Department of

Psychology

Occupational Stress and Burnout Among Self-Employed and

Employees in Morocco

Graduation Project in the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the undergraduate

degree in Psychology

Supervised by: Realized by:

AIT ALI OUSAID Saïd IZMOUSSE Hajar

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 Occupational Stress and Burnout Among Self-Employed and

Employees in Morocco

Abstract:

The purpose of this study is to examine the correlation between occupational stress factors (job

demands, role clarity, and control) and emotional exhaustion as an indicator of burnout among

self-employed individuals and employees in Morocco. The sample comprises 236 employed

individuals and 282 self-employed individuals. Data collection involved the utilization of the

Maslach Burnout Inventory to measure emotional exhaustion and the HSE Management Standards

Tool to assess the three factors of occupational stress. The findings demonstrate significant

correlations between the variables for both groups. Job demands positively correlate with

emotional exhaustion, while control and role clarity negatively correlate with emotional

exhaustion. Additionally, the results highlight that employees experience higher levels of

emotional exhaustion, lower levels of control and role compared to self-employed individuals.

Furthermore, our study reveals notable gender differences, with females exhibiting higher levels

of stress and emotional exhaustion compared to males. Overall, this study offers valuable insights

into occupational stress and burnout within different work contexts.

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Keywords: occupational stress, burnout, self-employed individuals, employees, emotional

exhaustion, demands, control, role

Dedication:

I dedicate this work to my loving family and friends, whose unwavering support and

encouragement have been instrumental in my academic pursuits. Their belief in me and their

constant encouragement have fueled my motivation to excel in this research journey. I am deeply

grateful for their presence in my life and their unwavering support throughout this endeavor.

Recognition:

I would like to extend my sincere appreciation to the individuals and institutions who have

contributed to the successful completion of this research. First, I express my gratitude to Professor

AIT ALI OUSAID Saïd for their guidance, expertise, and continuous support throughout the

research process. Their valuable insights and feedback have significantly shaped the direction and

quality of this study. I would also like to acknowledge the participants who generously dedicated

their time and shared their valuable experiences and perspectives. Their willingness to participate

and contribute to this research has been crucial in enriching our understanding of the subject

matter. Lastly, I am grateful to the academic community and researchers in the field whose

groundbreaking work and publications have provided the foundation for this research. Their

contributions and insights have been instrumental in shaping the research landscape and inspiring

further exploration.

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Table of Contents:

1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................5

2 Literature Review ..............................................................................................................8

3 Methodology ..................................................................................................................... 14

3.1 Participants: .............................................................................................................. 14

3.2 Research design:........................................................................................................ 16

3.3 Instruments: .............................................................................................................. 16

3.4 Analysis: .................................................................................................................... 17

4 Results .............................................................................................................................. 17

4.1 Exploratory factor analysis: ..................................................................................... 21

4.2 Evaluation of specific hypotheses - Analysis of causal pathways: ........................... 22

5 Discussion ......................................................................................................................... 24

6 Limitations ....................................................................................................................... 25

7 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 26

8 References ........................................................................................................................ 27

List of Tables:

Table 1. The demographic characteristics of the participants based on their professional situation.

................................................................................................................................................. 15

Table 2. Distribution of scores for Emotional Exhaustion component of the Maslach Burnout

(MBI) scale for each group........................................................................................................ 18

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Table 3. Correlation and regression results of professional situation on the factors .................... 18

Table 4. Descriptive Statistics, Reliability, and Observed Correlations. ..................................... 20

Table 5. Results of exploratory factor analysis. ......................................................................... 21

Table 6. General report on non-standardized and standardized regression coefficients and

verification of all specific hypotheses. ....................................................................................... 23

List of Figures:

Figure 1. Conceptual model of the positive effect of occupational stress on burnout ................. 14

Figure 2. Structural model depicting the impact of occupational stress factors on emotional

exhaustion among self-employed individuals. ........................................................................... 24

Figure 3. Structural model depicting the impact of occupational stress factors on emotional

exhaustion among employees. ................................................................................................... 24

1 Introduction

The study examines the relationship between occupational stress and burnout, specifically

focusing on the variables of demands, control, and role in relation to emotional exhaustion. It

compares levels of burnout and occupational stress between self-employed individuals and

employees in the Moroccan context, while also considering sociodemographic factors such as age,

gender, years of experience, and work hours. Our study is unique in the Moroccan context and

indeed very important. While it is already known that employees suffer from occupational stress

and burnout, due to various studies about individuals in many occupations and a variety of fields

such as law enforcement, medicine and education… (Study by Burke (1984), Gaines and Jermier

(1983), Martin, Sass, and Schmitt (2012)). Researchers also assumed that experiencing high-stress

5
levels can clearly affect one's health (Jex & Beehr, 1992; Prottas & Thompson, 2006). These

effects make studying these constructs inevitable.

