report
Competency certificates
Authorisation letters
10. Draft performance contracts with people. Performance contracts
11. Conduct a competence assessment and draft a development plan with Development plans
appointed people.
12. Identify L&D interventions for people and integrate these in the Workplace skills plan
workplace skills plan.
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Action Evidence
13. Draft organisation quality policies and procedures and obtain formal Approval
approval.
14. Orientate organisation management, stakeholders and employees in Minutes of sessions

quality assurance system, policies and procedures. Attendance reports
Unit standards
15. Train management and HRD people in the quality auditing process. Evaluation reports
Unit standards
16. Obtain management and other customer requirements in terms of Record and documentation
reporting on progress and standards. system
17. Draft work-based unit standards for in-house training/learning Management information system
programmes. policy
18. Set up a documentation and record system for learner achievements, Documentation system
assessment reports, skills development needs and audits, QCTO and
L&D/skills development provider evaluation reports.
19. Set up a management review system, including: Management review system

•• Monthly progress review; Minutes of meetings
•• Audit reviews and corrective action planning. Audit review reports
Corrective action plan
20. Conduct quality culture and climate surveys. Survey results
21. Establish effective computerised information systems to support HR information system (HRIS)
decision-making. Learner management system
(LMS)
Organisations that have to follow international standards and regulations are exposed to
compliance evaluations by bodies such as the South African Bureau for Standards (SABS).
The results or outcomes of a compliance evaluation identify the remedial actions that
must be taken to ensure national recognition and accreditation as an L&D provider. L&D
providers are also required to draw up and execute development plans that address the
shortcomings highlighted by the compliance evaluations. An example of a compliance
evaluation is shown in Table 8.6.
Table 8.6 Steps in conducting a compliance evaluation (based on Coetzee, 2006a,b)
Responsible
In place Key performance areas person Evidence
Yes No
Plan a time and compliance evaluation schedule with them.
Give a written notice of the compliance evaluation (date, time,

venue, area to be audited, evidence required and process).
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Responsible
In place Key performance areas person Evidence
Yes No
Prepare the compliance evaluation (checklist, measurement

scales, evidence to be collected, assessment criteria and
performance areas).
Orientate all evaluators to ensure reliability, validity and

fairness of the evaluation process. Use assessment criteria as
the guideline.
Conduct the evaluation. Use worksheets to record findings.
Analyse the findings.
Meet with the stakeholders to discuss the report on findings

and recommendations.
Do joint action planning with them on corrective actions to be taken.
Determine follow-up evaluations on corrective actions

implemented.
Draw up a formal plan of action and let all involved sign the plan.
Keep minutes of these meetings as evidence and distribute to

all involved.
Conduct a formal follow-up evaluation, following the same

process described above.
Coach and mentor people involved. Evaluation is a

development process; the aim is continuous improvement.
5. VALUE-ADDED EVALUATION
A value-added evaluation is concerned with the organisation’s bottom line. It is conducted
to measure the cost-effectiveness of L&D interventions. The decision resulting from a
value-added evaluation may involve continuing, expanding, or eliminating the learning
programme. Evaluation may be carried out to determine if the cost of a learning programme
is justified by its effects or the value it adds to the organisation. Evaluation of a learning
programme’s effectiveness also provides useful information to market the programme or
get the support of stakeholders (Kraiger & Surface, 2017).
A value-added evaluation is concerned with the organisation’s bottom line – it measures the
cost-effectiveness of L&D interventions.
5.1 Evaluation criteria

Organisations often neglect to evaluate the value added by their L&D interventions because
they are uncertain about what should be evaluated. There is a wide range of evaluation models,
each with a different emphasis and focus. L&D professionals find it difficult to decide which
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model to use (Kraiger & Surface, 2017). One approach to overcome this problem is to classify
the purpose of evaluation into broad categories or dimensions. Each of these dimensions has
a number of criteria. These are the standards or rules by which the dimensions are judged.
Typical dimensions of evaluation are discussed below.
The main aim of learning programmes is to address existing problems, improve current
performance or to address future requirements.
5.1.1 Learning design

The design of the learning programme is evaluated in terms of the selection of appropriate
content, training methods and the physical design of the curriculum and learning materials.
These are examined in the context of good learning design practices (discussed in Chapter 4)
and their appropriateness for achieving the objectives and learning outcomes of the learning
programme. For example, if an L&D needs analysis indicates that knowledge of electronic
circuitry is required to perform a job, then a seminar about electronic circuitry would have
content validity. Although content analysis may ensure that a learning programme is job
related, it still does not indicate whether a particular training method is effective (Aamodt,
2007). But if the content of a learning programme is valid and if the learning programme
is conducted by a qualified L&D professional, the learning programme will most probably
be successful. The questions to be asked when evaluating the content validity and overall
design of a learning programme include the following:
•• Are the methods selected appropriate to the learners?
•• Is the programme pitched at the level of the learners?
•• Does the content adequately relate to the outcomes?
•• Is this the most efficient way to deliver the learning?
•• What is the quality of the learning materials?
5.1.2 Learning intervention delivery

The evaluation of the quality of the learning intervention/training delivery is based on
learner satisfaction and sound learning facilitation practices. The evaluation also includes
the administrative and support processes related to the programme. The questions to be
asked when evaluating the delivery of a learning programme include the following:
•• Were the learners satisfied with the quality of the delivery of the learning programme?
•• What was the quality of the logistical arrangements?
•• Did the curriculum/course learning outcomes and formative assessment address the
three components: knowledge, skills and work experience? Were work-based unit
standards designed for these three curriculum components?
•• Were the most appropriate delivery methods used for delivering the programme?
•• Were the characteristics of the learners identified by means of a target group analysis?
•• Were the characteristics and L&D needs of the learners taken into account in the
delivery of the programme?
•• Were the learning outcomes and assessments appropriate in light of the learning
outcomes and at the appropriate NQF/OQF level?
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5.1.3 Competence
Competence relates to the quality of the assessment process, methods and instruments. The
question that the evaluator asks is, ‘To what extent did the learners achieve the outcomes
of the learning programme?’ The main criterion for competence is whether learners
demonstrated mastery of the learning outcomes.
5.1.4 Transfer of learning

In this dimension, the extent to which acquired competencies are transferred to the
workplace is evaluated. The evaluation question here is, ‘Does the workplace support the
transfer of the competencies acquired during the learning process?’ Examples of criteria for
the transfer of learning to the workplace include:
•• Does the workplace allow the implementation of new knowledge, skills, attitudes and
behaviour?
•• Are learners provided with opportunities to practise their new skills?
•• Do supervisors and managers encourage the implementation of knowledge, skills,
attitudes and behaviour?
•• Are the knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviour acquired in the learning programme
appropriate to the workplace?
•• Could learners transfer their learning to the workplace and to the job? How were they
assessed? What were the outcomes?
•• Did learners receive the necessary support and mentoring during the on-job training?
5.1.5 Impact on the performance of the organisation

The main aim of learning programmes is to address existing problems, improve current
performance or to address future requirements (La Duke, 2017; Swanson, 1994). The last
dimension that is evaluated is the extent to which the delivery of the learning programme
and the accompanying transfer of knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviour affect the
performance of the organisation. Examples of questions to be asked when measuring the
impact of a learning programme on the performance of the organisation include:
•• Have the tangible outputs of the organisation increased (see Table 8.7)?
•• Have the intangible outputs of the organisation increased (see Table 8.8)?
•• What is the impact of the occupationally directed learning and work-based learning
programmes on the skills levels, competence and performance of the employees/learners?
•• What is the impact of the L&D interventions on the annual training report/PIVOTAL
training report (ATR/PTR)? Also see the example included at the end of this chapter.
Table 8.7 Tangible organisational results (based on Rothwell & Kazanas, 1994)
Organisational outputs (usually expressed in terms of productivity)
•• Number of units produced •• Patients visited

•• Tonnes of goods manufactured •• Applications processed
•• Sales volume •• Students graduated
•• Forms processed •• Tasks completed
•• Shipments sent •• Targets achieved
•• Number of rejects
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Time
•• Equipment downtime •• Training and retraining time

•• Overtime paid •• Time taken by meetings
•• Orders and shipments on time •• Work stoppages
•• Lead times •• Lost time
•• Time to process orders •• Repair time
Monetary outputs
•• Difference between budget and actual expenses •• Operating expenses

•• Overhead expenses •• Cost savings on projects
•• Cost reductions
Quality outputs
•• Number of rejects and product defects •• Product failure

•• Levels of waste •• Percentage of tasks correctly completed
•• Error rates •• Number of accidents
•• Product repairs •• Sick leave and days off
•• Deviations from set standards •• Number of products that have to be reworked
Table 8.8 Intangible organisational results (based on Rothwell & Kazanas, 1994)
Work habits
•• Levels of absenteeism •• Violations of health and safety rules

•• Lateness •• Communication breakdowns
•• Accidents at work •• Excessive and prolonged breaks
Application of new skills
•• Quality of decisions made •• Listening skills

•• Problems solved •• Reading skills
•• Conflicts avoided •• Use and application of new skills
•• Grievances resolved •• Frequency of use of new skills
Work climate
•• Number of grievances •• Relations with the unions in the workplace

•• Levels of job satisfaction •• Employee turnover
•• Instances of discrimination •• Sick leave
•• Requests for transfer
Development and advancement of employees
•• Number of promotions •• Product failure

•• Number of pay increases •• Ratings in performance appraisals
•• Training programmes attended •• Increases in job performance levels
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Attitudes and opinions
•• Favourable attitudes towards the organisation and •• Perceived changes in performance

management •• General attitude towards colleagues and clients
•• Perceptions of duties and responsibilities
Initiative
•• Implementation of new ideas •• Number and type of suggestions submitted

•• Successful completion of projects •• Suggestions implemented
•• Employees taking responsibility and initiative
5.2 Measuring value added in L&D

Measuring the value added by L&D interventions plays an important role in managing the
quality and cost-effectiveness of learning programme design and delivery. A measurement
system provides a frame of reference that helps managers and L&D professionals to carry
out several important responsibilities:
•• Measurement focuses staff on important issues. A measurement system is a management
decision-making tool that helps to prioritise tasks. Measurement also shows L&D
professionals the return on investment in a learning programme. HRD staff learn that
cost, time, quality, quantity and learners’ and stakeholders’ reactions are all factors that
influence L&D decisions and actions.
Measurement also shows L&D professionals the return on investment in a learning programme.
•• Measurement clarifies expectations. Once the objectives for L&D interventions are set
in terms of cost, time, quality, quantity and stakeholder satisfaction, HRD staff and
L&D professionals understand what is expected of them. Standards of performance
and acceptable levels of deviation from those standards are known.
Measurement sets objectives for L&D interventions and clarifies what is expected of HRD
staff and L&D professionals.
•• Measurement involves, encourages and fosters creativity. Once a measurement system is in

place, staff tend to compete to meet or exceed the objectives. When the system is fully
functioning, people bring forth new and important issues to measure and clever ways
to measure them.
Once a measurement system is in place, staff tend to compete to meet or exceed the objectives.
•• Measurement brings the HRD function closer to departments. The L&D measurement
system should include factors that relate to quality, productivity, services and
profitability within the organisation. For example, it is important to track and report
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learners’ success rates, but connecting a new L&D delivery strategy to an improvement
in operational quality, productivity and service is much more valuable to managers.
•• Measurement improves HRD management and control. If L&D professionals and
managers measure the value added by L&D initiatives, they can manage it. If they can
manage it, they can improve it (La Duke 2017; Fitz-Enz, 1995).
If L&D professionals and managers measure the value added by L&D initiatives, they can
manage it and thus improve it.
As shown in Figure 8.3, the value added by L&D emphasises the following three principal
components of the L&D value chain.
Outcome and impact of L&D

System and technology
Quality L&D delivery initiative (change in performance)
People and resources
methods and processes ROE (stakeholder satisfaction)
HRD practices
ROI (cost benefit)
INPUTS (PLANNING) EXECUTION (PROCESSES) VALUE ADDED (MEASUREMENT)
Figure 8.3 The L&D value chain
All L&D processes (for example, L&D needs analysis, planning, design and delivery of
learning programmes) must be cost effective and fit for purpose. The objective of value-
added measurement is to develop ways to measure and evaluate changes in the L&D
processes, results and the resulting value. For every improvement in a process, there should
be a resulting improvement in results or outcomes. The difference between the improved
outcome and the outcome before the improvement in the process is the impact. The cost
improvement as a result of the impact is the value-added component.
Example of cost improvement as a result of impact

An L&D professional decides to shorten the hours of training provided (outcome), without
affecting the quality of delivery, by improving the learning design and training delivery
process. More employees can be trained in a shorter period of time; the resultant cost
savings can be calculated. If learning programmes are delivered in a more cost-effective
and efficient manner, the organisation will save on operating expenses. Furthermore,
the cost of the product or service is lowered and the L&D initiative reaches the market
faster. Lower product cost and shorter delivery time creates a competitive advantage in
the marketplace, thereby increasing the organisation’s market share.
The three general measures of training are cost, change and impact:
•• Cost refers to the expense per unit of training delivered.
•• Change refers to the gain in competence or positive change in attitude and behaviour
among learners.
•• Impact refers to the results or outcomes of the learners’ use of new competencies. Impact
is measurable in monetary terms (Fitz-Enz, 1995).
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5.2.1 Cost
Measuring the cost of training is relatively simple. The simplest calculation is a matter of
adding up all the expenses and dividing the total by the number of people trained. Expenses
will differ, depending on the number of direct and indirect costs included. Examples of
direct costs are: consultant fees, training-room rental, supplies, refreshments, travel and
accommodation, and L&D provider costs. Examples of indirect costs (mostly overhead
costs) include learning facilitators’ salaries and benefits, learners’ salaries and benefits and
the use of departmental equipment.
Table 8.9 Example of a training cost spreadsheet (based on Fitz-Enz, 1995)
Phase Costs
People Material Facilities Equipment Miscellaneous Total
L&D needs
analysis
Design and
development
Delivery
Evaluation
Total
5.2.2 Input analysis

An input analysis approach is a systemic method of identifying and comparing the many
costs involved in two or more learning programmes (Fitz-Enz, 1995). The L&D professional
forms a matrix of the main phases of the L&D process and the basic cost inputs. Each cell
of the matrix is filled in with the appropriate cost, and the totals for all phases and inputs are
calculated. One matrix is completed for each learning programme. The final set of matrices
is compared for differences in cost. This approach shows only which programme cost the
least (cost-efficiency) – it does not compare the cost-effectiveness of different programmes.
Cost-effectiveness is measured in terms of the impact of the change or improvement; in
other words, the outcome or result of the learning programme.
Cost-effectiveness is measured in terms of the impact of the change or improvement; i.e., the
outcome of the learning programme.
5.2.3 Change or outcome

Change or outcome usually describes the immediate consequences of a learning
programme or L&D intervention (La Duke 2017; Kraiger & Surface 2017). Change can
be measured at individual levels in terms of improvements in knowledge, skill, attitude
or behaviour. Comparisons can be made across groups. The following box below gives
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an example of a calculation for measuring skill changes. Data for the skill change ratio
can be gathered through questionnaires, interviews, demonstrations or observations with
L&D professionals, employees, peers or supervisors. The key to obtaining something of
value from any measurement is to be specific in describing the skills or behaviours to be
evaluated (Fitz-Enz, 1995).
5.2.4 Impact
Impact describes the long-term effect of the change brought about by the learning
programme (La Duke 2017; Kraiger & Surface 2017). The relationship between change and
impact measurement is one of value. Whereas change and cost are two distinctly different
variables, change and impact are sequential measures along the value-chain continuum.
The example in the following text box illustrates the distinction between the measurement
of change and impact (Fitz-Enz, 1995).
Example of impact measurement (based on Fitz-Enz, 1995)

A machine operator, Johannes, is taught to run a cutting machine. At the end of the
learning programme, Johannes’s skill and knowledge is tested with a performance test.
Before attending the learning programme, he could cut 80 units per hour. After the
learning programme, the test shows that he can now cut 100 units per hour. Clearly, the
level of skill and knowledge changed in a positive way: Johannes is more efficient as a
result of the training. If he goes to work and consistently averages 100 cuts per hour,
the training has an impact on the cost of goods manufactured. Assuming the reject and
scrap rate is the same as before, Johannes is now 25% more productive. This is the
amount of change. The cost of labour (as an input to the cutting cost) is thus reduced by
25%. That is the impact. If Johannes’s on-the-job performance had not been measured,
the L&D professional and supervisor would not have known that the training added
value to the organisation.
5.3 Measuring return on stakeholder expectations

Whilst ROI (economic returns) might be important to managers and L&D professionals,
evidence of the return on stakeholder (management) expectations (ROE) has increased
in importance. To measure the ROE of a learning programme requires a thorough needs
analysis before designing and delivering a learning programme (as discussed in Chapter 4).
Only when the L&D professional has a clear indication of the expectations of a learning
programme, will they be able to measure whether these expectations have been met after
learners have completed the programme. Clarity of stakeholder expectations also informs
and guides the design, delivery and evaluation of a learning programme.
Clarity of stakeholder expectations informs and guides the design, delivery and evaluation
of a learning programme.
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5.4 Levels of value-added evaluation

There are several levels of sophistication in evaluating the value added by training. As the
degree of sophistication increases, the value of the evaluation tends to increase as well
(La Duke 2017; Fitz-Enz, 1995). These levels include: learner reaction surveys, which are
administered during or at the end of the skills programme; knowledge tests; performance
measurements after the learning programme; and performance measurements before and
after the learning programme.
•• The learner reaction survey is the lowest-value method, as the survey generally measures
only the learners’ subjective experience of the learning programme, usually immediately
after the intervention. Research shows a strong correlation between learning retention
and how much the learners enjoyed the time spent on the learning intervention and
whether they found it valuable (La Duke 2017).
•• Knowledge tests are a slightly more useful method. They are given after the programme
to measure how much the learner knows. However, as there is no pre-test against which
to compare scores, there is also no proof that the learners’ knowledge level increased as
a result of the programme.
•• Measuring learners’ performance after the programme helps to evaluate the learners’
abilities to apply the newly acquired competencies in the workplace.
•• Measuring performance before and after the learning programme is even more sophisticated.
It involves an identical test of learners’ knowledge and skills before the learning event and
some months after the event, and evaluating the difference between the learners’ pre- and
post-test scores. Pre- and post-tests help to ascertain whether the participants of a learning
intervention learned anything in the learning event (La Duke 2017).
6. EVALUATION MODELS
There are many different models that focus on different dimensions and levels of training
evaluation. This section will examine four different models that have a wide range of focuses.
6.1 Kirkpatrick’s taxonomy of training evaluation criteria
Kirkpatrick (1994) defines training evaluation as ‘the determination of the effectiveness of

a training program’.
Donald Kirkpatrick is recognised as the father of training evaluation. He published one of

the first papers on the subject in 1954. Kirkpatrick (1994) defines training evaluation as ‘the
determination of the effectiveness of a training program’. His model still has a major impact on
evaluation practices today (La Duke 2017). His model is known as a hierarchy or taxonomy,
because the different levels build upon one another. Kirkpatrick subsequently revised the four
levels to emphasise that L&D professionals should start their learning design at level 4, the
results level (the strategic business expectations of stakeholders and financial/economic returns
expected), and then consider the three other levels. According to Kirkpatrick (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016), the results level is usually neglected by L&D professionals. The results
level (level 4) addresses the L&D needs analysis aspects discussed in chapters 3 and 4. Learning
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design is, therefore, also called a ‘design down, deliver up’ process (see Chapter 4). Kirkpatrick’s
revised model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) now also emphasises the learning level
(level 3), which addresses the transfer of learning to the workplace and the evaluation of the
effectiveness of the on-the-job training and application, or the work experience component
of learning design and delivery.
6.1.1 Level 1: Reaction

This level measures the extent to which learners liked the learning programme. Reaction
evaluation normally takes place immediately after the learning programme. Questionnaires
(often referred to as smile sheets) are used. Learners indicate their satisfaction with the
various elements of the learning programme. Questions make use of Likert-scales (five- or
seven-point scales that range from, for example, like to dislike, or poor to excellent). An
example of some reaction questions are provided below.
Example of a reaction evaluation

1 = Poor; 2 = Okay; 3 = Good; 4 = Very good; 5 = Excellent
1. How would you rate the presentation of the course? 12345
2. What was the quality of the support materials? 12345
3. How supportive was the trainer? 12345
Kirkpatrick (1994) provides the following guidelines for evaluating learners’ reactions:
•• Determine what you want to find out.
•• Use a written comment sheet that covers these items.
•• Design the sheet in such a way that reactions can be tabulated and quantified.
•• Keep the forms anonymous to encourage honesty.
•• Encourage the learners to include comments not covered by the questionnaire.
Alliger et al., (1997) suggest that Kirkpatrick’s taxonomy should be enhanced to include
multiple criteria at level 1 (reaction). Their framework divides level 1 criteria into affective
reactions (for example, ‘I found this programme to be enjoyable’) and utility reactions
(for example, ‘This programme had practical value’ or ‘This programme was job relevant’).
They conclude that affective reactions can be important, particularly when unfavourable
reactions to training have negative effects on perceptions of the HRD department and
future training efforts. However, utility reactions are more closely linked with learning
and behavioural criteria than affective reactions. Accordingly, if the purpose of collecting
reaction criteria is to predict the transfer of learning, L&D professionals should ask
questions that require utility reactions.
La Duke (2017) suggests that a good learning intervention evaluation will concentrate
on three elements, namely course content, the physical environment and the L&D
professional’s/instructor’s presentation skills.
A good learning intervention evaluation will concentrate on three elements: course content,
the physical environment and the L&D professional’s presentation skills.
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The evaluation should also request learners to make suggestions in terms of what they
liked most about the intervention event and what could be improved. Reaction evaluation
provides valuable insights that help to improve the quality of the L&D programme.
Reaction evaluation is also important in the modern e-learning context (see chapter 5).
L&D professionals usually assess learners’ reaction to their online learning experiences in
terms of seven important elements (Coetzee, 2018):
1. Navigation. These include learners’ experiences of the website, for example, could they
open the relevant website quickly and easily; were the font sizes easy to read; were the
hyperlinks to resources (e.g. library, attachments, audio/video clips, YouTube; open
educational resources) easily accessible; and were they satisfied with the technological
support?
2. Relevance of content on the website. Learners are asked to evaluate whether the learning
content focused on issues that:
•• Are of interest to them,
•• Are meaningful and important in terms of their professional occupational or job roles;
•• Help them to improve their job performance;
•• Provide sufficient supportive learning materials to enhance their learning; and
•• Encourage independent, self-directed learning.
3. Learner reflection. Learners are asked to evaluate whether the online learning activities
helped them to think critically about:
•• How they learn and communicate or present their ideas/learning online;
•• Their own ideas and learning;
•• The ideas of others (readings, discussions, debates, group collaborative learning
tasks);
•• Their lifelong learning and employability in their job roles and careers.
4. Online interaction. Learners are asked to evaluate their role and style when interacting
with others in online learning activities, for example:
•• Do they actively participate and contribute new ideas to discussion forums, wikis,
group collaborative tasks and debates?
•• Do they respond to others’ ideas in discussion forums, wikis, group collaborative
tasks and debates?
•• Do they critique others’ ideas in discussion forums, wikis, group collaborative tasks
and debates?
•• Do the online collaborative learning activities enhance their learning and performance?
5. L&D professional/instructor and peer support. Learners are asked to evaluate whether:
•• The L&D professional/instructor encouraged their participation in the online
learning activities (for example, discussion forums, collaborative learning tasks);
•• The feedback of the L&D professional/instructor added value to their learning;
•• Their peers/fellow learners encouraged their participation in the online learning
activities.
6. Making sense. Learners are asked to evaluate whether:
•• They made good sense of other learners’ messages;
•• They made good sense of the L&D professional’s/instructor/s messages;
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•• They made good sense of the various online learning units/modules and activities
presented in the learning intervention/programme;
•• The various online learning activities add value to their learning.
7. Suggestions for improvement. Learners are asked to make suggestions for improving the
experience and quality of the online learning and what would help to make the learning
experience more meaningful and engaging.
6.1.2 Level 2: Learning
Kirkpatrick (1994) emphasises that a favourable reaction to a learning programme does

not ensure learning.
Kirkpatrick (1994) emphasises that a favourable reaction to a learning programme does

not ensure learning. To understand this, one simply has to think about all the pleasant
experiences in life that do not lead to learning. The learning level evaluates whether there
has been a change in the level of knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviour. The main
question is whether the learning outcomes set for the learning programme have been
achieved. At this level, assessment and evaluation overlap. Evaluation occurs through the
use of assessment instruments such as tests, examinations, assignments, presentations and
portfolios of evidence. Again, Alliger and colleagues (1997) suggest multiple criteria for
level 2. According to their framework, learning outcomes should be divided into immediate
knowledge, knowledge retention, and demonstration of behaviours or skills before and
after the learning event. Pre- and post-tests help to ascertain whether any learning took
place as a result of the learning event or training/L&D programme (La Duke 2017).
6.1.3 Level 3: Behaviour

The question here is whether the knowledge, skills, attitudes or behaviour that have been
acquired as a result of the learning programme are transferred to the workplace. In other
words, do learners use what they have learned on the job? Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick
(2016) note that seven requirements must be met before change in behaviour can occur.
These include:
•• The desire to change;
•• Know-how of what to do and how to do it;
•• The right climate in the workplace and supportive learning conditions;
•• Ongoing reinforcement and monitoring;
•• Support in applying the learning in the workplace;
•• Consistent assessment of achievement of learning outcomes and providing feedback
and mentoring; and
•• Rewards for applying learning.
Various methods can be used to collect the data. These range from questionnaires and
interviews to observations and work samples. The people involved in the evaluation include
all those who are affected by the learners’ performance in the workplace, including learners,
their supervisors and managers, and their subordinates or colleagues.
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6.1.4 Level 4: Results

Ultimately, the L&D professional should be able to build and present evidence that the
expectations and needs of the business, as determined during the L&D needs analysis, have
been successfully met. Assessing the impact of a learning programme is one of the most
important but also one of the most difficult areas to evaluate. It is often difficult to determine
the exact impact of a learning programme on the performance of an organisation. For example,
it is difficult to measure the impact of a learning programme that addresses interpersonal
relations in the sales department. With poor interpersonal relations, sales will suffer. But what
percentage of sales can be attributed to good interpersonal relations and not to other factors?
Assessing the impact of a learning programme is one of the most important but also one of
the most difficult areas to evaluate.
If we refer back to the levels of evaluation, we see that Kirkpatrick’s model is concerned
with the dimensions of competence, transfer of learning and impact on the performance of
the organisation. To a lesser extent, the design and delivery of the programme is measured
through learners’ reactions to the learning programme.
The four levels of evaluation form an integral part of every phase of an L&D initiative,
from the beginning to the end. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) suggest that L&D
professionals should build a ‘chain of evidence’ by measuring the value-added outcomes of
a programme at each of the four levels. In this way, the L&D professional builds a value-
filled and evidence-based story about the achievement of learners that he or she can present
to management. Ultimately, the L&D professional should be able to build and present
evidence that the expectations and needs of the business, as determined during the L&D
needs analysis, have been successfully met.
The L&D professional should be able to build and present evidence that the expectations
and needs of the business, as determined during the L&D needs analysis, have been met.
6.2 Phillips’ return on investment model

Phillips’ (1994) model incorporates the four steps of Kirkpatrick’s model, but adds a
fifth step, namely return on investment (ROI). ROI attempts to determine the return on
invested capital. The expected benefits are divided by the costs of the intervention.
ROI is expressed as a formula:

ROI = Operational savings + Increase in revenue
Full cost of the intervention
A distinction is made between the direct and indirect costs of an intervention. Direct
costs include expenses such as the salary of the trainer, the cost of the venue, the printing
of training materials, meals and refreshments, travelling, accommodation and allowances.
Indirect costs are more difficult to determine and include expenses such as loss in
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production and salaries of learners. All expenses related to the learning programme need to
be determined; this is the sum of the direct and indirect costs.
6.3 Nadler’s model of evaluation

Nadler’s model focuses on the evaluation of the design and delivery process of the learning
programme in eight steps. These are: 1. Specify performance 2. Identify learner needs
3. Determine objectives 4. Build curriculum 5. Select instructional strategies 6. Obtain
instructional sources 7. Conduct training 8. Provide feedback and recommendations.
Every step from analysis to delivery of the learning programme is evaluated for effectiveness
and efficiency. As Nadler (1982) notes, ‘that which is happening is directly related to the
needs of those in the organisation who are involved as learners or decision-makers. It is not
the performance of the designer that is being evaluated, but the outcomes of the activities
for which the designer has responsibility.’
Nadler’s model states that:

•• Evaluation is a continuous process, as opposed to a once-off activity;
•• Evaluation should be integrated into every part of the training and delivery process;
•• Each step in the process should be evaluated before moving to the next step;
•• The emphasis is on formative evaluation, where the results of the evaluation of one
stage serve as a point of departure for the next stage.
6.4 Guba and Lincoln’s fourth generation evaluation

Fourth generation evaluation is a form of evaluation in which the claims, concerns
and issues of the stakeholders serve as focus points. These focus points determine what
information is needed (Guba & Lincoln, 1989). The model falls within the constructivist
inquiry paradigm. This is the view that social reality is a creation of the observer, which
means that reality is different for each person. Guba and Lincoln (1989) propose a 12-step
model of evaluation. The steps include:
1. Initiating contact with the client or sponsor. The client is the person/s who is requesting
the evaluation.
2. Organising the evaluation by selecting a team of evaluators who will carry out the
evaluation.
3. Identifying the stakeholders, that is all the people who are affected in any way by the
learning programme and the evaluation thereof.
4. Developing the evaluation constructs between the various groups of stakeholders.
Here the stakeholders (through interviews and focus groups) indicate what they view
as the main concerns, claims and issues relating to the intended programme.
5. Testing and validating the constructs with stakeholder groups. The different claims,
concerns and issues are discussed with the other groups; this leads to the acceptance
of some and the rejection or revisiting of others.
6. Sorting out the resolved concerns, claims and issues among the various stakeholders.
The agreed upon concerns, claims and issues are listed and described.
7. Prioritising unresolved concerns, claims and issues. The unresolved concerns, claims
and issues are prioritised according to criteria developed by the stakeholders. Examples
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of how these may be prioritised include: the possibility of resolution; the possibility of
achieving a compromise; or importance to the value system of the stakeholder.
8. Collecting information about unresolved concerns, claims and issues. Detailed
information is collected about the unresolved concerns, claims and issues. This gives
both the evaluator and stakeholders an in-depth understanding of exactly what is
involved with each concern, claim and issue.
9. Preparing an agenda for negotiation. An agenda is set up with as much information as
possible about each concern, claim and issue. Stakeholders prepare for the negotiations.
10. Carrying out the negotiation process between the stakeholders. Negotiations are carried
out between the various stakeholders in an attempt to attain consensus regarding the
unresolved concerns, claims and issues. The aim is to create joint constructions about
the learning programme with the input of all different stakeholders.
11. Reporting the joint construction as a case study. The results of the evaluation process
are reported in such a way that the reader can see the facts pertaining to the evaluation,
as well as the process that the constructors used to create these facts.
12. Recycling. Many issues will remain unresolved and many questions unanswered.
Repeat the process. As Guba and Lincoln (1989) put it, ‘Fourth generation evaluations
never stop; they merely pause.’
The main difference between the fourth generation model and earlier models is that the
stakeholders decide what should be evaluated. Whereas earlier models assume an objective
reality, fourth generation evaluation assumes that reality is a construction of those involved.
The main difference between the fourth generation model and earlier models is that the
stakeholders decide what should be evaluated.
6.5 Predictive evaluation

Predictive evaluation (PE) is an alternate and integrated approach to evaluation that
provides data to management which focuses on predicting the success of training/learning
intervention in three areas; namely (1) intention – examining whether the participants’
goals and beliefs are aligned with anticipated goals upon completion of the programme;
(2) adoption of behaviours – examining the degree to which the training has been implemented
on the job and successfully incorporated into the work behaviours of the participants; and
(3) impact on business results – measuring to see if success has been achieved. It differs from
other approaches in that PE focuses on making before-the-fact predictions in order to
decide whether training should occur in the first place and then conducting measurements
after-the-fact to measure against these predictions (Basarab, 2011).
The steps followed in PE include:
1. Choose the course to be evaluated, either a new course design or an existing course.
2. Review this comprehensively: understand what it is, what it is supposed to achieve,
processes followed to deliver the content, the business issues it addresses, who attends,
how this takes place, nature of pre-course preparations, type of post-course support
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mechanisms (if any), the course sponsors, and what they consider to be the purpose of
the course.
3. Constitute a committee to predict the value of the training, create an impact matrix
(the key features the programme is expected to impact) and present these to the key
decision-makers;
4. Evaluate intention by monitoring the course during the pilot and following sessions,
and make adjustments where necessary.
5. Evaluate adoption, that is, the degree to which participants have adopted the changes
in behaviours promulgated by the course.
6. Evaluate impact by determining the degree to which the programme has impacted on
the business results of the organisation. See example of an impact assessment at the end of
this chapter.
7. THE TRAINING EVALUATION PROCESS

Formal, professional evaluation of learning programmes is systematic. It relies on a whole
range of special skills and knowledge, including the following:
•• The use of planning skills to determine evaluation options and decide what information
would be useful;
•• Conducting the evaluation, which includes the process of collecting information; and
•• Communicating outcomes, which includes putting the information in some convenient
form and feeding it into the decision-making process (Coetzee et al., 2013; Kraiger &
Surface, 2017).
As shown in Figure 8.4, the steps in the evaluation process are similar to the steps that one
would follow in any research process.
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Identify Collect background Formulate research
stakeholders information questions
Step 4
Step 5 Step 6
Identify evaluation
Select and apply Draw up an
dimensions and
data collection tools evaluation plan
criteria
Step 7
Step 9 Step 8
Analyse and
Communicate the Make
interpret the
evaluation results recommendations
collected data
Figure 8.4 The evaluation process
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7.1 Step 1: Identifying stakeholders
The first step in evaluating a learning programme is to identify the decision-makers or

stakeholders and their expectations or requirements.
The first step in evaluating a learning programme is to identify the decision-makers or

stakeholders and their expectations or requirements. Stakeholders include learning
designers, L&D professionals involved in the learning programme, learners who will
attend the programme and managers or supervisors. The main reasons for identifying the
decision-makers or stakeholders are:
•• To gain their commitment and support;
•• To identify their needs and expectations;
•• To communicate to them about the progress of the evaluation; and
•• To ensure that the findings and recommendations of the evaluation are implemented.
7.2 Step 2: Collecting background information

The L&D professional needs to collect background information about the learning
programme and the organisational context. The information that will be collected about
the learning intervention include:
•• The objective(s);
•• The learning outcomes;
•• The size and scope; and
•• The expected results.
In addition, the L&D professional needs to collect background information about the
organisation, including:
•• The strategic direction of the organisation (vision, mission, goals and objectives)
to determine the extent to which the objectives and outcomes of the programme
are aligned;
•• The culture of the organisation and how this supports learning;
•• The political climate, including who supports and who opposes the changes brought
about by the learning programme;
•• The business policies and procedures, especially those that are related to training and
development;
•• The history of the performance problem that led to the initial implementation of the
learning programme;
•• The communication channels; and
•• The human and financial resources available.
7.3 Step 3: Formulating research questions

The next step is to translate decisions about requirements into research questions. Research
questions describe the type of data to be collected, the people who will be measured and
the standard or benchmark for evaluating a learning programme’s success. For example,
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an L&D professional might be asked to demonstrate the value of a new management

development process. The evaluation might deal with the following research question:
‘Do managers change their approaches to self-development as a result of the learning
programme?’ This question implies that the data will be a measure of self-initiated
development activities; that the people who participate in the learning programme are
managers; and that the standard will be the level of activity before the learning programme.
Research questions should indicate what data the decision-maker will consider as valid and
credible. This implies that the research question should be tested with the decision-maker
before proceeding (Coetzee et al., 2013).
Research questions describe the type of data to be collected, the people who will be measured
and the benchmark for evaluating the L&D programme’s success.
7.4 Step 4: Identifying the evaluation dimensions and criteria

Once the research questions have been formulated, evaluators and stakeholders need to
define the dimensions of the evaluation. These are the aspects of the learning programme
that will be evaluated and include issues such as the design and delivery of the learning
programme, competence, the transfer of learning to the workplace and the impact on
organisational performance. L&D professionals need to choose criteria to evaluate the
different dimensions. In choosing the evaluation dimensions and criteria, evaluators can
use various different evaluation models. The choice of an evaluation model will depend on
the purpose and focus of the evaluation. Using a particular model will help the evaluator
to focus and structure the evaluation process.
The choice of an evaluation model will depend on the purpose and focus of the evaluation.
7.5 Step 5: Selecting and applying data collection tools

Data collection tools or measuring instruments include questionnaires, observations,
interviews and organisational records. The evaluator needs to select the most appropriate
data collection tool based on the information that needs to be collected.
7.5.1 Questionnaires
Questionnaires measure learners’ reactions and opinions. They provide data that can be
easily summarised. Petersen (in Lee, 2006) argues that there are seven distinct tasks in
constructing an effective questionnaire. These include:
•• Identifying the specific information required;
•• Developing and prioritising a full list of questions that will access the required
information;
•• Carefully assessing each potential question;
•• Determining what types of question need to be asked;
•• Deciding on the specific wording of each question;
•• Determining the structure of the questionnaire; and
•• Evaluating the questionnaire.
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Guidelines for writing effective questions (based on Lee, 2006)

•• Write simple, clear and short questions. •• Emphasise important words in the questions.
•• Questions should be specific and precise. •• Take care with sensitive questions.
•• Language usage should be appropriate to the •• Avoid negatives and double negatives.
audience. •• Avoid biased or loaded questions.
•• Make sure the respondents are able to answer •• Do not base questions on false premises.
the questions.
•• Include one topic per question.
7.5.2 Interviews
Through interviews, information is collected directly from people. They provide in-depth
information; during interviews, responses can be probed and checked. Interviews can be
conducted on a one-to-one basis, in groups or by telephone. Interviews, as an evaluation
technique, require a high level of skill (Swanson, 1994). Focus groups are group interviews
during which the opinions and attitudes of group members are tested. Focus groups involve a
targeted group of stakeholders who provide information about a specific topic (Swanson, 1994).
Interviews, as an evaluation technique, require a high level of skill.
Table 8.10 A
dvantages and disadvantages of interviews as an evaluation technique
(adapted from Pershing, 2006)
•• The interviewer can seek clarification on issues. •• Interviewers may influence or lead respondents.
•• They provide an opportunity to build rapport. •• Note taking can distract respondents.
•• A wider range of subjects can be addressed, •• Interviews are expensive and time consuming.
including unexpected issues that have arisen. •• Results are often difficult to analyse if semi-
structured or unstructured questions are used.
Table 8.11 Steps to follow in an interview process (adapted from Pershing, 2006)
Step 1: Determine the objective of the interview
The evaluator needs to ask questions relating to the dimensions of the training intervention that is being
evaluated.
Step 2: Preparing for the interview
Select the respondents. Who will be interviewed?

