sustainability

Article
The Numerical Diffusion Effect on the CFD
Simulation Accuracy of Velocity and Temperature
Field for the Application of Sustainable
Architecture Methodology
Vladimíra Michalcová 1 and Kamila Kotrasová 2, *
1 Department of Structural Mechanics, Faculty of Civil Engineering, VSB—Technical University of Ostrava,
Ludvíka Podéště 1875/17, 708 33 Ostrava-Poruba, Czech Republic; vladimira.michalcova@vsb.cz
2 Institute of Structural Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering, The Technical University of Košice,
Vysokoškolská 4, 042 00 Košice, Slovakia
* Correspondence: kamila.kotrasova@tuke.sk




Received: 9 November 2020; Accepted: 3 December 2020; Published: 5 December 2020


Abstract: Numerical simulation of fluid flow and heat or mass transfer phenomenon requires
numerical solution of Navier–Stokes and energy-conservation equations, together with the continuity
equation. The basic problem of solving general transport equations by the Finite Volume Method
(FVM) is the exact calculation of the transport quantity. Numerical or false diffusion is a phenomenon
of inserting errors in calculations that threaten the accuracy of the computational solution. The paper
compares the physical accuracy of the calculation in the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) code
in Ansys Fluent using the offered discretization calculation schemes, methods of solving the gradients
of the transport quantity on the cell walls, and the influence of the mesh type. The paper offers
possibilities on how to reduce numerical errors. In the calculation area, the sharp boundary of
two areas with different temperatures is created in the flow direction. The three-dimensional (3D)
stationary flow of the fictitious gas is simulated using FVM so that only advective transfer, in terms of
momentum and heat, arises. The subject of the study is to determine the level of numerical diffusion
(temperature field scattering) and to evaluate the values of the transport quantity (temperature),
which are outside the range of specified boundary conditions at variously set calculation parameters.

Keywords: CFD; discretization scheme; numerical diffusion; transport equation

1. Introduction
Aerodynamics deals with the movement of the air and the interaction between airflow and solid
objects. Aerodynamics of buildings study the physical problems of airflow effects on buildings and
their surroundings. The motion of the air—the wind—affects not only the design of the load-bearing
parts of the building structures, but the dimensioning and construction of their non-load-bearing
parts. One of the important areas of sustainable architecture is the knowledge of airflow effects
on the surrounding objects [1]. The wind significantly affects the energy efficiency of buildings [2],
associated with the general phenomenon of air filtration [3] (see Figure 1), the details, elements,
and systems of the packaging structures [4].

Sustainability 2020, 12, 10173; doi:10.3390/su122310173 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2020, 12, 10173 2 of 19
Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 18
Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 18

Figure 1. Illustration of air filtration and numerical simulation [3].

Figure 1. Illustration of air filtration and numerical simulation [3].
Theaerodynamics
The aerodynamics of of aa building
building examines the effect of the wind wind on on the
the structure
structureitself
itself[5],
[5],the
theair
air
Thenear
velocity
velocity aerodynamics
near of a[6–10]
the structure
the structure building
[6–10] (seeexamines
Figure 2), thethe
effect of theon
pressure
pressure wind
on theon
the the structure
structure
structure [5,11],itself
[5,11], the [5], the air
theturbulence
turbulence
velocity
aroundthe
around near
the the structure
building
building [12],and
[12], [6–10]
and (see Figure
theinfluence
the influence 2), the pressureconditions
ofofmeteorological
meteorological on the structure
conditions [13].The
[13]. [5,11],
The thegrouping
mutual
mutual turbulence
grouping of
around
of the
the the building
buildings
buildings modifies[12],
modifiestheand
the the
airflow,influence
airflow, which
which of meteorological
creates
creates the the
windy conditions
windy in [13].
climate
climate The
in their
their mutual grouping
surroundings
surroundings of
[14],[14],
and
the buildings
and affects
affects modifies
the human–wind
the human–wind the airflow, which
interaction,
interaction, human creates
human
safety,the windy
safety, climate
and thermal
and thermal comfortin their
comfort surroundings
[15]. [15]. By studying
By studying [14], and
the
the wind
affects
movement the
wind movementhuman–wind interaction,
in relation
in relation human
to thetopographical
to the wider safety,
wider topographical and thermal
units, it units, comfort
it is possible
is possible [15]. By studying
to positively
to positively the
regulate
regulate the wind
the
efficiency
movement
efficiency
of inthe
of relation
the ventilation of to
thetheurban
ventilation wider topographical
of theunits,
urbantheunits, units,
the itofis the
scattering
scattering possible
the to
ofexhaust positively
exhaust fumes,
fumes, regulate
and and
thethethe efficiency
formation
formation of
of the ventilation
of snowdrifts
snowdrifts around
around of the
the the urban and
buildings
buildings units,
thethe
and the scattering
lineline transport
transport of structures
the exhaust
structures fumes, and the formation of
[16–18].
[16–18].
snowdrifts around the buildings and the line transport structures [16–18].