Burnout, initially introduced by Freudenberger (1974), comprises three core dimensions:

emotional exhaustion, characterized by a depletion of positive emotions and empathy towards

others; depersonalization, involving a sense of detachment and cynicism; and reduced personal

accomplishment, resulting from prolonged exposure to stressors (Maslach & Jackson, 1981).

Burnout, resulting from chronic negative emotions, is commonly reported among police officers,

as evidenced by several studies including those conducted by Gaines and Jermier (1983), and

Burke, Shearer, and Deszca (1987). These studies have identified anger, depression, and anxiety

as negative emotions that can lead to emotional exhaustion among police officers, which refers to

feelings of being emotionally overextended and depleted of one's emotional resources. This

exhaustion is often caused by work overload and personal conflict in the workplace. Workers may

feel drained and used up, without any means of replenishment. This can lead to a lack of energy

to face another day or interact with others in need. Tetrick et al. (2000) proposed that emotional

exhaustion, a common stress response, is the mechanism that leads to negative outcomes.

Depersonalization refers to detached response to aspects of the job that can result in the

dehumanization of others. Maslach and Leiter (1997) have identified depersonalization as the

interpersonal dimension of burnout, which can involve actively ignoring the unique characteristics

of others and creating distance from service recipients. Research has shown a strong relationship

between emotional exhaustion and Depersonalization (cynicism) in various occupational and

organizational settings (Maslach, Schaufeli & Leiter, 2001). Lee and Ashforth (1996) suggest that

depersonalization can be seen as a form of defensive behavior that individuals use to avoid or

6
reduce perceived threats in the workplace. Reduced personal accomplishment encompasses

feelings of incompetence and a lack of productivity in work.

Occupational Stress is negative environmental factors or stressors associated with a job, such as

work overload, role ambiguity, or poor working conditions (Cooper & Marshall, 1976).

Occupational Stress is a function of the discrepancy between an individual's expectations and their

ability to meet demands; the discrepancy can be due to too many factors, such as lack of clarity

about their role at work, feeling overloaded with tasks, or job dissatisfaction (Kahn & Quinn, 1970,

as cited in Gupta & Beehr, 1979).

The Health and Safety Executive has identified six factors that can potentially lead to high-stress

levels in the workplace, including demands, control, support, relationships, role, and change. The

well-being and productivity of employees can be significantly affected by various factors within

an organization, regardless of its size or type. Demands include elements such as the workload,

the pattern of work, and the physical and emotional conditions of the work environment.

Autonomy in one's work is a crucial aspect of control, while support encompasses the provision

of encouragement, sponsorship, and resources from colleagues, the organization, and the line

management. Building positive relationships and addressing unacceptable behavior is crucial for

maintaining a healthy work environment. A clear understanding of one's role within the

organization and ensuring that roles do not conflict are essential components of a role. Finally,

change is how significant and minor organizational modifications are managed and handled. It is

also essential for organizations to clear roles and have guidelines for communicating changes in

order to minimize work-related stress. (Cousins*, et al., 2004).

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2 Literature Review

There are numerous reasons why we might expect occupational stress and burnout levels to differ

between self-employed individuals and employees. Self-employed individuals or entrepreneurs

often face more complex and uncertain job demands compared to others. The nature of their

activities often places them in novel and unpredictable situations, these unique challenges may

lead to different stress experiences (Baron, 1998). According to Eden (1975), employees typically

have the ability to leave their job at the end of the day without worrying about the future of the

organization. In contrast, self-employed individuals may feel a greater sense of responsibility for

maintaining their work setting and may invest more of their own energy in doing so. They often

feel a strong sense of responsibility for the success and the failure (Thompson, Kopelman, &

Schriesheim, 1992). According to Buttner (1992) and Macko and Tyszka (2009), entrepreneurs

are inclined to take on greater danger compared to employees, whose financial stability is protected

by legal agreements and workplace regulations. They often have a strong desire to succeed

(McClelland, 1961), and this drive can lead them to put pressure on themselves to perform at a

high level (Hambrick, Finkelstein, & Mooney, 2005). Entrepreneurship as self-employment is

often characterized by a willingness to take risks, embrace uncertainty, and work hard, as well as

the acceptance of significant responsibility (Covin & Slevin, 1991).