•• Develop an interview protocol (the list of questions to be asked).
•• Prepare a timetable for conducting the interviews.
•• Conduct a pilot interview to test the protocol.
•• Train interviewers.
•• Schedule the interviews.
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Step 3: Carrying out the interview
•• Open the interview by setting the respondent at ease.

•• Conduct the interview. Go through the questions in the interview protocol.
•• Close the interview and thank the respondent.
•• Record the interview. If the interview has been taped or digitally recorded, the interview needs to be transcribed.
Step 4: Concluding the interview
The interviewing process is concluded when the information from several respondents become repetitive.
Step 5: Compiling and analysing results
The data are analysed either statistically (if the interview comprised closed questions) or qualitatively (if the
interview comprised open-ended questions).
7.5.3 Observations
Learners can be observed before, during and after a learning event. Observation is
particularly useful in evaluating the mastery of skills (Gibb, 2002; Swart et al., 2005).
The evaluator observes employees performing their jobs in their natural environment.
When practised in a systematic way, observing people at work will yield a great deal of
qualitative and quantitative information about the work, the worker and the environment
(Swanson, 1994).
Observation is particularly useful in evaluating the mastery of skills.
Observations are divided into two broad categories, namely overt observations (employees
are aware that they are being observed) and covert observations (employees are unaware that
they are being observed). A distinction is also made between structured and unstructured
observations. Unstructured observations are characterised by an absence of premeditated
tasks; the observer simply takes in as much as possible. Structured observations have
specific goals and structured instruments (such as checklists) guide the observation. The
observer’s degree of involvement also varies from an independent observer, to an observer
who participates to some degree, to a participant who also observes. The purposes of
observation as an evaluation technique are also regarded as the advantages of observation
(Pershing, Scott & Rowe, 2006):
•• First-hand information is obtained about task-performance problems in the work
situation.
•• Task, individual and group processes can be observed.
•• Findings from interviews and questionnaires can be confirmed.
•• Predicted performance can be compared to actual performance.
7.5.4 Organisational records

Organisational evidence and learners’ work samples can serve as evidence of the transfer of
learning to the workplace. Organisational records are any documents (paper or electronic)
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kept by the organisation. Examples include records pertaining to employee turnover, sick
leave, grievances, production statistics, policy and procedure manuals, memoranda and
minutes of meetings. The method used to analyse organisational documents is known as
content analysis. This is the process of searching through documents to answer specific
questions (Thomas cited in Gilmore, 2006). The following questions need to be answered
before analysing business records (Pershing cited in Gilmore, 2006):
•• Who has access to the required records?
•• Where will these be analysed? Can they be moved?
•• Do the documents contain sensitive or proprietary data?
•• Are confidentiality agreements required?
•• Who should be consulted if additional documents are required?
•• Is training needed to analyse the documents?
•• Are there built-in biases in the documents?
7.5.5 Assessment instruments

Assessment instruments are the tests, assignments, projects, portfolios of evidence or
other tools used to measure the competence of learners (read more about assessment in
Chapter 7). These instruments provide information on learners’ competence once they
have completed a learning programme. This information can also be used to determine
whether the programme is achieving its intended goals. In this regard, pre- and post-course
tests are valuable as evaluation tools.
Assessment instruments are the tests, assignments, projects, portfolios of evidence or other
tools used to measure the competence of learners.
Once the appropriate data collection tool(s) have been selected, the evaluator starts to
collect the data. The process of selecting and applying an appropriate data-collection tool
comprises a number of steps. These include:
•• Determining the type of information that is required;
•• Selecting a data collection tool that is appropriate to the type of information required;
•• If an appropriate tool is not available, designing a valid tool that will enable the evaluator
to collect the required data;
•• Testing the data-collection tool on a pilot group;
•• Collecting the information from the target group;
•• Analysing and summarising the collected data; and
•• Reporting the findings.
7.6 Step 6: Drawing up an evaluation plan

Research questions are expanded into an outline of the evaluation plan. From the example
used in step 3 of the training evaluation process (formulating research questions), the way
to measure self-initiated development activities might be selected from such options as
training requests, self-reports by means of questionnaires or interviews, superior ratings,
subordinate ratings, or a combination of techniques. In addition, the standard that will be
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used to evaluate performance is determined (the term ‘standard’ refers to a benchmark for
judging the performance of the learning programme). Standards may be relative (norm-
referenced) or absolute (criterion-referenced).
Relative standards compare two sets of data: one set to represent the effects of the
learning programme (its impact); and the other to represent performance unaffected by the
learning programme. For example, a learning programme may be evaluated by comparing
pre-test performance to post-test performance; comparing learners’ performance to the
performance of untrained employees, or a combination of these (Coetzee et al., 2013).
Absolute standards are fixed indicators expressed in numbers; they are set independently
of any group’s performance in the evaluation study. These standards may be derived from
corporate policy or objectives, historical records of productivity, work quality, turnover
rates, opinions of job experts, legal or government requirements (for example, SAQA and
QCTO quality requirements) or assessment requirements. For example, the evaluator
may choose to compare the managers’ development activities to their activities before the
process, or to the activities of a similar group of managers who do not attend the learning
programme (called a control group), or to both.
Relative standards compare two sets of data. Absolute standards are fixed indicators expressed
in numbers; they are set independently of any group’s performance in the evaluation study.
When formulating research questions, participants are also described. The target groups
are identified and the characteristics that define each group are listed. An evaluation of a
learning programme for managers will, for example, comprise the group of managers who
participated in the learning programme, and who have been back at work for at least two
months, to demonstrate the expected behaviour. Managers from different departments and
levels would be included in the target group.
In the planning of an evaluation, the L&D professional identifies any constraints that
may hinder the evaluation effort and the resources required for the evaluation (such as
people, time, finances and instruments). The administrative requirements for the evaluation
effort are also specified in the plan. The actual evaluation plan should be written and
documented (Coetzee et al., 2013; Kraiger & Surface 2017). Table 8.12 shows an example
of an evaluation plan.
Table 8.12 Example of an evaluation plan (based on Coetzee et al., 2013)
Evaluation of management development programme

Purpose
Client JB – Human Resources
Programme Learning programme to help executives with self-development. Participation is voluntary.
Objective Develop skills for executive succession.
Decision Continue or modify programme design.
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Concerns Learning facilitators (trainers) say it is too early to look for tangible outcomes.
Design question Do executives do more self-development because of participation in the learning programme?
Constraints JB wants a report in two months.
Measurements Interviews to determine types and frequency of developmental activities.
Sampling Random selection of 20 participants and 20 non-participants.
Standards Participants’ change is greater than non-participants’ change over the same period.
Analyses •• Frequency counts of different types of development activity reported by each group for
each time period;
•• Statistical test to see if groups differed significantly in frequency of development
activities;
•• Summary of suggested improvements.
Administration
Staffing One evaluator, half-time position for two months.
Budget Salary and expenses estimated at R45 000.
Schedule Measurement materials designed 4 April 2018.
Samples selected 10 May 2018.
Interviews completed 20 June 2018.
Report available 15 July 2018.
7.7 Step 7: Analysing and interpreting the data

Analysis of the data is about making sense of them. The evaluator has now collected data
from various respondents. Once these data have been analysed, the evaluator needs to
explain the findings drawn from the data. This is known as the interpretation of data. There
are two broad categories of data analysis, namely:
•• Statistical analysis, which uses various statistical techniques to analyse quantitative data
(data that can be expressed in numbers, such as data from questionnaires);
•• Content analysis, which is the analysis of qualitative data (such as organisational records
and interviews) to identify trends.
7.8 Step 8: Making recommendations

This step in the evaluation process is where the evaluator makes recommendations to the
stakeholders about how the learning programme needs to be changed or improved, based
on the findings of the evaluation. This is the most important step in the evaluation process
as this is the reason why the evaluation was conducted in the first place.
7.9 Step 9: Communicating the evaluation results

Once the evaluation process has been conducted, the results should be communicated to
the stakeholders. The evaluation process and the results are put together in a report and
presented to the stakeholders. Based on this report, the stakeholders will make decisions
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about their course of action. The quality of this report is, therefore, extremely important.
The evaluation results are communicated in the form of an evaluation report. The following
elements are generally included in an evaluation report:
•• An executive summary, which provides an overview of the main points covered in
the report;
•• The methodology used to collect and analyse the data and reach conclusions;
•• The programme costs per item, in as much detail as possible;
•• The design of the learning programme, identifying what was done well and what needs
to be improved;
•• The reaction of the learners, expressed in terms of their level of satisfaction with the
delivery of the learning programme;
•• The learning results, where the results of the assessment of learner achievement are
satisfactory;
•• Transfer of learning to the workplace, identifying barriers and enablers of the transfer
of learning to the workplace;
•• The impact on the results of the business, showing the extent to which the results of the
organisation were improved;
•• The return on investment, weighing up the costs of the programme against the financial
benefits for the organisation; and
•• Conclusion and recommendations.
There are also a number of important principles that need to be followed when
communicating evaluation results. They include the following (Block, 2000; Phillips et
al., 2016):
•• Communicate at the right time. There is normally a ‘window of opportunity’ related to
evaluation data; in other words, evaluation results need to be communicated when they
will have the most impact.
•• Communicate quickly. It is important to obtain evaluation results and to communicate
these to the relevant stakeholders as quickly as possible.
•• Aim the communication at the right audience. Make sure that the appropriate stakeholders
(the ones affected by the learning programmes and those who have influence over the
HRD department) are kept in mind.
•• Keep the data simple and concise. Present the data in as simple and concise a manner as
possible so that it is easy to read and understand.
•• Present negatives positively. Discuss negative results as development opportunities rather
than as criticisms.
•• Use simple descriptive data. Describe the data in language that all the stakeholders can
understand.
•• Select the appropriate media. Select the media that will have the most impact and get the
message across effectively.
•• Provide unbiased data. Provide honest, unexaggerated data.
•• Communicate consistently. Communicating evaluation results is not a once-off process.
It should take place on a regular basis.
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•• Get the reactions of the stakeholders. Ask stakeholders for their reactions to the data and
the recommendations.
•• Provide the communication. Communicating evaluation results is not a random process.
When planning the communication, decide why the communication is taking place,
who will receive it, what will be communicated, and when, where and how the
communication will take place.
•• Act on the findings. It is pointless to evaluate if you do not do anything with the
findings. Use these findings to bring about improvements to the organisation’s learning
interventions.
Table 8.13 Quality checklist for an evaluation report
Does the report contain the following sections? Yes No Comments

1. The purpose of the report
Why was this report drawn up and for whom?
What is the aim of the report?
2. Executive summary
What programme was evaluated?
What was the aim of the programme?
How, when and where was the programme conducted?
Who requested the evaluation?
When was the evaluation conducted and over what period of time?
What process followed was in the evaluation?
Who was responsible for conducting the evaluation?
What were the major findings of the evaluation?
3. Background
What were the aims of the training programme?
What outcomes is the programme intended to achieve?
What process was followed to deliver the programme?
Where was the programme delivered?
What unique challenges did the programme face?
Who was responsible for the delivery of the programme?
4. Evaluation
What dimensions were evaluated?
What criteria were used to evaluate the different dimensions?
What evaluation design or process was used?
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Does the report contain the following sections? Yes No Comments

Any limitations on the results as a consequence of the design?
What description of the data collection methods was used?
Motivation for the appropriateness of the data collection methods?
Ahe description of the data collection process, organisation of the

data in the report and process used to analyse the data?
5. Findings
Does it present the findings of the evaluation?
Does it summarise the main findings in a user-friendly format?
Does it explain the meaning of the findings?
6. Recommendations
Does it recommend how the findings should impact on future

training programmes?
Does it recommend how the findings should be used to adjust

the curriculum?
Does it recommend how the findings will impact on any or all

relevant stages of the training and development process?
Other (specify):
8. FACTORS THAT DISCOURAGE EVALUATION

There are a number of reasons why organisations avoid evaluating their L&D interventions.
These include:
•• Barriers to evaluation and problems experienced with the evaluation process.
•• Top management may not emphasise the importance of evaluation and may simply
accept that training is valuable and effective.
•• Managers of HRD departments may not have the necessary skills to conduct evaluations;
they avoid this aspect of the HRD process.
•• There may be uncertainty about what exactly should be evaluated. Owing to the wide
range of models, each with a different emphasis, it is often difficult to decide on what
to evaluate.
•• Evaluation may be viewed as risky and expensive. It is often felt that the costs outweigh
the benefits. There may also be a fear that an evaluation may bring negative attention to
the HRD department (Grove & Ostroff cited in Goldstein & Ford, 2002).
In addition, there are a number of issues that may result in organisations doing superficial
evaluations or no evaluations at all. These problems include:
•• Too many models and theories. There are many theories and models for evaluation. This
is confusing, as the different models and theories focus on a wide variety of issues.
•• The complexity of models. Models and theories tend to be complex and contain many
variables. This makes it difficult for the average L&D professional to use them.
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•• A general lack of understanding about evaluation.

•• The lack of research skills. Effective evaluation involves a research process. This implies
that L&D professionals should have research skills; this is not always the case.
•• There is difficulty in identifying the impact of training on specific variables. It is often
difficult to identify specific variables or the specific impact that a training intervention
has on an organisation.
•• Evaluation is considered to be a post-programme activity. Most evaluation focuses on the
end results of training programmes, rather than on the process.
•• Managers do not see the long-term advantages. Evaluation is often aimed at individual
programmes and interventions, rather than at the overall training and development
functions.
•• There is little support from the main stakeholders. Managers and other stakeholders often
see evaluation as a ‘nice-to-have’ rather than a ‘must-have’.
•• Evaluation is not focused on management needs. Evaluation data often focus on the
learners’ needs rather than on those of management.
•• Evaluation data are not used appropriately. Evaluation results are not used at all, do not
reach the appropriate stakeholders, are not used to bring about improvements, or are
used for political or disciplinary purposes.
•• Inconsistent use. Evaluation will not be taken seriously if it is used in an inconsistent way
across different learning programmes.
•• No clear standards. No consistent standards exist for evaluation in terms of the process,
methods and techniques.
•• Lack of sustainability. Evaluations tend to be short-term processes aimed at specific
goals, rather than at strategic long-term processes (Phillips et al., 2016).
Case study
Read carefully through the following case study and answer the questions that follow.
JK Electronics was a small, family-owned appliance store in Sea Point, staffed

predominantly by family members. However, over the last 10 or so years it has grown
substantially to a chain of 10 stores across Cape Town with more than 100 staff
members. Each store has six sales people who have received little formal training.
Management decided that this is no longer viable and has decided to create a formal
in-house training programme, which will be attended by 12 sales people at a time.
John Mahlangu, the newly appointed HR consultant, will be responsible for the design,
development and delivery of the new training programme, which will be presented off-
site in a face-to-face classroom setting. The programme will run over a five-day period
and cost an average of R250 000 for each presentation.
The learning intervention is called ‘Professional sales skills’ and is designed to
provide the learners with an understanding and mastery of the personal selling process.
The outcomes of the course are as follows:
After completing the course, the learner will be able to:
• describe the sales process;
• demonstrate an in-depth understanding of the factors that affect successful sales;
• have an in-depth knowledge of the different product ranges stocked by JK Electronics;
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• design a product-specific sales presentation;

• understand and manage his/her performance as a sales person against set goals.
The content that the programme will cover included:

• The importance of personal selling;
• The personal selling process;
• Different sales techniques and tools;
• Forecasting future sales;
• Developing personal sales objectives;
• Self-motivation;
• The social, legal, and ethical issues that salespeople face.
A year after the completion of the programme, JK Electronics’ after tax profits (adjusted
for inflation) have increased from R5 million to R6.5 million.
Questions
1. Which form of evaluation would be appropriate here; i.e. diagnostic, formative or
summative evaluation? Motivate why you say so.
2. Who would the stakeholders be in the evaluation process here? Explain why each
would be important to the evaluation process.
3. How would Kirkpatrick’s model be applied in the context of this programme?
4. What tools would you use to collect data relating to reaction and behaviour
respectively? Motivate!
5. How would Phillips’ ROI model be applied here? Was it worth conducting the
programme in monetary terms?
6. Briefly explain the training/learning intervention evaluation process and how this
would be applied in this context.
7. What issues should John Mahlangu focus on when communicating the results of
the evaluations?
8. Could the predictive evaluation (PE) model be applied in the context of this study?
Why do you say so?
EXAMPLE OF IMPACT ASSESSMENT: L&D INTERVENTIONS ON ATR/PTR BY SETA
Assessment element Response categories

For what reasons did the organisation Choose applicable category:
decide to undertake staff training/L&D? •• In response to legislation;
•• To meet organisational HRD policies and targets;
•• To help the organisation resolve recognised problems;
•• To help improve operation and function efficiency;
•• To increase revenue from current operations;
•• To reduce business risk;
•• To improve product/service quality;
•• To adapt to evolving industry/technologies;
•• To be seen following ‘good practice’;
•• Other (please specify).
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On a scale of 1 to 5, how important was Scale code:
improving the following as part of the 1 = not at all important 4 = fairly important
training/L&D intervention objectives:
2 = somewhat important 5 = very important
3 = important
Reducing absenteeism;
Improving the organisation’s

performance;
Improving staff knowledge;
Reducing staff turnover;
Improving staff morale and employment

relations;
In general, was the training/L&D

intervention compulsory or optional?
Thinking about the general attitude

of staff to the underlying reason for
training/L&D intervention, how would
you describe their general attitude
towards training/L&D interventions?
Did you evaluate the training/L&D

intervention? Describe how evaluation
was done and methods used.
In the period following the completion Scale code:

of training/L&D intervention, has each 1 = increased 3 = stayed the same
of the following changed? Rate on the
2 = decreased 4 = hard to say
scale of 1 to 4
The number of errors or grievances
The number of disciplinaries
Need for supervision
Absence levels
Staff turnover
Staff morale and motivation
Productivity
For the increases/decreases noted Scale code:

above, to what extent can the changes 1 = nothing to do with training/L&D intervention
in each be attributed to training/L&D
2 = partially due to training/L&D intervention
intervention undertaken?
3 = largely due to training/L&D intervention
The number of errors or grievances;
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The number of disciplinaries;
Need for supervision;
Absence levels;
Staff turnover;
Staff morale and motivation
Productivity.
On a scale of 1 to 5, how would you rate

the impact the training/L&D intervention
had on participants’ cognisance
regarding each of the following:
Key performance areas;
Responsibilities;
Attitude;
Motivation;
Lifelong learning needs.
Adapted from MICTSETA (2018).

1. How does a properly planned and executed training evaluation help L&D professionals
and managers to prove the quality of and value added by their learning programmes
and other L&D interventions?
2. What is the purpose of compliance evaluation in the South African workplace? How
does it differ from and complement value-added evaluation?
3. Why do organisations sometimes neglect training evaluation?
4. How can L&D professionals ensure that their evaluations produce valid and reliable
data? What steps would you recommend in executing an evaluation?
5. How would you demonstrate to management, the cost-effectiveness, the change
that occurred and the impact of a learning programme?
6. How do the various evaluation models guide L&D professionals to determine
evaluation dimensions and criteria?
7. When should L&D professionals conduct evaluation and impact assessment? Give
reasons for your answer.
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Summary
This chapter concluded the discussion of the learning cycle by exploring evaluation
as a significant aspect of quality and value-adding L&D provision. The South African
workplace emphasises compliance evaluation and value-added evaluation of L&D
interventions and practices to measure the quality and impact of L&D interventions.
Well-planned L&D/training evaluation allows L&D professionals and managers to collect
descriptive and judgemental information. This information is used to make effective
L&D decisions regarding the selection, adoption, modification and financial evaluation
of L&D interventions. Various evaluation models were presented to indicate how they
can be used to determine the training evaluation dimensions and the criteria to be
measured. The training/learning intervention evaluation process should be executed in a
systematic manner to ensure the validity and reliability of compliance and value-added
measurements.
The role of HRD management in ensuring the quality and sustainability of and
value added by L&D interventions, practices, services and products in the workplace is
discussed in Chapter 9.
Wise L&D professionals create an environment that encourages learners to teach themselves.
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PART
3
SUSTAINING LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT
CAPABILITY

CHAPTER MANAGING LEARNING AND
9 DEVELOPMENT IN THE WORKPLACE

Key points of managing learning and development in the workplace:

•• Learning and development (L&D) management is an integral part of the overall human resource
development (HRD) strategy that aims to contribute to organisational capability and sustainability and
employee productivity and employability.
•• The strategic L&D plan facilitates the effective and efficient implementation of the workplace
skills plan.
•• Defining the L&D value proposition, strategising, organising, leading, assuring quality and evaluating
results and outcomes are key HRD management functions.
•• South African organisations, although based on the African continent, compete globally, particularly
in the mining and agricultural sectors. South African business organisations therefore have to develop
employees that are globally competitive.
•• Global competition creates global labour markets. Talented employees can find employment globally
and can also work remotely for global organisations.
•• South African business organisations have a heterogeneous employee base. South African business
organisations consequently have to develop leaders, managers and employees that are culturally
aware and adaptable.
•• South African business organisations operate within an environment and community and they should
respect the expectations of the community and contribute to and sustain the environment

•• Explain why the 21st-century workplace (Workplace 4.0) requires a dynamic and flexible approach to
learning and development (L&D) management.
•• Explain how the concept of knowledge management relates to individual and organisational learning.
•• Evaluate and discuss the concept of strategic L&D management.
•• Describe the role of L&D management in addressing the seven core workplace issues in the
21st-century workplace.
•• Discuss the importance of defining the L&D value proposition.
•• Explain the link between the HRD strategy and L&D management.
•• Discuss the L&D management process and the functions that support the effective and efficient
implementation of the strategic L&D plan.
1. INTRODUCTION
Managing learning and development (L&D) requires a dynamic and flexible approach
that not only contributes to organisational flexibility and capability, but also adds value
for stakeholders. L&D management is, therefore, a strategic activity that contributes
to measurable, value-adding business results. An important role of the human resource

Chapter 9 | Managing learning and development in the workplace
development (HRD) function is to help build and enhance the organisation’s learning
capability by supporting the implementation of the organisation’s overall HRD strategy.
Learning capabilities are the set of core competencies that differentiate an organisation
from its competitors and processes that enable an organisation to adapt to its environment
and sustain its competitive advantage. The HRD function is, therefore, responsible for
challenging the organisation and its members with new ideas, information and performance-
enhancement solutions. This is done by constantly scanning the external environment,
managing L&D activities in the workplace, ensuring the expertise and professionalism of
L&D professionals, identifying talent pools and groups within the organisation for specific
L&D interventions, and devoting resources to educate, train and develop these groups.
The HRD function is to challenge the organisation and its members with new ideas,
information and performance-enhancement solutions.
Learning organisations are results oriented. L&D interventions in a learning organisation are
designed and delivered within the broader organisational context (Tortorella et al., 2015).
The HRD function needs to foster an environment in which employees are encouraged to
expand their knowledge and skills, and use the newly acquired behaviours and operational
processes to achieve corporate goals. In this chapter, the context of and approach to
managing L&D in the 21st-century workplace (Workplace 4.0) is discussed. The L&D
value proposition, management process and functions are discussed to demonstrate how
these contribute to the overall HRD strategy of an organisation.
Learning organisations are results oriented.
2. H
UMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND HUMAN RESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT
The purpose of human resource management (HRM) is to create the systems that enable the
employees to achieve the organisation’s strategic business goals.
The purpose of human resource management (HRM) is to create the systems that enable
the employees of the organisation to successfully achieve the organisation’s strategic business
goals. Human resource development (HRD) is an important aspect of HRM; it provides
the framework for helping employees to develop their personal and organisational skills,
knowledge and abilities, which support the performance capability of the organisation
(Heathfield, 2017). Developing employees’ human and social capital is important for
the competitiveness and future sustainability of the business. The HRM and HRD
systems help to build the human and social capital the organisation needs to sustain its
performance capability in today’s VUCA (volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous)
business environment (Van Eeden, 2014). The VUCA characteristic of the 21st-century
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business environment means that managers and the HR function have to innovate and
execute strategies faster than the competition and be capable of change and learning. In
the 21st century, the HRD function is expected to take on a more strategic role and help
the organisation to achieve its business goals through effective and efficient practices,
future-focused HRD programmes and agile solutions that result in organisational learning,
adaptability, innovation, collaboration and speed (Ludike, 2014).
Developing employees’ human and social capital is important for the competitiveness and
future sustainability of the business.
L&D professionals need to understand how the 21st-century workplace influences HRD
and skills development practices in the workplace. The 21st-century workplace tends to differ
from that of the 20th century (Lussier & Hendon, 2016). These days, employees are more
likely to work in teams instead of as individuals, and employees overall are expected to be
more productive with fewer resources (Lussier & Hendon, 2016). Equally, the focus and
activities of HRM also tend to differ in the 21st century. HRM is expected to actively drive
organisational profitability and sustainability. Effectiveness and efficiency are the new guiding
principles in HRM, along with ethics and corporate citizenship. Effectiveness means to do the
right things, while efficiency means to do things right, using as few organisational resources
as possible (Lussier & Hendon, 2016). An effective HRM function enables the organisation
to maintain a sustained competitive advantage by implementing structures, policies and
procedures that facilitate the work of managers and employees. An efficient HRM function
facilitates the utilisation of the right human resources at the right time in the right place in
order to get the job done to the satisfaction of the customer (the manager or employee and
the customer of the organisation). It follows that efficient utilisation of human resources is
possible only when effectiveness has been well established. Consequently, in the 21st century,
HRM focuses mostly on improving employee efficiency (Lussier & Hendon, 2016).
Effectiveness and efficiency are the new guiding principles in HRM, along with ethics and
corporate citizenship.
The purpose of HRM is to create the infrastructure (policies, procedures and systems)
that facilitates the effective use of efficient employees to achieve the organisation’s goals.
Some of the challenges faced by 21st-century HRM, and the competencies required to deal
successfully with the challenges, are summarised in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1 C
hallenges of HRM in the 21st century and competencies required to deal
successfully with the challenges
21st-century HRM challenges HRM competencies required

Creating an organisational culture that will attract the Business expertise (knowledge of the organisation’s
most competent employees. production processes and logistics, knowledge of
business indicators and HR analytics, facilitating
strategic dexterity).
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21st-century HRM challenges HRM competencies required

Retaining and compensating the most competent Executive guidance and governance.
employees.
Cultivating a succession of organisational and Managing relationships.

business leaders.
Creating strategic dexterity. Communication and interpersonal competence.
Employee engagement. Planner and facilitator of organisational competence.
Labour market polarisation – loss of routine jobs to Creating and implementing innovative solutions.
automation and/or outsourcing.
Growth of service-related jobs. Personal credibility, professionalism and accountability.
Ethics and corporate social responsibility. Ethical decision-making and management;

accountability for the triple bottom line.
(Adapted from Lussier & Hendon, 2016, and the South African Board for People Practices HR competency model, 2013)
Human resource managers are involved in a partnership with the management of the
organisation to ensure optimal organisational performance. The HRM function entails the
following activities or functional areas:
•• Human resource information systems;
•• Human resource planning;
•• Employment equity;
•• Recruitment and selection;
•• Compensation and benefits;
•• Employee relations;
•• Employee wellness, health and safety;
•• Human resource development (HRD), which includes all L&D activities;
•• Organisation and job design; and
•• Performance appraisal and management.
It is clear that HRD plays an important role in the 21st-century workplace. HRD can be
grouped as one of the sub-functions of the HRM department, or can be a department of
its own. This decision will usually be made by the organisation’s management, and will
depend on factors such as the organisation’s size, geographical distribution, mission, vision
and goals, and strategy.
2.1 Purpose and activities of HRD

The main purpose of HRD is to facilitate optimal employee performance by creating
and making available L&D and learning experiences to the employees in the workplace.
Optimal performance can be achieved through various L&D interventions, such as
employee training – skills and technical training, management development and employee
orientation (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2016). HRD is also a powerful means of creating
organisational versatility and litheness (Blanchard & Thacker, 2013). These are essential
characteristics in the current turbulent, global organisational environment. Employees’
449

efforts should be focused on implementing and executing the organisational strategy and
the HRD function is responsible for ensuring that employees are equipped for this task.
HRD is linked to most other HRM functions. Workforce planners identify the quality
and number of employees that the organisation requires. Projected workforce needs enable
the human resource function to plan the L&D of both current and new employees. The
recruitment and selection functions locate candidates in the market with the required
skills. The need for formal L&D depends on the level of the job in the organisation. For
example, high-entry requirements will diminish the need for intensive formal training,
while a good in-house training course may reduce the need to recruit highly skilled
candidates. Performance assessments and career planning are also directly related to HRD.
Performance assessments allow for the identification of possible training requirements
and possible career opportunities in an organisation. Similarly, remuneration and reward
should also be linked to employees’ competencies (Kramar & Holland, 2015).
Projected workforce needs enable the human resource function to plan the L&D of both
current and new employees.
Some of the important activities involved in HRD in the L&D context of this book are
depicted in Figure 9.1.
Skills and
technical Coaching
training
Employee Management
onboarding development
Career
L&D
development
Human
resource
development
Figure 9.1 Overview of HRD activities
L&D involves improving employee skills in order to perform a specific job to the required
standard. Development focuses on preparing employees for future job roles, while the
purpose of employee onboarding is to familiarise new employees with the organisation’s
vision, mission, goals and strategy, organisational values and culture, reporting and
communication relationships and general information, such as employee benefits.
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Employee onboarding programmes play an important role in ensuring employee retention.