Figure 2. The
Figure 2. The Computational
Computational Fluid
Fluid Dynamics
Dynamics (CFD) simulation of
(CFD) simulation of the
the wind
wind around
around buildings
buildings [10].
[10].
Figure 2. The Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation of the wind around buildings [10].
The
The results
results of of the
the interaction
interaction of air movement movement and and construction
construction can can be be obtained
obtained from from real real
The results[19],
measurements of the
from interaction
building of airmodels
scale movement in and
the windconstruction
tunnel can beasobtained
[20–22], well as from
by real
using
measurements [19], from building scale models [20–22], as well as by using
measurements
computer [19], from building scale models in the wind tunnel [20–22],flow as well as by using
computersimulations.
simulations.Computational
ComputationalFluid FluidDynamics
Dynamics(CFD), (CFD),also alsocalled
calledCFD CFD flowanalysis,analysis, is is
oneone of
computer
the basic simulations.
methods in in Computational
numerical Fluid
modeling Dynamics
concerning (CFD), also called CFD flow analysis, is one of
of the basic methods numerical modeling concerningfluid fluidflow,
flow,and anditit isis used
used as aa solution
solution to to
the basic
engineering methods in numerical modeling concerning fluid flow, and it is used as a solution to
engineeringproblems
problems in in almost
almost all all industries
industries [23,24],
[23,24], especially
especially in in building
building construction [4,10].
engineering
The problems in almost all industries [23,24], especially in building construction [4,10]. by the
The numerical
numerical solution
solution of of the general transport equations in the the Ansys
Ansys Fluent software
Fluent software by the
FiniteThe numerical
Volume Method solution
(FVM) of the
uses general
the transport
discretization equations
process, inin the
whichAnsys the Fluent
basic software
problem by the
is the
Finite Volume Method (FVM) uses the discretization process, in which the basic problem is the accurate
Finite
accurateVolume
calculationMethod (FVM)
of the transport uses the discretization
quantity the through process, in which the basic problem and the
is
calculation of the transport quantity through walls theof the walls of the volume
particular particular and volume
its advective its
accurate calculation
advective flow across of these
the transport
boundaries quantity When through the walls itofisthe particular volumewith and its
flow across these boundaries [25]. When [25]. calculating, calculating,
it is necessary to count necessarywith to thecount
occurrence the of
advective flow
occurrence theacross
of “numerical
so-calledthese boundaries
“numerical [25]. When
diffusion”, calculating, it literature
is necessary“diffusionto count error”
with the
the so-called diffusion”, often referredoftento inreferred
literature toasin “diffusionas error” or “numerical or
occurrence
“numerical of the so-called
viscosity” [26], “numerical diffusion”, often referred to in literature as “diffusion error” or
viscosity” [26], and with theand with theofoccurrence
occurrence values thatofare values
outsidethatthearerange
outsideof thethecorrect
range of the correct
solution [27].
“numerical
solution viscosity” [26],
[27]. This non-physical and with the
CFD artifactoccurrence of
impairs of values
thethe that
accuracy are outside the range of the correct
This non-physical CFD artifact impairs the accuracy discreteofsolutions
the discrete of the solutions
equations of the
in
solution
equations [27]. This non-physical CFD artifact impairs the accuracy of the discrete solutions of the
describinginthe describing
advectionthe advection
transport of thetransport
scalar [28]. of the
It isscalar
known[28]. thatItthe is numerical
known that the numerical
diffusion occurs
equationsoccurs
diffusion in describing
mainly the
theadvection transport of the scalar [28]. It is known thatwalls
the numerical
mainly in the case whereinthe casedirection
flow where theis flow direction
not parallel to is
thenot
gridparallel
walls to the grid
[29]. [29].
diffusion occurs mainly
However, in the case where the flow direction is not parallel to the gridstraight
walls [29].
However, the the optimal states (parallel flow) can only only be be achieved
achieved by calculating
by calculating sections
straight sections
of However, the optimal states (parallel flow) can only be achieved by calculating straight sections
ofpipeline
pipelinewithout
withoutthe theobstacles
obstaclesusing usingthe thehexahedral
hexahedralcells cells[30].
[30].TheThedirection
directionofofthe theflow
flowisisalways
always in
of pipeline
the general without
direction the
withobstacles
respect using
to theto the
cell hexahedral cells [30]. The direction of the flow isinalways in
in the general direction with respect thewalls
cell (hexahedral,
walls (hexahedral, tetrahedral, and polyhedral)
tetrahedral, and polyhedral) the most in
the general
flows direction
[31].flows
When with
evaluating respect to the cell
the advective walls (hexahedral,
state, it state, tetrahedral,
is necessary and
to consider polyhedral)
the numerical in the most
error
the most [31]. When evaluating the advective it is necessary to consider the numerical
flows [31].
(numerical When
diffusion)evaluating
[32]. [32]. the
ThisThis advective
causes state,
considerable it is necessary
problems to
ininthe consider the numerical error
error (numerical diffusion) causes considerable problems thenumerical
numerical solving several
solving of several
(numerical
technical diffusion) [32]. This causes considerable problems in the numerical solving of several
technicalproblems,
problems, including
including sustainable
sustainable architecture.
architecture.
technical
There problems, including sustainable architecture.
There are aanumber
numberofof studies
studies improving
improving the numerical
the numerical solution.
solution. Total Total
Variation Variation
DiminishingDiminishing
(TVD)
(TVD) There are a number
schemes have of studies a improving the numerical
group ofsolution. Total Variation Diminishing
schemes have been [33]been [33] applied
a widely widely applied
group monotonicity-preserving
of monotonicity-preserving advection differencingadvection
(TVD) schemes
differencing haveforbeen
schemes partial[33] a widelyequations
differential applied in group of monotonicity-preserving
numerical computational fluid dynamics advectionand
differencing schemes for partial differential equations in numerical
heat transfer since the last century. Many scientific teams continue to develop this TVD method. computational fluid dynamics and It
heat transfer since the last century. Many scientific teams continue to develop this TVD method. It
 Sustainability 2020, 12, 10173 3 of 19