Assuming the role of boss, spokesperson, salesperson, and recruiter can be the source of so much

stress for an entrepreneur, who has to bear the cost of their own mistakes while working alone and

lacks resources and support from colleagues (Buttner, 1992), as a result, they may work longer

hours compared to employees (Lewin-Epstein & Yuchtman-Yar, 1991, Naughton, 1987).

According to Hamermesh (1990), self-employed individuals work significantly more hours per

8
week than their employed counterparts, with an additional 17.5 hours on average. On the other

hand, Eden (1975) found that owners worked an average of 10 hours more per week than non-

owner counterparts, while Lewin-Epstein and Yuchtman-Yaar (1991) reported that owners still

worked an average of 3 hours more per week than non-owners. According to Maslach (1976),

burnout symptoms are not necessarily caused by a heavy workload but rather by an excessive

amount of direct interactions with clients. In a study by Maslach and Pines (1977), a link was

established between Burnout and prolonged working hours among childcare providers; however,

this association was only observed when those hours were spent in direct client interaction. Pines

and Maslach (1978) conducted interviews with mental health workers, they found that those who

had been working in their field for a longer period of time exhibited more burnout symptoms,

indicating that length of employment is related to Burnout.

Tsai et al., (2009) fount that age, gender, and working hours influence the relationship between

occupational stress and Burnout. Previous studies by Etzion (1984), Hendrix, Cantrell, & Steel,

(1988) showed that women experience high levels of Burnout, and occupational stress than males.

Despite the fact that entrepreneurs have some advantages when it comes to having more control

over their job, according to Eden, (1975), Hundley, (2001), and Tetrick, Slack, Da Silva, &

Sinclair, (2000), they don't have access to outside support and performance feedback from

supervisors which can increase the feeling of stress and lead to burnout, however, because of the

control they have over their job, they might experience less stressors, and emotional exhaustion.

Several studies have explored the various factors that contribute to Burnout in critical care nurses

for example. These include ethical issues, administrative tasks, dealing with tragic events like

death, lack of knowledge or skill, high workloads, and disappointment with unmet ideals (Claus

9
& Bailey, 1980; Duxbury, Armstrong, Drew, & Henly, 1984; Gray-Toft & Anderson, 1981; Kelly

& Cross, 1985; Topf & Dillion, 1988). According to Martin, Sass, and Schmitt (2012), teachers in

the classroom may experience additional demands, particularly in the form of student behavioral

problems, which is viewed as a central job demand contributing to teacher stress. A number of

personal and environmental factors have been found to be associated with Burnout including low

self-esteem, unrealistic expectations, lack of social support, self-critical attitude, over-

commitment, lack of control over working conditions, role conflict, and lack of authority to carry

out responsibility. Among these factors, we can detect the three big components of stress: control,

role and demands. (Lavandero, 1981).

According to studies by Eden (1975) and Naughton (1987), owners have greater control over their

work, and due to the control and autonomy associated with owning a business, they may have a

different perception of work stressors. This is supported by research conducted by Rahim (1996),

which found that entrepreneurs reported lower levels of stressors and higher levels of control.

The little amount of research examining the relationship between occupational stress and Burnout

using a general measure of occupational stress may explain inconsistencies in findings (Pandey &

Tripathi, 2001). Most researchers have used job specific occupational stress instruments such as

Nursing Stress Scale, which do not necessarily reflect the overall job stress experienced in other

occupations (Toft & Anderson, 198 1). As a result, the current research on stress experienced by

entrepreneurs are not very consistent. While some studies have found that self-employed

individuals report higher levels of stress compared to employees (Jamal, 1997; Teoh et al., 2016),

other research has found the opposite (Baron et al., 2016; Hessels et al., 2017; Patzelt & Shepherd,

2011).