Skills and technical training focuses on the development of employee skills for optimal
job performance, either because a performance gap exists or because of technical changes
that require retraining of the employees. The focal point of management development
programmes is to provide managers and supervisors with the competencies to be effective
managers. Organisational learning and development interventions use the concepts of
behavioural science to augment organisational performance and employee wellbeing and
fulfilment. Special L&D issues involve the provision of learning interventions in areas in
which the organisation has identified a particular organisation-wide competency need,
such as employee health, safety and wellness, cultural diversity sensitivity, training in
harnessing the advantages of information, media and technology, and so on (Blanchard &
Thacker, 2013; Werner & DeSimone, 2012).
From this description, it is apparent that HRD, even if it is a separate department
in an organisation, does not exist and act in isolation. HRD activities influence and are
influenced by all the HRM activities, as well as by the organisational vision, mission,
goals and strategy. The HRD function also influences all HRM activities, as well as the
organisational mission and strategy. There is mutual interaction, both in the human
resource arena and the wider organisational amphitheatre.
HRD activities influence and are influenced by all the HRM activities, as well as by the
organisational vision, mission, goals and strategy.
2.2 HRD strategy

When the organisation changes business strategies, the HRM strategy should change, and
so should the HRD strategy. The HRD function should ensure that all the employees have
the competencies to implement and execute the new strategy. This can be achieved through
any of the HRD activities described above. The organisational strategy therefore forms the
foundation and source of all HRD activities.
The HRD department should create internal and external alignment, and vertical and
horizontal integration, to deliver excellent value to its internal and external stakeholders.
•• Internal alignment is created when the organisational strategy supports the organisation’s
vision, mission, goals and values.
•• External alignment is alignment of the business with the external environment; that
is, stakeholders outside the organisation, such as customers, suppliers and the broader
community within which the organisation operates.
•• Vertical integration exists when all the human resource activities (including HRD)
support the human resource strategy.
•• Horizontal integration is achieved when the strategies of all the functional areas of the
organisation support the organisational strategy.
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What are the practical implications of this approach for HRD? It implies that the HRD
strategy should always have as its purpose, the implementation and execution of the
HRM strategy and organisational strategy. When the organisation decides to open up new
markets by establishing offices in countries outside South Africa, the HRD strategy should
indicate how the employees in the new offices will be equipped and empowered to fulfil
their roles successfully. When the organisation decides to implement new technology, the
HRD strategy should indicate how the strategy will ensure that all staff involved acquire
the new skills in as short a time as possible, to ensure optimal work performance.
The link between HRD strategy and business strategy is illustrated in Figure 9.2.
Organisational
strategy
Human resource
management
strategy
Human resource
development
strategy
Human resource
development
activities
Figure 9.2 Link between the HRD strategy and the business strategy
Case study
HRD strategy implications
WireLess is a high technology organisation situated in Midrand, Gauteng. The
organisation supplies and installs the equipment necessary for WiFi communication. In
the past six months, the company has been exploring the possibility of branching out to
West Africa, and the board of directors has now made the decision to open an office in
Nigeria. The human resource implications of this decision are as follows:
• An office manager, two radio engineers, one engineering technician and one network
engineer have to be appointed for the office in Nigeria.
• The organisation can either transfer current staff to the new office or recruit new staff.
• If current personnel are transferred to the office in Nigeria, new staff must be
recruited for the office in Midrand, Gauteng.
What are the HRD implications of the decision to open an office in Nigeria?
If the organisation decides to open an office in Nigeria, the organisation is expanding its
activities. If current staff will be transferred to Nigeria, they will need to be sensitised to
cultural differences, how to conduct business in Nigeria and how to integrate with the
local population in Nigeria. They will also need to be trained in the legalities of importing
452

equipment and the legal issues surrounding the installation of a cell-phone network in
another country. If new staff are recruited for the office in Nigeria, the HR manager will
have to decide if local people will be recruited, or if South Africans will be recruited for
a posting in a foreign country.
If local Nigerians are recruited, they will need to be sensitised to the general
organisational culture and values, as well as the communication and reporting
structures (employee orientation). Depending on the level of work-specific knowledge
and experience of the staff in this office, they will also need skills and technical training.
If South Africans are recruited for the posting in Nigeria, they will need cultural
sensitisation, employee orientation training and, depending on their competency level,
also skills and technical training.
In addition, irrespective of whether local Nigerians are recruited or South African
staff are transferred, the local support services staff, specifically human resources,
employee relations and compensation management staff, will have to be trained in how
to manage employees located in another country. Some of the training the support staff
will need are:
• Employment regulations in Nigeria;
• Requirements for work visas;
• Taxation regulations and requirements;
• Rules about medical and insurance coverage;
• Compensation for relocation;
• How to manage the relocation for the family of the employees (if employees
are relocated).
It is, therefore, clear that the HRD manager and department or section should play an
active role in the implementation and execution of organisational strategy and decisions.
Case study
Aligning HRD with corporate vision and values: South African Breweries
VISION & VALUES
South African Breweries (SABMiller) has adopted a Dream-People-Culture foundation,
which is embedded in the 10 principles illustrated below. The Dream-People-Culture
drives the organisational culture at SAB and encapsulates its value system. Although
SAB operates globally, it is managed as one company with one uniting organisational
culture, and has a strategy of ensuring that the right people are employed at the right
time in the right place.
The components of the organisational culture are ownership, informality, candour,
transparency and meritocracy. Stretch targets, driven by a belief that results can always
be improved, are two more elements of the organisational culture.
SABMiller’s vision is to be ‘the Best Beer Company Bringing People Together For a
Better World’.
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SAB’s 10 principles
DREAM
Our shared dream energizes everyone
to work in the same direction to be the:
#1 Best Beer Company

Bringing People Together
For a Better World
Our greatest We recruit, develop

PEOPLE strength is our and retain people PEOPLE
people. Great People who can be better

#2 grow at the pace of than ourselves. #3
their talent and are We will be judged
rewarded accordingly. by the quality of
our teams.
We are never
completely satisfied The consumer is the Boss.
CULTURE
with our results, which We serve our consumers by
#5
CULTURE
are the fuel of our offering brand experiences
#4 company. Focus and that play a meaningful role
zero-complacency in their lives, and always in
guarantee lasting a responsible way.
competitive advantage.
We believe common
sense and simplicity
We are a company are usually better
of owners. guidelines than
#6
CULTURE
#7
CULTURE
Owners take unnecessary
results personally. sophistication
and complexity.
CULTURE
We manage our
costs tightly, to free
#8 up resources that will
support sustainable and
profitable top line growth.
We never take
#9 shortcuts. Integrity,
CULTURE
Leadership by CULTURE
personal example hard work, quality,

is at the core of our
culture.
#10 and responsibility
are key to building
We do what we say. our company.
Source: http://www.sab.co.za/vision-and-values
From the above vision, mission and value information from SAB, identify the specific
development initiatives that would support the mission, vision and values.
For SAB, leadership development, quality assurance training, teamwork and
collaboration, and health and safety (to reduce wastage and time lost caused by poor
health and safety practices) stand out as opportunities the HRD section can harness to
support SAB’s values, mission and vision.
In addition, although SAB does not elaborate on how they allow their employees to grow,
the expressed value is an indication of human capital development (investment in people).
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3. L&D MANAGEMENT IN THE 21ST-CENTURY WORKPLACE

HRD refers to a set of methods and processes for solving problems or realising
opportunities related to people’s performance capability and employability. Managing
L&D involves seeing that those methods and processes are applied with economy and
care to ensure stakeholder value. The ultimate goal of any HRD and specific L&D effort
is always a change in human behaviour to facilitate organisational capability and employee
employability (Ulrich, 2014).
The goal of any HRD effort is always a change in human behaviour to facilitate
organisational capability and employee employability.
Managing L&D activities as part of the HRD strategy in the 21st-century workplace
makes heavy demands on managers, the HRD function and L&D professionals. They
have to handle interactions with stakeholders and operate flexibly in response to changing
information and conditions. Effective L&D management requires a balance between doing
the right things (effectiveness) and doing them in the right ways (efficiency). As discussed in
Chapter 8, measuring the return on investment (ROI) and return on expectations (ROE)
of training efforts is a typical indicator of effectiveness. Such measures show that L&D
costs are offset by improved skills and knowledge (for example, sales knowledge related to
increased sales). Effectiveness also requires compliance with stakeholder requirements and
legal regulations, reducing the risk of costly legal actions. Efficiency in L&D processes refers
to the efficient use of resources, such as time and money.
Effective L&D management requires a balance between doing the right things (effectiveness)
and doing them in the right ways (efficiency).
L&D priorities change all the time as new challenges confront organisations. But many
observers believe that seven issues are receiving the highest priority in the 21st century-
workplace (Arnold & Randall, 2016; Cascio, 2014). These issues are outlined below.
1. Quality improvement and learning programmes are instituted in response to increasingly
higher demands for quality from the customer and the need to be more competitive in
a global economy.
2. The economic competitiveness of a nation is related to its skills base. Today’s economy has
driven an exponential growth in demand for people with high-level technical and social
skills, who have the ability to adapt quickly to changing circumstances and needs. This
makes L&D increasingly important at a strategic level within organisations (Arnold &
Randall, 2016).
Today’s economy has driven an exponential growth in demand for people with high-level
technical and social skills, who can adapt quickly to changing circumstances.
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3. Technological change-related programmes will continue to challenge organisations. The

rate of advancement of technology continues to accelerate. Employers must continue
to offer occupation work-based L&D opportunities to employees to keep them from
obsolescence, help them be adaptive and enhance and sustain their employability.
4. Customer service employee development programmes are now a priority for organisations
that consider themselves service orientated. Financial, banking, insurance and
governmental organisations are placing an increased emphasis on service to the
customer as a possible competitive advantage. Total quality management or customer
service excellence programmes focus on the responsibility that each employee has to the
customer or client.
5. Promoting employability and sustainable livelihoods. Employability is a person’s ability to
gain access to, adjust to, and be productive in the workplace. It is the set of competencies
that enables a person to meet the demands of the 21st-century workplace. According
to Coetzee et al., (2015), employability relates to the capacity to remain employed,
even when jobs are scarce. As discussed in Chapter 1, the South African government’s
societal transformation agenda, in particular, requires concerted efforts to address the
career development and upskilling needs of the country.
6 Cultivating and nurturing flexibility and lifelong learning capacity. People need adaptive
skills; the goals of HRD in the workplace therefore go beyond increasing motivation,
productivity and job satisfaction to focus on lifelong adaptability, employability and
performance capability. As discussed in Chapter 1, South Africa has a high rate of
unemployment, which is a cause of social issues such as poverty and the high crime rate.
8. Promoting and accelerating employment equity. As discussed in Chapter 1, to address the
inequalities in terms of the educational and equity profile of the workforce, the skills
development legislation makes provision for levy/grants initiatives for employers who
promote and accelerate the development of black people, women and the disabled.
9. Developing human and social capital. The term ‘capital’ comes from the Latin word
caput, meaning head. In business, capital refers to the most important assets of an
organisation (Ulrich & Brockbank, 2005). The competencies of people in an
organisation are regarded as valuable assets that enhance the organisation’s ability to
sustain its competitive advantage (Robinson, 2006). People are therefore increasingly
recognised as critical assets and L&D professionals are often regarded as human capital
developers. As human and social capital developers, L&D professionals focus on the
future, often one employee at a time. They assess skills gaps, develop competency
profiles and development plans that offer each employee opportunities to develop, and
match development needs to opportunities. In this role, L&D professionals also help
employees to unlearn old skills and master new ones to enhance their employability and
performance capability (Ulrich & Brockbank, 2005). HRD efforts focus on those areas
in which human and social capital makes the biggest difference to strategic success.
The competencies of people in an organisation are regarded as valuable assets that enhance
the organisation’s ability to sustain its competitive advantage.
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As human and social capital developers, L&D professionals focus on the future, often one
employee at a time.
10. Adopting a stakeholder perspective of HRD. The stakeholder perspective of HRD

requires HRD professionals to ensure organisational and environmental sustainability
in the long run. Guaranteeing that HRD contributes to the triple bottom line involves
taking responsibility for an organisation’s employees, the broader community and the
environment affected by the actions of the organisation in its learning and development
initiatives. The triple bottom line constitutes environmental integrity, economic
prosperity and social equity for all – employees, the community and the environment
alike. For HRD, the stakeholder perspective means developing the capacity to learn
new things in new ways, to adopt changed approaches to organisational learning and
to play a leading role in organisational social responsibility A focus on sustainable
development in an organisation requires the dispersion of new knowledge and possibly
a considerable change in the organisational culture (Valentin, 2015).
11. Ethically managing a business based on ethics principles. Business ethics is the discipline
that deals with what is moral as opposed to immoral, ethical responsibility, sense of duty,
accepted values and principles as they relate to the management of a business organisation
(Ardichvili, 2013). Business ethics incorporates the obligations towards its shareholders,
employees, business partners, its immediate society and the environment. Consequently,
business ethics is interlinked with corporate social responsibilities (Ardichvili, 2013).
4. THE NEW LEARNING ORGANISATION
Learning is not perceived as an isolated learning experience, but a vital driver of the
organisational culture.
The learning organisation is a hallmark of the 21st century. The new learning organisation
constantly renews itself because of a responsive and flexible culture that creates an enabling
and nurturing climate for continued employee learning and improved performance in
VUCA contexts. Learning is not perceived as an isolated learning experience, but a vital
driver of the organisational culture (Overton, 2017). The new learning organisation has the
following characteristics (Overton, 2017):
•• Clarity of purpose. The organisation has a shared vision. Employees are valued and
nurtured to adapt in order to achieve organisational goals.
•• A flourishing organisational ecology. Common goals and agile processes allow employees
to thrive and learn, and consequently the organisation flourishes and is enabled to deliver
excellent value to its customers. Learning systems are inculcated in the organisation,
ensuring that employees have the knowledge and proficiency to grow and succeed.
Knowledge management is key to a flourishing organisational ecology.
Knowledge management is key to a flourishing organisational ecology.
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•• Holistic employee experience. Organisational leaders guide employees to learn actively, to

innovate and be creative. Innovative learning experiences are delivered when and where
employees need it in order to add value to the organisational product.
•• Persistent employee engagement. A dynamic organisational culture establishes relationships
that nurture energetic, resilient and growth-oriented employees.
A dynamic organisational culture establishes relationships that nurture energetic, resilient

and growth-oriented employees.
•• Informed decision-making. Collective insight and performance analytics inform

organisational decision-making. Employees are actively involved in change initiatives,
and learning and development professionals ensure that the learning opportunities they
offer nurture employee competence improvement at the right time.
•• Flexible, digitally supported learning infrastructure. Learning opportunities include a
digital base that facilitate knowledge interchange and competence enhancement.
4.1 Knowledge management

Learning at an individual level has strong implications for learning in (and by) the whole
organisation. Knowledge management allows organisations to translate the advantages of
being a learning organisation into a competitive advantage (Noh et al., 2016). Knowledge
management is a process of creating, acquiring, capturing, sharing and using knowledge
to enhance learning and performance in organisations (Noh et al., 2016). It is also
the management of all knowledge available to the organisation, for the benefit of the
organisation and the individuals within it (Noh et al., 2016). There is a growing realisation
that management objectives can be more easily achieved if managers seek to ensure that
employees are trained to absorb management’s values and norms, in addition to technical
and job skills (Noh et al.,2016). This often finds expression through HRD being driven by
business objectives rather than just technical needs, and delivered through management-
controlled provision.
Knowledge management is a process of creating, acquiring, capturing, sharing and using

knowledge to enhance learning and performance in organisations.
There are different forms of knowledge within an organisation. Nonaka (cited in Rollinson,
2005) draws a distinction between two types of knowledge: explicit and tacit.
1. Explicit knowledge is knowledge that is easily communicated, codified and expressed.
It is available to anyone within a particular context. This is the type of knowledge and
understanding that most people in organisations have about what to do or how to
function in certain circumstances.
2. Tacit knowledge is much more personal and individualised. It is difficult to articulate
and communicate to others because it is part of a person’s experience and skill.
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Tacit knowledge is difficult to articulate and communicate to others because it is personal

and part of a person’s experience and skill.
Explicit and tacit knowledge complement each other. They are both needed in an
organisation if it is to be creative and innovative. Taken together, explicit and tacit knowledge
constitute the intellectual capital of the organisation (Noh et al., 2016). In addition,
knowledge enablers within the knowledge management system allow the organisation
to create and maintain a competitive advantage (Noh et al., 2016). Knowledge enablers
are the business arrangements (ICTs, policies, procedures and culture) that ensure the
success of the knowledge management system. Knowledge enablers encourage knowledge
creation, sharing and safekeeping (Noh et al., 2016). In essence, knowledge management
is a theoretically interconnected framework that consists of organisational culture and
knowledge and uses knowledge enablers to nurture the fundamental required employee
behaviours that lead to informed performance (Noh et al., 2016).
Explicit and tacit knowledge complement each other. They are both needed in an
organisation if it is to be creative and innovative.
4.2 Improving organisational flexibility and capability

Organisations see flexibility as a strategic goal to increase competitiveness (Kramar &
Holland, 2015). Organisational flexibility exists in the flexibility of resources and co-
ordination of organisational practices. Resource flexibility is the extent to which a resource can
be applied to a wide range of alternative uses, while co-ordination flexibility is the extent to
which the organisation can quickly rethink and redeploy resources. Organisational flexibility
requires specific employee competencies that should be developed through a variety of HRM
practices, of which HRD is a critical component (Kramar & Holland, 2015).
A main focus of HRD practices in the workplace is to help employees understand
how their personal competencies help to build organisational capability. HRD investments
produce deliverables and add value when they develop both capability and ability (Kramar
& Holland, 2015). Capability represents the identity and reputation of the organisation
and includes factors such as individual and organisational capacity and the employer/
leadership brand (see Table 9.2). Ability represents the capacity of an organisation to use
resources, get things done, and behave in ways that accomplish goals. Abilities characterise
how people think and behave in the context of the organisation and form the organisation’s
personality (Ulrich, 2014).
According to Ulrich (2014), a successful organisation consists of organisational culture,
employee talent and organisational leadership. For HRD, the three dimensions of a
successful organisation transfer into the competencies or capabilities that should be present
in the organisation to execute the organisational strategy, the kind of organisational culture
that would support the execution of the strategy and the kind of leadership capacities that
are necessary to execute the strategy successfully? It is clear that HRD will be playing an
increasingly strategic role in ensuring organisational learning capability for organisational
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sustainability. L&D management helps to facilitate organisational learning, a key ingredient

for business survival in the VUCA business environment.
Case study
The learning organisation
Old Mutual was ranked as the top employer to work for in South Africa for the period
2017/18. The top employer to work for is rated using criteria such as working conditions,
talent development and quality of employment practices. The main elements of
the organisation that were used in the assessment were the organisation’s talent
strategy, workforce planning practices, on-boarding strategy, learning and development
opportunities, performance management practices, leadership development, career
management, succession planning, employee compensation and organisational
culture (source: https://businesstech.co.za/news/business/204882/here-are-the-best-
companies-to-work-for-in-south-africa-in-2018/).
According to Old Mutual’s website, they place emphasis on the importance
of teamwork. Furthermore, Old Mutual is dedicated to honesty, transparency and
performance excellence. The work ambiance is inspiring, focusing on development,
innovation and gratitude. The organisational structure is based on roles. Talent
development of current and future employees is a strategic imperative. The culture
focuses on rewarding employee excellence, career development and advancement,
knowledge sharing and informal learning.
Employee development
Old Mutual has a corporate university (the Old Mutual Business School [OMBUS]).
The OMBUS emphasises the proactive development of management capacity and
employee competence to facilitate the implementation of the organisation’s business
strategy. In addition, Old Mutual provides its employees with mentoring, coaching,
various talent development initiatives and skills transfer programmes.
Reflect on the following:

How does the employee development initiatives practised by Old Mutual make it a
learning organisation?
Table 9.2 Organisation capabilities and HRD roles (adapted from Ulrich, 2014)
Capacities Elements Descriptions HRD roles

Individual Competence Employees possess knowledge, Manage competence, commitment
capacity (Cognition) skills and values required for and contribution together.
current and future jobs.
Commitment Employees who give value receive Competence is about matching

(Affect) value from the organisation. employee competence with
organisational requirements.
Contribution Employees’ participation in Create personal meaning in the

(Action) the organisation is personally work through social responsibility.
meaningful.
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Capacities Elements Descriptions HRD roles

Organisational Intangibles Organisational capacity signifies Create learning opportunities
capacity what the organisation is famous that make the most of the
for, which revolves around what organisation’s capacities to
it is good at and how it structures enhance the value contributed
itself to deliver stakeholder value. to the company’s business
performance.
Leadership Leaders People who possess exceptional Providing leadership coaching.

brand capacities to guide others’
behaviour towards a common goal.
Meaning Leaders who indicate to employees Facilitate the creation,

creators how the work they do contribute to implementation and realisation of
the organisation. individual development plans.
Collective The capacity of an organisation Ensure relevant, timely 360 degree

leadership to cultivate and nurture future feedback.
leaders.
HRD practices make a significant contribution to the organisation when L&D professionals
shift from a focus on people only, to a focus on organisations in which people work. By
helping to create and build organisational capabilities, HRD practices, processes, products,
services and technology are integral to the success of the organisation. These capabilities
enhance (or reduce) investor confidence in future earnings and increase (or decrease)
market capitalisation. L&D professionals who link their practices to capabilities, and who
then find ways to communicate those capabilities to investors and stakeholders, deliver
long-term sustainable value (Ulrich & Dulebohn, 2015).
The concept of organisation capability is closely related to the emerging focus on
organisational sustainability. Human resource professionals and business leaders
increasingly include sustainability as a factor when assessing organisational effectiveness
or success. Sustainability is the ability to meet the needs of the present and achieve success
today without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
(Ulrich & Dulebohn, 2015). Sustainability includes values, governance, transparency and
ethics, and goals such as diversity, social responsibility, supporting human and employee
rights, protecting the environment and contributing to the community. Sustainability also
considers the bottom line because financial viability is necessary for organisational survival,
but it defines success as something more than financial results (Losey et al., 2005).
Human resource professionals and business leaders increasingly include sustainability as a

factor when assessing organisational effectiveness or success.
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Sustainability is the ability to meet current needs and achieve success today without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
The emphasis on flexibility, capability and sustainability has various implications for
managing L&D. HRD efforts should focus on those areas in which human capital makes
the biggest difference to strategic success. Human resource and HRD practices should
also be aligned to ensure compliance with legal regulations or to provide incentives that
reflect community, environmental or social goals. This requires an evaluation of the
effects of human resource policies (including HRD policies and practices) on human
capacity (people’s capabilities, opportunities and motivation). Capability includes people’s
knowledge about the organisation’s social responsibility and ethics codes; opportunity
includes time off from work to do volunteer tasks in the local community; and motivation
includes employee perceptions that activities related to sustainability are noticed and
rewarded (Ulrich & Dulebohn, 2015).
Sustainability is also about the bottom line, because financial viability is necessary for
organisational survival, but it defines success as more than just financial results.
These workplace issues have a profound impact on the role and function of HRD. L&D
professionals are expected to function increasingly as business partners and to align
their HRD activities with business strategies. L&D programmes need to add value for
stakeholders and help to deliver business results. This requires a non-traditional approach
to L&D management.
5. THE L&D VALUE PROPOSITION

The L&D value proposition means that HRD practices (along with other supportive
HRM practices), departments and L&D professionals produce positive outcomes for
main stakeholders: employees, line managers, customers, investors and government. As
discussed in Chapter 8, when stakeholders see the value of L&D interventions, the HRD
department will be seen as credible, respected and influential. Value, in this sense, is
defined by the receiver. In a world of increasingly scarce resources, activities that fail to add
value are not worth pursuing (Ulrich & Dulebohn, 2015). Effective L&D management is,
therefore, crucial to ensure that all HRD activities deliver results that add value for main
stakeholders.
To sustain the value proposition, Ulrich and Dulebohn (2015) propose that the HR
function, and consequently HRD, adopt an outside/inside approach, as opposed to an inside/
outside HRM approach. In an outside/inside approach, the external context and stakeholders
(outside) also affect the HRD activities within the organisation (inside). HRD offerings are
aligned with the expectations of stakeholders both inside and outside the organisation. In this
way, value is created for the organisation’s customers, and not only for the customers of the
HRD department. Consequently, HRD does not react to organisational strategy but plays
a role in shaping strategy, thus becoming a strategic partner in the organisation. This means
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that the HR value proposition and thus the HRD value proposition are created from the
point of view of the outside stakeholders (Ulrich & Dulebohn, 2015).
HRD does not react to organisational strategy but plays a role in shaping strategy, thus
becoming a strategic partner in the organisation.
The following box provides an example of a typical L&D value proposition.
Example of an L&D value proposition

To enhance its service delivery role and strategic human capital development role,
the HRD department developed a consolidated HRD strategy, products and service
offerings guided by the following value proposition:
We shall provide HRD products and services that will assist our clients to become
capable and competent and provide leadership and stature to the company in their
respective fields, areas of expertise and endeavours. We, as an HRD function, will
provide or obtain the necessary expertise in HRD services, product development
and technology so that we can provide a full capability that supports the effective
implementation of the company HRD strategy. We shall form partnerships with our
clients in the company and the various departments we assist, by being responsive
and adaptive, and developing and providing solutions, products and services that add
value for key company stakeholders. We will do all this by acting as a seamless function,
devoid of functional and geographic separations. We shall become a service provider
that is responsive, highly valued, recognised for its professionalism, expertise and
effectiveness.
Managing L&D within the context of a value proposition has five important implications
for L&D professionals. These are described in the following section.
5.1. Value is defined by the stakeholders

Since value is defined by the stakeholders, not the provider, the L&D value proposition
begins with a focus on the needs, goals and beliefs of the main stakeholders. Customers
(e.g. employees and management) and investors are important stakeholders who are the
ultimate receivers of the value added by L&D interventions. Therefore, L&D professionals
must balance the multiple and frequently conflicting demands of stakeholders, who range
from internal clients, such as managers and employees, to external stakeholders, such as
customers and investors (Ulrich & Dulebohn, 2015). Consequently, the definition of value
as defined by the stakeholders should be considered at the training needs analysis phase,
when the organisational success indicators are clarified with the various stakeholders.
Since value is defined by the stakeholders, not the provider, the L&D value proposition
begins with a focus on the needs, goals and beliefs of the main stakeholders.
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5.2 Create sustainable competitive advantage
If the HRD department is to create sustained and sustainable competitive advantage, it

must generate substantial value with measurable and concrete results.
The value proposition needs to position the HRD department, practitioners, products,
services and technology as a source of competitive advantage. Ulrich and Brockbank (2005)
describe the creation of competitive advantage as the ‘wallet test’. An internal operation
passes the wallet test if it inspires customers or shareholders to take money out of their
wallets and put it into the organisation’s wallet, instead of into the wallets of competitors. If
the HRD department is to create sustained and sustainable competitive advantage, it must
generate substantial value with measurable and concrete results. Sustainable value with
measurable and concrete results is created when training and development opportunities
are aligned with organisational goals, and when stakeholder and organisational success
indicators are clarified before the development of learning interventions. For example,
HRD products and services must contribute measurably to the creation of human abilities
and organisational capabilities that are substantially better than those of competitors. An
organisation’s capabilities make investors confident about future earnings and increase
market capitalisation. L&D professionals who link their activities, products and services to
capabilities, and who then find ways to communicate those capabilities to investors, deliver
shareholder value.
L&D professionals who link their products and services to capabilities, and find ways to
communicate those capabilities to investors, deliver shareholder value.
5.3 Alignment with stakeholder requirements

L&D professionals must align their HRD, and especially their L&D practices, products
and services, with the requirements of internal and external stakeholders. To employees
worried about retrenchment, the L&D professionals should demonstrate that participating
in a training event will enhance their employability and help them to stay employed. To
a line manager worried about reaching strategic goals, L&D professionals need to show
how investment in training and development will help to deliver business results. L&D
professionals need to remember that their interest in customers must create value in the
products or services customers receive. For shareholders who are worried about returns and
growth, L&D professionals must implement and manage training strategies that deliver
results, enhance employee employability and productivity, and deliver intangibles that
make owners confident that results will be sustained in the future.
Intangibles represent the hidden value of the training and development function; this
is shareholder value not shown by financial results (Ulrich, 2014).
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5.4 Continued professional development

The L&D value proposition directs L&D professionals to acquire the personal competencies
necessary to link training activities to stakeholder value (see Chapter 10).
5.5 Value the link between investors and stakeholders

The L&D value proposition leads L&D professionals to understand the powerful
connection between managers’ and employees’ jobs inside the organisation and what
happens with customers and investors on the outside. Focusing on the implications of the
L&D value proposition (listed in Table 9.3) helps the HRD function to:
•• Emerge as full strategic contributors;
•• Add greater value for main stakeholders (customers, investors, line managers, employees
and government);
•• Enhance business productivity;
•• Achieve measurable and valuable results;
•• Create sustainable competitive advantage; and
•• Have more job and career satisfaction (Ulrich & Brockbank, 2005).
Table 9.3 Implications of the L&D value proposition (based on Ulrich & Brockbank, 2005)
Implication Description
Know external business realities •• What capabilities does the organisation need to create products
Serve external and internal and services that result in customers investing their capital in the
stakeholders organisation?
•• What abilities and competencies do our people need to understand
and respond to short-term and long-term market demands?
•• How do we invest in HRD practices, products and services that
deliver business results and add value for the main stakeholders?
Align HRD and L&D practices, •• Who are the main stakeholders of the HRD and L&D activities?
products and services with •• What are the goals and values of the receiving stakeholders?
internal and external stakeholders’
•• What is important to them?
requirements
•• What do they want?
•• What are their requirements?
Build HRD resources •• How do we organise HRD and L&D activities to deliver
maximum value?
•• How do we create an HRD strategy that will help our organisation
to achieve its business goals?
Ensure L&D professionalism •• How do we ensure that L&D professionals will know what to do
and have the skills to do it?
Table 9.4 provides an overview of the criteria for an effective HRD function and shows
how these link with the five implications of the L&D value proposition.
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Table 9.4 Criteria of an effective HRD function (based on Ulrich & Brockbank, 2005)
Elements of the L&D value

Criteria for an effective HRD function proposition
•• Recognises external business realities, adapts its practices and Knowing external business realities
allocates resources accordingly.
•• Creates market value for investors by increasing intangibles; Serving external and internal
•• Increases customer share by connecting with target customers; stakeholders
•• Helps line managers to deliver strategy by building organisation
capabilities;
•• Clarifies and establishes an employee value proposition and
ensures that employees have the competencies to do their work
and sustain their employability.
•• Adds value by managing training and development practices Creating training and development
and processes. practices, products and services
•• Has a clear strategic planning process for aligning training and Building training and development
development investments with business goals; resources
•• Aligns the training function to the strategy of the business.
•• Has staff who play clear and appropriate roles; Ensuring HRD and L&D professionalism
•• Builds staff ability to demonstrate training function and L&D
professionals competencies and professionalism; and
•• Invests in L&D professionals by means of training and development
experiences.
6. THE L&D MANAGEMENT PROCESS

To ensure the effective implementation of the HRD strategy, HRD managers typically
follow a systematic process. An effective L&D management process is an integral part of
the HRD strategy and needs to comply with the following 10 criteria:
6.1 Developing a holistic HRD strategy

All L&D interventions should form part of the overall HRD strategy of the business.
These interventions should add value for stakeholders and contribute to the organisation’s
performance capability and long-term sustainability. The strategic HRD plan has a long-
term focus (usually three to five years), while the annual L&D plan has a short-term focus
(one year) (Noe, 2014). The L&D plan describes the strategies for implementing the
workplace skills plan and the relevant HRD objectives for a particular year.
The strategic HRD plan has a long-term focus (usually three to five years), while the annual
L&D plan has a short-term focus (one year).
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6.2 Considering external and internal forces

External and internal forces create the need for specific HRD strategies. An awareness of
these forces can help HRD managers and practitioners to prioritise L&D interventions
and methods. External forces for change originate outside the organisation and have global
effects. These may cause an organisation to question the essence of its business and the ways
that products and services are produced. External forces typically include technological
advancements, market changes and social and political pressures. Internal forces for change
come from inside the organisation. These forces can be subtle, such as low job satisfaction,
or can manifest in outward signs, such as low productivity or high staff turnover and
conflict (Robin & Kramar, 2015).
External forces for change originate outside the organisation and typically include
technological advancements, market changes and social and political pressures.
Internal forces for change come from inside the organisation.
6.3 Defining the L&D value proposition

The HRD function needs to define the L&D value proposition by determining the
requirements of main stakeholders and documenting these requirements in the strategic HRD
and annual L&D plans (including the workplace skills plan and annual training report).
6.4 Conducting an L&D strategic skills gap analysis

A proper diagnosis must be conducted of the biggest performance problems and industry-
related skills gaps that impact on the effectiveness of the business. L&D solutions to these
problems need to be identified. Assessing the industry-related skills gaps helps managers
to forecast the supply and demand of critical skills that could affect the business’s current
and future performance capability. A proper L&D needs analysis (see Chapter 3) helps
managers to compile a skills inventory of critical and scarce skills, and identify the skills
development needs of talent pools in the organisation. An L&D needs analysis also assists
managers to develop and implement an effective HRD strategy.
Assessing the industry-related skills gaps helps managers to forecast the supply and demand
of critical skills that could affect the business’s performance capability.
6.5 Conducting an organisational L&D needs analysis

Once the biggest problem areas and skills gaps have been identified, a thorough skills
audit must be conducted to determine the L&D needs of the groups targeted for L&D
interventions. These groups usually include scarce and critical skills groups, employment
equity groups and talent pools. An L&D analysis is based on occupational and job
competency profiles; it describes the competencies required to perform an occupation/job.
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On the other hand, a skills audit determines the skills development needs of the current
employees.
Once the biggest problem areas and skills gaps have been identified, a thorough skills
audit must be conducted to determine the L&D needs of the groups targeted for L&D
interventions.
6.6 Compiling the L&D plan

The next step is to compile an L&D plan (three to five years usually) which includes the
annual workplace skills plan that reflects the skills development needs of targeted groups
and the planned L&D interventions for a particular financial year. To implement the
workplace skills plan effectively, an L&D operational plan needs to be developed. This
means setting specific, realistic and measurable targets, determining implementation
strategies, setting progress review dates, allocating resources and appointing people who
will be responsible for executing and managing the L&D operational plan. The L&D plan
should also consider constraints that might hinder the achievement of the identified goals.
To implement the workplace skills plan effectively, an L&D operational plan needs to
be developed.
6.7 Specifying the execution strategy

The L&D plan should also indicate the delivery methods of the planned L&D interventions.
Delivery methods include on-the-job training, formal university education programmes,
in-house workshops or external learning programmes. Another important aspect is to
determine whether the L&D intervention will be outsourced to an external L&D provider.
The L&D plan should indicate the delivery methods of the planned L&D interventions and
also whether the intervention will be outsourced to an external L&D provider.
6.8 Implementing the L&D plan

Once the L&D plan (including the workplace skills plan and L&D operational plan) has
been finalised and approved, it needs to be implemented. Depending on the methods
used, this can be a lengthy process. It is important to actively monitor the success of the
implementation stage. Frequent evaluation of the effectiveness of the L&D interventions
and measurement of results are essential. Actions at this stage include evaluating learners’
assessment results, attendance records, feedback on the L&D provider’s effectiveness and
L&D targets achieved.
Frequent evaluation of the effectiveness of the L&D interventions and measurement of

results are essential.
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ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS
External stakeholders Environment Internal stakeholders