schemes for
Sustainability partial
2020, differential
12, x FOR equations
PEER REVIEW in numerical computational fluid dynamics and heat transfer 3 of 18
since the last century. Many scientific teams continue to develop this TVD method. It allows the
implementation
allows of the whole
the implementation spectrum
of the wholeof TVD schemes
spectrum of TVD into unstructured
schemes networks, while
into unstructured their while
networks, exact
formulation
their was restored
exact formulation wasonrestored
structuredon networks
structured [34]. The authors
networks [35]authors
[34]. The analyzed[35]
theanalyzed
TVD differencing
the TVD
on unstructured
differencing on three-dimensional meshes, focusing
unstructured three-dimensional on the non-linearity
meshes, focusing on ofthe TVD differencing of
non-linearity andTVDthe
extrapolationand
differencing of the
thevirtual upwind node.
extrapolation of the Furthermore,
virtual upwind theynode.
proposed a novel monotonicity-preserving
Furthermore, they proposed a novel
correction method for thecorrection
monotonicity-preserving TVD schemes methodthatfor
significantly
the TVD reduces
schemesthe numerical
that diffusion
significantly caused
reduces the
by mesh skewness.
numerical The authors
diffusion caused by mesh [36] analyzed
skewness. theauthors
The causes [36]
of the numerical
analyzed errors,of
the causes inthe
terms of the
numerical
numerical
errors, diffusion
in terms andnumerical
of the the compression arising
diffusion and from the use of thearising
the compression explicit from
second-order
the use total
of thevariation
explicit
diminishing schemes
second-order in the diminishing
total variation one-dimensional advection
schemes in the simulation.
one-dimensional advection simulation.
The
Thepresented
presentedwork workoffers
offers possibilities
possibilities on
on how
how to to reduce the numerical errors in in Ansys
Ansys Fluent
Fluent
software
softwareusing
using thethe correct
correct calculation
calculation settings.
settings. ItIt uses
uses the
the available discretization schemes in in the
the
software, together with the available solutions
software, together with the available solutions methods of transport quantity gradients. The physical
quantity gradients. The physical
accuracy
accuracyofofthe
thecalculations,
calculations,for
forthe
thevarious
variouscombination-listed
combination-listed parameters, is monitored
monitored on on three
three types
types
ofofmesh.
mesh.
The
Theconclusions
conclusionswill willrecommend
recommend suitable
suitable variants
variants of calculations and, thus, contribute to to better
better
numerical
numericalsimulations
simulationsin inthe
thefield
fieldof
ofconstruction.
construction.

2.2.Method
Method
Thethree-dimensional
The three-dimensionalstationary stationary virtual
virtual gas
gas flow
flow of
of the
the computational
computational domain domain with with dimension
dimension
1 × 1 × 0.25 m (x × y × z) is simulated by the Finite Volume method (FVM).
1 × 1 × 0.25 m (x × y × z) is simulated by the Finite Volume method (FVM). The fictitious gas density The fictitious gas density is
is ρ = 1 kg·m −3 . The values of the thermal conductivity λ −1 (W·m −1 ·K−1 ) and the dynamic viscosity
ρ = 1 kg·m . The values of the thermal conductivity λ (W·m ·K ) and the dynamic viscosity μ (Pa·s)
−3 −1