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The significant impacts of stress can include fatigue and exhaustion, one of the big three

dimensions of Burnout (Van Yperen & Janssen, 2002). The high demands of the job and limited

resources can lead to stress, which can manifest in various ways, such as anxiety, exhaustion,

frustration, and health complaints, eventually leading to Burnout. (Jex, 1998). There are several

challenges and demands present in the work environment, including uncertain outcomes, intense

competition, and a lack of resources (Baron, 1998). According to research, various factors can

contribute to the high levels of stress experienced by workers in certain occupations. These factors

can include the demands of the job and personal factors such as loneliness and lack of support

from colleagues. All of these elements can combine to create a highly stressful work environment.

(Buttner, 1992; Rahim, 1996). The excessive job demands often lead to stress when an individual

lacks the ability to cope with them (Cardon & Patel, 2015). According to Karasek's (1979) Job

Demand-Control Moderator Model, occupations with high job demands and low control tend to

result in the highest levels of stress for individuals.

Cardon and Patel (2015) conducted a study examining the relationship between stress and

outcomes for entrepreneurs. They found that entrepreneurs experience higher levels of stress than

non-entrepreneurs, and stress had both positive financial and negative physical impacts on the

entrepreneurs. These results suggest that despite the negative health effects of stress, entrepreneurs

may be willing to endure it due to the potential financial rewards. Rubino et al., (2009) added that

when devoting energy to tasks that are not intellectually stimulating, satisfying or rewarding, an

individual might experience a higher level of fatigue and feel higher levels of exhaustion compared

to if they were highly rewarding.

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According to Guzma'n and Santos (2001), individuals who turn a hobby into a business, often

referred to as a "hobby-job," may have a high intrinsic motivation to start their new venture, as

they are going to engage themselves in something they already enjoyed in their free time.

However, Rubino et al., (2009) found that individuals with hobby jobs often experience a swift

decrease in intrinsic motivation after starting their business. As reported in the same study, "reality

check" was a common experience during the beginning stages of building a hobby-job business.

Many interviewees expressed disappointment as they no longer associated their hobby activity

with leisure and enjoyment, but instead with deadlines, stress and long hours. Additionally, when

self-employed individuals are uncertain about success criteria or strategies, they may blame

personal capabilities rather than the job they consciously chose. Therefore, it can be inferred that

the burnout experience varies across different professions.

According to the JD-R model, ambiguity in one's role at work should be positively associated with

emotional exhaustion. When individuals are unsure about their specific duties and behaviors, they

may spend more time and energy seeking information before starting tasks. Once these resources

are depleted, they may feel emotionally exhausted. (Fernet, Guay, & Senécal, 2004; Peiro,

Gonzalez-Roma, Tordera, & Manas, 2001; Posig & Kickul, 2003; Tetrick, Slack, Da Silva, &

Sinclair, 2000; Von Emster & Harrison, 1998).

A study by Salanova, Cifre, et al. (2005) explored the relationship between stress and Burnout

among university professors and students. The study included a sample of 872 university students

and 142 university staff. The authors found that stressful organizational factors can lead to the

development of burnout. However, the relationship between stress and burnout is not

straightforward. The study suggests that an individual's perception of their own competence plays

12
a role in how they cope with stress and whether they experience burnout. When an individual feels

competent, they are better able to cope with stress and avoid burnout. The study found that feelings

of competence can act as a shield against the negative effects of stress from factors such as

overload and role ambiguity on personal fulfillment and Depersonalization. Individuals who feel

in control of stressors are less likely to be affected negatively by them, whereas those who do not

feel in control may experience distress and impaired functioning. However, Burke (1987), Bartz

and Maloney (1986), and Cronin-Stubbs and Rooks (1985) have reported a correlation between

the two constructs. Burke (1987) conducted a study among police officers. The study included 828

men and women police. The findings indicated significant correlations between work setting,

stress antecedents, and burnout. However, individual demographic characteristics showed weak

correlations with burnout.

In the present study, a group of self-employed individuals and employees from Morocco was

sampled to test the followings hypotheses:

H1: Employees are expected to exhibit higher levels of emotional exhaustion and job demands, as

well as lower levels of control and role clarity, compared to self-employed individuals.

H2: Occupational stress would be significantly and positively associated with Burnout in the

context of self-employed and employees.

The proposed conceptual model (Fig. 1)

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 +
Occupational stress Burnout

Figure 1. Conceptual model of the positive effect of occupational stress on burnout

H3: Demands would be significantly and positively associated with emotional exhaustion in the

context of self-employed and employees.

H4: Control and role would be significantly and negatively associated with emotional exhaustion

in the context of self-employed and employees.