• Customers • Realities • Owners
• Suppliers • Trends • Management
• Investors • Competition • Partners
• Communities • Forces for change • Union
• Government • Employees
Mission
• What business are we in? (might
include vision, values, guiding
principles as overarching principles
of what the function stands for)
Evaluation:
Are those results
meeting L&D value proposition and strategic
our stakeholders’ goals
• Critical thrusts
needs?
• Stakeholder requirements
• Focus
• Direction (usually 3–5 year time frame)
Strategic objectives
• Achievable results HRD strategy
• Measurable (usually 3–5 year frame)
Evaluation:
Did our actions achieve
expected results? • Annual workplace
L&D Plan (one year focus)
• What, Who, When, How
skills plan
• Annual L&D
• Constraints
• Resources
implementation
plan
Evaluation: Did we
do what we said we
would do? Implementation
• Do it
Figure 9.3 The strategic L&D management process (based on Rothwell et al., 1995)
6.9 Evaluating the effectiveness of the L&D plan

The L&D plan and the L&D interventions are never perfect. An evaluation of outcomes
achieved and the feedback received on the effectiveness of interventions is crucial to identify
problem areas. A number of follow-up L&D interventions may be conducted to ensure
that the workplace skills plan targets and L&D goals are achieved.
6.10 Evaluating value added by L&D interventions

A challenging aspect of managing the implementation of the L&D plan is to evaluate
whether employees’ on-the-job behaviour and performance have changed for the better as a
result of the L&D intervention (see Chapter 8). The L&D professional needs to assist line
managers to measure behavioural changes in employees. The outcomes-based assessment
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and evaluation process and the performance management system of the organisation are
useful mechanisms for determining behavioural changes related to employees’ on-the-job
performance.
The L&D professional needs to assist line managers to measure behavioural changes in
employees after L&D interventions
Case study
Go the extra mile
Pt Operational Services (Pty) Ltd has been managing the Bakwena N1/N4 toll road
for the past 15 years. The vision of Pt Operational Services (Pty) Ltd is to ‘remain
the preferred provider of the operational and maintenance services on the Bakwena
Platinum Toll Road by providing facilities and services that will enhance safe and user-
friendly motoring’.
Pt Operational Services (Pty) Ltd’s mission is two-fold. First, they wish to ensure the
safety of the motorists who use the toll road by implementing the required road safety
standards. In addition, they wish to stimulate a robust corporate identity by providing
exceptional customer relations to ensure long-term organisational growth.
In support of the vision and mission, in March 2017, Pt Operational Services (Pty)
Ltd implemented the Phambili Campaign, in partnership with the Mindspa Institute.
The Mindspa Institute created motivational workshops that were offered to all the
operational staff. The purpose of the campaign was to improve employee job satisfaction,
productivity and customer satisfaction.
The theme of the campaign was: ‘Go the extra mile … there is no traffic there’. The
campaign was aimed at encouraging and motivating participants to go the extra mile for
customers, fellow employees and themselves.
The participants were provided with training on time management, behavioural
change and stress-control learning interventions, all aimed at facilitating the competence
to maintain a positive attitude towards life and work.
Pt Operational Services indicated that the Phambili Campaign was the starting point
of continued investment in employee development.
Questions
1. Reflect on the vision and mission of Pt Operational Services (Pty) Ltd and how
the Phambili Campaign is aimed at implementing and sustaining the organisation’s
vision and mission.
2. What advice would you offer the HRD manager regarding the importance of following
a strategic HRD management approach to planning and managing L&D efforts?
3. When considering the strategic human resource development process, what should
Pt Operational Services (Pty) Ltd’s next step be?
4. Formulate an HRD strategy that will facilitate the implementation of Pt Operational
Services (Pty) Ltd’s vision and mission.
(Source: https://www.skillsportal.co.za/skills-portal-categories/training/articles?)
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7. THE HRD MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS

The HRD management process requires managers to be competent in performing the six
functions described in the following section.
7.1 Defining the L&D value proposition

The L&D value proposition shows the HRD department’s intent to achieve excellence.
As discussed earlier, the L&D value proposition means that HRD practices, departments
and L&D professionals produce positive outcomes for main stakeholders. The L&D value
proposition ensures that all HRD activities, products and services are aligned to the strategic
business goals of the organisation to support the effective and efficient implementation of
the HRD strategy.
7.2 Strategising
HRD managers need to decide what needs to be done and how and when things need to be
done. They identify the scope, resources and constraints of the L&D activities, as required
by the HRD strategy, strategic HRD and L&D plan, which includes the annual workplace
skills plan.
Scope deals both with quantity (how many people, departments, situations, groups, and
L&D programmes) and consequences (who and what may be affected and the importance
of the identified L&D interventions). The scope of the L&D plan will determine what
resources are required to implement the plan. Questions to ask about available resources
are shown in Table 9.5. The scope of the L&D plan is weighed against available resources to
make decisions about how to manage the implementation of the plan. HRD managers and
L&D professionals also need to consider constraints that may affect the implementation
of the L&D plan, including:
•• Limitations or requirements regarding when and how resources can be used (for
example, times when people will be unavailable or under heavy pressure, or deadlines
that must be met to co-ordinate with other activities);
•• Actions required or prohibited to conform to laws, contracts or government regulations
(for example, union agreements that restrict access to people, requirements for
appropriate representation of historically disadvantaged or designated groups, or safety
or environmental regulations that limit certain activities);
•• Organisational policies or cultural expectations that direct or influence the conduct of
some activities (for example, protocols and policies to be observed when contacting
people, conducting training or requesting information); and
•• Decision-making limits and sensitivities that might influence how people respond to
the L&D interventions (for example, requirements for decision-making processes,
concerns about loss of jobs or status, or sensitivities about similar L&D interventions
in the past).
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Table 9.5 L&D resource questions (based on Jackson & Addison, 1992)
Resources Important questions

People •• How many people are involved in the L&D activities?
•• What skills, backgrounds and experience do they have?
•• What limitations are placed on the amount or nature of their participation?
•• Do we make use of outsourced L&D providers?
•• What kind of performance problems do the L&D activities address?
•• How many L&D professionals do we need?
•• Do we need assessors and moderators?
•• Are L&D professionals competent to deliver the L&D programmes?
Time •• How much time is required?

•• What are the deadlines?
•• What are the consequences of changing deadlines?
Money •• How much money is available?

•• How are funds allocated?
Information •• Do we know the L&D needs and expectations of the targeted groups?
•• What information do we need to implement the L&D plan?
•• What are the requirements of the main stakeholders?
•• What are the workplace skills plan targets?
•• What L&D programmes are available?
•• Who is the target group and the sponsor?
Locations •• How many different locations or settings are involved?

•• How varied are they?
•• How far apart are they?
Materials, equipment •• What materials, equipment and systems are available for use?
and systems •• How much materials, equipment and systems can be used?
•• How can they be accessed?
7.3 Organising
HRD managers decide how to arrange, deploy and use the organisation’s resources,
processes and core activities. For example, an L&D professional has to arrange the training
facilities for an upcoming training course. Organising makes it possible to achieve the goals
set out in the strategy process. From an L&D management perspective, organising includes
the following:
•• Management has to allocate human, physical and financial resources to the planned
L&D interventions.
•• Duties and roles need to be defined.
•• Performance agreements, competence profiles and personal development plans need to
be compiled and negotiated.
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•• Policies and procedures need to be in place to enable the HRD function to attain its
goals and objectives. These need to be achieved by specific deadlines and according to
set standard requirements.
7.4 Leading
Leading, or directing, has to do with mobilising the resources of the organisation to achieve
goals. For example, leading the L&D professionals to conduct the training courses entails
the following:
•• Giving directions and guidelines;
•• Motivating the staff to direct their actions in accordance with the goals of the L&D
plan and quality requirements;
•• Influencing and motivating L&D professionals, line managers and employees through
effective communication;
•• Conducting performance appraisals and development planning discussions at regular
intervals;
•• Making available feedback on performance and mentoring for development purposes
to motivate and encourage staff; and
•• Involving L&D professionals in decision-making and problem-solving.
Leading, or directing, has to do with mobilising the resources of the organisation to

achieve goals.
7.5 Assuring quality

As discussed in Chapter 1, quality assurance (QA) is the implementation of the HRD
function’s (or the L&D provider’s) quality management system. A quality management
system includes the following:
•• Quality management policies that define what the HRD function wishes to achieve;
•• Quality management procedures that enable the HRD function to practise its quality
management policies; and
•• Review mechanisms, which ensure that the quality management policies and procedures
are applied and that they remain effective.
7.6 Evaluating
Evaluation refers to the HRD manager’s task of continuously monitoring whether the HRD
staff and L&D professionals are achieving goals and standards.
As discussed in Chapter 8, evaluation refers to the HRD manager’s task of continuously

monitoring and checking whether the HRD staff and L&D professionals are achieving
goals and standards. Examples include checking the required standard of training on a
particular learning programme and measuring the extent to which the workplace skills
plan targets have been achieved. HRD managers evaluate the HRD department’s progress
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in terms of achieving the goals of the HRD and the L&D plan (which includes the
workplace skills plan), and the extent to which L&D interventions added value to the
organisation’s bottom line. Through systematic evaluation, HRD managers also detect any
deviations from these plans and make corrections. For example, they have to monitor,
check and control the expenditure on planned L&D interventions. Furthermore, they
need to do quality audits to ensure that all L&D activities comply with the QCTO and
relevant standards or professional body’s quality requirements. An evaluation of the cost-
effectiveness and impact of L&D interventions should cover the following aspects:
•• The impact that L&D interventions had on improving workplace performance and the
employability of learners (as discussed in Chapter 8);
•• The appropriateness of the design and delivery of the L&D interventions (as discussed
in Chapter 4);
•• The curriculum, learning programme delivery and assessment strategy described in the
facilitator/trainer guide (as discussed in Chapter 4);
•• The learning facilitation (delivery) and assessment process (as discussed in chapters
6 and 7);
•• The HRD strategic and operational plans, the workplace skills plan and the management
and administration of these plans; and
•• The difficulties that managers, L&D providers, L&D professionals and learners
experienced (for this purpose, HRD managers and L&D professionals need to analyse
the data and reports generated during implementation to identify trends, problem areas
and successes).
Learners’ progress needs to be monitored during the course of any L&D intervention. This
makes it possible to address problems as they arise.
Learners’ progress needs to be monitored during the course of any L&D intervention. This
makes it possible to address problems as they arise. The overall success of the HRD and
L&D plan must be evaluated. The implementation of an HRD and L&D plan, which
includes the annual workplace skills plan and annual training report, is successful if:
•• Targets set out in the plans are achieved;
•• L&D practices comply with the standards for quality and best practices;
•• Learners achieve competence within the stipulated time frames;
•• The L&D interventions lead to an increase in productivity levels;
•• Learners’ employability and educational levels increase and they are able to progress in
their careers.
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Reasons why L&D efforts fail

•• Only the HRD manager is interested in the •• The HRD and L&D plans stray from the
end result. original goals.
•• No one is in charge. •• There is no HR support for managers.
•• The IT infrastructure is neither effective •• A quality management system has not been
nor efficient. established.
•• The HRD and L&D plans lack structure. •• The human resource information system is poorly
•• The HRD and L&D plans lack detail. managed or does not exist.
•• The HRD and L&D plans are under-budgeted. •• L&D interventions are not followed up.
•• Insufficient resources are allocated. •• There is no improvement planning.
•• The actual L&D interventions are not tracked •• A communication framework to communicate and
against the workplace skills plan targets. review progress has not been established.
•• The manager, L&D professionals and learners are
not communicating.
Table 9.6 Key functions of strategic L&D management
Function Description
Defining the L&D value proposition •• Identify the main stakeholders of the L&D activities.
Management determines the •• Determine the goals and values of the receiving stakeholders.
requirements of the key stakeholders. •• Clarify what is important to them.
•• Specify their requirements.
Strategising •• Determine the L&D needs of the enterprise.

Management decides what needs to •• Analyse the tasks and the learning outcomes of a programme.
be done. •• Draw up a strategic plan for HRD.
•• Draw up an annual L&D plan and schedule of courses.
•• Plan every learning intervention.
•• Plan the HRD budget for the following year.
Organising •• Organise the HRD department (for example, allocate

Management decides how it should responsibilities to various staff members in the HRD department).
be done. •• Organise a course for supervisory training or in communication
skills.
•• Identify and co-ordinate the resources, including HRD staff and
L&D professionals required to implement the plan (for example,
identify the training facilities and catering requirements).
•• Select suitable training methods, training aids and facilities, and
the trainers themselves.
•• Arrange accommodation and make administrative arrangements
for the learning programme and learners.
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Function Description
Leading •• Motivate HRD support staff and L&D professionals.
Management says how and when it •• Provide direction and guidelines to HRD support staff and
should be done. L&D professionals.
•• Provide support for the achievement of the objectives.
•• Conduct performance appraisals and provide coaching and
mentoring support.
Assuring quality •• Establish a quality management system that governs all HRD
Management ensures that all L&D and L&D practices, including learning provision, design and
practices comply with the national development, assessment and moderation practice, record
quality outcomes-based/work-based L&D keeping and competence of HRD staff and L&D professionals.
requirements. •• Draft policies and procedures to ensure compliance with the
QCTO and relevant standards or professional body quality
requirements.
•• Train and educate HRD and L&D staff in quality requirements.
•• Ensure that HRD and L&D staff are trained and competent in
outcomes-based/work-based L&D, learning design, delivery,
assessment and moderation.
Evaluating •• Determine the extent to which the required results have

Management determines whether HRD been achieved.
and L&D practices comply with standards •• Determine whether the learning programmes were implemented
and whether L&D interventions added as planned.
value for stakeholders. •• Determine whether the objectives and targets were achieved.
•• Assess whether learners have achieved outcomes and are able
to transfer learning to the workplace.
•• Decide what changes need to be made for future programmes.
•• Measure the value added to the organisation’s bottom line.
•• Measure compliance to quality and best practice standards.
L&D professionals often apply project management principles when managing the
implementation of their L&D plans (including the workplace skills plan and operational
L&D plan). Gilbert-Jamison (2010) suggests the following six principles when launching
a new L&D programme, and especially when integrating new HR, quality or operational
improvement processes.
Principle 1: Vision and mission

Creating a vision and mission for the project helps clarify the expected outcome or desired
state, and how it will be accomplished. Such a vision and mission must also consider the
L&D value proposition.
Principle 2: Business objectives

Establish two to three goals or objectives for the project, including specific improvement
goals relevant to the L&D intervention. For example, is the L&D intervention being
implemented to increase sales and profit, customer loyalty, employee productivity and
morale, performance or product/service quality?
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Principle 3: Standards of engagement

This principle refers to practical arrangements regarding the project, such as establishing
and clarifying:
•• Who will be part of the project team?
•• What will be the frequency of meetings?
•• What are the meeting ground rules?
•• Who is the project owner?
•• Who is designated to take notes and distribute project meeting minutes and action steps?
Principle 4: Intervention and execution strategy

This may involve using a SWOT/C (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats/challenges)
analysis to identify stumbling blocks and enablers of the project (for example, L&D plan,
workplace skills plan or L&D intervention implementation). Potential problems regarding
the implementation of the project (L&D intervention or plan, or workplace skills plan)
may be assessed by means of a gap analysis or root-cause analysis, and identifying solutions
and strategies to address potential problematic issues that may hinder the implementation
of the project. An execution strategy for implementing the intervention (solution) is then
mapped out. This includes identifying who will do what, when, how and why.
Principle 5: Organisational alignment

This ensures the success and sustainability of the new initiative or process brought on by
the project. Buy-in must be obtained from all stakeholders. Alignment or buy-in is usually
obtained when stakeholders have clarity on, ‘What is in it for me?’ (that is, how they will
benefit from the project).
Principle 6: Measurement and accountability

A scorecard is usually used to hold employees, teams and leaders accountable for
the implementation, refinement and sustainability of the new initiative or project.
Measurement of achievements and accountability ensure successful implementation of
the project and imply that top performers will be rewarded and recognised; while those
needing improvement will be coached with specific expectations and the consequences
clearly outlined.
Activity
Approach the HRD manager of your organisation (or any organisation with which you
are familiar). Ask them the following questions and make notes about their responses:
• What is the value proposition of the HRD department?
• What strategising activities are conducted in respect of HRD and L&D in the
organisation?
• What organising activities are conducted in respect of L&D in the organisation?
• What leading activities are conducted in respect of L&D in the organisation?
• What quality assurance activities are conducted in respect of L&D in the organisation?
• What evaluation activities are conducted in respect of L&D in the organisation?
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After your discussion with the HRD manager, draw up a list of all the activities and
classify them under the headings: value proposition, strategising, organising, leading,
assuring quality and evaluating. Do you think the list is complete? What would you add
to the list?
Activity
Reflect on the six HRD management functions.

1. Defining the value proposition
The learning design, delivery and outcomes must add value for stakeholders and
contribute measurably to business results.
2. Strategising
The learning programme must be planned, including the schedule for training, the
training location and resources, facilities to be allocated and support required.
3. Organising
All the aspects of the learning programme have to be organised, for example, the
co-ordination of L&D professionals, the lecture room, the learning support material
and equipment required.
4. Directing/leading
The relevant L&D professionals have to be appointed, briefed and motivated and
given guidance in the presentation of the learning programme.
5. Assuring quality
L&D professionals have to ensure that policies and procedures (external and internal)
are adhered to in the management and support of the learning programme. For
example, there may be certain organisational policies and procedures for the design,
delivery and evaluation of learning programmes, and the assessment and moderation
of learner achievements. There may also be external policies and procedures,
for example, those imposed on L&D providers by the QCTO or standards/
professional body.
6. Evaluating
L&D professionals ensure that impact assessment is done for all L&D interventions
(see Kirkpatrick’s four levels of evaluation for example, as discussed in Chapter 8).
• How do these functions apply to the activities that L&D professionals perform in
designing, delivering and evaluating a learning programme?
• Which elements would you like to add?
• How can project management principles be applied to L&D management?

1. Why does the 21st-century workplace require a dynamic and flexible approach to
L&D management?
2. How would you describe the role of HRD in L&D management?
3. L&D management is a strategic activity that not only contributes to the overall HRD
strategy and business results, but also adds value for stakeholders. Do you agree
with this statement? Give reasons for your answer.
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4. Why is the management of knowledge critical to organisational learning? How does

the concept of knowledge management relate to HRD and L&D interventions?
5. Why is it important for HRD managers and practitioners to define the L&D value
proposition?
6. What is the link between the HRD strategy and L&D management?
7. How do the L&D management process and the functions support the effective
and efficient implementation of the strategic HRD plan, L&D plan and workplace
skills plan?
8. Why do L&D efforts fail in organisations? What can HRD managers do to ensure the
success of L&D efforts?
9. How can the principles of project management be applied to managing the
implementation of the L&D plan?
Summary
In this chapter, the changing focus of managing L&D in the 21st-century workplace
was explored. L&D management is an integral part of the overall HRD strategy of an
organisation. The focus of the strategic L&D management process and functions are
defined by the L&D value proposition and the quality requirements specified by national
legislation. The profession and practice of L&D, with specific reference to the roles and
functions of the L&D professional, is explored in Chapter 10.
‘In a world-class organisation both the L&D professional and the learners should feel
encouraged to excel in their ability to create a very special learning experience. Aspiring to
be world class should identify real development opportunities, provide experiences that are
dynamic, positive and challenging. L&D professionals should be curious, have a thirst for
knowledge, and seek to be inspiring, innovative and want to lead in the field of HRD. The
organisation should be supportive, and want to be the one that others benchmark against.’
(Kramar & Holland, 2015)
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CHAPTER PROFESSION AND PRACTICE OF
10 LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT

Melinde Coetzee
Key points of the profession and practice of learning and development

•• Learning and development (L&D) professionals add value to the organisation by fulfilling their key
roles ethically, competently and with expertise.
•• The rapid transformation of societies within a turbulent and uncertain world of work will continue to
challenge the L&D professional to be creative in improving human and organisational performance
capability and proving the value added for stakeholders.
•• L&D professionals are required to integrate ethical principles into all L&D activities, as well as
conceptualise and articulate strategies to help practitioners deal with ethical problems and dilemmas.
•• L&D professionals must constantly update their professional knowledge throughout their working
lives by means of systematic, ongoing and self-directed learning.

•• Evaluate the value that the key roles of the learning and development (L&D) professional add to the
performance capabilities of employees and the organisation.
•• Explain the importance for L&D professionals to be professionally educated and trained.
•• Describe the core competencies that L&D professionals need to demonstrate in the South African
workplace.
•• Explain how L&D professionals benefit from continued professional development and how they can
ensure that they stay abreast of new technology and developments in the L&D field.
•• Explain why ethical behaviour is an important characteristic of effective L&D professionals.
•• Discuss the challenges for the L&D profession in the coming decade.
1. INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the role, personal characteristics and competency profile of the L&D
professional are discussed. Training and credentialing issues, professional ethics and
continuing development are reviewed as they apply to L&D professionals in the South
African workplace.
Within the context of the NQF and OQF (see Chapter 1), learning and development
(L&D) is a highly valued profession rooted in human values, quality outcomes-based
L&D principles and relevant theory. Its purpose is to improve human and organisational
performance capability for the benefit of society. Furthermore, the unique and challenging
socio-economic circumstances in South Africa increasingly demand professionally
qualified and experienced L&D professionals, especially in their role as occupational
instructors/trainers, assessors and moderators, and skills development facilitators (ETDP
SETA, 2017). The national scarce skills guide (DHET, 2015) also lists L&D practice

Chapter 10 | Profession and practice of learning and development
(occupational instructors/trainers) as a scarce skill. L&D needs to make creative and

proactive contributions to organisational effectiveness and capability, as well as to the
employability and performance capability of employees. L&D professionals therefore
need to extend their professional skills beyond the L&D tools and methods to address the
concerns and requirements of internal and external stakeholders.
L&D professionals are becoming more accountable for gaining the skills they need
to perform their jobs. It is important that they share responsibility for their own learning
and development with their employers. The National Skills Development Plan and skills
development and employment equity legislation (see Chapter 1) create an environment
in which continuous lifelong learning is valued by organisations and employees. L&D
professionals must constantly update their professional knowledge throughout their
working lives by means of systematic, ongoing, self-directed learning. Embracing the
concepts of continuous professional development and lifelong learning to ensure that their
repertoire of knowledge and skills are current and relevant, L&D professionals act as role
models for their organisations and learners (Rees & French, 2016).
L&D professionals are becoming more accountable for gaining the skills they need to
perform their jobs.
2. ROLES OF THE L&D PROFESSIONAL

The L&D professional has a very important role in an organisation. Organisations draw
on many sources to develop their talent and enhance the employability and performance
capability of their employees. These sources include school systems, national and local
workforce development programmes, professional associations, and private and higher
education organisations. With rapidly changing skills needs, the efficiency of technology-
enabled learning and an increasing shortage of qualified and skilled workers across many
industries, business leaders understand that they, too, must educate, train and develop their
employees. They rely on the expertise of their human resource and L&D professionals to
manage HRD, measure its impact on performance and demonstrate business results based
on the changes in performance (ASTD, 2006). Traditionally, L&D professionals were
responsible for designing learning programmes and delivering training to employees in
classroom settings. But in the 21st-century workplace, they are responsible for much more.
L&D professionals are managing and leading integrated systems of talent management,
which provide learning and skills development. They use a variety of learning technologies
at every step of employees’ careers (ASTD, 2006). In the VUCA (volatile, uncertain,
complex and ambiguous) world of the 21st century, L&D professionals function as strategic
positioners and capability builders. They are innovative in helping organisations create an
occupationally competent and engaged workforce, which builds organisational capability
through fit-for-purpose L&D interventions that provide employees with the competencies
(knowledge, skills and values) they need to grow in their careers and contribute to business
performance. L&D practices are used as a catalyst to create an organisational learning
culture that fosters continuous improvement, change and innovation (Ludike, 2014;
SABPP, 2013).
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Traditionally, L&D professionals were responsible for designing learning programmes and
delivering training to employees in classroom settings. But in the 21st-century workplace,
they are responsible for much more.
The organising framework for occupations (OFO code 2017-2423) emphasises the
following core occupational tasks of L&D professionals:
•• Plan, develop, implement and evaluate training (learning) and development programmes
to ensure that management and staff acquire the skills and develop the competencies
required by an organisation to meet organisational objectives;
•• Design, coordinate, schedule and conduct training (learning) and development
programmes that can be delivered in the form of individual and group instruction, and
facilitating workshops, meetings, demonstrations and conferences;
•• Gather, investigate and research background materials to gain an understanding of
various subject matters and systems;
•• Liaise with external training providers to arrange delivery of specific training and
development programmes;
•• Monitor and perform ongoing evaluation and assessment of internal and external
training quality and effectiveness, and review and modify training objectives, methods
and course deliverables;
•• Prepare and develop instructional training material and aids such as handbooks,
visual aids, online tutorials, demonstration models and supporting training reference
documentation;
•• Promote internal and external training and development, and evaluate these promotional
activities;
•• Set human resource development objectives and evaluate learning outcomes;
•• Identify training needs and requirements of individuals and organisations.
To fulfil their role as strategic business partners and capability builders, L&D professionals
work with human resource professionals, assessors and moderators, occupational
instructors/trainers and skills development facilitators to:
•• Assess individual and organisational skills needs;
•• Develop job and competence profiles and analyse occupational/job roles and tasks for
workplace learning design, delivery and evaluation purposes;
•• Provide information and advice regarding skills development and related issues in the
workplace;
•• Map performance goals and development plans to the business strategies of
the organisation to ensure return on investment (ROI) and expectations (ROE);
•• Manage opportunities for coaching, mentoring and leadership development;
•• Assess and moderate employees’ learning achievements;
•• Collect evidence of employees’ performance capability in the workplace; and
•• Manage and implement other activities that may be part of the organisation’s talent
development and succession plans.
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Table 10.1 provides an overview of the roles that L&D professionals fulfil in the workplace.
oles of the L&D professional (based on Erasmus et al., 2015; Killen, 2000;
Table 10.1 R
Ludike, 2014; SABPP, 2013)
Role Description
Mediator of learning •• Mediating learning in a manner that is sensitive to the diverse needs
of learners;
•• Constructing learning environments that are appropriately contextualised and
inspirational; and
•• Demonstrating sound knowledge of subject content and various principles,
strategies and resources that are appropriate to L&D in a South African/
African context.
Mediator and designer •• Understanding and interpreting provided work-based learning programmes;
of workplace learning, •• Designing original work-based learning programmes;
learning programmes
•• Identifying the requirements for a specific context of learning;
and materials
•• Selecting and preparing suitable textual and visual resources and technology
for workplace learning design; and
•• Selecting, sequencing and pacing the learning in a manner sensitive to the
differing needs of the business, learning context and learners.
Developer of capability •• Developing skills and L&D plans that address individual learning needs and are
aligned with organisational strategic objectives and the organisation’s HRD
strategy (see Chapter 9);
•• Providing information and advice regarding skills development and
related issues;
•• Conducting skills audits and L&D needs analyses to determine outcomes of
learning for skills development and other purposes;
•• Developing plans for implementing occupational-based learning programmes
and work-based learning programmes within a learning organisation context;
•• Acting as guardian of the organisation’s stature within the greater
community; and
•• Ensuring processes and practices are in place to acquire, develop,
communicate, encourage, measure and improve the relevant workforce
capabilities needed for the organisation to sustain a differentiated competitive
advantage in the marketplace.
Leader, administrator •• Making decisions appropriate to the level;

and manager •• Managing learning;
•• Carrying out administrative duties efficiently;
•• Participating in workplace learning and development decision-making
structures;
•• Supporting learners and colleagues; and
•• Demonstrating responsiveness to changing circumstances, needs and
stakeholder expectations.
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Role Description
Strategist/Strategic •• Formulating the L&D value proposition and plans, organisational policies and
positioner practices to contribute to the effective implementation of the organisation’s
HRD strategy, L&D and workplace skills plans, including talent management
and development and succession plans;
•• Ensuring that training/learning design and delivery address stakeholder and
learners’ expectations to ensure return on investment (ROI) and return on
expectations (ROE);
•• Assisting with developing efficiency measures of the L&D function;
•• Ensuring that L&D plans focus on improving the workforce’s ability to perform
to achieve organisational objectives, and providing the means for measuring
the impact of L&D interventions;
•• Recognising the organisation’s differentiators and competitive challenges,
especially regarding scarce and critical skills needed;
•• Gathering knowledge and feedback from many sources to understand the
context in which the business operates, including pivotal stakeholders; and
•• Ensuring that L&D plan, strategy and practices support and accelerate
skills development and achieve employment equity and organisational
transformation, and limit the impact of skills shortages.
Scholar, researcher and •• Achieving ongoing personal, academic, occupational and professional growth
lifelong learner by pursuing reflective study and research in the learning area, in broader L&D
matters, and in other related fields.
Collector of evidence, •• Understanding that the collection of evidence of learners’ achievements and
assessor and quality learning application in the workplace, assessment, evaluation and quality
assurer assurance are essential features of the L&D process;
•• Understanding the purposes, methods and effects of assessment;
•• Designing and managing both formative and summative assessment in ways
that are appropriate to the level and purpose of the learning, and meeting the
requirements of the QCTO and other accrediting bodies;
•• Keeping detailed and diagnostic records of assessment and quality assurance;
and
•• Understanding how to interpret and use assessment results to improve
learning and learning programmes.
Learning area/subject/ •• Being well grounded in the knowledge, skills, values, principles, methods and
discipline specialist procedures relevant to the learning area;
•• Knowing different approaches to learning facilitation, research and
management, and how these may be used in ways that are appropriate to the
learner and the workplace context; and
•• Understanding the content knowledge of the learning area.
Evaluator •• Measuring results and economic returns (ROI) and return on stakeholder
expectations (ROE), evaluating and communicating the impact of L&D to
business stakeholders: performance capability and employability of employees
and the organisation’s business results; and
•• Developing improvement plans to address performance or outcome gaps.
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Role Description
Needs analyst •• Identifying stakeholder requirements and expectations;
•• Assessing gaps between required competencies and the organisation’s
HRD strategies;
•• Identifying learning and/or development needs of employees, groups and the
organisation; and
•• Identifying goals, L&D solutions, priorities and strategies to fill skills gaps.
Community, citizenship, •• Practising and promoting a critical, committed and ethical attitude towards
coach and mentor role developing a sense of respect and responsibility towards others, one that
upholds the ethical standards of the L&D profession;
•• Promoting democratic values and practices in the workplace and society;
•• Demonstrating the ability to develop a supportive and empowering
environment for the learner;
•• Responding to the L&D and other needs of learners and fellow workers; and
•• Developing supportive relationships with line managers, employees, customers and
other stakeholders, based on a critical understanding of strategic HRD issues.
L&D professionals can grow throughout their professional lives. Their work is purposeful.
When L&D professionals effectively contribute to the interests of the organisation and the
people within it, they can make an enormous impact. The reward is personal satisfaction.
Fulfilling their roles as innovative strategic positioners and capability builders, L&D
professionals will have more visibility and responsibility. To fulfil these roles successfully, they
will require more complex competencies, such as technological astuteness; understanding
and managing people; rethinking organisations as capabilities, not structures; creating
collaboration throughout the organisation; responding to social expectations and policy;
and learning to play new roles (Ludike, 2014).
3. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE L&D PROFESSIONAL

Some general characteristics apply to all professions in the human resource development
field. However, the following eight characteristics are especially important for L&D
professionals. In the organisational context, L&D professionals are:
1. Driven by results;
2. Investigative;
3. Able to set and comply with quality standards;
4. Co-operative and collaborative;
5. Willing and able to add value for stakeholders;
6. Flexible, while maintaining important principles;
7. Responsible for their own continuous professional development; and
8. Ethical and responsible in their service to the profession and clients (Coetzee, 2004a,b;
Rothwell et al., 2016; Sink, 1992).
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3.1 Results driven

Outstanding L&D professionals are results orientated. They document stakeholder
requirements and expectations and implement well-planned and cost-effective strategies to
achieve their L&D goals. They manage these strategies and evaluate the outcomes of each
L&D intervention in terms of the value they add for stakeholders.
Outstanding L&D professionals are results orientated.
3.2 Investigative
Successful L&D professionals are investigators. They make sure that they fully understand
stakeholder requirements and expectations and the particular performance problem or
opportunity. Only then do they identify the most appropriate and cost-effective L&D solution.
They document all the important requirements and expectations of stakeholders and the
characteristics of the particular target groups. They make few assumptions and remain open to
expert opinions.
Successful L&D professionals are investigators: they make few assumptions and remain open
to expert opinions.
3.3 Able to set and comply with quality standards

One of the main ingredients of successful L&D practice is setting and complying with
outcomes-based and work-based L&D quality standards. L&D professionals set and model
standards, but they also plan how to sustain these standards. They do quality checks at key
points in an L&D intervention. L&D professionals always review and evaluate products,
services, practices and processes to make sure that all expectations and requirements are met.
3.4 Co-operative and collaborative

Successful L&D professionals are flexible and co-operative. They analyse performance
problems in collaboration with human resource practitioners, line managers and employees.
Collaboration ensures that the best possible decisions are made, which in turn creates L&D
solutions that achieve the desired results.
Successful L&D professionals are flexible and co-operative: collaboration ensures that the
best possible decisions are made.
3.5 Willing and able to add value for stakeholders

The L&D professional’s ability to focus on identified priorities and work co-operatively
with clients and stakeholders enable them to achieve value-adding results. Clients are not
asking for what they can do themselves. They expect the L&D professional to add value
to the performance of the business. Their anticipation is that L&D solutions will be better
because of their interaction with the L&D professional.
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3.6 Flexible while maintaining important principles

L&D professionals are flexible, but they adhere to key principles. For example, they pay
more attention to the substance than the form of a training solution. Their concern is
with providing the learner with appropriate practice and feedback and using the correct
language level, rather than with the physical characteristics of particular delivery systems or
media. They know that if a learning programme does not suit the needs of the learners, the
delivery method will not solve the performance problem or meet the development need.
In the South African skills development context, L&D professionals are also required to
comply with the principles and regulations for quality L&D provision, as stipulated by
SAQA and the QCTO.
3.7 Responsible for continuous professional development

Successful L&D professionals acknowledge their personal development and lifelong
learning needs and desires. They deal with them in a responsible way as they fulfil their
professional roles. L&D professionals strive for self-knowledge and personal growth, but
they also want to achieve and maintain a high level of current and relevant competence. They
achieve this by developing the full range of their competence and by establishing networks
with other L&D professionals. They practise within the limits of their competence, culture
and experience.
3.8 Ethical and responsible