ofµ the
(Pa·s)
gasofarethe gastoare
close close
zero. Thetopressure-velocity
zero. The pressure-velocity
coupling algorithmcoupling algorithm is
is determined bydetermined
the segregated by
the segregated SIMPLE method, which is suitable for steady-state calculations
SIMPLE method, which is suitable for steady-state calculations [37]. The boundary conditions are set [37]. The boundary
conditions
so are set so
that the identical that the
vectors identical
enter vectors
at the two enter perpendicular
mutually at the two mutually perpendicular
walls with the velocity walls
vx andwith
vy.
the velocity v and v . One of these walls has the temperature T = 300
One of these walls has the temperature T1 = 300 K and the second T2 = 400 K. The pressure outlet is on
x y 1 K and the second T 2 = 400
K. The
the two pressure
opposite outlet is onstatic
walls (the the two opposite
pressure p = 0walls
Pa). (the
As atstatic pressure the
the entrance, p = outlet
0 Pa). temperature
As at the entrance,
is also
the wall
one outletTtemperature
1 = 300 K and isthe
alsosecond
one wall T1 T=2 300
wall K and
= 400 K, seetheFigure
second3.wall T2 = 400
Thereby, theK,sharp
see Figure 3. Thereby,
boundary of the
the sharp boundary of the two domains with the temperature difference
two domains with the temperature difference ∆T = 100 K is created in the calculation domain. This ∆T = 100 K is created in the
calculation domain. This boundary is in the direction of the flow (in the domain at the angle of 45 ◦ ).
boundary is in the direction of the flow (in the domain at the angle of 45°). Only the advective
Only the advective
transmission, transmission,
in terms in terms of and
of the momentum the momentum and the occur
the heat, should heat, should
for theoccur for thenumerical
accurate accurate
numerical calculation. The diffuse transfer should not occur. The output
calculation. The diffuse transfer should not occur. The output on the two side opposite walls (in theon the two side opposite walls
xy
(in theisxythe
plane) plane)
zeroisflow
the zero
of allflow of all quantities
quantities across the across the(symmetry
border border (symmetryboundary boundary
condition,condition,
normal
normal is
velocity velocity is zero).
zero). These two These
sidestwo sides
of the of the opposite
opposite walls arewalls are notinshown
not shown Figurein3.Figure 3.

Figure 3.
Figure 3. The
The calculation
calculation domain
domain scheme
scheme 11 ×
× 11 ××0.25
0.25m
mand
andthe
theboundary
boundaryconditions.
conditions.

The solution of the problem is independent of the domain dimensions, gas density, and velocity.
It was verified on pilot calculations, whereby gradually changing all of these values in the thousands.
These test tasks were also performed for porous domain, with a wide range of permeability values
corresponding to building materials. The transport quantity does not have to be only the temperature,
Sustainability 2020, 12, 10173 4 of 19

The solution of the problem is independent of the domain dimensions, gas density, and velocity.
It was verified on pilot calculations, whereby gradually changing all of these values in the thousands.
These test tasks were also performed for porous domain, with a wide range of permeability values
corresponding to building materials. The transport quantity does not have to be only the temperature,
but also, for example, the concentration of substances. In the presented paper, the size of the calculation
area is set so that the calculations did not have the problem with above-standard number of cells and
the scattering of the temperature field (numerical error—diffusion) was obvious at the same time.
The air density is close to the air density. The velocity is chosen so that the calculations converged in
an acceptable time.
The Ansys Fluent software uses the FVM to convert the general transport equations to the system
of linear equations that are solved numerically by the Gauss–Seidel iteration method. This solution
consists in integrating the equations in each control volume (cell), where the result is the discrete
equations presented the flow equilibrium (the conservation laws of the transport quantity Φ in given
volume). Its mathematical description for the stationary flow in the integral form is:
Z Z Z
→ → →
ρ· v ·ΦdA = ΓΦ ·∇ΦdA + SΦ dV, (1)
A A V

→
where A (m·s−1 ) is the surface vector, V (m3 ) is the control volume (cell volume), ρ (kg·m−3 ) is the
→
density of the flowing medium, v (m·s−1 ) is the velocity vector, Φ (K) is the value of the transport
quantity (temperature), ∇Φ (K·m−1 ) the gradient of the transport quantity Φ, ΓΦ is the diffusion
coefficient of the transport quantity Φ (K·kg·m−1 ·s−1 ), SΦ (K kg m−3 s−1 ) is the source term of the
quantity Φ per unit of the volume.
Equation (1) is applied to all control volumes of the calculation area. Equation (2) is obtained by
the discretization of the Equation (1) in the given cell:

N f aces N f aces
X → → X →
ρ f · v f ·Φ f ·A f = ΓΦ ·∇Φ f ·A f + SΦ ·V, (2)
f n

→ →
where Nfaces is the number of the faces surrounding of the cell, ρ f · v f ·A f (kg·s−1 ) is the mass flow over
→
the surface f, A f (m2 ) is the surface vector f, Φf (K) is the value of the transport quantity flowing over
the surface f (the face value), ∇Φf (K·m−1 ) is the gradient of the transport quantity Φ on the surface f.
The left side in both equations represents the advective transfer of the quantity Φ, the right
side expresses the diffuse transfer and the source term of the transport quantity Φ (its decrease or
increase). The basic problem in the discretization of the advective term is the exact calculation of the
transport quantity on the face of the specific volume Φf and its gradient ∇Φf . The diffusion process
affects the transfer of the transport quantity along its gradient in all directions, while the advective
transfer pervades only in the direction of the flow. It is very difficult to find the exact discretization
computational scheme for the solving of the advective term in the Equation (2). The software Ansys
Fluent stores the discrete values of the scalar quantity Φ in the center of the cell. The values of the
scalar quantity Φf on the cell face are required for the calculation of the advective term in the equations
and they are determined by the interpolation from the values in the centers of the adjacent cells.
The number of the surrounding cells depends on the type of the grid, but, in most cases, the amount is
the same as the number of the faces forming of the interest cell. The discretization “upwind” schemes
are used for this process; it means that the value Φf is derived from the value of the next cell in the flow
direction. The most upwind schemes require the determination of the transport quantity gradient ∇Φ
for their solution. The gradients are necessary for the calculation of the scalar values on the cells faces
not only for discretization the advective but also for the diffusion term in the Equation (2).
Sustainability 2020, 12, 10173 5 of 19

3. The Parameters Influencing the Accuracy of the Calculation

The level of the physical accuracy of the numerical calculation is influenced by the mesh type,
the choice of discretization schemes for the conversion of the general transport equations to the
linear equations, and also the choice of the calculating method of the transport quantity gradient ∇Φ
(here temperatures).
Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 18

3.1. The Mesh Type and the Mesh Density

Three types of the grids: hexahedral, tetrahedral, and polyhedral are used for solving the
Threesee
problems, types of the4.grids:
Figure hexahedral,
All grid types havetetrahedral,
double and polyhedral
density. The coarseare used for solving
hexahedral andthetetrahedral
problems,
see Figure
mesh were 4. All grid
formed types
from have with
25 cells doublethedensity.
length ofThe 1mcoarse
at allhexahedral
longitudinal andandtetrahedral mesh of
vertical edges were
the
formed from 25 cells with the length of 1 m at all longitudinal and vertical edges
domain (x, y-axis direction), see Figure 5a. The 6 cells per 0.25 m are formed on the domain edges in z- of the domain
(x, y-axis
axis direction),
direction. The fine seehexahedral
Figure 5a. and
Thetetrahedral
6 cells per mesh
0.25 mwere
are formed
formed on fromthe100
domain edges
cells per 1 mininz-axis
the x,
direction.
y-axis The finesee
directions, hexahedral and
Figure 5b. tetrahedral
The 25 cells mesh were
per 0.25 mformed
are formedfrom 100 cellsdomain
on the in the x,
per 1 medges in y-axis
z-axis
directions,The
direction. seepolyhedral
Figure 5b. mesh
The 25was
cellsformed
per 0.25 m are formed
directly on theFluent
in the Ansys domain edges
from the in z-axis
tetra direction.
cells. The six
The polyhedral
calculation areasmesh
withwas the formed
identicaldirectly in the (Figure
dimensions Ansys Fluent
3) andfrom the tetra cells.
the parameters TheinsixTable
listed calculation
1 were
areas
created.with the identical dimensions (Figure 3) and the parameters listed in Table 1 were created.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure4.4.Three
Threemesh
mesh types
types and
and axis scheme on
axis scheme on which
whichthe
thetransport
transportquantities
quantitiesare
areevaluated;
evaluated;the coarse
the coarse
mesh: (a) mesh: (a) hexahedral;
hexahedral; (b) tetrahedral;
(b) tetrahedral; (c) polyhedral.
(c) polyhedral.

(a) (b)
Figure 5. Two
Two different densities of the tetrahedral
tetrahedral mesh:
mesh: (a) coarse; (b) fine.

Table 1. Number of cells in computational areas.