The proposed conceptual models (Fig. 2 and 3) summarizes the H3 and H4.

H5: We expect to find statistically significant differences in Burnout according to the

sociodemographic variables, such as gender, age, years of experience and work hours.

3 Methodology

3.1 Participants:

A total of 518 individuals responded to the study questionnaire, 236 employed individuals and 282

self-employed individuals. Table 1 presents some of the characteristics of the sample.

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Table 1. The demographic characteristics of the participants based on their professional situation.

Professional situation
Employed Self-employed
n % n %
Gender Male 105 44.5% 168 59.6%
Female 131 55.5% 114 40.4%
Age 18-23 9 3.8% 2 0.7%
24-29 52 22.0% 74 26.2%
30-35 50 21.2% 59 20.9%
36-41 59 25.0% 60 21.3%
42-47 30 12.7% 25 8.9%
48-53 9 3.8% 30 10.6%
54-59 16 6.8% 26 9.2%
>60 11 4.7% 6 2.1%
Years of experience Less than one year
23 9.7%
of experience 13 4.6%
1 - 5 years 56 23.7% 128 45.4%
6 - 10 years 17 7.2% 35 12.4%
11 - 15 years 11 4.7% 24 8.5%
16 - 20 years 15 6.4% 1 0.4%
21 - 25 years 1 0.4% 4 1.4%
26 - 30 years 79 33.5% 39 13.8%
>30 34 14.4% 38 13.5%
20 8.5%
Hours worked per week 10 or less 49 17.4%
11-20 27 11.4% 59 20.9%
21-30 20 8.5% 39 13.8%
31-40 93 39.4% 70 24.8%
41-50 62 26.3% 48 17.0%
51-60 8 3.4% 16 5.7%
61-70 4 1.7% 1 0.4%
>70 2 0.8% 0 0.0%

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3.2 Research design:

This study aims to examine the correlation between occupational stress and burnout using a

correlational research design. According to Fraenkel and Wallen (2012), this design identifies

relationships between variables. Coolican (2017) explains that although correlations can pinpoint

connections between different variables, they cannot establish causality.

3.3 Instruments:

The Maslach Burnout Inventory

Burnout is measured with 9 items taken from The Maslach Burnout Inventory (Maslach & Jackson,

1981a), which assesses three aspects of burnout: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and

personal accomplishment used to assess both the frequency and intensity of its dimensions.

However, only one of the factors, emotional exhaustion is measured in this study, Cronbach's alpha

was calculated to be .939 and .949 for the employed and self-employed group, respectively, which

indicates a high level of reliability. Moreover, this study only employed the frequency component,

as Gaines and Jermier (1983) discovered a strong correlation between frequency and intensity.

The HSE Management Standards Tool

Occupational stress is measured using The HSE Management Standards tool (MTI) developed by

the Health and Safety Executive (HSE), a UK government agency. The MTI encompasses 6 key

areas that organizations can address to prevent occupational stress, including demands, control,

support, relationships, role, and change (Cousins*, et al., 2004). In the survey, participants

responded to 19 items on a scale that ranges from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Demands

with 8 items (α = .855, employed group; α = .913, self-employed group). Control, with 6 items (α

= .820, employed group; α = .888, self-employed group). Lastly, role, with 5 items (α = .884,
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employed group; α = .938, self-employed group). The reliability of the 19-item Occupational

Stress measurement tool was found to be .656 and .745 for the employed and self-employed group

respectively. These reliability coefficients indicate moderate to good internal consistency of the

measurement tool within both groups. Higher reliability coefficients suggest that the items in the

tool consistently measure the construct of occupational stress. Therefore, the tool can be

considered reliable for assessing occupational stress levels among both employed and self-

employed individuals in this study.

3.4 Analysis:

For this study, we will be employing IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 26) for data analysis. A

computer-based software designed for statistical analysis. It is capable of performing a wide

variety of statistical procedures, from basic descriptive statistics to more advanced multivariate

procedures like factor analysis, which will be included in this study. (Meyers et al., 2013).

4 Results

The frequency of emotional exhaustion differs between the two groups, as indicated by the

distribution of scores. Among employees, 69.1% scored high on Emotional Exhaustion. For self-

employed individuals, the distribution of scores differs. A higher percentage, 35.8%, scored low

on Emotional Exhaustion as displayed in the table below. The significant difference suggests that

self-employed individuals tend to experience lower levels of Emotional Exhaustion compared to

employees.