L&D professionals serve the long-term wellbeing, interests and development of their
clients and their clients’ stakeholders, even if the L&D intervention has a short-term focus.
They also ensure that they are well aware of the profession’s core values and guiding ethical
principles (see Table 10.2), which guide and aspire L&D professionals to follow the very
highest ethical ideals of the profession.
L&D professionals define and protect the confidentiality of their relationships with
clients. Public statements (including promotions and advertisements) are accurate, and
services are provided as advertised. L&D professionals are aware of how their cultures affect
their view of the world. They respect cultures that are different from their own, and they
are sensitive to cross-cultural and multicultural differences.
L&D professionals are aware of how culture affects one’s worldview so are they are sensitive
to cross-cultural and multicultural differences.
L&D professionals want to contribute to the lifelong learning and continuous professional
development of themselves, other practitioners and the profession. They share L&D
knowledge and skills. They advocate ethical L&D practices and they use appropriate
channels for dealing with ethical dilemmas and unethical practices.
L&D professionals bring credit to the L&D profession and respect colleagues in other professions.
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ore values and principles of an L&D professional (based on Coetzee et al.,

Table 10.2 C
2016; Curry et al., 2004)
Core value/principle Description

Beneficence and L&D professionals do good (beneficence) and avoid harm (non-
non-maleficence maleficence). They promote the wellbeing of others and avoid activities/
interventions that may harm others. Simulated L&D activities may present
a risk to learners. The potential risk of harm or discomfort to a learner
must be considered relative to the potential learning and development
opportunity. Every effort should be made to ensure the physical and
emotional safety and security of all participants.
Learning, development, Being committed to promoting the development of others, L&D

self-awareness and professionals facilitate knowledge acquisition, skill demonstration and
self-actualisation practice, and the transfer of the newly acquired competencies to the
workplace. They explore values and attitudes, increase self-awareness and
meta-cognitive abilities. They also set the example by adopting an attitude
of continuous lifelong learning by engaging in continuous professional
development activities. They also value and model the importance of
self-awareness and self-actualisation.
Leadership L&D professionals recognise the importance of taking and modelling

leadership in L&D initiatives and activities. They recognise their potential
influence on the profession and lives of others, and take responsibility for
their behaviour, attitude and activities in needs and expectations analyses,
learning design, delivery, assessment and evaluation.
Individual uniqueness, cultural They value and respect themselves and their clients as unique human
diversity and competence beings. They value diversity in our society, and promote employee
competence in understanding and respecting the uniqueness of others in
their environments.
Autonomy and L&D professionals support their clients’ ability to think and act freely
self-determination for themselves (autonomy). They respect the right of the learner to
determine what, when and how it is best for the individual to learn
(self-determination). They therefore consider a variety of instructional
and training delivery strategies to encourage participation from learners
with different learning styles (see Chapter 2). They provide learners with
options of how to participate within the organisational and legislative
boundaries. They also advocate through their practice, the importance of
self-determination.
Integrity L&D professionals promote a climate of trust and mutual respect. They
aspire to modelling the very highest ethical ideals of the profession.
Working relationships are clarified with others regarding the area of
competence of the L&D professional, stakeholder and learner needs
and expectations, programme goals, training methods, learning content/
curricula, confidentiality, fees, and assessment and evaluation strategies.
The L&D professional adheres to agreed-upon commitments.
Fidelity and social justice L&D professionals behave in a faithful, honest, trustworthy manner
(fidelity), and promote fairness in the community, workplace and learning/
training settings (social justice).
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4. A COMPETENCY PROFILE OF EFFECTIVE L&D PROFESSIONALS

Competent L&D professionals have the same basic skills as other professionals in the human
resource development field. Being a competent L&D professional means having the ability and
capability to perform the tasks and roles required to the expected standards. L&D professionals
understand L&D theory (see Chapter 2) and keep up to date with the latest theoretical
information. The competent L&D professional must be prepared to meet the challenges of
multicultural workplace settings and the unique skills development needs of clients.
Based on comprehensive studies of L&D skills, all L&D professionals should have the
following basic skills and knowledge:
1. Intrapersonal skills. L&D is a human craft. The intrapersonal skills listed in Table 10.3
can help L&D professionals to be effective. L&D professionals must often process
complex, ambiguous information and make informed judgements about its relevance
to clients’ skills development needs and stakeholders’ requirements and expectations.
This requires considerable conceptual and analytical ability. L&D professionals must
also know their own values, feelings and purposes; they should have the integrity to
behave responsibly in a supporting relationship with others. The practice of L&D
requires constant adjustment and creativity; therefore, L&D professionals need active
learning skills and a reasonable balance between their rational and emotional sides.
Finally, the practice of L&D can be highly stressful; L&D professionals need to know
how to deal with stress in an emotionally intelligent way.
L&D is a human craft. It can be stressful and L&D professionals need to know how to deal
with stress in an emotionally intelligent way.
2. Interpersonal skills. L&D professionals must create and maintain effective relationships
with their clients. The interpersonal skills listed in Table 10.3 promote effective
supporting and collaborative relationships with clients. Such working relationships
start with an understanding of the organisational skills development culture. L&D
professionals need to listen to clients’ perceptions and feelings to understand how they
see their own performance and growth needs within their organisation and industry.
This understanding provides a starting point for diagnosing problems and creating
L&D solutions.
3. General L&D consulting skills. All L&D professionals should have diagnosis, assessment
and L&D intervention development planning skills. An L&D intervention starts
with a diagnosis of the client’s performance problems and skills development needs.
The L&D professional tries to understand the causes of problems and the client’s
uniqueness. Thereafter, L&D professionals develop L&D solutions to equip clients
with competencies that will contribute to their job satisfaction and work performance.
4. L&D theory. L&D professionals should understand L&D theories (see Chapter 2)
and how they apply to diverse clients from multicultural backgrounds. They should
be creative in designing and applying a range of outcomes-based and workplace
learning L&D tools and techniques to enhance clients’ employability and performance
capability in a particular occupational context. Most importantly, L&D professionals
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should understand their role in the field of skills development in the 21st-century
workplace (particularly with regard to the National Skills Development Plan and the
Occupational Learning System – see Chapter 1).
Table 10.3 Core and advanced skills for L&D professionals
General L&D skills Workplace learning, development and training

knowledge
•• Individual and group training and counselling; •• Outcomes-based/occupational or work-based
•• Facilitation of learning and development; L&D theory;
•• Personal development planning; •• Individual and cultural differences;
•• Multicultural L&D contexts; •• Personality theories;
•• Learner-centred training; •• Organisational behaviour/industrial and organisational
psychology/organisational capability theory;
•• Outcomes-based and work-based L&D learning
design and assessment, and assessment and •• Learning organisation;
moderation technology; •• Knowledge economy;
•• Group dynamics; •• Human resource management and development;
•• Outcomes-based/work-based learning design and •• Performance management and improvement;
development; •• Motivation and leadership;
•• L&D interventions; •• Theories of adult learning;
•• Outcomes-based work-based L&D tools and •• Modern online learning theory and technology;
techniques;
•• Social learning theory;
•• L&D diagnostics and interpretation;
•• Human capital development/employability/talent
•• Skills audits/skills profiling/occupation/job and development;
competence profiling;
•• Outcomes-based/work-based learning assessment
•• Modern mobile technology, computer-based and and moderation;
e-learning L&D practices and technology;
•• Job design and competence profiling/occupational
•• L&D practice evaluation and value-adding measurement; profiling and analyses;
•• Collecting evidence for assessment purposes; •• Cross-cultural theory;
•• L&D quality assurance skills. •• Generational theory;
Intrapersonal skills •• Ethical and legal practices;
•• National Skills Development Strategy;
•• Conceptual and analytical ability;
•• Skills development governing structures and principles;
•• Integrity (educated moral judgement);
•• Employment equity;
•• Personal focus (staying in touch with one’s own
purpose and values); •• Skills development legislation;
•• Active learning skills; •• Occupational Learning System/Occupational
Qualifications Framework;
•• Innovative thinking;
•• HRD and L&D management;
•• Adaptability;
•• Workplace skills plan compilation and management;
•• Leadership skills;
•• Skills development facilitation;
•• Business skills;
•• Skills development provider accreditation requirements.
•• Rational–emotional balance;
•• Emotional intelligence; Research and evaluation knowledge and skills
•• Personal stress management skills; •• Action research;
•• Personal responsibility for learning. •• Diagnostic research;
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General L&D skills Workplace learning, development and training

knowledge
Interpersonal skills •• Evaluation research;
•• Theory-building research;
•• Establishing trust and rapport;
•• Case method research and writing methods;
•• Giving and receiving feedback;
•• Use and design of outcomes-based/work-based
•• Interviewing skills; assessment, and assessment and programme
•• Aptitude in speaking client’s language; evaluation tools and techniques.
•• Ability to model credible behaviours;
Data analysis
•• Development counselling and coaching;
•• Cross-cultural skills; •• Behavioural science statistics;
•• Telephone intervention skills; •• Computer literacy/ICT skills/technological literacy;
•• Suggestion skills (metaphors). •• Writing reports/communication skills;

•• Graphic and audio-visual skills.
Management knowledge and skills
•• HRD and L&D management;

•• Negotiation skills;
•• Conflict-resolution skills;
•• Training skills;
•• Presentation skills;
•• Networking;
•• Defining value proposition for L&D;
•• HRD management policy and strategy;
•• Information systems;
•• Legal and socio-political environment;
•• Finance/economics/accounting;
•• Marketing/international business.
5. EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF L&D PROFESSIONALS

A rich history of L&D theories informs L&D professional education and training.
L&D professionals work to bridge the theory–practice gap by supplementing theoretical
descriptions with practical techniques. L&D professionals are involved in the day-to-day
activities of L&D in the workplace. They continually acquire knowledge and experience
about L&D methods, techniques and processes. They aim to produce consistent,
measurable and high-quality results that add value for stakeholders. To achieve this goal,
L&D professionals implement what they learn through education and experience.
L&D professionals should have a solid theoretical foundation. They use theories (such
as those discussed in this book) to understand what they see in practice. The theories also
provide guidelines to solve each new and unique performance problem and opportunity.
L&D professionals should also be aware of current research that can give them new
perspectives on L&D theory, principles, practices, technology and methodology.
491

Professional associations, such as the American Society for Training and Development
(ASTD), have a rich history (more than 71 years) of playing a leading role in advancing
L&D practice. In May 2016, the ASTD rebranded its name to the Association for Talent
Development (ATD) to reflect and support the global nature, diversity and impact of the
L&D profession. The ATD is the world’s largest association dedicated to workplace learning
and performance professionals (including L&D professionals and HR practitioners). South
African L&D professionals can also apply for membership. Membership offers access to
various development opportunities for the L&D professional, social networking with other
professionals in the field and, inter alia, sources for L&D design and delivery technology.
The ATD has members in more than 100 countries and they connect locally through 26
global networks. The ATD has widened the profession’s focus by linking learning and
performance to individual and organisational results. The ATD is also a renowned source
of insightful and practical information on workplace learning and performance topics,
including training basics, evaluation and return on investment (ROI) and return on
expectations (ROE), instructional systems development, e-learning, leadership and career
development (ATD, 2018).
Activity
Visit the website of the Association for Talent Development (ATD) at http://www.td.org.
Study the various resources and opportunities they offer their members, and how
membership may help improve your personal capability as an L&D professional.
Consider joining them.
In South Africa, L&D professionals working in organisations can also apply for professional
status to the South African Board for People Practice (SABPP). The SABPP’s mission is to
establish, direct and sustain a high level of professionalism and ethical conduct in personnel
practice (which includes L&D practice). The SABPP strives to establish a career path in
HR with no glass ceilings. It acknowledges and honours every step up the career ladder
and it challenges all professionals to new heights in knowledge acquisition, bottom-line
contribution, professional conduct and responsible work ethics (http://www.sabpp.co.za).
Table 10.4 provides an overview of the SABPP’s professional levels of registration.
Table 10.4 SABPP professional levels of registration
Category of registration Requirement

Master HR practitioner NQF Level 8: postgraduate 3 and 4/Master’s or Doctorate degree
Chartered HR practitioner NQF Level 8: postgraduate 1 and 2/Honours, BTech or Master’s degree
HR practitioner NQF Level 7: three-years post-matriculation study/National diploma
HR associate NQF Level 6: two-years post-matriculation study/SGB diploma
HR technician NQF Level 5: one-year post-matriculation study/Certificate
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L&D professionals can apply to the SABPP for registration as a generalist or an L&D specialist
in one of the categories outlined in Table 10.4. To apply for registration as an L&D specialist,
the practitioner must provide evidence of relevant qualifications, experience and competence
in outcomes-based L&D assessment, moderation and verification practice, coaching and
mentoring, education and lecturing, induction, career planning, job training, management
development, skills facilitation and L&D quality management (www.sabpp.co.za).
Activity
Visit the website of the South African Board for People Practice at:
http://www.sabpp.co.za.
Study the various resources and opportunities they offer their members and how
membership may help improve your personal capability as an L&D professional.
Consider joining them.
The National Skills Development Plan (see Chapter 1) also emphasises the professional
education, training and development of L&D professionals. The education and training
of L&D professionals in South Africa must, therefore, be aligned to the unit standards for
L&D. Only those qualifications that have been accredited by the ETDP SETA and SABPP
are recognised. As discussed in the previous chapters, competencies based on knowledge,
skills and work experience standards are now driving L&D practice worldwide.
Activity
Self-assessment of my competency as a L&D professional

This self-assessment questionnaire contains the specific outcomes and assessment
criteria for the Bachelor’s Degree: Occupation-directed Education, Training and
Development Practices (SAQA ID: 50330; NQF Level 6; 360 credits).
For each of the following items, indicate the strength of your knowledge/skill in the
area. If a particular competence is not listed here, or if your knowledge/skill is weak,
mark that specific item as a development priority.
Knowledge/skill Development priority

Competence Weak/strong Low/high
Learning design and development
•• Conduct an organisational skills audit.

•• Define training needs in terms of outcomes
and link these to performance requirements on
the job.
•• Develop and design outcomes-based learning
programmes.
•• Align learning outcomes with given standards,
including unit standards, assessment standards,
qualifications or job requirements.
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Learning facilitation
•• Ensure that the design meets target audience

needs, and is appropriate to the subject matter.
•• Ensure that the design caters for learners with
special needs.
•• Identify and use approaches that comply with
adult learning principles and are suitable for
achieving the defined outcomes.
•• Identify and employ designs that include
evaluation strategies capable of revealing the
value of programmes or interventions.
•• Ensure that learning and assessment design are
compatible and promote integration.
Learning facilitation
•• Demonstrate understanding of the outcomes-

based education and training approach within
the context of the NQF.
•• Facilitate learning and development that:
–– is professional and ensures the physical and
psychological safety of the learners;
–– is self-monitored and allows behaviour
to be modified to address weaknesses or
difficulties; and
–– has an approach that creates opportunities
for assessment.
•• Give direct, relevant, honest and valuable
feedback on performance in a constructive
manner.
•• Provide recommendations to facilitate the
personal and professional growth of learners.
•• Facilitate transfer and application of learning in
the workplace.
Learning support
•• Proactively and sensitively identity learners

requiring support.
•• Give support in a manner that enables learners
to define objectives, clarify issues, help manage
expectations and identify learning paths and
opportunities.
•• Give support that assists learners to identify
and understand assessment opportunities,
processes and benefits, including the nature
and benefit of RPL.
494


•• Give support that ensures that learners
experience the maximum benefit from learning
and assessment, and helps them to prepare for
and cope with learning and assessment.
•• Diagnose barriers to learning and solve
problems co-operatively within given
frameworks.
•• Make referrals, as required, to appropriate
professionals.
•• Give support that helps to create a safe
learning environment and promotes objectives
of learning and the principle of lifelong
learning.
•• Give advice that is helpful, realistic, relevant,
valid, impartial and based on learner needs.
Assessment
•• Support assessors adequately.

•• Prepare and assist assessors in assessment
and/or RPL processes, without compromising
the assessment process or results.
•• Design and use assessment instruments
that are fit for the purpose and facilitate the
integration of assessment in learning and work
environments.
•• Engage in assessment practices that are in
line with the principles of outcomes-based
assessment.
•• Make assessment decisions that are reliable
and relevant to predetermined outcomes.
•• Give constructive, relevant feedback.
•• Conduct moderation of outcomes-based
assessments.
Strategic management
•• Demonstrate an understanding of the

transformative elements of the HRD legislation.
•• Develop an organisational (strategic) L&D plan.
•• Allocate resources and use these effectively
and within budgets.
•• Provide leadership that gives focus and
direction in line with individual needs and
organisational strategy.
•• Manage learning and assessment to meet
learners’ and the organisation’s needs,
according to relevant L&D plans.
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•• Cost projects and activities according to sound
budgeting principles.
•• Ensure that management activities make the
best use of diversity within the workplace,
while promoting productivity.
•• Facilitate team-building activities to ensure the
achievement of set goals and objectives.
•• Empower team members by building on
strengths and providing scope for development.
•• Deal with conflicts in a manner that supports
established conflict management principles and
that is in line with organisational policies and
procedures.
•• Ensure that records are accurate and up
to date.
•• Design and develop instruments to
evaluate L&D.
•• Evaluate and promote L&D providers, services
and products for organisational use.
•• Define the L&D value proposition for an
organisation.
Quality assurance
•• Develop L&D policies and procedures for an

organisation.
•• Ensure that contributions to policies and
procedures provide a quality framework for the
organisation and practitioners to deliver quality
L&D practices.
•• Promote a learning culture in the organisation.
•• Use evaluation instruments that provide
reliable feedback on the L&D cycle.
•• Administer evaluation instruments as designed.
•• Measure and assess the factors that influence
labour productivity and establish the relative
impact of each factor.
•• Report findings from the evaluation fairly and
accurately and make recommendations that
facilitate improvements and changes that add
value to the learning environment and process.
•• Promote a productivity improvement strategy.
•• Advise management on the establishment
and implementation of a quality management
system for L&D practices in an organisation.
496


•• Manage learner information using an
information management system.
•• Manage the capture, storage and retrieval of
HR information using an information system.
•• Manage the design, development and review of
an HR information system.
Standards setting and qualifications design
•• Use consultative processes that meet

stakeholder needs in determining required
standards.
•• Ensure that standards are based on a thorough
analysis of needs.
•• Define stakeholder requirements in clear,
measurable terms.
•• Present standards in a format required by the
registering body.
•• Evaluate standards in a manner that identifies
the extent to which they are fit for purpose,
with resulting recommendations meeting
stakeholder needs.
Skills development facilitation
•• Develop L&D and workplace skills plans that

address individual learning needs and that are
aligned with organisational objectives.
•• Promote learning in line with individual and
organisational needs, using appropriate and
effective communication techniques.
•• Keep records that are clear, accessible,
accurate and up to date.
•• Co-ordinate L&D interventions in line with the
L&D and workplace skills plans.
Self-management and responsible citizenship
•• Identify and solve problems using critical and

creative thinking.
•• Work effectively with others as a member of a
team, group, organisation or community.
•• Organise and manage myself and my activities
responsibly and effectively.
•• Collect, analyse, organise and critically
evaluate information.
•• Communicate effectively using visual,
mathematical and/or language skills in the
modes of oral and written communication.
497


•• Use science and technology effectively and
critically, showing responsibility towards the
environment and the health of others.
•• Demonstrate an understanding of the world as
a set of related systems by recognising that
problems do not exist in isolation.
•• Reflect on and explore a variety of strategies
to learn more effectively and continue
professional development.
•• Participate as a responsible citizen in local,
national and global communities.
•• Be culturally and aesthetically sensitive across
a range of social contexts.
•• Explore education and career opportunities and
develop entrepreneurial opportunities.
Now complete the following:

Action plan
I would still like to improve: ��
��
��
My ultimate goal is to:��
��
��
These are my long-term learning and development outcomes:��
��
��
These are my short-term learning and development outcomes: ��
��
��
I will start by:��
��
��
Thereafter:��
��
��
498

Time limits for achieving the outcomes are the following:��

��
��
In the short term:��
��
��
In the long term:��
��
��
L&D is an important area in the South African context; it is supported by legislation,

national policies and strategies. To meet the skills development expectations and
requirements of the workplace, it is important to identify competent L&D professionals
at various levels and, in particular, to have access to the services of L&D professionals with
high-level specialist skills (SAQA, 2007).
Having an occupationally directed qualification enhances the credibility and stature
of L&D professionals. With this recognition, practitioners can increase their employment
prospects, and organisations can appoint experienced practitioners with proven
competencies.
6. C
ONTINUOUS PROFESSIONAL AND PERSONAL
DEVELOPMENT
As the HRD profession evolves, so L&D professionals must adapt. It is crucial to invest in
your own continuous professional development as part of your lifelong learning journey
to stay employable as an L&D professional. Continuous professional and personal
development (CPD) promotes the ongoing attainment of effective job performance by
targeting current and emerging development needs (Rees & French, 2016). CPD is aimed
at improving the L&D professionals’ employability and performance capability, as well
as the effectiveness and performance capability of the organisation as a whole (Elmore,
2001, cited in ETDP SETA, 2006). CPD is an integral part of being professional, as it
supports the principle of lifelong learning. For example, the SABPP requires that registered
professionals provide proof of CPD to retain their registration.
CPD is an integral part of being professional as it supports the principle of lifelong learning
and promotes the ongoing attainment of effective job performance.
499

CPD does not normally lead to a higher qualification. Rather, it ensures that the professional
returns to or retains the level of expertise required in the profession (or required by a
professional body). CPD also helps professionals to stay up to date with developments in
the profession. CPD usually involves the following (Steyn & Van Niekerk, 2002):
•• Personal development advances L&D professionals’ competencies and achievements
for personal and professional use.
•• Career development supports the professional advancement of L&D professionals to
higher-level or broadened positions by providing them with the necessary qualifications
and developing their skills to prepare for anticipated vacancies.
•• Organisational development improves employability and performance capability to
benefit the organisation as a whole.
CPD does not normally lead to a higher qualification but it ensures that the professional
returns to or retains the level of expertise required in the profession.
HRD as a profession will remain viable only as long as practitioners continue to develop
and enhance their competencies. In today’s knowledge-based economy, continuous
professional development has become an essential part of professional life, not an option.
It has become an integral feature of contemporary working life (Coetzee et al., 2016; Rees
& French, 2010). The benefits to L&D professionals of engaging in CPD activities are
outlined below (Coleman, 1992; Rees & French, 2016):
•• CPD increases practitioners’ breadth and depth of understanding and their ability to
apply the principles of quality outcomes-based/work-based L&D.
•• Provides a way to keep up to date with developments in the field. When L&D
professionals use the most current technology and techniques, they are able to produce
the most value-adding solutions.
•• Expands professional networks. Such networks are useful when looking for employment
opportunities or when seeking help with a problem.
•• Makes L&D professionals more valuable to employees and employers. Better skills,
up-to-date knowledge, and broad professional networks increase practitioners’ ability
to handle each new assignment.
•• Helps to update, increase the L&D professional’s competence and enhance their
career mobility. CPD also expands L&D professionals’ options and helps to develop
transferable skills.
•• Serves as an auditable record of development activities and agreed development
planning. In the organisational context, CPD cultivates talent and L&D professionals
can capitalise on exponential learning and become a valuable resource for management.
•• Provides an alternative to a linear career path. Updated, current and relevant knowledge
and skills currency offer possibilities for a self-managed career. As such, CPD serves
as an investment for employment continuity or sustained employability. The L&D
professional works on CPD as a personal venture for investment.
500

Activity
Self-reflection on your CPD

Reflect on your personal CPD activities. Discuss your examples of CPD activities with
a trusted colleague. Review the benefits listed above. Which of those benefits have
you experienced? What has the learning through your CPD activities enabled you to do
differently?
Apart from formal further education at a university, there are many ways to acquire or
enhance the knowledge and skills required by the L&D professional (these are listed
in Table 10.3 and in the self-assessment activity). A regular, systematic and integrated
personal development plan helps L&D professionals to get the most out of their CPD.
There is always more to do than time available to do it, so L&D professionals have to
invest their time, money and effort in the most effective way. L&D professionals need to
examine the range of continuous professional development activities available, especially in
the following five areas (Coleman, 1992):
1. Joining refers to becoming a member of professional societies in the HRD field.
Membership of one or more professional societies (e.g. ATD, SABPP) provides
opportunities to explore, participate in and influence the profession. Practitioners from
a variety of settings become members, attend meetings, make presentations, write for
society publications, network and serve as volunteers.
2. Reading involves interpreting written materials to explain, report on and expand L&D
information. The information ranges from personal opinion to factual accounts, from
promotional expositions to scholarly inquiries. Typical reading materials include books,
periodicals, journals, newsletters, trade publications, vendor literature, professional
society publications, training materials, research reports, monographs, conference
proceedings and reports of L&D interventions. Reading materials are often the
cheapest source of information, the easiest to share, and the most convenient to use.
The information can be read and reread, as necessary.
3. Attending refers to participating in a wide variety of events designed to bring
practitioners together to share information and ideas. Interactions include face-to-
face interactions, mobile technology (e.g. Twitter, Facebook), Skype, Linkedln, social
networks, YouTube, online discussions, and videos or DVDs of presentations. Events
include workshops, conferences, lectures, courses, seminars, video screenings, vendor
promotions and exhibitions. While attending is often the most expensive and time-
consuming activity of professional development, it is also often the source of the most
current information.
4. Networking refers to making contact with other professionals to seek their help or to
offer support. Many experienced practitioners believe that networking is the single
most valuable source of continuous professional development. Networking activities
include face-to-face discussions, telephone discussions and electronic bulletin boards.
5. Sharing refers to contributing time or expertise to individuals or groups to explore
ideas, give help, provide services or act as an adviser. Specific activities include serving as
a member of a committee, serving as an appointed officer, publishing, teaching, making
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presentations at conferences or workshops, and mentoring. Professional and personal

growth comes from imparting knowledge, interacting, serving, counselling, mentoring,
and helping others to grow. By engaging in these activities, L&D professionals learn
while they teach.
These five types of activity – joining, reading, attending, networking and sharing – are
the ways in which continuous professional development takes place. Every effective
learning programme involves a combination of these five types of activity. However, L&D
professionals must always remember that, as members of a knowledge society, they need to
ensure that furthering their higher educational qualifications form the basis for any CPD
activities.
Activity
Action plan for CPD

Reflect on the development areas (and the action plan) you identified in the previous self-
assessment activity. Study the five activities for continuous professional development.
Also, keep your current formal higher education qualification level in mind. Now
complete the action plan below. Indicate activities that you could engage in to ensure
your continued professional growth as an L&D professional.
Review the plan every three months and at the beginning of any new L&D project
or assignment. Modify the plan as necessary to adapt to changes in interests, job
demands, available financial resources and other relevant factors. Creating, using and
revising this action plan are systematic approaches to developing and enhancing your
employability and performance capability as a professional L&D professional.
Activity for
continued
professional
growth This is what I plan to do This is how I will do it
Joining I belong to (or will join) the following organisations
and/or societies:
Reading I plan to read _____ hours per week from the sources
listed below:
Attending I plan to attend the following events in the next

_____ months:
Networking I currently estimate my professional network to

contain _____ sources. Within the next _____
months, I plan to have _____ sources in my network.
Sharing I now engage in the following activities:

During the next months I plan to do the following:
Furthering My current higher education qualifications are the

my higher following:
education During the next years, I plan to obtain the following
qualifications higher education qualifications:
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7. ETHICAL ISSUES IN L&D
HRD – and therefore L&D which is part of HRD – is in and of itself an ethical endeavour.
HRD – and therefore L&D which is part of HRD – is in and of itself an ethical endeavour
(Stewart, 2007). Approaches to needs and expectations analyses, learning design and
training delivery, assessment and evaluation, represent ethical choices and, therefore, need
L&D professionals to make decisions with full ethical consideration. That is, they should
be aware of and consider the ethical implications of their decisions and their advice to
other decision-makers involved in the L&D endeavour (Lin & Kolb, 2006; Stewart &
Rigg, 2011). For example, consider the tendency to subjectivity in assessment. Despite the
use of criterion-based assessment through the use of instruments, such as person and job
specifications, performance standards and assessment criteria in unit standards, subjective
judgements are always required since the judgements are made by human beings. It is
inevitable that ethics is at play in L&D since subjectivity is influenced by individual and
personal beliefs and values, that is, by a personal ethical code (Stewart & Rigg, 2011).
It is inevitable that ethics is at play in L&D since subjectivity is influenced by individual

beliefs and values, that is, by a personal ethical code.
Ethics is concerned with establishing what is right or moral and with translating what is
established as right or moral into a system of codes or rules which govern behaviour (Stewart
& Rigg, 2011). In other words, ethics involves the application of standards of conduct to
specific situations or decisions. A code of ethics defines good standards of conduct for the
profession. A code of conduct provides a system of ethics to govern behaviour which, in
turn, is based on a set of ethical values and principles (see Table 10.2), which themselves
are derived from a study of what is right or wrong (Stewart & Rigg, 2011). Codes of ethics
do not result in ethical behaviour, but rather give L&D professionals a basis for exercising
judgement about ethical matters in L&D practice.
In the context of L&D as a recognised profession, professionalism characterises
behaviour that observes a set of moral or ethical values and principles (see Table 10.2) that
promote collective rather than individual good. Professionalism relies on individual self-
discipline and control in meeting personal, as well as collective, ethical standards, rather
than on only the external or imposed codes of practice associated with the profession
(Stewart & Rigg, 2011).
General ethical issues that L&D professionals need to consider are the following
(Coetzee 2004a,b; Rothwell et al., 1995; Westgaard, 1992):
•• Maintaining appropriate confidentiality and integrity;
•• Saying no to inappropriate requests;
•• Showing respect for copyright, sources and intellectual property, and complying with
laws and regulations governing the L&D profession and position;
•• Ensuring truth in claims, data and recommendations;
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•• Balancing organisational, stakeholder and individual needs, expectations and interests;

•• Ensuring client and user involvement, participation and ownership;
•• Avoiding conflicts of interest;
•• Managing personal biases;
•• Showing respect for, interest in, and representation of individual and population
differences;
•• Making the L&D intervention appropriate to the client’s needs;
•• Ensuring transparency, fairness, integrity, reliability, consistency and validity in the
application of L&D processes, tools and techniques (see also Chapter 7);
•• Being sensitive to the direct and indirect effects of L&D interventions and acting to
address negative consequences;
•• Pricing or costing products or services fairly;
•• Using power appropriately;
•• Recognising the rights and dignities of each individual;
•• Developing human potential;
•• Providing the employer, clients and learners with the highest quality education, training
and development;
•• Striving to keep informed of pertinent knowledge and competence in the HRD field;
•• Supporting peers and avoiding conduct that hinders them in practising their profession;
•• Conducting oneself in an ethical and honest manner;
•• Improving the public understanding of human resource development and management;
•• Fairly and accurately representing one’s L&D credentials, qualifications, experience and
ability; and
•• Contributing to the continuing growth of the L&D profession.
A survey among L&D professionals on the most frequent ethical issues they need to deal
with include:
•• Digital copyright (getting permission, fair use versus plagiarism);
•• Violation of learner privacy and disclosing online confidential information;
•• The impact of mobile learning and online materials on people from diverse backgrounds
(that is, stereotyping people, meaningfulness of materials, access to technology and
online facilities) and learning capabilities (that is, issues of disability);
•• Conflict of interest; and
•• Possessing sufficient credentials to perform confidently and professionally in design and
training/learning intervention situations (Lin & Kolb, 2006).
Example of ethical principles stated by SABPP (www.sabpp.co.za)

We value what we can offer as a profession and recognise the stewardship role of
the profession and its members. The role is embodied in the norms and principles we
stand for. The purpose of our code of conduct is to entrench the obligation we have
as professional HR practitioners to uphold the profession’s norms and principles and
to conduct our activities in a professional and ethical manner. To ensure the trust of all
our stakeholders, we strive to build the reputation of the profession and its members
through the values of responsibility, integrity, respect and competence.
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Our ethical identity

As members of the profession of human resource management in South Africa, we
actively pursue the ideals of professionalism and are, therefore, ethically obliged to:
• Bring meaning and quality of work life to the people we serve in our professional
capacities;
• Ensure the sustainability of the organisations that we serve;
• Make a difference to the communities we touch.
L&D professionals can occupy an important position in any organisation by being

committed to ethical standards and making valuable contributions to the organisation’s
capability goals. Table 10.5 contains a checklist for being a proactive and ethical L&D
professional. Table 10.6 provides guidelines for dealing with ethical issues.
Table 10.5 C
hecklist for being a proactive and ethical L&D professional (based on
Kaufman & Watters, 1992)
Checklist
•• Can I justify, both financially and ethically, my intended actions and interventions on the basis of benefits to
society, benefits to the organisation and its stakeholders, and contributions to internal clients?
•• For each intended action and intervention, did I ask, ‘Why?’ and ‘What will happen if I accomplish this?’ Did the
answers meet ethical and financial standards?
•• Did I relate means and ends for each action and intervention?
•• Did I define quality in terms of results and added value, not just compliance with accepted procedures?
•• On the basis of research and development, can I substantiate what I intend to do and deliver?
•• Am I willing to forego the job if ethical standards will not be met?
•• Do I define quality in terms of delivering the right results to the right place at the right time, the first time?
•• Would I be comfortable reading in tomorrow’s newspaper about what I am planning to do and deliver?
Activity
Ethics: Reporting plagiarism

You are a mentor for an employee who attended one of your learning programmes. The
employee is also attending a learning programme with an external L&D provider, which
requires her to submit a written essay on the theoretical components of the learning
programme. She asks you to read her essay before she submits it for assessment.
You routinely Google her work and submit it to a plagiarism software program. You
discovered that large parts have been copied verbatim from the web with no quotations
marks or citations.
Questions
• What should you do?
• Is there a way to monitor the employee’s future behaviour without irreparably
damaging her career?
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Discussion
This case highlights the importance of formal ethics instruction for learners (employees who
attend learning programmes). Many employees (learners) do not understand that material
from the web is not free but must be acknowledged with the same citation structure and
protocols that are used for printed material. While ignorance of the law on plagiarism does
not excuse breaking it, in many cases there is no intent to do wrong. It is also possible that
this employee (learner) knows that she is cheating but is claiming ignorance, hoping to
escape the consequences. One of the options is to ignore the problem. Alternatively, you
could contact the L&D professional (trainer) and discuss the problem with them. You could
alert the employee’s supervisor that there is a cheating learner on the programme. You
could also tell no one else and treat the incident as a teaching opportunity, working with
the employee to help her understand the seriousness of her action and how to correct
it. An outside observer might ask whether L&D professionals and supervisors discuss
plagiarism in their L&D orientation programmes. Another question might be whether
there is a way to monitor the employee’s (learner’s) future behaviour without irreparably
damaging her future (adapted from Doss & Popkin, 2011).
Table 10.6 G
uidelines for dealing with ethical dilemmas in L&D (based on Curry et al.,
2004; Mattison, 2000)
Dealing with ethical dilemmas in L&D