Table 1. Number of cells in computational areas.
Mesh Typetype
Mesh Hexahedral
Hexahedral Tetrahedral
Tetrahedral Polyhedral
Mesh type Hexahedral Tetrahedral Polyhedral
Values
Values inin
Thousands 25 Cells100100 Cells 2525 Cells 100 Cells 25
25 Cells Cells Cells 100 Cells 25Cells tetra
Cellstetra
tetra 100
100Cells tetra
Cellstetra
tetra
Thousands
Cells number 3.8 250 28.4 1660 5.9 294
Cells number 3.8 250 28.4 1660 5.9 294
Faces number 12.2 765 58.9 3355 38.8 2023
Faces number 12.2 765 58.9 3355 38.8 2023
Nodes number 4.7 265 5.8 294 32.9 1729
Nodes number 4.7 265 5.8 294 32.9 1729

3.2. The Discretization Scheme

3.2. The Discretization Scheme
ItItisispossible that the choice from the five upwind discretization schemes for the given problem.
possible that the choice from the five upwind discretization schemes for the given problem.
Their brief description and the scheme are in Table 2.
Their brief description and the scheme are in Table 2.
 Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 18

Sustainability 2020, 12, x Table

FOR PEER REVIEW
2. The discretization schemes for the adventive flow calculation. 6 of 18