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Table 2. Distribution of scores for Emotional Exhaustion component of the Maslach Burnout
(MBI) scale for each group.

Dimension Group MBI (%) N Total in %

Low Moderate High
Employees 6.8 24.2 69.1 236
Emotional Exhaustion 100
Self employed 35.8 30.1 34 282

The Pearson correlation coefficients, as shown in Table 3, reveal a significant negative

relationship between Professional situation and Emotional Exhaustion (r = -.448, p < .01), and

Demands (r = -.315, p < .01), indicating that self-employed individuals experience less emotional

exhaustion and demands than employees. Additionally, the correlation between Professional

situation and Control (r = .571, p < .01), and Role (r = .246, p < .01) is significantly positive,

suggesting that self-employed individuals have more control over their work and know their role

than employees, supporting H1. The regression results indicate that Professional situation is a

significant predictor of Emotional Exhaustion (β = -.448, p < .01), Demands (β = -.315, p < .01),

Control (β = .571, p < .01), and Role (β = .246, p < .01).

Table 3. Correlation and regression results of professional situation on the factors

Emotional Demands Control Role

Exhaustion
Pearson Correlation -.448** -.315** .571** .246**
Professional B -.022 -.028 .066 .038
situation β -.448** -.315** .571** .246**
(N=518) R .448 .315 .571 .246
R2 .201 .099 .326 .060
Note: Professional situation: Employee = 1, Self-employed = 2, N = 518; ** correlation is significant at the
.01 level.

The correlation coefficients between the variables are reported in the Table 4. Occupational stress

is positively correlated with burnout (r = .13, p < .05 for employed, r = .31, p < .01 for self-

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employed), supporting H2. In addition emotional exhaustion is significantly and positively

correlated with demands (r = .68, p < .01 for employed, r = .78, p < .01 for self-employed),

supporting H3, while it is significantly and negatively correlated with control (r = -.36** for

employed, r = -.45** for self-employed), and role (employed: r = -.39, p < .01; self-employed: r =

-.29, p < .01), supporting H4. In terms of work-related variables, hours worked per week is

positively correlated with stress for employed (r = .26, p < .01) and self-employed individuals (r =

.15, p < .05), indicating that individuals who work longer hours are more likely to experience high

levels of stress at work. Furthermore, years of experience is negatively correlated with stress for

self-employed individuals (r = -.19, p < .01), suggesting that as individuals gain more experience,

they are less likely to experience stress. Gender is also negatively correlated with control (r = -

.24, p < .01) and stress (r = -.19**, p < .01), indicating that female self-employed individuals tend

to have less control over their work environment and high levels of stress compared to males. For

the employed group, gender was significantly and positively correlated with Emotional exhaustion

(r = .18, p < .01), indicating that female employed individuals tend to have high emotional

exhaustion over their work environment compared to their male counterparts. For the employed

group, age is positively correlated with emotional exhaustion (r = .18, p < .01). For the self-

employed group, age is negatively correlated with demands (r = -.19, p < .01), control (r = -.21, p

< .01), and emotional exhaustion (r = -.14, p < .01). These findings support Hypothesis 5, which

predicted statistically significant differences in burnout based on sociodemographic variables.

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 Table 4. Descriptive Statistics, Reliability, and Observed Correlations.

Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Employed
1. Gender 1.56 .50 .
2. Age 3.83 1.75 -.03 .
3. Years of
experience: 4.81 2.58 .14* -.15* .
4. Hours worked
per week 3.85 1.41 -.29** .09 -.07 .
5. Emotional
Exhaustion 29.42 9.80 .18** .04 -.02 -.10 (.939)
6. Demands 20.77 4.85 .05 .04 .02 .13* .68** (.855)
7. Control 14.09 3.72 .07 .18** .01 .15* -.36** -.40** (.820)
8. Role 14.30 3.01 -.07 .26** -.05 .12 -.39** -.34** .55** (.884)
9. Stress 49.16 5.85 .05 .28** .00 .26** .13* .39** .58** .58** (.656)
Self-employed
1. Gender 1.4 .49 .
2. Age 3.91 1.73 .03 .
3. Years of
experience: 3.82 2.41 .04 -.15* .
4. Hours worked
per week 3.22 1.54 -.10 .10 -.11 .
5. Emotional
Exhaustion 20.12 8.78 -.04 -.14* -.07 .01 (.949)
6. Demands 17.23 5.69 -.02 -.19** -.01 -.02 .78** (.913)
7. Control 19.06 3.42 -.24** .21** -.24** .16** -.45** -.44** (.888)
8. Role 15.89 3.21 -.11 .03 -.11 .17** -.29** -.22** .57** (.938)
9. Stress 52.17 6.42 -.19** -.04 -.19** .15* .31** .53** .43** .60** (.745)
Note: Cronbach’s alpha values are reported in parentheses. Employed (N=236), Self-employed (N=282); **
correlation is significant at the .01 level and * at the .05 level. Gender: M = 1, F = 2. Age: 18-23 = 1, 24-29 = 2, 30-
35 = 3, 36-41 = 4, 42-47 = 5, 48-53 = 6, 54-59 = 7, > 60 = 8. Years of Experience: <1 year = 1, 1-5 years = 2, 6-1
0years = 3, 11-1 5years = 4, 16-20 years = 5, 21-25 years = 6, 26-30 years = 7, > 30 = 8. Hours Worked per Week:
<10 hours = 1 , 11-20 hours = 2, 21-30 hours = 3, 31-40 hours =4, 41-50 hours =5, 51-60 hours =6, 61-70 hours =7,
>70 hours =8

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 4.1 Exploratory factor analysis

The exploratory factor analysis was conducted using the Principal Component Analysis extraction

method and Promax rotation with Kaiser normalization. The structure matrix displays the factor

loadings for each item. The analysis revealed four factors: Emotional Exhaustion, Demands,

Control, and Role. The results align with the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) and the HSE

Management Standards Tool.

Table 5. Results of exploratory factor analysis.

Structure Matrix
Factors
Emotional
Items Exhaustion Demands Control Role

I feel emotionally drained from my work. .872

I feel used up at the end of the workday .773
I feel fatigued when I get up in the morning and
have to face another day on the job .884
Working with people all day is really a strain for
me .782
I feel burned out from my work .927
I feel frustrated by my job .916
I feel I’m working too hard on my job .811
Working with people directly puts too much stress
on me .825
I feel like I’m at the end of my rope .882
Different groups at work demand things from me
that are hard to combine .61
I have unachievable deadlines .724
I have to work very intensively .787
I have to neglect some tasks because I have too
much to do .863
I am unable to take sufficient breaks .748
I am pressured to work long hours .838

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I have to work very fast .722
I have unrealistic time pressures .81
I can decide when to take a break .797
I have a say in my own work speed .687
I have a choice in deciding how I do my work .864
I have a choice in deciding what I do at work .885
I have some say over the way I work .81
My working time can be flexible .748
I am clear what is expected of me at work .845
I know how to go about getting my job done .87
I am clear what my duties and responsibilities are .891
I am clear about the goals and objectives for my
department .838
I understand how my work fits into the overall aim
of the organization .871
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
Rotation Method: Promax with Kaiser Normalization.

4.2 Evaluation of specific hypotheses - Analysis of causal pathways:

The hypotheses were tested using the single regression technique through IBM SPSS Amos 26.0

software. The set of tested hypotheses represents the relationships between three dimensions of

Occupational stress and one dimension of burnout. This presents three possible hypothetical

relationships to test, as displayed in the table below.

22
Table 6. General report on non-standardized and standardized regression coefficients and
verification of all specific hypotheses.

Hypotheses
(causal pathways) Group R R2 B S.E. β Results
Employed .681 .464** 1.377 .097 .681**
H3. D → EE Supported
Self-employed .776 .602** 1.198 .058 .776**
Employed .363 .128** -.957 .160 -.363**
H4a. C → EE Supported
Self-employed .447 .197** -1.149 .137 -.447**
Employed .394 .156** -1.284 .196 -.394**
H4b. R → EE Supported
Self-employed .287 .082** -.785 .157 -.287**
Note: D = Demands, C = Control, R = Role, EE = Emotional Exhaustion, ** P < 0.01.