1. Do you have sufficient background information on the case? What additional information do you need? Do you
know enough about the context of the situation?
2. Which facets of the case pertain to practice issues and which are ethical? What research pertains to the
situation? Do any ‘generally accepted practice’ standards apply? What is considered best practice?
3. What are your personal values on this issue and which ones are in conflict? How have you responded in the
past to a similar value conflict? Is there a pattern?
4. Are there multiple responsibilities associated with this situation? What are the competing interests? Who
are the stakeholders (individuals or groups affected by the decision)? What are the key variables that could
influence your decision-making?
5. What are the relevant ethical standards that apply to the case? Do the ethical standards conflict?
6. What are the possible choices of action? What are the consequences of those choices? Which choices benefit
the learner/training participant or client? Which benefit you? Which benefit the organisation? Which benefit
the larger society?
7. Which priority/obligations should you honour foremost? Are you prepared to justify your decision? Can you
explain your decision-making approach regarding the particular case situation?
8. What have you learned from this particular case about your ethical decision-making style?
Case study
Ethical dilemma: Diversity training – fad or here to stay? (based on Cascio, 2003)
Diversity training is a flourishing business in South Africa. Most South African companies
are engaged in one form or another of diversity training. All are built on the assumption
that ‘understanding breeds better relationships’. Fair enough. However, some diversity
consultants promise corporations that they will increase their profits by ‘empowering
their whole workforce’. How could one support that claim? To some, the preferred
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solution to the problem of measurement and description is to declare them irrelevant

and proceed on faith alone.
Question
Is diversity training ethically justifiable in light of the principles of sound L&D practice –
value‑added learning programme design and delivery, needs assessment, careful specification
of programme objectives and learning outcomes, and then evaluation of training in terms of
the original objectives and stated outcomes? Give reasons for your answer.
Table 10.7 Ethical standards in L&D (based on Curry et al., 2004)

Standards and responsibilities to clients
The L&D professional must clarify roles and responsibilities to all relevant parties and discuss potential
possibilities of conflicting loyalties.
Product/service recipient focused
L&D professionals:
•• Advocate for the wellbeing of the product/service recipient;
•• Preserve and promote the dignity of clients discussed in L&D activities (needs analyses, learning design and
delivery, assessment and evaluation);
•• Maintain the confidentiality of clients during L&D activities; and
•• Provide L&D activities that help practitioners understand and promote the wellbeing of the product/service
recipients.
Learner/training participant focused
•• The dignity and worth of all programme learners/participants are recognised, protected and, where possible,
enhanced.
•• Expectations should be clarified regarding:
–– The learning programme’s goals and learning outcomes, learning and development process, assessment
criteria and performance standards, and assessment and evaluation methods and processes;
–– The roles of those involved in the learning/L&D activities (trainer/learning facilitator, learner, supervisor,
programme sponsor);
–– The rules/policies affecting the learner (e.g. attendance policy, expectations for application of learning on-
the-job, and policies regarding confidentiality of information shared during training); and
–– Interpersonal behaviour, such as how to respectfully disagree with others.
•• All reasonable efforts are taken to promote learner/participant physical and emotional safety. When L&D
activities present a risk to the physical and/or emotional safety to the learners/participants, the L&D
professional should consider the potential gain of the learning/training with the potential for discomfort or
harm to the participant. Alternative learning and assessment activities should be considered.
•• When there is a potential risk of learner/participant harm or discomfort, the learner/participant should be made
aware of the risk and potential for learning and assessment, and given the opportunity to participate or not
participate.
•• When training content areas that have a likelihood of causing emotional reactions, the L&D professional should
have a plan on how to handle reactions that will support the learner/participant experiencing the reaction
without distracting the other learners/participants from their learning process.
•• L&D professionals should attempt to promote a climate of trust and mutual respect in L&D activities (learning
and assessment) so that learners/participants feel supported enough to take risks to promote their learning and
development.
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•• L&D professionals should promote learner/participant acquisition of knowledge and skills, as well as learner/
participant self-awareness and self-development.
•• L&D professionals should encourage and provide support to learners/participants for the transfer of knowledge
and skills to the workplace and the application of learning to the job in accordance with stakeholder
expectations and needs.
•• Learners/participants should be given the opportunity to provide feedback regarding the L&D activities
(learning and assessment) they receive. L&D professionals should provide clear guidelines on procedures for
assessing achievement of learning outcomes and providing feedback.
•• Assessment should comply with the national unit standard for best outcomes-based assessment practice or
QCTO standards for assessment.
•• When using ‘deception’ (withholding information from learners/participants or providing misleading
information to learners/participants) for strategic training/learning purposes (e.g. the surprise effect), the L&D
professional must ‘undo’ the deception by providing correct information at the conclusion of the activity. The
benefits of the deceptive activity should be assessed relative to the potential loss of trust and/or discomfort of
the learners/participants.
•• Expectations regarding the confidentiality, as well as limits of confidentiality, of information shared during L&D
activities (e.g. learning and assessment) should be clarified prior to and/or at the beginning of those activities.
If information will be shared with others (e.g. learner/participant knowledge test scores shared with the
supervisor/employer), the learner/participant should be informed.
Employer/sponsor focused
•• Prior to the initiation of L&D activities (learning and assessment), expectations should be clarified with the
employer/sponsor regarding:
–– The learning programme’s goals and objective (e.g. the type of training need addressed, the expected
learning outcomes, the targeted learner audience).
–– The roles of those involved in the learning and assessment activities (e.g. trainer, supervisor, learner,
programme sponsor).
–– The rules/policies affecting the learner and others involved in the learning and assessment, and the transfer
to the workplace (work experience) process (e.g. attendance policy, expectations for application of learning
on-the-job, conditions required for work experience activities/learning and assessment, performance
standards and indicators, and policies regarding confidentiality of information shared during training and
assessment).
–– Interpersonal behaviour, such as how to respectfully disagree with others.
•• L&D professionals should strive to adhere to commitments made to employers or sponsoring organisations.
However, L&D professionals should not permit employers or sponsoring organisation to interfere with ethical
obligations.
•• L&D professionals should develop and maintain competence (CPD) in two major areas:
1. The product/service competency area in which one is providing L&D activities (e.g. workplace learning/
occupational-based learning programme design);
2. The L&D competencies pertaining to one’s L&D role/occupational/job tasks and responsibilities (see Table
10.1 and Table 10.3).
•• L&D professionals do not practise outside their areas of interest. If one is not proficient in a required
competency area, one should either improve one’s competence or discontinue practice in that area. Temporary
improvement in competence may occur by teaming up with another professional competent in that area (e.g.
workplace learning design; occupationally specific work-based learning design; assessment; or subject
matter expert).
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•• L&D activities should only be used to address legitimate L&D needs and expectations. L&D activities (learning,
assessment and evaluation) are not used when other non-training and development interventions are more
appropriate.
•• L&D activities should not be used to solicit contributions or support for political, religious or other causes.
L&D activities should be based on identified needs and expectations that will add value to the business or
broader community/society.
•• L&D activities should not be used to sell products or services or provide opportunities that can be used to
benefit the financial interest of the L&D professional. Although L&D professionals may receive payment for
conducting L&D activities and/or providing a product/service that address identified needs and expectations,
training/learning/assessment/evaluation time should not be used for promotional purposes.
•• L&D professionals should include transfer of learning activities or interventions (workplace learning experience
and assessment) in all L&D initiatives.
•• L&D professionals should incorporate strategies and/or content to facilitate cultural competence/diversity
awareness in all training, learning and assessment.
•• L&D professionals should promote the use of training evaluation and research to improve L&D activities.
L&D professionals should adhere to principles of best practice in evaluation and research (see Chapter 8).
•• When an instrument is used in L&D activities (e.g. learning style inventories), L&D professionals should
follow recommended guidelines regarding the instrument’s intended audience and procedures for
application and consider the employment equity legislation regarding the use of psychometric and other
measuring instruments. Results should be appropriately interpreted in terms of the L&D users, based on
known information regarding the instrument’s validity for the application. Potential misapplication and/or
misinterpretation of its results should be avoided.
•• L&D and learner records should be maintained by the L&D professional. At a minimum, the following data
should be maintained: learner group particulars; attendance records; description of curriculum content areas
addressed; programme learning outcomes; unit standards (knowledge, skills, work experience) for learning;
assessment and evaluation; facilitator process guide; learner/participant materials; assessment records
(learner achievements); and programme evaluation outcomes.
•• L&D professionals should accurately represent their credentials (experience, education, training, etc.) and areas
of competence to others.
•• L&D professionals should establish appropriate boundaries between themselves and others so that working
relationships are not confused with personal relationships.
•• L&D professionals must adhere to and model the ethical values and principles of the profession (see Table 10.2).
•• L&D professionals have the responsibility to share information with colleagues to promote best practice, as
well as add to the knowledge and skills base of L&D.
•• L&D contributions of others are appropriately recognised in L&D activities, such as training, scholarly writing
and conference presentations.
•• L&D professionals should obey copyright laws. Even when materials do not contain a copyright symbol, the
original source of the materials should be acknowledge in writing.
•• L&D professionals should articulate and advocate for the appropriate use of L&D activities
•• L&D professionals should use resources efficiently to effectively meet L&D needs and expectations.
•• L&D professionals should provide leadership in their individual areas of expertise. By engaging in CPD activities
and staying current on legislation, policies and best practices in occupationally specific work-based skills
development and learning and assessment design, delivery and evaluation, L&D professionals can advocate in
workplaces and communities for the changes necessary to improve the skills profile and wellbeing of people.
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Activity
Ethics in L&D
Read through the following case examples (adapted from Curry et al., 2004). Study
Table 10.2 and Table 10.7 when reading through the case examples. Use the guidelines
provided in Table 10.6. Discuss in each case whether the L&D professional complied
with the ethical standards outlined in Table 10.7. Identify in each case those that are
compliant or noncompliant. Give reasons for your answers.
Case example 1:
A learning designer integrated examples of diversity into every section of a newly
created curriculum on discipline and poor performance management. The learning
designer also included suggestions for the learning facilitator/trainer in the facilitator
process guide regarding how to explore and help learners better appreciate diversity
among the learner/training group.
Case example 2:
Under the constraints of a tight production timeline and small budget, an instructional
media specialist produced a computer-displayed presentation, which included a DVD
and still pictures, comprised primarily of her relatively homogeneous family members,
friends and neighbours. The computer-displayed presentation was incorporated into a
standardised training package and presented to all employees in a large multicultural
work environment.
Case example 3:
In a simulation/experientially-based training session on how to conduct performance
discussions with emotionally disturbed employees in the workplace, the learners/
participants are permitted to choose the role they will experience. The roles are clearly
defined so that learners can avoid roles that might be difficult or uncomfortable.
Learners who choose not to experience any role are given another learning assignment
that supports the same learning objective as the simulation. Learning facilitators are
available to ‘step into’ the roles that learners do not fill.
Case example 4:
Management of a large multicultural company makes sexual harassment training
mandatory for all staff. A supervisor sends a graduate intern to the training, but fails to
prepare the graduate for the intense nature of the subject matter. The graduate intern,
who recently experienced a sexual assault, grows more and more emotionally upset
during the training. However, not wanting to challenge the supervisor or company
policy, the graduate intern remains in the training.
Case example 5:
A skills development provider develops written guidelines regarding the process of
ongoing CPD by the learners of a learning programme after each training session. The
assessment, evaluation and CPD guidelines are provided to all L&D professionals and
learners attending the learning programme.
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Case example 6:
Since a standardised training curriculum is mandated for all new graduates-in-training
in a private engineering company, the HRD manager decides that learner feedback
will not affect training delivery and does not administer training evaluation/feedback
questionnaires to the training participants.
Case example 7:
A trainer is expected to administer a post-training knowledge test to the learners of a
learning programme. However, the trainer believes that the testing process will lower
her ratings on the evaluation questionnaire completed by the participants at the end
of training. To potentially increase her evaluation scores (and her chances of being
recontracted to train), the trainer provides the exact questions and answers to the test
in a ‘review session’ immediately before the test administration.
Case example 8:
A trainer of new trainers requests permission (in writing) from the appropriate source to
include copyrighted materials in orientation handout materials to new trainers.
8. CHALLENGES FOR THE L&D PROFESSION

Future trends in HRD closely follow trends in business and society. Most organisations
are already trying to find ways to automate L&D practices. The use of information and
technology, computers and other sophisticated technologies to help practitioners perform
their work will continue to grow. Clients (learners) will become more sophisticated.
The most successful practitioners will depend not only on their L&D expertise, but
also on highly developed technological/digital literacy, professional L&D expertise and
consulting skills. Multicultural and multigenerational skills development issues will
require innovation and creativity. Furthermore, as more sophisticated delivery systems and
technologies are implemented, sharing expertise will become more critical to the success
of L&D interventions.
As more sophisticated delivery systems and technologies are implemented, sharing expertise
will become more critical to the success of L&D interventions.
The future is bright for L&D professionals. As more and more organisations recognise
the value-adding benefits of occupationally directed work-based skills development, the
demand for the services and products of L&D professionals will grow. In South Africa, more
professionally educated, trained and competent L&D professionals are needed to address
the country’s skills development needs. However, the future is not without challenges.
As the L&D profession matures, the practice of quality outcomes-based and work-based
L&D broadens. Organisations will also have a greater choice of L&D professionals.
Quality, reliability and value-adding services and products will become determining factors
in gaining and retaining clients as a skills development provider.
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A survey by Hemsley Fraser (Turner, 2014) identified the following seven key challenges
for the L&D profession:
1. Dealing with change. The VUCA (volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous),
information and technological-driven world of work will give rise to more frequent
and rapid organisational changes (for example, mergers and acquisitions, and new
hardware/software installations). L&D professionals, as well as their clients (managers
and learners), will need to build their capability to adapt to changes, take on new roles
and become innovative and agile in order to bring new L&D solutions to create a
learning, resilient workforce.
2. Serving global, virtual or geographically-dispersed diverse populations. L&D professionals
will face the challenge of having to deliver learning virtually or in multiple languages.
Some of the indirect challenges include developing a communal sense of unity, whether
this is across different locations in the same city or even across different countries.
3. Doing more with less. L&D professionals will need to be innovative in dealing with
internal constraints such as budget cuts, lower staff numbers and external constraints,
such as a demand from customers for increasingly low-cost L&D options and solutions.
4. Getting the buy-in for learning from leaders. L&D often suffers at the expense of
organisational mission-critical priorities. L&D professionals need to ensure that
learning remains a top priority and that the organisation continues to invest in its
learning infrastructure. One way of getting buy-in is by tracking and measuring the
impact and value-add of L&D interventions and programmes.
5. Delivering ‘bite-sized’ learning. Today’s workforce does not want lengthy training
sessions. L&D professionals need to utilise the tools offered by new mobile and online
technology to address the needs of modern adult learners in their learning design
and delivery. Adult learners are more engaged in learning when they experience the
learning as personally meaningful. L&D professionals must provide learners with the
opportunity to apply the new learning on the job and in their personal lives.
6. Engaging employees. Modern-day learners who have access to social learning and mobile
technology place new demands on learning design and delivery. L&D professionals
need to be innovative in harnessing mobile and online technology to keep learners
engaged and motivated in the learning experience.
7. Supporting business development. L&D professionals must become astute in their role as
strategic positioners and capability builders to help the organisation survive and grow
in a competitive market place. L&D interventions should, therefore, also focus on
developing leaders within the organisation.
Progressive L&D professionals understand the importance of focusing on relevant

performance capability issues, and generating cost-effective and proactive L&D solutions
that add value for stakeholders. Reliability and service are dependent on the commitment
and philosophy of the L&D professional. Clients and stakeholders are increasingly
concerned with cost-effective, reliable and value-adding services and products. L&D
professionals should do their jobs with uncompromising integrity and timeliness, aim to
satisfy the needs of stakeholders and be accountable to their clients. The quality of L&D
products and services must always meet or surpass the client’s expectations.
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L&D professionals should do their jobs with uncompromising integrity and timeliness, aim
to satisfy the needs of stakeholders and be accountable to their clients.
The L&D profession will have many opportunities during the coming decade. Opportunities
include expanding the tools to facilitate interesting and engaging learning programmes in
outcomes-based/work-based L&D; conducting research in aspects of the L&D process,
technology and methodology; and expanding the skills for the practice and measurement
of quality outcomes-based and value-adding L&D. Within the context of the National
Skills Development Plan, the pressure to produce value-adding services and products
in a technology-driven and knowledge-driven economy and society is very high. L&D
professionals require more advanced tools and techniques to deal with the demands. These
demands include issues such as rapid change in organisations, the use of advanced delivery
systems for L&D, multicultural needs in the workplace, stakeholder expectations and
requirements for value and quality compliance and measurement of their own productivity
and value-added contribution to business goals.

1. What value do the key roles of the L&D professional add to the performance
capability of employees and the organisation?
2. Why is it important for L&D professionals to be professionally educated and trained?
3. What are the core competencies that L&D professionals need to demonstrate in the
South African workplace?
4. How do L&D professionals benefit from continued professional development? How
can they ensure that they stay abreast of new technology and developments in the
HRD field?
5. Why is ethical behaviour an important characteristic of effective L&D professionals?
6. What are the challenges for the L&D profession in the coming decade?
Summary
In this chapter, we reviewed L&D as a profession and practice. L&D professionals need
to engage in continued professional development to ensure that they capitalise on the
exciting opportunities for networking and for the design of innovative L&D techniques.
The rapid transformation of societies within a VUCA world of work will continue to
challenge the L&D professionals to be creative. L&D professionals who engage in ethical
behaviour and continued professional development activities will benefit from the highly
valued results they deliver through their continued expertise and professionalism.
A L&D professional must, therefore, embrace the concept of lifelong learning to ensure
their own repertoire of knowledge and skills is relevant and current.
L&D professionals can grow throughout their professional lives. Their work is purposeful.
513

CONCLUSION
HRD is an important part of an organisation’s strategy to sustain its learning and
performance capability. HRD and, in particular, L&D activities have an impact on all
aspects of the employment of people, from the onboarding of new employees to the
development of future generations of directors. Unless employees are exposed to learning
and development opportunities in the workplace, they cannot be expected to fulfil
their roles, even if they know what their roles are. The challenge facing managers, L&D
professionals and organisations is how to make cost-effective use of L&D interventions
within the organisation. L&D professionals who apply the principles, theories and
practices in this book will be recognised for their contributions to the organisation’s and its
employees’ performance capability and productivity.
Learning and development, along with knowledge management, are gaining increasing
significance from the inclusion of a strategic perspective to the education, training and
development of the human resources within the organisation. The stakeholder approach
to strategic HRD management ensures that L&D efforts add value for stakeholders. L&D
professionals who take pride in their professionalism and realise that learning continues
throughout the lives of individuals will assist organisations and individuals to sustain their
competitive edge in a changing business environment.
‘If people have talent and cannot use it, they have failed. If they have talent and use only
half of it, they have partly failed. If they have a talent and learn somehow to use the whole
of it, they have gloriously succeeded and won a satisfaction and a triumph few people ever
know.’ (Thomas Wolfe cited in Palmer, 2002)
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APPENDIX
A
NQF LEVEL DESCRIPTORS AND QCTO
LARF GUIDE
The tables show the applied competencies required at each level in order for learners to be
declared competent (SAQA, 2011a,b).

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Table 1 Level descriptors for NQF Levels 1–4 (SAQA, 2011)
Applied competence
Competence area (These are the competences that learners should be able to demonstrate after completing a qualification at each corresponding NQF Level)
NQF Level 1 NQF Level 2 NQF Level 3 NQF Level 4
Knowledge literacy A learner is able to demonstrate A learner is able to demonstrate A learner is able to demonstrate A learner is able to demonstrate
an understanding that knowledge an understanding that one’s own an understanding that knowledge an understanding that knowledge
in a particular field develops knowledge of a particular field or in a field can only be applied if in one field can be applied to
over a period of time through the system develops through active the knowledge, as well as its related fields.
efforts of a number of people participation in relevant activities. relationship to other relevant
and often through the synthesis information in related fields, is
of information from a variety of understood.
related sources and fields.
Method and A learner is able to demonstrate A learner is able to demonstrate an A learner is able to demonstrate A learner is able to demonstrate an
procedure an ability to use key common ability to use a variety of common operational literacy, a capacity ability to apply essential methods,
tools and instruments, and a tools and instruments, and a to operate within clearly defined procedures and techniques of
capacity to apply him- or herself capacity to work in a disciplined contexts, and an ability to work the field or discipline to a given
to a well-defined task under direct manner in a well-structured and within a managed environment. familiar context, and an ability to
supervision. supervised environment. motivate a change using relevant
evidence.
Problem-solving A learner is able to demonstrate A learner is able to demonstrate A learner is able to demonstrate A learner is able to demonstrate
an ability to recognise and solve an ability to use own knowledge to an ability to use own knowledge an ability to use own knowledge to
problems within a familiar, well- select and apply known solutions to select appropriate procedures solve common problems within a
defined context. to well-defined routine problems. to solve problems within given familiar context, and an ability to
parameters. adjust an application of a common
solution within relevant parameters
to meet the needs of small changes
in the problem or operating
context, with an understanding
of the consequences of related
actions.
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Applied competence
Ethics and A learner is able to demonstrate A learner is able to demonstrate an A learner is able to demonstrate A learner is able to demonstrate an
professional an ability to identify and develop ability to apply personal values and an ability to comply with ability to adhere to organisational
practice own personal values as well as ethics in a specific environment. organisational ethics. ethics and a code of conduct, and
ethics, and an ability to identify an ability to understand societal
ethics applicable in a specific values and ethics.
environment.
Accessing, A learner is able to demonstrate A learner is able to demonstrate A learner is able to demonstrate A learner is able to demonstrate
processing an ability to recall, collect and the ability to apply literacy and a basic ability to summarise and a basic ability to gather relevant
and managing organise given information clearly numeracy skills to a range of interpret information relevant information, analysis and
information and accurately, sound listening and different, but familiar, contexts. to the context from a range of evaluation skills, and an ability
speaking (receptive and productive sources, demonstrate an ability to apply and carry out actions
language use), reading and writing to take a position on available by interpreting information from
skills, and basic numeracy skills, information, discuss the issues and text and operational symbols or
including an understanding of reach a resolution. representations.
symbolic systems.
Producing and A learner is able to demonstrate an A learner is able to demonstrate A learner is able to produce A learner is able to demonstrate
communicating ability to report information clearly a basic ability to collect, organise a coherent presentation and an ability to communicate and
information and accurately in spoken/signed and report information clearly and report, providing explanations for present information reliably and
and written form. accurately, and express an opinion positions taken. accurately in written and in oral or
on given information clearly in signed form.
spoken/signed and written form.
Context and systems A learner is able to demonstrate an A learner is able to demonstrate an A learner is able to demonstrate an A learner is able to demonstrate an
understanding of the context within understanding of the environment understanding of the organisation understanding of the organisation
which he or she operates. within which he or she operates in or operating environment as or operating environment as a
a wider context. a system, and apply skills in system within a wider context.
measuring the environment using
key instruments and equipment.
Appendix A | NQF level descriptors and QCTO LARF guide
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518
Applied competence
Management of A learner is able to demonstrate an A learner is able to demonstrate A learner is able to demonstrate an A learner is able to demonstrate a
learning ability to sequence and schedule a capacity to learn in a disciplined ability to learn within a managed capacity to take responsibility for
learning tasks, and access and use manner in a well-structured and environment. own learning within a supervised
a range of learning resources. supervised environment. environment, and evaluate own
performance against given criteria.
Accountability A learner is able to demonstrate an A learner is able to demonstrate A learner is able to demonstrate A learner is able to demonstrate
ability to work as part of a group. an ability to manage own time capacity to actively contribute to a capacity to take decisions about
effectively, develop sound working team effectiveness. and responsibility for actions, and
relationships, and work effectively take the initiative to address any
as part of a group. shortcomings found.
QCTO LARF guide in terms of the NQF level descriptors (applied competence relevant to the workplace)
(Van Niekerk & Van Zyl, 2014)
NQF level 1 NQF level 1 NQF level 1

Typical activity (predominant things a person will do): Role (characteristics of the expected functions): Task Workplace focus (things or
Perform elementary tasks To provide support; people to interact or deal with):
Perform repetitive, manual tasks with little discretion; Machines, tools
To comply with rules.
Identify and remove waste; Basic tools, materials, waste;
Co-operate with fellow workers. Standard forms.
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Applied competence

Perform elementary tasks To support operations and processes; people to interact or deal with):
Perform repetitive work where some discretion is required; Machines, tools
To respond to deviations;
Monitor quality of materials, information, process and Equipment, machinery (semi-
To maintain operations through minor adjustments;
outputs; automatic, single purpose),
To contribute to team outputs; instruments, materials;
Record, organise and report readily available information;
To apply operating procedures; Internal and external customers;
To work as a productive and active member of a team;
To confirm compliance with standards; Own and other teams;
Operate equipment and machinery;
To support operations and processes; Product or service;
Make simple settings and adjustments;
To respond to deviations; Operating procedures and
Perform reception duties;
To maintain operations through adjustments; standards.
Interpret work instructions;
Perform repetitive work where some discretion is required;
Monitor quality of materials, information, process and
outputs;
Record, organise and report readily available information.

Perform elementary tasks To complete tasks within required time; people to interact or deal with):
Plan work process; Machines, tools
To ensure procedures are applied consistently;
Allocate tasks; Quality;
To ensure work standards are met;
Monitor progress at work; Delivery targets;
To ensure availability of equipment and instruments;
Use equipment and instruments; Wastage;
To ensure team works effectively and efficiently.
Contribute to team efforts and objectives. Safety.
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520
Applied competence

Perform elementary tasks To troubleshoot; people to interact or deal with):
Initiate activities; Machines, tools
To ensure smooth workflow, according to schedule, quality standards,
Interpret work instructions; safely; Workflow;
Schedule; To comply with legal requirements; Client satisfaction;
Organise resources; To ensure efficient use of resources; Work or service related data, cost;
Allocate work and resources; To ensure availability and reliability; Team;
Perform technical tasks; To lead and direct operations; Environmental conditions.
Install, assemble, repair; To identify and anticipate problems;
Provide services; To apply technical judgement.
Attend to client needs;
Ensure progress and completion.
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Table 2 Level descriptors for NQF Levels 5 to 10 (SAQA, 2011)
Applied competence
NQF Level 5 NQF Level 6 NQF Level 7 NQF Level 8 NQF Level 9 NQF Level 10
Knowledge literacy A learner is able A learner is able A learner is able A learner is able to A learner is able A learner is able
to demonstrate an to demonstrate an to demonstrate demonstrate an ability to demonstrate an to demonstrate an
awareness of how understanding of an understanding to interrogate multiple ability to evaluate ability to contribute
knowledge or a different forms of of knowledge as sources of knowledge current processes of to scholarly debates
knowledge system knowledge, schools contested and has in an area of knowledge production around theories
develops and evolves of thought and forms an ability to evaluate specialisation and to and to choose an of knowledge
within the area of of explanation within types of knowledge evaluate knowledge appropriate processes and processes of
study or operation. an area of study, and explanations and processes of enquiry for the area knowledge production
operation or practice, typical within the area of knowledge of study or practice. in an area of study
and possesses of study or practice. production. or practice.
an awareness of
knowledge production
processes.
Method and A learner is able A learner is able to A learner is able A learner is able A learner is able A learner is able
procedure to demonstrate an demonstrate an ability to demonstrate: an to demonstrate an to demonstrate a to demonstrate an
ability to select to evaluate, select understanding of a understanding of command of and ability to develop new
and apply standard and apply appropriate range of methods the complexities ability to design, methods, techniques,
methods, procedures methods, procedures of enquiry in a and uncertainties of select and apply processes, systems
or techniques within or techniques field, discipline or selecting, applying appropriate and or technologies in
the field, discipline in processes of practice, and their or transferring creative methods, original, creative
or practice, and to investigation or suitability to specific appropriate standard techniques, processes and innovative
plan and manage application within a investigations; and procedures, processes or technologies to ways appropriate
an implementation defined context. has an ability to or techniques to complex practical and to specialised and
process within a select and apply a unfamiliar problems theoretical problems. complex contexts.
well-defined, familiar range of methods in a specialised field,
and supported to resolve problems discipline or practice.
environment. or introduce change
within a practice.
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522
Applied competence
Problem-solving A learner is able A learner is able to A learner is able to A learner is able A learner is able A learner is able to
to demonstrate an demonstrate an ability demonstrate an ability to demonstrate to demonstrate an demonstrate an ability
ability to identify, to identify, analyse to identify, analyse, an ability to use a ability to use a wide to apply specialist
evaluate and solve and solve problems in evaluate, critically range of specialised range of specialised knowledge and theory
defined, routine unfamiliar contexts, reflect on and address skills to identify, skills in identifying, in critically reflexive,
and new problems gathering evidence complex problems, analyse and address conceptualising, creative and novel
within a familiar and applying solutions applying evidence- complex or abstract designing and ways to address
context, and to apply based on evidence based solutions problems drawing implementing complex practical and
solutions based on and procedures and theory-driven systematically on the methods of enquiry theoretical problems.
relevant evidence and appropriate to the arguments. body of knowledge to address complex
procedures or other field, discipline or and methods and challenging
forms of explanation practice. appropriate to a field, problems within a
appropriate to the discipline or practice. field, discipline or
field, discipline practice; and has an
or practice, understanding of the
demonstrating an consequences of any
understanding of the solutions or insights
consequences. generated within a
specialised context.
Ethics and A learner is able to A learner is able A learner is able to A learner is able A learner is able to A learner is able to
professional practice demonstrate an ability to demonstrate an demonstrate an ability to demonstrate an demonstrate an ability demonstrate an ability
to take account of, understanding of the to take decisions ability to identify and to make autonomous to identify, address
and act in accordance ethical implications and act ethically and address ethical issues ethical decisions that and manage emerging
with prescribed of decisions and professionally, and based on critical affect knowledge ethical issues, and to
organisational and actions within an has the ability to reflection on the production, advance processes
professional ethical organisational justify those decisions suitability of different or complex of ethical decision
codes of conduct, or professional and actions drawing ethical value systems organisational or making, including
values and practices context, based on an on appropriate to specific contexts. professional issues, monitoring and
and to seek guidance awareness of the ethical values and has an ability to evaluating the
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Applied competence
on ethical and complexity of ethical and approaches, critically contribute to consequences of

professional issues dilemmas. within a supported the development of these decisions,
where necessary. environment. ethical standards in a where appropriate.
specific context.
Accessing, A learner is able A learner is able A learner is able A learner is able A learner is able A learner is able to
processing to demonstrate an to demonstrate an to demonstrate an to demonstrate an to demonstrate an demonstrate an ability
and managing ability to gather ability to evaluate ability to develop ability to critically ability to design and to make independent
information information from a different sources appropriate processes review information implement a strategy judgements about
range of sources, of information, to of information gathering, synthesis for the processing managing incomplete
including oral, written select information gathering for a given of data, evaluation and management or inconsistent
or symbolic texts, to appropriate to the context or use; and management of information, in information or
select information task, and to apply and has an ability processes in order to conduct a data in an iterative
appropriate to the well-developed to independently specialised contexts comprehensive review process of analysis
task, and to apply processes of analysis, validate the sources in order to develop of leading and current and synthesis, for
basic processes of synthesis and of information and creative responses to research in an area the development of
analysis, synthesis evaluation to that evaluate and manage problems and issues. of specialisation to significant original
and evaluation on that information. the information. produce significant insights into new,
information. insights. complex and abstract
ideas, information
or issues.
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524
Applied competence
Producing and A learner is able to A learner is able A learner is able A learner is able A learner is able A learner is able
communicating demonstrate an ability to demonstrate an to demonstrate an to demonstrate an to demonstrate an to demonstrate an
information to communicate ability to present and ability to develop ability to present ability to use the ability to produce
information communicate complex and communicate and communicate resources of academic substantial,
reliably, accurately information reliably his or her ideas academic, and professional independent, in-depth
and coherently, and coherently using and opinions professional or or occupational and publishable
using conventions appropriate academic in well-formed occupational discourses to work which meets
appropriate to the and professional arguments, using ideas and texts communicate and international
context, in written or occupational appropriate academic, effectively to a defend substantial standards, is
and oral or signed conventions, formats professional, range of audiences, ideas that are the considered to be
form or in practical and technologies for a or occupational offering creative products of research new or innovative
demonstration, given context. discourse. insights, rigorous or development in an by peers, and
including an interpretations area of specialisation; makes a significant
understanding of and solutions to and use a range contribution to the
and respect for problems and issues of advanced and discipline, field, or
conventions around appropriate to the specialised skills practice; and has an
intellectual property, context. and discourses ability to develop
copyright and appropriate to a field, a communication
plagiarism, including discipline or practice, strategy to
the associated legal to communicate to a disseminate and
implications. range of audiences defend research,
with different levels strategic and policy

of knowledge or initiatives and their
expertise. implementation
to specialist and
non-specialist
audiences using
the full resources
of an academic
and professional
or occupational
discourse.
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Applied competence
Context and systems A learner is able A learner is able to A learner is able to A learner is able A learner is able to A learner is able
to demonstrate an demonstrate an ability demonstrate an ability to demonstrate an demonstrate an ability to demonstrate:
ability to operate in to make decisions to manage processes ability to operate to make interventions an understanding
a range of familiar and act appropriately in unfamiliar and effectively within a at an appropriate of theoretical
and new contexts, in familiar and variable contexts, system, or manage level within a underpinnings in
demonstrating new contexts, recognising that a system based on system, based on the management of
an understanding demonstrating an problem solving is an understanding an understanding of complex systems
of different kinds understanding of the context- and system- of the roles and hierarchical relations to achieve systemic
of systems, their relationships between bound, and does not relationships between within the system, change; and
constituent parts systems, and of how occur in isolation. elements within the and has the ability to has an ability to
and the relationships actions, ideas or system. address the intended independently design,
between these parts, developments in one and unintended sustain and manage
and has the ability system impact on consequences of change within a
to understand how other systems. interventions. system or systems.
actions in one area
impact on other areas
within the same
system.
Management of A learner is able to A learner is able A learner is able to A learner is able A learner is able A learner is able
learning demonstrate an ability to demonstrate an demonstrate an ability to demonstrate an to demonstrate an to demonstrate an
to evaluate his or ability to evaluate to identify, evaluate ability to apply, in a ability to develop ability to demonstrate
her performance or performance against and address his or her self-critical manner, his or her own intellectual
the performance of given criteria, and learning needs in a learning strategies learning strategies independence,
others and to take accurately identify self-directed manner, which effectively which sustain research leadership
appropriate action and address his or and to facilitate address his or her independent learning and management of
where necessary; and her task-specific collaborative learning professional and and academic research and research
take responsibility learning needs in a processes. ongoing learning or professional development in a
for his or her learning given context, and needs and the development, and can discipline, field
within a structured to provide support to professional and interact effectively or practice.
learning process the learning needs ongoing learning within the learning or
and to promote the of others, where needs of others. professional group as
learning of others. appropriate. a means of enhancing
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learning.
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Applied competence
Accountability A learner is able to A learner is able to A learner is able A learner is able A learner is able A learner is able
demonstrate an ability demonstrate an ability to demonstrate an to demonstrate an to demonstrate an to demonstrate an
to account for his or to work effectively in ability to take full ability to take full ability to operate ability to operate
her actions, to work a team or group, and responsibility for his responsibility for his independently and independently and
effectively with and to take responsibility or her work, decision- or her work, decision- take full responsibility take full responsibility
respect others, and, for his or her decisions making and use of making and use of for his or her own for his or her
in a defined context, and actions and resources, and has resources, and has work, and, where work, and, where
to take supervisory the decisions and limited accountability full accountability appropriate, to appropriate, to lead,
responsibility for actions of others for the decisions and for the decisions and account for leading oversee and to be
others and for the within well-defined actions of others in actions of others, and initiating held ultimately
responsible use of contexts, including varied or ill-defined where appropriate. processes and accountable for the
resources, where the responsibility for contexts. implementing overall governance
appropriate. the use of resources, systems, ensuring of processes and
where appropriate. good resource systems.
management and
governance practices.
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Applied competence
QCTO LARF guide in terms of the NQF level descriptors (applied competence relevant to the workplace)
(Van Niekerk & Van Zyl, 2014)

Typical activity (predominant things a person will do): Perform Role (characteristics of the expected Workplace focus (things or people to
elementary tasks functions): Task interact or deal with): Machines, tools
Plan and implement processes and operations; To co-ordinate supply of resources; Operational systems;
Lead and direct teams and progress; To ensure consistency of outputs; Staff;
Control and manage performance; To implement improved technology and Market requirements, client satisfaction;
Co-ordinate operations with other functions; techniques; Environment;
Implement improvements. To improve skill level, satisfaction and team Allocated budgets;
ethics.
Ethics, good practice.