Flow Direction
Sustainability 2020, 12, xTable→FOR PEER discretizationDescription
REVIEW
2. The schemes for the of adventive
Discretization Schemes
flow calculation. 6 of 18
Sustainability 2020, 12, 10173 First-order 6 of 19
Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW upwind scheme is based on the assumption that the value6 of of 18
Flow Φ(x) interpolated
Direction →
Table 2. The discretization Description of adventive
Discretization Schemes
ΦP value the quantity in theschemes for the
cell center corresponds flow
to the calculation.
average value in the
Φef First-order upwind scheme is based on the assumption that the value of
FlowΦ(x) interpolated
Direction
Table →
ΦE 2.Table 2.whole control
The discretization volume
The discretization
schemes andadventive
schemes
for the the
for
Description face
the
of value
adventive Φflow
Discretization
flow f is set equal to
calculation.
calculation. Schemes the cell-center
W ΦP P e value E the quantity
value of Φ in in the cell
the upstream center
cell.corresponds
The first-order to the average
upwind scheme value in
is the
not
Φef First-order upwind scheme is based on the assumption that the value of
Flow Direction → whole control Description
volume and the of
faceDiscretization
value Φ is set Schemes
equal to the cell-center
FlowΦ(x) interpolated
DirectionΦE → depended
the quantity oninthethe cell ∇Φ.corresponds
Description
gradientcenter
f
of Discretization Schemes
to the average value in the
W ΦP P e value E
First-order
value of Φ in upwind schemecell.
the upstream is based on the assumption
The first-order that the is
upwind scheme value
not of
Φef is based
Φ(x) interpolated
ΦE whole
Power
the
First-order
control
law
quantity scheme
upwind
volumeis andscheme
based the
on
∇Φ. face
the valueonΦto
analytical
the
f is
assumption
setaverage
equal
solution thetothat
thethe
cell-center
one-dimensional
W
ΦP P e efvalue
E
dependedvalue of the quantity in the cell center corresponds to the average the
on in
thethe cell
gradientcenter corresponds the value in
Φ value of Φ ininthe
advection-diffusion upstream cell.
equation. The
The first-order
face value fupwind scheme is not
Φ(x) interpolated
ΦE whole control
value volume
the whole and the
control face
volume value
and Φ f isΦ
the set
faceisvalue
determined
equal Φto
f isthe
from
equal the
setcell-center
e value
Power
dependedlaw
exponential scheme
on is based
the upstream
gradient on
∇Φ. the
Φ The
analytical solution the one-dimensional
W ΦP P E
value toΦ
of inprofile
the the by value
cell-center using ofthe
cell. values
in the of the cell
upstream
first-order cell.inThe
upwind their center.isThe
first-order
scheme not
Φef ΦE
Φ(x) interpolated
advection-diffusion
upwind
exponential scheme
profile isequation.
is not depended
depended The onfacetheon value
the gradient
Peclet Φ f is determined
number ∇Φ.Pe (ratiofrom of the the
e value
depended
Power law on the
scheme gradient
is based ∇Φ.
on the analytical solution the one-dimensional
W ΦP P E exponential
convectionPowerprofile law scheme
heat flow by(advection)
using
is basedthe on values
and ofheat
the analytical
the the cell inby
solution
flow their
thethecenter. The
mechanism of
Φef ΦE
Φ(x) interpolated
advection-diffusion
Power one-dimensional
law
exponential scheme
profile is equation.
based
depended on The
advection-diffusion
theon face
analytical
the value
equation.
Peclet Φ f is The
solution
number determined
face
the
Pe valuefrom Φ
one-dimensional
(ratio is the
off the
e value the convection
exponential (diffusion)).
profile by using Thethe solution
values is
ofheat the
the same
by cell inby with
their the first-order
ΦP P
the center. Thetheof
determined from the exponential profile
Φusing the values of the
W E
Φ(x) interpolated
advection-diffusion
convection
upwind scheme heat flow
for equation.
(advection)
|Pe| ≥ 10. The face
and thevalue f is determined
flow from
mechanism
Φef ΦE cell
exponential in their
profile center. The
is depended exponential
on the Pecletprofile is depended
number on
Pe (ratiothe Peclet
ofThe
the
W
ΦP P e value
E
exponential
the convection
number profile
Pe (ratioby
(diffusion)). using
of the solution
The
the convection values heatofisflow
the
thecellsame in their
(advection) with center.
the
and first-order
the heat
convection
Second-order heat flow
upwind (advection)
scheme: the andface the heat
value Φ flow is by the
determined mechanismfrom of
Φef ΦE exponential
upwind scheme
flow byprofile
thefor is
|Pe|
mechanism depended
≥ 10.of theon the Peclet
convection number Pe
f
(diffusion)). The(ratio
solution is the
of the
ΦW W interpolated
P e E the convection (diffusion)). The solution is the same with the first-order
cell values
convectionthe same in the
heat withtwo
flow the cells upstream
first-order
(advection) andofthe
upwind the face.
scheme
heat flow This
for |Pe|
byscheme
≥
the requires the
10.mechanism of
Φ(x) value Second-order upwind scheme: thein face value f is determined from the
ΦThis
upwind
determinationscheme
Second-order of for
the |Pe|
upwind
gradient≥ 10. ∇Φ
scheme: the
each
the convection (diffusion)). The solution is the same with the first-order face value
cell. Φ f is determined
more accurate than
ΦW interpolated
ΦP Φef ΦE cell values
the fromin
first-order thethe celltwo
upwind values cells inupstream
scheme,the two butcellsinofthe theregions
upstreamface. of Thisthescheme
with face.
the This requires the
strong
W Φ(x)
P e value
E upwind
Second-order scheme for |Pe|
upwind ≥ 10. the
scheme: face value Φ f is determined from the
ΦW interpolated gradients,
scheme
determination itincan
requires
ofresult the
the gradientin the ∇Φvalues
determination
face
of
in eachthat the gradient
cell.are This ∇Φ
is more
outside
in each cell.
accurate
ofbutthe range than
of
ΦP Φef ΦE cell values
This is the
more two
accuratecells upstream
than the of
first-order the face.
upwind This scheme
scheme, requires
in the the the
W Φ(x)
P e Evalue Second-order
the
the first-order
correct cell upwind
upwind
values. scheme:
scheme, the
but face
in value
the regions Φ f is determined
with the strong from
ΦW interpolated regions with
determination
cell values itincan of
theresult
thegradient
the
two
strong gradients,∇Φ in it cancell.
each result Thisin the is face
more values
accuratethat than
ΦP Φefvalue
Φ(x) ΦE gradients,are outside of thecells in
rangetheupstream
face
of thevalues
correctof the cellface.
that areThis
values. outside scheme of the requires
range of the
W P e E the first-order
Quadratic
determination
the correct Upwind
cell ofupwind
the gradient
values. scheme,