For Hypothesis 3, the results indicate a significant positive correlation between demands and

emotional exhaustion for both the Employed group (R2 = .464, β = .681, p < 0.01) and the Self-

employed group (R2 = .602, β = .776, p < 0.01). Regarding Hypothesis 4, the results show a

significant negative correlation between control and emotional exhaustion for the Employed group

(R2 = .128, β = -.363, p < 0.01) and the self-employed group (R2 = .197, β = -.447, p < 0.01). The

results also indicate a significant negative correlation between role and emotional exhaustion for

the Employed group (R2 = .156, β = -.394, p < 0.01) and the Self-employed group (R2 = .082, β =

-.287, p < 0.01). Thus, Hypothesis 2, 3 and 4 are supported for both groups. (See Figure 2 and 3).

23
 Demands Demands
.776*

.681**

-.447**
Control -.363**
Control
EE
EE
-.287**
-.394**
Role
Role

Figure 3. Structural model depicting the Figure 2. Structural model depicting the
impact of occupational stress factors on impact of occupational stress factors on
emotional exhaustion among self-employed emotional exhaustion among employees.
individuals

5 Discussion

Consistent with previous research (Hessels et al., 2017; Patzelt & Shepherd, 2011), the findings

demonstrated that employees experienced significantly higher levels of emotional exhaustion

compared to self-employed individuals. On the other hand, self-employed individuals experience

less emotional exhaustion in their work. These findings align with previous studies that have

highlighted the benefits of self-employment in terms of greater control over their work and

experiencing less stressors (Rahim 1996, Baron et al., 2016; Hessels et al., 2017; Patzelt &

Shepherd, 2011, Tetrick, Slack, Da Silva, & Sinclair, 2000). According to the findings, the nature

of work and the level of control individuals have over their work environment play a crucial role

in shaping emotional exhaustion and occupational stress. Emotional exhaustion was positively

correlated with job demands for both employees and self-employed individuals, indicating that

24
individuals who experience higher job demands are more likely to experience emotional

exhaustion. This finding aligns with the literature that highlights job demands as the primary

predictor of exhaustion (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017). Moreover, emotional exhaustion was

negatively correlated with control and role clarity, suggesting that individuals who have greater

control over their work and a clear understanding of their roles tend to experience lower levels of

emotional exhaustion. Our findings provide an empirical support for the hypothesis that self-

employed individuals experience lower levels of emotional exhaustion and occupational stress

compared to employees. The negative correlation between control and emotional exhaustion

confirms that individuals with greater control over their work tend to experience reduced emotional

exhaustion. Similarly, the negative correlation between professional situation and demands

supports the notion that self-employed individuals face fewer job demands and, consequently,

experience less burnout. The results align with previous research (Baron et al. 2016; Hessels et al.,

2017; Patzelt & Shepherd, 2011). The findings suggest that self-employment may serve as a

protective factor against occupational stress and burnout, offering individuals the freedom to

manage their work environment according to their preferences and needs.

6 Limitations

There are several limitations to acknowledge regarding the present study. First, the sample size is

relatively small (Employed (N=236), Self-employed (N=282)). It is scientifically recognized that

the sample size influences the statistical power of the results. Secondly, the data in this study were

collected through self-reported questionnaires. Lastly, the measurement instruments were not

subjected to the adaptation process.

25
7 Conclusion

The findings provided valuable insights into the correlation between occupational stress and

burnout, also the predictors of burnout in these two groups. The results highlight that employees

are more prone to emotional exhaustion and experience higher job demands and role ambiguity

compared to self-employed individuals. On the other hand, self-employed individuals reported

greater control over their work and better clarity about their roles, which contributed to lower

emotional exhaustion and reduced job demands. These findings have important implications for

organizations and individuals, highlighting the need for strategies that promote a healthy work

environment, and help understanding the factors that contribute to burnout and stress in different

work contexts. Organizations should consider implementing strategies to reduce job demands and

provide employees with more control and clarity in their roles. For individuals, particularly those

considering self-employment, the study suggests the importance of assessing the potential

advantages of increased control over work. However, it is crucial to recognize that self-

employment also comes with unique challenges, such as managing uncertainties and taking on

additional responsibilities ( Jamal, 1997; Teoh et al., 2016). Therefore, individuals should carefully

weigh the benefits and drawbacks before making career choices. It is worth noting that while the

current study focused on the specific dimensions of emotional exhaustion, demands, control, and

role, there may be additional factors contributing to the differences between self-employed and

employed individuals. Future research could explore the other dimensions that were not included

in this study as they may influence the relationship between burnout and occupational stress in the

Moroccan context. We also should take to cnsideration the omission of other personality variables

such as coping style and self efficacy that could have created a greater number of correlations.

26
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