Investigate and evaluate process options; To respond to changing external and Operational performance and risks;
Collect, evaluate and build a case based on a variety of types of data internal needs; Bottlenecks, trends;
or information, legal and ethical considerations; To implement improved technologies, Departments or division;
Provide advice on systems, technology and methods; revised systems;
Technology, discipline and associated practices.
Implement projects or change processes. To bed down revised practices and systems;
To optimise systems, processes and use
of resources.
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Applied competence

Negotiate contractual terms and conditions; To ensure continuous improvement; Discipline or practice;
Manage policy compliance; To reduce risk; Technology, professional practices;
HR; To ensure compliance with legislation. Tactics;
Procurement; Innovation;
Finance; External environment;
Quality; Stakeholder and environment.
Safety;
Mobilise and manage resources;
Contract services.

Contributes and informs the organisational strategy; To manage specialist operations, e.g. Workforce stability;
Manages stakeholders’ expectations and roles; accounting, personnel, operations, marketing; Stakeholder alignment;
Advocacy; To formulate corporate policies; Organisational culture and values;

Corporate citizenship; To manage roles and relationships between Value chain/proposition;
elements of the system;
Synergy; Continuous professional development.
To manage knowledge.
Research and develop new or revised systems, technology practices;
Perform environmental scans;
Needs analysis;
Assess impact of external conditions;
Interpret metrics.
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Applied competence

Plan and secure capital – financial, intellectual, social, human; To monitor and evaluate performance against Stakeholder wealth and wellbeing;
Enhance and undertake stakeholder and investor relationships; organisational objectives and strategies; Professional boundaries and future shape
Formulate and implement strategy; To act as a transformational leader; of professional activities;
Evaluate the impact and sustainability of implemented strategies; To provide overall direction and management. Governance;
Promote and sustain corporate citizenship; Organisational policy framework;
Establishes and stewards brands; Global operating environment;
Manage and report on the carbon footprint; Capital, financial, human, intellectual, social.
To grow the intellectual capital of the business;
Drive and promote triple bottom line in all marketing and sales decisions;
Promote corporate social investment;
Drive transformation.

Envision, conceptualise and advocate strategies in anticipation of changing To provide global direction and leadership; Practices, paradigms, knowledge;
environments; To provide foresight; The future social, political and economic
Conceptualise and introduce new practices, knowledge. To generate and provide wisdom. systems.
NOTE: Level 10 will not be taught – it can only be learned and only
applies to exceptional leaders.
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
A
Ability: A basic capacity for performing a wide range of different tasks, acquiring knowledge or
developing a skill.
Accelerated learning: An approach to training that relates to the process of creating and maintaining a
psychologically positive learning state by enhancing people’s self-esteem and encouraging confidence
in their ability to learn and perform, thereby reducing mental barriers to learning and improving
performance.
Accreditation: The certification, usually for a particular period of time, of an L&D/skills development
provider as having the capacity to provide the particular training.
Accredited skills development provider: A provider of occupational learning who is accredited by the
QCTO.
Action learning: A form of organisational and individual learning that is also cyclical and experiential in
nature.
Adult learners: Employees who participate in L&D interventions and activities in an organisational
context.
Affective outcome: A type of learning outcome that includes attitudes or beliefs that predispose a person
to behave in a certain way.
Andragogy: An adult learning theory or ideology that focuses on intrinsic motivation and sees adults as
being self-directed. Adults are seen to learn best when they choose content and method of learning.
Applied competence: The combination of a learner’s foundational, practical and reflexive competence
specified in outcomes-based learning programmes, learning programmes and qualifications.
Assessment: A structured process for obtaining evidence about a learner’s competence in order to make
a judgement of competent or not yet competent. Also, a process in which evidence is gathered and
evaluated against agreed criteria to make a judgement of competence for developmental and/or
recognition purposes.
Assessment activities: What a candidate does or is involved in as a means of producing evidence, for
example, designing, making or repairing things, reporting on something, answering questions, solving
problems or demonstrating techniques.
Assessment centre: A centre accredited by the QCTO for the purpose of conducting external summative
assessments for specified registered occupational qualifications.
Assessment criteria: Descriptions of the required type and quality of evidence against which candidates
are to be assessed. Assessment criteria indicate the evidence required in order to declare the learner
competent in each specific outcome. An assessor will assess the learner’s achievements against the
assessment criteria and declare the learner competent or not yet competent.
Assessment design: The analysis of defined outcomes and criteria to produce a detailed description
of how an assessment should take place, including all instructions and information regarding the
assessment activities and assessment methods. The product of assessment design could be termed an
assessment guide.
Assessment evidence: The evidence collected from workplace performance, supplemented by other
performance. This evidence is weighed up against the assessment criteria in the unit standard.
Assessment facilitator (also called evidence facilitator): A person who works within particular
contexts, under supervision of registered assessors, to help candidates/learners gather, produce and
organise evidence for assessment.

Glossary of terms
Assessment guide: A complete package based on a thorough analysis of specified outcomes and criteria,
assessment requirement and a particular assessment context. Assessment guides are designed primarily
for use by assessors to conduct an assessment (or possibly a series of related assessments) in terms of a
significant and coherent outcome of learning, for example, a unit standard or set of learning outcomes
specified for a learning programme.
Assessment instruments: Those items that an assessor uses or a candidate uses as part of the assessment,
for example, scenarios with questions, case studies, descriptions of tasks to be performed, descriptions
of role-play situations.
Assessment methods: Assessment methods relate to what an assessor does to gather and evaluate
evidence. Assessment methods include observing candidates, questioning candidates, interviewing
supervisors/colleagues/managers of candidates, listening to candidates, reviewing written material and
testing products.
Assessment plan: A document compiled by an L&D professional/assessor that gives an overview of the
time frames and responsibilities for assessment and moderation for the agreed delivery period.
Assessment process: The process of planning the assessment, preparing the learner for assessment,
conducting the actual assessment, documenting the evidence, evaluating the evidence and making
assessment judgements, providing feedback to the relevant parties and reviewing/evaluating the
effectiveness of the assessment process.
Assessment quality partner (AQP): A body delegated by the QCTO to develop assessment instruments
and manage external summative assessment of specific occupational qualifications.
Assessment site: Any site selected as suitable to conduct the external summative assessment for a
specified occupational qualification or qualifications where the relevant qualification assessment
specifications do not require the use of an accredited assessment centre.
Assessor: A qualified subject matter expert registered by an assessment quality partner for the purposes of
conducting external assessment for occupational qualifications.
Asynchronous online learning: Self-paced e-learning; flexible learning space in terms of time, place,
pace and participation. Learners who may be situated anywhere in the world can access the material
and respond to it at any time within a defined number of days.
Attitude: A mental state of readiness, organised through experience, to behave in a characteristic way
towards the object of the attitude.
Authentic assessment: The measurement of complex performances and higher order thinking skills in
real-life contexts. Authentic assessment requires learners to demonstrate complex tasks rather than
individual skills practised in isolation.
Automaticity: Occurs when tasks can be performed with limited attention; likely to be developed when
learners are given several extra learning opportunities, even after they have demonstrated mastery of
a task.
B
BEE score card: The BEE (Black Economic Empowerment) Codes of Good Practice define how to
measure the contribution of an organisation to the transformation of our country, and are used to
reward BEE contributors directly through government procurement, the issuing and renewal of
licences in regulated industries and indirectly through the ‘knock on’ effect. An organisation’s BEE
score is based partially on the BEE scores of its suppliers. The BEE scorecard allocates points to
organisations in terms of their transformation performance. BEE points are calculated in terms of the
procurement spent and claimed when using a company that has BEE scores as a supplier. Companies
can boost their BEE scores by buying from suppliers that have BEE scores. Companies are ranked
according to nine levels in terms of BEE status on the BEE scorecard.
Behaviour: Activity directed at achieving something.
Behaviour modelling: Learning approach that consists of observing actual job incumbents (or DVDs/
videos of job incumbents) that demonstrate positive modelling behaviours, rehearsing the behaviour
using role-playing techniques, receiving feedback on the rehearsal, and finally trying out the
behaviour on the job.
Behaviourist perspective: Approach developed by B.F. Skinner that placed the emphasis for behaviour
and directed activity on the environment, rather than on any internal needs or instincts.
Belief: A conviction that something is true.
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Bill: A proposed new law introduced within a legislature that has not yet been ratified, adopted or
received assent. Once a Bill has become law, it becomes an Act.
Blended online learning: Combines asynchronous and synchronous online learning.
Bottom-line measure: Evaluation of a learning programme by determining if the organisation actually
saved money as a result of the training.
Business impact: A method of evaluating the effectiveness of training by determining whether the
objectives and outcomes of the learning programme or L&D intervention were met.
C
Candidate: A person whose performance is being assessed by an assessor. Such people include those who
may already be competent, but who seek assessment for formal recognition (candidates), as well as
those who may have completed or are in the process of completing learning programmes (learners).
Case study: A training technique in which employees, usually in a group, are presented with a real or
hypothetical workplace problem and are asked to propose the best solution.
Certification: On successful completion of a learning programme or learnership, the learner is awarded a
qualification in the form of a certificate, issued by the QCTO.
Classroom climate: The shared perception of learners about the classroom environment, that is, how
they think and feel they are being treated by the L&D professional. The classroom climate can range
from a warm, welcoming and nurturing atmosphere to one that is characterised by coldness and
indifference, as evident in the behaviour displayed by the trainer.
Classroom environment: The conditions, circumstances and influences surrounding and affecting the
development and performance of learners. These include, for example, the physical conditions of
the classroom, the trainer’s physical appearance, body language, language patterns, behaviour and
attitudes towards learners.
Classroom training: A training method in which the L&D professional/learning facilitator
communicates through spoken words, audio-visual materials and group activities that which learners
are supposed to learn; also commonly used to present a large amount of information efficiently to a
large or small number of learners.
Coaching: An approach to training in which there is a one-to-one relationship between a manager and
an individual employee, aimed at developing or enhancing their on-the-job performance.
Cognitive approaches/cognitivism: Cognitive theories focus on how individuals process and interpret
information.
Community of expert practitioners (CEPs): A group of people qualified in the relevant occupation
with a minimum of five years’ current relevant experience in a particular occupation, or who are
recognised by the practitioners of the occupation as experts.
Competencies: Typical behaviours (which include attitudes and beliefs, knowledge and skills) that
individuals demonstrate when undertaking job-relevant tasks to produce job-related outcomes within
a given organisational context. Competencies relate to specific descriptions of work tasks or job
outputs that have to be achieved in order to demonstrate satisfactory job performance.
Compliance evaluation: A form of L&D evaluation that emphasises the organisation’s compliance
with international and national quality standards for outcomes-based and work-based L&D/skills
development practices. It is also known as a quality audit or evaluation.
Constructivism: An adult learning theory, which believes that learners create their own learning. The
active involvement of learners in the learning experience through experiential learning experiences is
emphasised.
Continued professional development (CPD): The further and ongoing L&D activities that a
professional engages in to retain the level of expertise necessary for them to remain abreast of the
developments in the profession and to function at the level at which they are registered with a
professional body.
Credits: The credit value on a unit standard that indicates the notional hours or amount of time a learner
will need to complete the learning programme. One credit equals 10 notional hours.
Criteria: The standards used to measure performance.
Course: The content of a short learning programme through which learners may progressively attain the
applied knowledge, skills and values described in the learning outcomes of the programme and/or
unit standards and/or qualifications.
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Glossary of terms
Criterion-referenced assessment: An assessment approach that focuses on assessing learners’

achievements against a set of external criteria.
Critical cross-field outcomes (CCFO): A set of 12 national outcomes recognised as the basis for the
design of learning programmes, curricula and qualifications. These learning outcomes are relevant
throughout life, not simply in employment and further learning. Employers regard these outcomes as
reflecting work-readiness skills.
Curriculum: The learning programme strategy or broad plan of action for achieving the learning
programme objective (or unit standard’s and qualification’s purpose and outcomes) by enabling
learners to master the programme’s learning outcomes.
Curriculum strategy: A written description of the prescribed content (or embedded knowledge as
described in the unit standard), the formative assessment activities, required learning support material
and learning programme delivery strategy.
D
Data: A collection of information, often in the form of numerical measures of a group of people. Data
is also sometimes used to refer to other kinds of raw material used in research, such as a collection of
texts or images.
Data collection tools: Instruments such as survey questionnaires, interviews, focus groups and
organisational records, used to collect data from the respondents (learners/stakeholders) in order to
measure the effectiveness and efficiency of a programme.
Development: A long-term change effort intended to broaden individuals through experience and
to give them new insights about themselves and their organisation in a way that supports them in
fulfilling their potential.
Development quality partner (DQP): A body delegated by the QCTO to manage the process of
developing specific occupational qualifications, curricula and assessment specifications.
Diagnostic assessment: Testing of a learner’s pre-knowledge, pre-skills, pre-attitudes/values before
attending a learning programme.
Diagnostic evaluation: A form of L&D evaluation relevant to evaluating the effectiveness of the
planning and design of a learning programme.
Digital era: The Fourth Industrial Revolution (Second Machine Age) or digital era – the 21st-century
world of work is characterised by a rapid technological evolution, such as mobile smartphone
technology, that impacts online learning design and social learning.
Distributed practice: An approach to training that allows learners to have rest intervals between their
practice sessions, which are spaced over a longer period of time.
E
Education: An intermediate-term change effort intended to prepare individuals for promotions
(vertical career progression) or for enhanced technical abilities in their current jobs (horizontal
career progression). Education is broader in scope than training and aims to develop the individuals’
knowledge, social understanding and skills, and intellectual capacities.
E-learning: See online learning.
Embedded knowledge: The knowledge learners need to know in order to show competence and
achievement in the unit standard. Also, the knowledge learners will gain from the start to the end of
the learning or skills programme.
Emotional intelligence: An approach to intelligence that describes it in terms of the ability to perceive,
to integrate, to understand and to reflectively manage one’s own and other people’s feelings.
Employability: A person’s ability to gain access to, adjust to, and be productive in the workplace. Also,
the composite set of traits and competencies that permits a person to meet the demands of the 21st-
century workplace.
Ethics: A person’s moral belief about what is right or wrong, or good or bad, which provides a guide to
his or her behaviour.
Ethical behaviour: Behaviour that is regarded as correct and good in relation to behaviour in an
organisational or professional context.
Ethical dilemmas: Situations that have the potential to result in a breach of acceptable behaviour.
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Evaluation: The process of determining the monetary worth of L&D interventions and making
judgements about their compliance with quality standards and best practice. Also, the systematic
collection of descriptive and judgemental information necessary to make effective decisions related to
the selection, adoption, value and modification of various L&D activities.
Evaluation criteria: An approach to L&D evaluation that classifies the purpose of evaluation into broad
categories or dimensions. Each of these dimensions has a number of criteria according to different
evaluation levels, which are the standards or rules by which the dimensions can be judged (for example,
learning programme design, delivery, transfer of learning, impact, value added and quality standards).
Evaluation dimensions: An approach to L&D evaluation that classifies the purpose of evaluation into
broad categories or dimensions.
Evaluation levels: Levels of sophistication in evaluating the value added by training. As the degree
of sophistication goes up, the value tends to increase with it (for example, reaction, learning, job
behaviour change, value-added impact and return on investment).
Evaluation models: Theoretical frameworks that indicate the practical utility of evaluation levels in
determining the L&D evaluation dimensions and criteria to be measured.
Evaluation process: The steps involved in a formal, professionally carried-out evaluation of learning and
learning programmes/L&D interventions conducted in a planned and systematic manner, using valid
and reliable data collection tools and methodology.
Evaluation sponsor: The person(s), group or organisation that requests or requires the evaluation and
provides the resources to conduct it.
Evaluative assessment: A post-assessment activity that is integrated into the overall assessment process to
ensure the quality of the overall assessment process.
Evaluative expertise: The ability to judge the quality of performance in relation to specified criteria
consistently, reliably and with insight. Evaluative expertise implies deep subject matter understanding
and knowledge about the outcomes being assessed at a theoretical and practical level, but does not
necessarily include practical ability in the outcome.
Evaluator: The person responsible for conducting evaluations in the organisation. In most instances, this
person is not a full-time evaluator, but rather has part-time evaluation responsibilities.
Evidence: Tangible proof produced by or about learners that can be perceived with the senses, bearing
a direct relationship to defined learning outcomes and performance criteria, based on which
judgements are made concerning the competence of learners. Evidence includes, for example,
plans, reports, answers to questions, products, testimonials, certificates, descriptions of observed
performances and peer-review reports. This evidence is weighed up by an assessor against the
assessment criteria in the unit standard to evaluate whether a learner has achieved the learning
outcomes of a learning programme.
Experience: Direct participation in, or observation of, events and activities that serve as a basis for
knowledge.
Experiential learning: An approach to training that sees learning as a cyclical, dynamic and continuous
process. It also underscores learning as an active process in which learners are not passive recipients of
training but actively seek out opportunities to apply their behaviour in new situations
Explicit knowledge: Knowledge that is quantifiable and hence easily transferred and reproduced.
Explicit learning: Learning that requires conscious and deliberate thought and effort, such as
memorising, problem-solving and understanding.
F
Facilitation: The skill of interacting with learners to draw out their ideas and lead them to new ideas
and understandings with the aim of helping them to achieve learning goals and outcomes. See also
learning facilitation.
Facilitator/trainer learning and assessment guide: A complete package containing written descriptions
of the learning programme strategy, the learning facilitation process and quality assurance aspects
related to the programme design, delivery, assessment of learners’ achievements and evaluation of the
programme’s effectiveness.
Feedback: Providing employees/learners with specific information about how well they are performing
a task or series of tasks. Also, evaluative or corrective information transmitted to employees/learners
about their attempts to achieve learning tasks and improve their job and/or learning performance.
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Glossary of terms
Fidelity: The extent to which the task for which a person is trained is similar to the task required on the
job. It is important that training tasks have fidelity so that extra time and expense of the training can
directly benefit performance on the job.
Flexible learning approach: A modern learning theory that believes that digital and smartphone
technologies should be used to create flexible and engaging, rich, online learning experiences for
learners.
Formal learning: Learning experiences that occur in the context of formally organised learning
programmes; can include classroom training or workplace training.
Formative assessment: The ongoing assessment that takes place throughout a period of learning and
teaching. It provides the learner with opportunities to practise what has been learned, with the
intention of improving performance in the next assessment. These assessments are conducted to
measure the rate of progress and performance toward achieving competence in an outcome or
outcomes. Formative assessments help one to make decisions about the readiness of the learner to do
a summative assessment.
Formative evaluation: A form of L&D evaluation relevant to evaluating the effectiveness of the delivery
phase of a learning programme for the purpose of guiding programme improvement.
Foundational competence: A learner’s understanding of and demonstration of insight into the
knowledge and thinking that underpins the actions taken.
G
Generational diversity: Important differences in values, aspirations, preferences and beliefs that
characterise the Silent Generation, the Baby Boomers, Generation Xers and Millennials.
Green Paper: A tentative government report on a proposal without any commitment to action; the first
step in changing the law. Green Papers are issued much more frequently than White Papers and are
more open ended. They are also known as consultation documents and may merely propose a strategy
to be implemented or they may set out proposals on which the government wishes to obtain public
views and opinion. They may result in the production of a White Paper.
Gross domestic product (GDP): The total value of the country’s annual output of goods and services.
H
Human capital approach: The recognition that the contribution made by human skills and knowledge
to the production of goods and/or services is a vital ingredient of organisational success.
Humanist perspective: An approach to adult learning that proposes that knowledge is a personal,
subjective issue, not an external commodity waiting to be internalised through the absorption of
content. A basic tenet is that individuals have a natural aptitude for learning and have control over
their own learning processes and outcomes.
Human resource development (HRD): Organised learning experiences provided by employers within a
specified period of time to bring about the possibility of performance improvement, personal growth,
as well as enhance employees’ employability orientation in order to satisfy the current and future
needs of the organisation.
I
Implicit learning: The implicit knowledge that people use daily in most of what they do, but that they
cannot describe.
Informal learning: Learning experiences that occur outside of formal learning programmes; can include
specific job assignments, experiences and activities outside work.
Intelligence: The ability to learn and adapt to an environment; often refers to general intellectual
capacity as opposed to cognitive or mental ability, which often refer to more specific abilities, such as
memory or reasoning.
Integrated assessment: A form of assessment that combines diagnostic, formative, summative and
evaluative assessment to assess a learner’s ability to combine key foundational, practical and reflexive
competencies with some critical cross-field outcomes (CCFOs) and apply these in a practical context
for a defined purpose.
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J
Job profile: A written summary of the tasks, behaviours and competency requirements for a particular
job.
K
Knowledge: An outcome of learning, which refers to information, facts, opinions, theory, arguments,
concepts, and their interrelationship relevant to the required outcome, that an individual can
demonstrate in the workplace. Also, the cognitive outcome of a learning programme that relates to
the way in which people process information and attach sense and meaning to it.
Knowledge management: A process or practice of creating, acquiring, capturing, sharing or using
knowledge (wherever it resides) to enhance learning and performance in the organisation.
Knowledge test: A test that measures the level of an employee’s knowledge about a job-related topic or a
test that measures the level of a learner’s knowledge about a topic/subject.
L
Leading: Directing and co-ordinating task-relevant group activities.
Learner: Anyone who wants to gain a qualification or credits toward a qualification may apply for an
existing learnership, qualification or learning programme; also an individual who participates in a
learning programme or L&D intervention.
Learner-centered approach: An approach to training that regards the learner as an active participant in
the learning facilitation process. It therefore takes into consideration learners’ characteristics, levels of
competence and life experiences in the design and delivery of the learning or learning programmes.
Learner-centered delivery methods: An approach to training delivery in which the trainer and learners
have an interdependent relationship: both share experiences and information. The trainer fulfils the
role of learning facilitator and learners take ownership of their learning as active participants in the
learning process.
Learner profile: Written statements describing learners’ characteristics, levels of competence,
demographics, L&D needs and their motivation for attending a learning programme.
Learner qualifications development facilitator: A qualifications development facilitator in training.
Learnership: A structured learning programme that leads to a nationally recognised qualification on
the NQF. It is an integrated occupation-directed programme that combines learning (a combination
of learning and/or short learning programmes that lead to a nationally recognised qualification) at a
training institution, with practical on-site work experience and learning at the workplace. It includes
an apprenticeship in respect of a listed trade, and trade test in respect of that trade.
Learnership agreement: A legally binding document that must be signed by the employer, the
accredited skills development provider and the learner. The agreement outlines the rights and duties
of the various parties and also specifies the termination date of the learnership, which is formally
registered with the Department of Labour.
Learning: A relatively permanent change in behaviour or potential behaviour that results from the
acquisition of knowledge and facts by study, being taught and through experience. It includes the
acquisition of knowledge, understanding, values, skills, competence and experience, which may
include work-based/occupation-directed work experience in a specific workplace context.
Learning activities: The means L&D professionals use to expose learners to the knowledge, skills,
attitudes and behaviours they will need to master the learning outcomes; also, what learners do or are
involved in as a means to master new competencies.
Learning assumed to be in place: The learning assumed to be in place is the pre-knowledge and skills
that the learner is expected to have before starting the learning programme.
Learning content: The material that is to be learned by the learners, together with the different ways in
which the learning facilitator conveys it to the learners.
Learning cycle: The reiterative, scientific and systematic process of determining learners’ training needs;
designing learning programmes and materials; delivering training; assessing and moderating learners’
achievements; and evaluating the effectiveness of learning or learning programmes for continuous
improvement initiatives.
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Glossary of terms
Learning facilitation: A learner-centered approach to training in which roadblocks to successful

performance by learners are eliminated; adequate resources to enable the achievement of learning
outcomes are provided and careful attention is paid to the needs and motivation of learners. See also
facilitation.
Learning organisation: A company in which continuous learning, knowledge-sharing and mastery-
orientation are emphasised.
Learning outcomes: The learning results learners have to demonstrate at the end of each learning and
assessment activity.
Learning programme: A QCTO-accredited programme, which includes a learnership or apprenticeship,
a short learning programme and any other prescribed learning programme that includes a structured
work-experience component at an accredited work site.
Learning programme objectives: The overall intention or purpose of the learning programme and its
sub-units, modules or courses/learning programmes.
Learning/learning programme strategy: A broad plan of action for curriculum design, learning
and assessment activities, training methods and learning support materials per learning outcome
with a view to helping learners achieve the learning outcomes and overall objective of the learning
programme.
Learning/learning programme delivery strategy: A written description of the learning facilitation mode
(contact or distance learning for example), training methods, learning material, media, resources and
equipment that will be used in the facilitation of the learning programme.
Learning management system (LMS): The web-based program used to create, manage and deliver an
online learning programme.
Learning styles: A learner’s preferred way of learning.
Learning support materials: A complete package of learning resources designed to enable the
achievement of learning outcomes (for example, learner manuals, handouts, books, PowerPoint slides
and posters).
Lecture: An informative talk given to an audience or group of learners.
Legislation: A law that has been promulgated (‘enacted’) by a legislature or other governing body. While
the term may refer to a single law, or the collective body of enacted law, the term ‘statute’ is also used
to refer to a single law. Legislation can have many purposes: to regulate, to authorise, to provide
(funds), to sanction, to grant, to declare or to restrict. In South Africa, legislation is in draft until it
has been for public comment. Once this process is finalised, the legislation becomes final after which
it may only be changed through amendments.
Level descriptors: Level descriptors define the level of complexity of a unit standard or learning
programme and the level of achievement expected of an individual at each of the NQF levels.
Levy grants: If the employer meets certain conditions, such as producing a workplace skills plan, the
SETA will pay a certain percentage of the levy back to the employer in the form of a grant (see also
Skills Development Levies Act).
Longitudinal evaluation: A form of L&D evaluation relevant to evaluating the effectiveness of the
learning programme as a whole, sometime after its completion – three months, six months to a
year (including its compliance with the QCTO quality standards and long-term value added to the
company’s bottom-line).
L&D competency profile: A written description of the set of behaviours, knowledge, skills, values and
attitudes instrumental to the delivery of desired L&D results or outcomes.
L&D evaluation: A set of planned, information-gathering and analytical activities undertaken by L&D
professionals to provide those responsible for the management of the strategic HRD/L&D effort with
a satisfactory assessment of the effects, progress, quality and value added by L&D interventions.
L&D management: The ongoing managerial process of enhancing the HRD function’s ability to ensure
that its L&D practices, processes, services and products contribute to the overall HRD strategy and
business results, along with adding value for stakeholders.
L&D needs analysis: The systematic collection and evaluation of information to determine the gaps in
the existing competency levels, skills, knowledge and attitudes of employees.
L&D professional: A competent, professionally qualified person who demonstrates the ability to
perform a specific or relevant role in educating, training and developing learners within the context of
an outcomes-based, work-based HRD system and national occupational learning system.
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L&D provider: The place where theoretical knowledge and skills are obtained. L&D providers are
organisations or individuals who provide learning or learning programmes, and include universities,
universities of technology, private providers or a company’s in-house training facilities.
L&D value proposition: A written description stating the proposed results and value that workplace
L&D practices, products, and services intend to deliver to stakeholders. This usually includes
a description of how the learning programme design, delivery and outcomes will add value for
stakeholders and measurably contribute to business results.
L&D professional/instructor-centred delivery methods: An approach to training delivery whereby the
trainer is regarded as an instructor and presenter who is responsible and accountable for what learners
should learn, how and when they should learn it and if they have learned it.
L&D delivery: Training delivery is a structured process characterised by an individual acting as a
learning facilitator in accelerating and structuring learning through well-designed formal delivery
methods.
M
Massed practice: Conditions in which individuals practise a task continuously and without rest.
Mastery orientation: Orientation in which individuals focus on increasing their competence for the task
at hand; they view errors and mistakes as part of the learning process.
Measurement: Assigning numbers to objects, in a rule-like manner, to represent quantities of an
attribute that the object possesses.
Media: Means of communication to facilitate learning (for example, paper, DVDs, video, audiotapes,
CD-ROMs, computers, overhead projectors and data projectors).
Mentoring: A learning facilitation approach that focuses on providing support, advice and friendship to
a younger, less experienced person.
Mode: The style or manner of learning facilitation or delivery (for example, learner-centred classroom
training and distance education).
Moderation: The process of monitoring and verifying that assessment practices comply with quality
requirements and that assessment decisions are consistently accurate. It includes the process
that supports and evaluates the assessment environment, process and instruments (with a view
to confirming the reliability and authenticity of assessment results and improving the quality of
assessments and assessors).
Modern learning: A theory of learning in the digital era.
Module: A self-contained unit of learning within a learning programme with its own set of learning
outcomes and the learning and assessment activities that are linked to these.
N
National Artisan Moderating Body (NAMB): The body established as per section 26A of the Skills
Development Act, 97 of 1998.
National Occupational Pathway Framework (NOPF): A management tool for the QCTO to ensure
that qualifications are not developed in isolation, but in a manner that facilitates progression
pathways for learners between related occupational qualifications at different levels on the NQF.
National Qualifications Framework (NQF): The framework or set of principles and guidelines that
provide a national vision and structure for the construction of a qualifications system.
National Skills Development Strategy: The national strategy for developing and uplifting the skills of
the South African workforce by utilising the workplace as an active learning environment, promoting
self-employment, and securing work opportunities for new entrants into the labour market through
legislation and other initiatives.
National Standards Bodies (NSBs): The national bodies responsible for making sure that all standards
and qualifications fit into the NQF levels in the 12 learning fields and for keeping qualifications and
unit standards up to date.
Needs analysis: See L&D needs analysis.
Notional hours: The amount of time a learner will need to complete the learning programme. See
also credits.
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Glossary of terms
Norm-referenced assessment: An assessment approach that focuses on comparing a learner’s

performance with the performance of other learners.
O
Objective: Specific, short-term statements of results that should be achieved.
Occupational qualification: A qualification associated with a trade, occupation or profession, resulting
from work-based learning and consisting of knowledge unit standards, practical unit standards and
work experience unit standards, as defined in the Skills Development Amendment Act (2008), which
has an external summative assessment.
Occupational Qualifications Framework (OQF): The sub-framework for trades and occupations, as
contemplated in section 4 of the NQF Act (2008).
Online learning: Any type of e-learning situation in which instructional content is delivered through the
use of computer networked technology, such as over the intranet, or through the internet where and
when required. E-learning comprises learning opportunities offered via integrated communication
technologies (ICTs) such as computers and smartphones.
On-the-job training: Training that involves assigning learners to jobs and encouraging them to observe
and learn from more experienced employees.
Organisational capability: The identity and reputation of the organisation characterised by its capacity
to use resources, get things done, and behave in ways that accomplish goals in a competitive business
environment.
Organisational needs analysis: See skills audit.
Organisational sustainability: The capability of the organisation to meet the needs of the present
to achieve success today, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs.
Organising: Planning and arranging activities, people and resources in an orderly way.
Organising Framework for Occupations (OFO): A skill-based coded classification system, which aims
to encompass all occupations in South Africa that are in demand by the labour market; it is used as
a tool to collect, analyse and report on occupational information. The OFO is updated annually in
March to reflect current labour market demands in terms of scarce and critical skills, as embedded in
occupations.
Outcomes: An inclusive term, referring to everything that is learned, including social and personal skills,
the activities of learning how to learn, understanding concepts, acquiring knowledge, understanding
methodologies, values and attitudes.
Outcomes-based assessment: Also known as authentic assessment that focuses on measuring complex
performances and higher-order thinking skills in real-life contexts in relation to pre-determined
learning outcomes and performance criteria for various purposes, including further development and
the recognition of learning achievements.
Outcomes-based workplace learning design: An L&D approach that focuses on what the learners need
to achieve at the end of the learning process.
Overlearning: Practising a task, even after it has been mastered, in order to retain learning.
P
Part learning: Learning that occurs when sub-tasks are practised separately and later combined.
Part qualification: An assessed unit of learning that is registered on the NQF as a part qualification.
Performance: The demonstration of skills, knowledge, understanding and attitudes, and the ability to
transfer these to new situations.
Performance appraisal: A review of the job-relevant strengths and weaknesses of an individual or a team
in an organisation.
Performance orientation: Orientation in which individuals are concerned about doing well in training
(achieving the learning outcomes) and being evaluated positively (being assessed as competent).
Personal development plan (PDP): A written statement of the employee’s knowledge and skills that
must be developed, as well as how and when these will be developed, and the person who will be
responsible for ensuring that the development is implemented.
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Person analysis: The process of identifying the employees who need training and determining the areas
in which each individual needs to be trained.
Physical learning environment: The physical layout of the venue arranged to suit the various outcomes
of the learning or learning programme.
Physical fidelity: The extent to which the training task mirrors the physical features of the actual task.
PIVOTAL occupational programme: Is an occupational-directed Professional, Vocational, Technical
and Academic Learning programme that is linked to a qualification that meets the critical needs
for economic growth and social development. A PIVOTAL programme combines course work at
universities, universities of technology and colleges with structured learning at work (professional
placements, work-integrated learning, apprenticeships, learnerships and internships).
Practical competence: A learner’s ability to consider a range of practical possibilities for action and make
a decision about which to follow (also the ability to apply the newly acquired skills in the workplace
or in real-life situations).
Post-test: A measure of job performance or knowledge taken after a learning programme has been completed.
Pre-test: A measure of job performance or knowledge taken before the implementation of a learning
programme.
Portfolio of evidence (POE): A carefully organised file or folder compiled by a learner (as a candidate
for assessment) that contains samples of the learner’s work, which serve as evidence of the ability to
demonstrate the competencies stipulated in the learning outcomes. Portfolios provide evidence of a
learner’s knowledge, skills, attitudes and academic development, which afford the L&D professional/
assessor opportunities for formative and summative assessment.
Procedural knowledge: Knowing how to perform a job or task; often developed through practise and
experience.
Process guide: A written outline of the learning facilitation strategy that generally describes how the
learning facilitator plans to present, manage and monitor the learning process and environment so
that learners can be effectively and productively engaged in learning.
Programmed instruction: A training method in which learners learn information at their own pace.
Psychological fidelity: The extent to which the training task helps learners to develop the competencies
(attitudes, knowledge, skills and abilities) and other characteristics that are necessary to perform the job.
Psychomotor abilities: The physical functions of movement, associated with co-ordination, dexterity
and reaction time.
Q
Q ualification: A planned combination of learning outcomes with a defined purpose or purposes, and
which is intended to provide learners with applied competence and a basis for further learning.
National qualifications are made up of unit standards or learning outcomes. A qualification consists
of a cluster of unit standards. Learners can use unit standards in various qualifications, depending on
their applicability and rules of combination, as defined by the various quality councils. A qualification
is made up of a minimum of 120 credits.
Q ualification development facilitator (QDF): A person registered by the QCTO to facilitate the
development of occupational qualifications.
Q ualification Sub-framework for Trades and Occupations: The sub-framework on which occupational
qualifications are registered. This sub-framework forms part of a single, integrated NQF system, as
contemplated in Chapter 2 of the NQF Act.
Quality assurance: The process of ensuring that the degree of excellence specified is achieved. The
national unit standards and regulation requirements specify these degrees of excellence.
Quality audit (QA): See compliance evaluation.
Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO): Established in terms of section 26G of the
Skills Development Act (Act 97 of 1998).
Quality management: All activities of the overall management function that determine the quality
policy, objectives, strategies, responsibilities and implementation of these by means of a combination
of managerial processes.
540

Glossary of terms
R
Range statement: A guide to users of a unit standard that states the scope, context and level for the unit
standard. It also describes the situations and circumstances in which the learner is expected
to perform.
Recognition of prior learning (RPL): The comparison of the previous learning and experience of a
learner/candidate against specified learning outcomes for the award of credits for a specified unit
standard or qualification; access to further learning; recognition in terms of meeting minimum
requirements for a specific job; placement at a particular level in an organisation or institution; or
advanced standing or status.
Reflexive competence: A learner’s ability to integrate the acquired foundational and practical
competencies with understanding and with an ability to adapt to change in unforeseen circumstances.
It includes a learner’s ability to reflect on his or her learning or performance and the ability to transfer
the newly acquired competencies to different social and workplace contexts.
Reinforcement techniques: Training techniques that reward behaviour with the intent to motivate
learners to repeat the behaviour.
Reliability: The extent to which scores obtained on a measure are reproducible in repeated
administrations under similar measurement conditions.
Results criteria: Measures of how well training outcomes can be related to organisational outcomes, such
as productivity gains, cost savings, error reductions or increased customer/stakeholder satisfaction.
Return on investment (ROI): The amount of money an organisation makes after subtracting the cost of
training or other L&D and organisational interventions.
Return on stakeholder expectations (ROE): Providing evidence to management and other stakeholders,
through continuous evaluation, that the programme’s intended objective and outcomes (performance
indicators) have been met and the learners’ achievements fulfil the requirements.
RPL assessment: The process of identifying a learner’s knowledge and skills or what the learner
(candidate) knows and can do; matching a learner’s skills, knowledge and experience to standards and
the associated assessment criteria of a qualification; assessing a learner against these standards; and
crediting a learner for skills, knowledge and experience built up through formal, informal and non-
formal learning that occurred in the past.
S
Sectoral Education and Training Authority (SETA): A body established under the Skills Development
Act, whose main purpose is to establish and promote learnerships/learning programmes, approve
workplace skills plans, allocate grants and monitor, in collaboration with the QCTO, the quality of
education and training in the sector.
Sectoral needs analysis: The process of identifying key skills shortages and the assessment of the
relative importance of the identified shortages to the sector as they relate to the national skills plan
and strategy.
Sectoral skills plan: A plan that includes a profile (description) of a specific sector, including current
education and training happening within the sector, factors affecting future changes, the employment
and skills needs in the sector, a future vision, strategies to address the skills needs, success measures,
resources required to achieve targets and methods for monitoring, reporting and evaluating progress.
Self-directed learning: A desire to set one’s own pace, establish one’s own structure, and keep open the
option to revise a learning strategy
Self-paced e-learning: Self-driven e-learning based on learning outcomes in an asynchronous online
learning space.
Short course: A type of short, non-accredited learning programme through which a learner may or may
not be awarded credits, depending on the purpose of the programme.
Short learning programme: (also called a short course). A series of structured learning activities or
events that are intended to equip learners with the applied competence needed to fulfil a particular
occupational role. Short learning programmes can be based either on national unit standards, parts of
national unit standards or no unit standard. Learning programmes based on unit standards or parts
of unit standards are credit bearing, implying learners’ achievements/performance are assessed against
the learning outcomes and associated assessment criteria.
541

Skills: Those aspects of behaviour that need to be performed to an acceptable level to ensure effective job
performance. It includes proficiency to perform a particular task.
Skills audit: The process of analysing L&D needs at the organisational level with the aim of identifying
critical and scarce skills, and comparing these to the skills required by the organisation now and in the
future so that the shortfall or surplus of key skills can be determined and addressed.
Skills development committee: The forum or group of people, representing the various departments in
the company, that is involved in discussions around the workplace skills plan (WSP) and the HRD/
L&D plan and/or strategy.
Skills development facilitator (SDF): The person who advises and helps to plan skills development for
a workplace.
Skills Development Levies Act: The Skills Development Levies Act describes how money will be
collected through levies paid by employers.
Skills development provider: A QCTO-accredited L&D provider of an occupational learning
programme.
Skills programme: According to the NSDS phase III, a learning programme is a shorter non-PIVOTAL
programme (not linked to programmes that qualify an individual to enter a particular trade or
profession) with a specific application or specialisation in mind. A learning programme may include
non-accredited short courses, a workplace-specific, work-based programme or a programme required
for continuous professional development (CPD). In terms of the Skills Development Amendment
Act (2008), some learning programmes may include occupation-directed, work-based learning
programmes linked to a learnership or apprenticeship, which includes a structured work experience
component. Note: the QCTO may revise this definition in the future.
Skills upliftment: The enhancement of employees’ applied competence in their jobs by improving their
knowledge, skills, abilities and attitudes through formal education, skills training and continuous
development initiatives.
Social learning theory: A cognitive theory that proposes that there are many ways to learn, including
observational learning, which occurs when people watch someone perform a task and then rehearse
those activities mentally until they have an opportunity to try them out.
South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA): The authority contemplated in Chapter 4 of the
NQF Act (Act 67 of 2008).
Specific outcomes: See unit standard specific outcomes.
Stakeholders: Those individuals, groups or organisations that have a significant interest in how well
a learning programme or L&D intervention functions and delivers on expectations.
Stakeholders envisaged in the DQP SLA: Those with direct interest in the occupation concerned,
which includes, but is not limited to, the following: employers of that occupation or relevant
employer associations, unions with membership in that occupation, professional bodies or
occupational associations, industry bodies, education and training providers that would deliver one or
more of the components.
Strategising: Planning, designing or mapping out activities to achieve aims, goals or objectives.
Summative assessment: A form of assessment usually conducted at the end of a learning programme.
It is the final measure of what was learned. Summative assessments should include formative
assessment evaluations and a final overall assessment of whether learners have achieved the specified
learning outcomes for the overall programme.
Summative evaluation: A form of L&D evaluation relevant to evaluating the effectiveness of the
learning or learning programme as a whole at its completion (including the achievement of objectives
and outcomes, returns on expectations, compliance with the QCTO quality standards and value-
added to the company’s bottom line).
Synchronous online learning: Real time facilitated e-learning. Learners and instructors/learning
facilitators communicate/interact within the same time frame (that is, scheduled time/meeting).
T
Tacit knowledge: Knowledge concerned with understanding and application. Tacit knowledge is often
combined with experience and interpretation and is, therefore, far less easy to harness and reproduce.
Talent pool: The existing human resources in a company whose specialist skills, expertise, experience,
abilities and potential have been identified as a scarce and critical resource that can help the
organisation to sustain its capability and competitive edge.
542

Glossary of terms
Task analysis: The process that involves examining what employees must do to perform the job properly
and which helps to determine the content of a learning programme.
Training: A planned short-term change (L&D intervention) effort intended to modify competencies,
attitudes and beliefs, knowledge or skill behaviour through learning experiences (such as formal
learning or non-formal, work-based learning programmes) to sustain employees’ employability by
helping them to achieve effective performance in an activity or range of activities.
Training methods: The techniques, methodology or approach L&D professionals (trainers) use to
facilitate learning or deliver a learning programme (for example, classroom training, on-the-job
training, lectures, small groups or programmed instruction).
Training needs analysis: See L&D needs analysis.
Training cycle: See learning cycle.
U
Unit standard: A registered statement of desired education and training outcomes and their associated
assessment criteria, together with administrative and other information, as specified by SAQA
regulations. It describes the scope and context within which the candidate’s competence is assessed.
The results, not the processes, of the learning are described in unit standards. It is also the smallest
independent part of a qualification that bears credits.
Unit standard field and sub-field: The criterion that indicates the learning field and sub-field within
which the unit standard falls.
Unit standard issue date: The date that indicates the registration date of the unit standard by SAQA.
Unit standard learning assumed to be in place: The learning assumed to be in place (that is, the pre-
knowledge and skills that the learner is expected to have before starting on the unit standard).
Unit standard level: The criterion that indicates the level of complexity required to achieve the unit
standard, as per the NQF levels.
Unit standard purpose: The criterion that describes the general skills a learner will have acquired upon
completion of a learning programme based on the unit standard; it states also for whom the unit
standard is intended and the reasons for writing (or developing) the unit standard.
Unit standard registration number: The number that identifies the unit standard and which is used for
administration and identification purposes.
Unit standard review date: The date that indicates when the unit standard will be up for review again.
Unit standards have a life span of three years.
Unit standard specific outcomes: Specific outcomes are competence outcomes that focus on learning
and performance. They capture a specific skill, knowledge and attitude that a learner must
demonstrate in the unit standard. These are outcomes that the learner works towards.
Unit standard title: The title of a unit standard that is unique; that is, no other title registered on
the NQF will be identical. The title includes a maximum of 100 characters, including spaces and
punctuation.
V
Validity: The extent to which the measuring instrument reflects the concept it is intended to measure.
Value-added evaluation: A form of L&D evaluation that addresses the organisation’s bottom line
and is conducted to measure the cost-effectiveness of L&D interventions or a particular learning
programme.
Value-added measurement: The measurement and evaluation of changes in the L&D processes,
outcomes (results) and their resulting value (impact) on the company’s bottom line.
W
Whole-brain learning: See accelerated learning.
Whole learning: Learning that occurs when the entire task is practised at once.
White Paper: An informal name for a parliamentary paper enunciating government policy. Such papers
are issued by the government and lay out policy or proposed action on a topic of current concern.
Although a White Paper may, on occasion, be a consultation as to the details of new legislation, it
does signify a clear intention on the part of a government to pass a new law.
543

Workplace: The place of employment where workplace experience, training and development take place.
Workplace learning: The acquisition of knowledge, understanding, values, skills, competence and
structured work experience in a specific workplace and occupational context.
Workplace skills plan (WSP): A plan that supports the sectoral skills plan and company strategic
HRD and L&D plans by describing what skills are needed, by whom, in the relevant workplace in
a particular year. The document outlines the planned L&D interventions for a specific organisation
in the coming year. The L&D interventions are categorised according to the occupational categories
described in the OFO, and according to critical and scarce skills. Submission of the WSP and the
annual training report is a legal requirement of organisations wishing to claim a Mandatory Grant
against the Skills Development Levy from their SETA. It is also a prerequisite to claiming points for
the skills development element of the BEE scorecard.
544

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557

INDEX
A
abilities
of HR manager 258–259
of learners 110–111
absolute standards 435
abstract conceptualisation 120
academic relevance 44
accelerated learning 128–129, 130
access to training 5
accountability 42, 46, 477, 487
action learning 120
active experimentation 120
active practice 342–343
adaptive guidance 346
adult learners 110–113
affective domain 218–220, 219–220, 224
alienation 331
analysis 219
analytical intelligence 132, 136
andragogy 112, 212, 279, 311
application 219
applied competence 64
occupational 172–173
apprenticeships 39, 77–78
appropriate practice 342–343
artificial intelligence 9
artisan skills 5, 43
assessment 73–74
competence 358–359
context 353
criteria 62
e-learning 284
evaluating evidence 390
evidence 383–387, 384, 387–390, 388–389
feedback 390–391
implementation policy 352
instruments 368–369, 369, 371–373
knowledge and skills 355
learners’ needs 359–360
methods 368–370, 369–370, 434
moderation see moderation
need for 350
planning 376–381, 377, 379–380
preparation 381–383
principles 385–387
quality partners 75
reviewing 392–393
role of 354

Index
roles 356–358
RPL 366, 374–376, 376
scope and purpose 354–356
strategy 382–383
types 361–368, 362, 364, 365
assignments 371, 434
Association for Skills Development in South Africa (ASDSA) 55
assumed learning 341
asynchronous e-learning 270, 274
attending 501, 502
attention 219, 286
attitude deficiencies 151–152
authentic assessment 355
automatic behaviour 116
automation 10–11
autonomy 488
B
baby boomers 327
barriers to learning 109, 290, 345
behaviour 345
behaviourism 277
behaviouristic learning 114–115
beneficence 488
Bill of Rights 360
bite-sized learning 512
blended learning 271–272, 297–298
delivering 304–305
Bloom’s taxonomy of learning outcomes 219–223, 219–220, 221, 223
bodily intelligence 131, 136
body language 328–330, 329–330
brain 128–131
business development 512
business objectives 476
C
career guidance 7, 14, 45
case studies 241, 372
certification quality assurance 85–86
chalkboards 303
change 512
characterisation 219
clarity of purpose 457
classroom styles 338–339, 338
classroom training 299–304
advantages and disadvantages 299
delivery 316–317
elements 320–321
facilitation 318–323, 320–323
management 346–347
methods 300
post-class intervention 323
principles 340–344, 342
responsibilities 347
support materials 301–304
co-operation 486
co-operative societies 6–7
co-ordination flexibility 459
coaching 125
559

cognitive domain 218, 219, 223, 277

cognitive learning 115–117
cognitivism 277
collaboration 45–46, 125–126, 486
colour 288
communication 341
and intelligence 131
communities of expert practice 25, 71
community colleges 37
community training initiatives 44
competence 56, 64, 101, 152, 172–173
criteria for 416
e-learning 293
of L&D professionals 489
see also applied competence
competitive advantage 484
competitiveness 455
compliance 486, 503
evaluation 408–409, 413–415
comprehension 219
conceptual knowledge 221
concrete experiences 120
confidentiality 503
conflicts of interest 504
connectivist learning theory 125–126
constructivism 277
content 198, 228–229, 341
categories 226
chunking 285, 288
e-learning 284
selection 227–228
sequencing 229–230
sources 228–229
continuous professional development (CPD) 38, 55, 487, 499–502, 502
benefits 500
cost improvement through L&D 419–420
Council on Higher Education (CHE) 24
creative intelligence 132, 136
critical cross-field outcomes 62–63, 224–225
critical incidents 182
critical skills 8, 14, 158–161
criticism 331
customer service employee development 456
D
data analysis 436
decision-making 458
declaration of authenticity 384
delivery
and assessment strategy 234–240, 235, 236–240
evaluation 415
methods 297–298
demonstrations 241
Department of Basic Education (DBE) 22
Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) 22
design consistency 288
design-down, deliver-up approach 203
desk-top analysis 184
development quality partners 74
560

Index
diagnostic assessment 366

diagnostic evaluation 401, 402, 404
digital
copyright 504
learning approaches 310
natives 269
skills 9
disciplinary action 152
discussions 241
distance learning 38
diversity 9, 504, 512
training 506–507
dynamic assessment 363
dynamic learning cycle 142–144, 143, 155
dysfunctional responses 331–332
E
e-learning 241, 268–269, 297–298, 306
advantages and disadvantages 280–281
appropriateness 280
assessment 284, 286, 287
barriers to 109, 290
competencies 293
content 284, 285
contexts 276–277
ecologies 289
evaluation 287
forms 270–272, 270
goals 282
learners’ level of experience 282
management buy-in 290
models 275–276
needs analysis 281
organisational support 292
pilot 287
programme design 282–283, 283, 285–287
strategy 283
support 286
synchronous vs asynchronous 270
templates 285
trends 289
in the workplace 291
economies of scale 269
education and training systems 4
electronic presentation 301
emotional intelligence 133–134, 136, 331–332
emotional management 133
emotional styles 134–135, 334–335
empathy 133, 331
employability 456
employee/s 100
assistance 152
attitudes 102
competence see competence
development 460
engagement 458, 512
onboarding 450–451
performance 103–104, 104
employment rate 4
561

see also unemployment

empowerment 6–7
vs hierarchies 9
encoding 106
encouragement 332
engagement standards 477
equity 13, 45
see also inequalities
ethics 457, 487, 488
checklist 505
in L&D 503–506, 505
evaluating/evaluation 219, 473–474
barriers to 439
communicating results 436–439, 438–439
criteria 421–426, 431
dimensions 431
forms 245
models 414–415, 422
plans 434–436, 435–436
process 429
reports 437–439, 438–439
substandard 439–440
evidence see assessment evidence
examinations 372
execution strategy 477
experiential learning 119–120
explicit knowledge 458–459
explicit learning 105–107
external alignment 451
external assessment 40, 73–74
F
facilitated e-learning 271
facilitation 310–312, 311, 312
guidelines 314-315
process 323–325, 324–325
skills 312–313
factual knowledge 221
feedback 344, 390–391, 397
giving and receiving 327–328, 328,
inadequate 150
FET 4, 37
fidelity 127
flexibility 12, 446, 456, 458, 459, 487
flexible learning 279
flip charts 302–303
focus groups 184
formative assessment/evaluation 361, 362, 364, 401, 403, 404–405
foundational learning assessment 74
Fourth Industrial Revolution 8, 11, 140
further education and training see FET
G
Gardner’s multiple intelligences 131–132, 135–136
gender and education 4
General and Further Education and Training Quality Council see Umalusi
generalisation 120
generations 327
global audience 512
562

Index
Global Competitiveness Index 2

Global Talent Competitiveness Index 3, 10–11
goal setting 343
Gregorc’s learning styles 122-123
group dynamics 326
Guba and Lincoln’s fourth generation evaluation 427–428
H
handouts 245, 302
hierarchies 9
horizontal integration 451
human capital 2
development 3–8, 456
development trends 8–11
human resources
information and ethics 194–195
information systems 192–193
outcomes-based/work-based learning 255–260
plan 182–183
human resources management
challenges 448–449
function 471–477, 475–476
vs HR development 447–448
human resources development (HRD) 292
function 447
vs HR management 447–448
role in the 21st-century workplace 449–451, 450
stakeholder perspective 457
and strategy 514
strategy 451–454, 452
humanism 279
humanist learning 118
I
images 288
impact assessment 366–367, 441–443
impact measurement 421
implicit learning 105
in-basket exercises 241
independent learning 241
inequalities
income 8
structural 13
intangibles 416, 417, 461, 464
integrated assessment 364–365, 365
integrity 488, 503, 512
intellectual property 503, 504
intelligence 131
interactive learning 241
internal alignment 451
internal assessment 73
internships 39, 82–83
interpersonal intelligence 132, 136
intervention 153–155, 153, 154, 400
advantages 402
stakeholders 405–406
strategy 477
interviews 180–181, 184, 432–433, 432–433
intrapersonal intelligence 132, 136
563

J
job/s
performance 204
purpose 207–211
task analysis 170–173
tasks of HR manager 257, 261–267
tasks unpacking 207–208
see also occupations
Joining 501, 502
K
kinaesthetic intelligence 131, 136
Kirkpatrick’s taxonomy 421–426
knowledge 102, 210–211, 219
application 286
knowledge-based economy 6
deficiencies 151–152
evidence of 389
of HR managers 258
and job purpose 208–209
management 458–459
networks 126
skills abilities and other (KSAO) 117, 170–171, 173
tests 181
and theory 200–201
types of 221–222
vs understanding 108–109
Kolb and Fry’s learning style inventory 121–122, 122
Kolb’s learning cycle 119–121, 120, 324
L
labour market
information analysis 41
intelligence system 68
language 44, 331
L&D management 460
in the 21st century workplace 455–457
functions 475–476
process 466–467, 469
L&D professionals 480–481
challenges 512–513
characteristics 485–488, 488
opportunities 513
qualifications 491–499
roles 481–485, 483–485
skills 489–491, 490–491
tasks 482
leadership 488
buy-in 512
leading 473
learner/s
abilities 110–111
-centric approach 212, 233, 309, 297–298
characteristics 317–318
privacy 504
profile analysis 212–213, 213
support systems 46
learnerships 39, 76–77
564

Index
learning 99, 104–105

activities design 231–233, 232
approaches digital 310
barriers to 109, 290, 345
capability 447
content see content
context 117
design 197, 415
ecologies 289
facilitators see skills development facilitators
formats 309
implicit vs explicit 105–106, 110
intervention see intervention
learner-centric vs event-centric 308
lifelong see lifelong learning
management systems 272–275, 272–274
methods 240–243, 242, 243
nature of 119
organisations 457–458
participative 113
and performance 103–104
performance vs mastery orientation 111
principles 126
programme objective 214–216, 215–216
role of brain 128–131
styles 121–125
support materials 243–246, 245–246, 342
whole vs part 127
learning cycle 198, 297–298
dynamic 142–144, 143, 155
facilitation 324–325
Kolb’s 119–121, 120, 324
phases 143, 198, 297, 351, 400,
learning and development 100
background information 430
change 420–421
company specific 204
data collection tools 431
delivery see delivery
evaluating returns 421
evaluation see evaluation
facilitation see facilitation
facilitator guides 246–247, 247, 249–253
implementation 152
input analysis 420
intervention see intervention
management see L&D management
needs analysis see LDNA
organisational impact 416, 419, 421
organisational support 292
output 420–421
plan 468
plan evaluation 469–470
professionals see L&D professionals
providers SAQA requirements 409–411
quality assurance 412–413
reasons for failure 475
research questions 430–431
565

stakeholder evaluation 430

and technology 511
trends 511
value proposition 463–466, 465, 467
LDNA 139, 141–142
data gathering 179, 183–185
as feedback
focus areas 155, 156
HR information systems 192–193
individual 174–175
vs job tasks 206–207
organisational 161–170, 163–166
proactive vs reactive 145–147, 146
purpose 144–145, 145
sectoral 156–161
see also e-learning needs analysis
template 169–170
timeline 187
triage approach 147
learning environment 333–335, 334–335
checklist 340
emotional 335–336, 343
physical 337–340, 338
learning outcomes 216–217, 260–261
Bloom’s taxonomy 220–222, 221, 223
taxonomy 218, 219-220
learning theories 113
classic 114–118
modern 119
lectures 241
levels, activities, role and focus (LARF) 205–206
lifelong learning 112, 456, 487, 488, 499
culture 141
limbic system 130–131
linguistic intelligence 131, 135
log books 373
logical intelligence 132, 135
longitudinal evaluation 401, 403–404, 404
M
mammalian brain 130–131
management games 241
mastery orientation 111
mathematical intelligence 132, 135
McCarthy’s 4MAT model 123-124
meaningfulness 340
measurement 477
memory 106–107
mentoring 125
meta-cognitive knowledge 222
micro-sized learning 309
millennials 327
mind maps 227
modelling 341–342, 342
moderation 393–394, 396–397
functions 394 –395
system components 395
tools and methods 396
modern learning approaches 308–310
566

Index
modular learning 309

modules 244–245
monitoring and evaluation 86
motivation 110, 133
musical intelligence 131, 135
N
Nadler’s model of evaluation 427
National/national
Artisan Moderating Body (NAMB) 25
Certificate (Vocational) 6, 43
Human Resource Development (HRD) Strategy 6
Institute for Humanities & Social Sciences (NIHSS) 39
Occupational Pathways Framework (NOPF) 71
policies 351–352
Policy for Designing and Implementing Assessment 352
Qualifications Framework see NQF
Skills Accords 13
Skills Authority 22–23, 39
Skills Development Plan see NSDP
Skills Development Strategy 6, 7, 13–14
Skills Fund 6, 7, 23, 39
naturalist intelligence 132
need-to-know see motivation
needs analysis 145–147, 281, 467
neocortex 130–131
neomammalian brain 130–131
networking 501, 502
NGO training initiatives 44
novelty 341
NQF 13, 18–19, 198
Act 27
levels 28, 205–206
objectives 27
principles 31
structure 29 –30, 33-35
sub-frameworks 31–33, 32, 39
NSDP 11, 493
goals, outcomes and outputs 42–45
levy grant funding 46–47
principles 45–46
strategic intentions 40–41, 42
numeracy 44
O
observation 180, 184
overt and covert 433
observational learning 117
occupational
occupational analysis 170–173
occupational competence 56
occupational learning programmes 75–83, 79–82
occupational skills levels 69–70
occupational learning system (OLS) 67–69, 69, 199
quality assurance management 83–85, 84
Occupational Qualifications 59, 71–73
Framework (OQF) 70, 198
Subframework 32
567

occupations see jobs

on-demand learning 309
on-the-job assistance 151
on-the-job learning 297–298
online learning see e-learning
optimal learning environments 128
oral tests 372, 373
organisational
accountability 155
alignment 477
analysis 161–170, 163–166
capability 459–462, 460–461
ecology 457
flexibility 459
outputs 416–418
records 433–434
organising 219, 472–473
Framework for Occupations 12, 55, 68–70, 200, 256
outcomes 42–45, 198
-based assessment see assessment
-based learning 57–58
-based learning & development quality control 89–97, 90–96
-based workplace learning 197, 202, 203, 255–256
e-learning 282
specific 62
outsourcing 10
overlearning 126–127
P
participation 327
pattern recognition 115–116
peer assessment 373
peer pressure 151
performance
appraisal 181–182
discrepancies 149–152, 150
gaps 148–150, 150
management and reward system 151
orientation 111
person analysis 174–175
personal development planning/plans 176–179, 181
personal information 192–195
personality of HR managers 259–260
Phillips’ return on investment model 426–427
physical fidelity 127
PIVOTAL (professional, vocational, technical and academic learning)
grants 47-49
programmes 14
reports 416
plagiarism 505
policies design 184
portfolio assessment 371, 373–374, 434
PowerPoint 301
practical intelligence 132, 136
practical skills 200–201, 210–211
and job purpose 209
practical tests 371
practice 126, 151, 286
568

Index
active and appropriate 342–343

massed vs distributed 127
predictive evaluation 428–429
principles 487
private training providers 37
proactive needs analysis 145–147, 145, 146
problem behaviour 332–333
problem-solving 107–108
procedural knowledge 222
process design 184
programmed instruction 305
project management principles 476–477
projects 373, 434
Protection of Personal Information (POPI) Act 195
PSET 21, 36, 37 –40
psychological fidelity 127
psychomotor domain 218, 220, 224
public sector 45
and skills training 7
punishment incongruence 150, 151
Q
qualifications 58–59
–job mismatch 5
scope 75
quality/ Quality 89, 486
Council of Trades and Occupations (QCTO) 24, 40, 74, 87–88
councils 352
improvement 455
quality assurance 40, 473
of certification 85–86
of curricula 85, 87
documentation 248–253
management 83–85, 84, 89
partners 65–66
partners 88
questionnaires 179–180, 431–432
questions 327, 371, 372, 373
quizzes 286
R
reaction elements 424–425
reactive needs analysis 145, 146–147, 146
readiness to learn 110–111
reading 501, 502
recognition of prior learning (RPL) 40, 64–65
assessment 366, 374–376, 376
reflective observation 120
regenerative brain theory 130
reinforcement 114
relative standards 435
reptilian brain 130
resource flexibility 459
responding 219
retention 310
reward incongruence 150, 151
rich media 286
role analysis 170–173
role-play 241, 371
569

S
SA Board for People Practices (SABPP) 100, 493
ethics 504–505
professional levels of registration 492
SA Institute for Vocational and Continuing Education and Training (SAIVET) 37
SA Qualifications Authority (SAQA) 22, 58
scarce skills 8, 43, 157–161
analysis 159
competing for 10
scholarly generations of e-learning 276–277, 277
scriptwriting 288
skills development facilitators 54–57, 56
roles 126
tasks and functions 166, 191–192
sector education and training authorities see SETAs
sector skills plan 49–50
sectoral analysis 156–161
selective attention 115
self-assessment 373
self-awareness 133, 488
self-directed learning 112, 297–298
self-management 345
self-paced e-learning 270–271
self-study materials 244
sensing 115–116
sensitivity training 241
service economy 8
and skills 4
and SMMEs 12
SETAs 5, 23–24, 26–27
use of funds 47–49
grant regulations 19–20
and levy grants 38
partnerships with TVET 43
seven elements of reaction 424–425
sharing 501–502, 502
simulations 371
skills 4, 102–103
audits 162–164, 163, 164, 186
changing demand for 12
deficiencies 151–152
and economic competitiveness 100
growing supply of 41
HR managers 258
learning programmes 78–83, 79-82
middle- and higher-level 42
planning unit (SPU) 38
practical see practical skills
programme checklist 254–255
tests 181
training sustainability 42
skills development
committees 51–53
legislation 15–22
Levies Act 46–47
levy distribution 47–49
levy grants 189
levy rationale 47
570

Index
providers accreditation 66–67, 350

statutory bodies 22–25, 22, 23, 24
strategy 6, 7, 13–14
skills gap 140
analysis 162, 467
skills planning process 186–192, 186, 187, 188,
role players 190–191
support structure 189
small and medium and micro enterprises (SMMEs) 12, 44
social capital 456
social collaboration 278
social learning 117–118, 308
social media 297–298
social skills 133
South African […] see SA
spatial intelligence 131, 135
split-brain theory 129–130
stakeholders 464, 465
standards of engagement 477
Sternberg’s three intelligences 132
stokvels see co-operative societies
storyboards 285
strategic skills gap analysis 467
strategising 471
summative assessment 363, 364
summative evaluation 401, 403–404, 404, 406–407
supervisor–employee communication 150
support 331
sustainability 462
synchronous e-learning 270
synthesis 219
T
tacit knowledge 458–459
talent
development matrix (TDM) 185
mobility 9, 10
outsourcing 10
pipeline 42
target groups 317–318
team training 307–308
technical and vocational education and training see TVET
technology
advancement 8
-based learning/training 241, 242, 305–306
literacy 511
managing changes in 456
templates 288
tests 434
time span of discretion 205, 259
trade unions see unions
training environment see learning environment
training evaluation see intervention
training methods 240–243, 242, 243
transfer of learning 344–345, 416
transformation 45
triage 147
triune brain theory 130–131
571

TVET 4, 37, 43
and NSDS 42
U
Umalusi 24
framework 32
understanding 108–109
evidence of 389
unemployment 3
unions 7
unit standards 59–62, 60–61, 64
universities 4, 37
V
VACS analysis (valid, authentic, current, sufficient) 390
value 463
-added evaluation 408, 414, 418–419, 419
-added evaluation levels 422
-adding 486, 512
valuing 219
verbal intelligence 131, 135
vertical integration 451
videos 303–304
virtual HR development 292
virtual reality training 242
vision 457
and mission 476
visual intelligence 131, 135
vocational guidance 7, 14, 45
VUCA economy (volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous) 140, 457
W
wage stagnation 8
White Paper on Post-school Education and Training see PSET
whiteboards 303
work design 184
work experience 201, 210–211
and job purpose 209–210
work-based learning 200–201
work-integrated learning (WIL) 38
workbooks 245
worker-initiated education and training 7
workplace learning 82–83
e-learning 291
see also outcomes-based workplace learning
workplace skills development 44
workplace skills plan 39, 50–51, 162–163,
and HR 182–183
information required 164–166
workplace training 5, 38
methods 306–307, 307
572

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Practising Learning and Development 3RD

in South African Organisations

in South African Organisations

Practising Learning and Development in South African Organisations 3e offers an

in South African Organisations

J Botha • J Kiley • K Truman

Melinde Coetzee (Editor)

South African Organisations

Melinde Coetzee (Editor)

Jo-Anne Botha • Jerome Kiley • Kiru Truman

2600_Practising_Learning_and_Development_3e.indb 1 2018/11/30 1:58 PM

First published 2007

Juta and Company Ltd

PO Box 14373, Lansdowne, 7779, Cape Town, South Africa

© 2019 Juta and Company Ltd

ISBN 978 1 4851 2944 8 (Print)

ISBN 978 1 4851 2945 5 (WebPDF)

Typeset in Adobe Garamond Pro Regular on 10.5pt on 13pt leading

2600_Practising_Learning_and_Development_3e.indb 2 2018/11/30 1:58 PM

List of figures and tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv

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4. THE SOUTH AFRICAN OCCUPATIONAL LEARNING SYSTEM (OLS). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

5. QUALITY ASSURANCE MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN OCCUPATIONAL

6. MANAGING QUALITY IN WORKPLACE LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

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3.3 Memorising.................................................................................................. 106

PART 2: THE SYSTEMATIC LEARNING CYCLE

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3. PURPOSES OF NEEDS ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

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6. NEEDS ANALYSIS FOR E-LEARNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

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6. DELIVERING CLASSROOM TRAINING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

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7.5.4 Organisational records..................................................................... 433

PART 3: SUSTAINING LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT CAPABILITY

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7.4 Leading........................................................................................................ 473

APPENDIX A: NQF level descriptors and QCTO LARF guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515

Glossary of terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530

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Figure 7.5 The RPL assessment process

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Table 6.5 Example of an agenda

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Table 9.2 Organisation capabilities and HRD roles

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ABET Adult basic education and training

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GFETQSF  General and Further Education and Training Qualifications

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OLS Occupational Learning System

4. THE SOUTH AFRICAN OCCUPATIONAL LEARNING SYSTEM (OLS). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

GFETQSF General and Further Education and Training Qualifications

1.1 Local context challenges impacting human capital

1.2 Global and African trends impacting human capital