Interpolation butfor
∇Φ in each in the regions
Convective
cell. This is with
Kinetics the strong
(QUICK)
more accurate than
Quadratic Upwind Interpolation for Convective Kinetics
ΦP Φef ΦE gradients, it can result in thequadratic
face values that are outside of the range of
e E
scheme.
the The
first-order
(QUICK) quadratic
upwind
scheme. curve
The
scheme, is fitted
but in with
curve
the two
is
regions upstream
fitted with
with two
the nodes
upstream
strong and one
ΦWW P
interpolated Quadratic
the correct
downstream Upwind
cell values.
node. Interpolation
oneThis for Convective Kinetics (QUICK)
Φ(x) value gradients,nodes and
it can result inscheme
downstreamthe facenode. requires
values This the
scheme
that determination
requiresof
are outside of the
thethe gradient
range of
scheme.
∇Φ in eachThecell.
determinationquadratic
This ofisthe
acurve
gradient
very is fitted
∇Φ in
accurate with
eachtwo
scheme, cell.upstream
Thisitiscan
but a verynodes
lead and
accurate
to one
stability
ΦW ΦP Φef ΦE
interpolated the correct
Quadratic cell
Upwind values. Interpolation for Convective Kinetics (QUICK)
downstreamscheme,node. but it This
can lead schemeto stability
requires problems
the in the calculation
determination in the
of the gradient
W Φ(x) P e value E problems
scheme. Thein the calculation
quadratic curve inisthe regions
fitted with with
two strong gradients.
upstream nodes and one
∇Φ
Quadratic regions
in each Upwindwith
cell. This strong gradients.
Interpolation
is a very accurate QUICK
for Convective scheme, documented
Kinetics (QUICK) in [37],
ΦW ΦP Φef ΦE
interpolated QUICK
downstreamisscheme,
mainly node. documented
suitableThis for the pro
scheme in requires
[37], isscheme,
structured mainly
the
but
suitable
hexahedral
determination
it canfor
meshes,
leadthe
of
to
butpro
the
stability
itgradient
W Φ(x) P e value E scheme.
problems
structured The
can be
quadratic
inhexahedral
the
used
calculation
for isthe
curve
meshes, inisthe
unstructured
fitted
but regions
itor with
can thebe
two
withused
hybrid
upstream
strong
forit the
meshes.
nodes and one
gradients.
unstructured or
ΦW interpolated
ΦP Φef ΦE ∇Φ
QUICKin each
downstream scheme, cell.
node.This This
documented a very
scheme accurate
in requires
[37], is scheme,
the
mainly but
determination
suitable can forlead of
the to
the
prostability
gradient
Φ(x) value the Third-order
hybridinmeshes. Monotone Upstream-centered Scheme for
W P e problems
∇Φ in each
structured theThis
cell.
hexahedral calculation
is meshes,
a very inaccurate
the
butregions
it can with
scheme,
be used strong
but for gradients.
it the
can lead to stability
unstructured or
ΦP Φef ΦE E Conservation Laws (MUSCL). This third-order convection scheme
QUICK
Third-order
problems
the hybrid scheme,
wasin Monotone
created
the
meshes. documented
from the
calculation in
Upstream-centered
original
in the [37],
MUSCL
regions is mainly Scheme
[28],
with suitable
bystrong
mixingfor for central
the
gradients.the pro Laws
Conservation
W P- e E
structured
(MUSCL).
QUICK hexahedral
differentiation
This
scheme,
scheme
third-order
documented meshes, and
inbut
convection[37], it can
the second-order be used
isscheme
mainly was forcreated
winding
suitable thescheme.
forunstructured
from
the pro the or
This
- Third-order
the scheme
hybrid
original MUSCL Monotone
requires
meshes. [28],
the
by Upstream-centered
determination
mixing the
of
central
the Scheme
gradient
differentiation for
∇Φ Conservation
in each
scheme
cell. It Laws
andor the
structuredis hexahedral
usable for all gridmeshes,
types. but it can be used for the unstructured
(MUSCL).
second-order This third-order
winding scheme. convection scheme
This schemeScheme was
requiresfor created
the from
determination the of
the hybrid meshes.
Third-order Monotone
- original
the gradientMUSCL ∇Φ [28],
in each byUpstream-centered
mixing
cell. It is the
usablecentral for differentiation
all grid types.
Conservation
scheme and Laws
the
3.3. The Solution of the Transport Quantity (MUSCL).
Third-order
second-order This
Gradients third-order
Monotone
winding convection
Upstream-centered
scheme. This scheme scheme Scheme was for
requires created
the from the Laws
Conservation
determination of
- original MUSCL [28], by mixing the central differentiation scheme and the
3.3.gradients
The Solution (MUSCL).
the gradient This ∇ΦGradients
third-order
in each cell.convection It is usablescheme for all grid was created types. from the
The areof the Transport
needed, not onlyQuantity
second-order for the constructing
winding scheme. values of the scalar at the cell faces, but of
- original MUSCL [28], by mixingThis scheme
the central requires
differentiation the determination
scheme and the
also for computing the secondary diffusion
the gradient terms
∇Φ and
in theeach the velocity
cell. It is usablederivatives.
forof all grid The gradient
types. ∇Φ of
TheSolution
3.3. The gradients areTransport
of the needed, not only
Quantity
second-order for
Gradients
winding constructing
scheme. This values
scheme the
requires scalar theatdetermination
the cell faces,ofbut
a given the variable Φ is used to discretization of the advection and the diffusion terms in the flow
also for computing the secondary the gradient diffusion
∇Φ in terms each cell. andItthe velocity
is usable forderivatives.
all grid types. The gradient ∇Φ of a
conservation The equations.
gradients ofTheare gradients
needed, are computed
not only Gradients
for the in constructing
Ansys Fluent,values according to scalar
the three following
3.3. The
given Solution
the variable the Transport
Φ is used toQuantity
discretization of the advection andofthe the diffusion at terms
the cellinfaces,
the flowbut
methods:
also for computing
conservation equations. the secondary
The gradients diffusion
areGradientsterms and
computed the velocity
in Ansys Fluent, derivatives. The gradient ∇Φ of a
3.3.
given
The
The Solution
thegradients
variable
of the
areTransport
Φ is needed,
used to
Quantity
not only
discretization for theofconstructing
the advection values and ofaccording
the scalartoatthe
thediffusion the
terms
three
cell
in
following
faces,
the but
flow
1. methods:
Green–Gauss
also for cell-based;
computing the secondary diffusion terms and the velocity derivatives. The gradient ∇Φ
The gradients
conservation equations.are needed, not only
The gradients arefor the constructing
computed in Ansysvalues Fluent,ofaccording the scalartoatthe thethree faces, buta
cell following of
2. givenfor the
Green–Gauss
1.
also variable cell-based;
Green–Gauss
methods: node-based;
computing Φtheissecondary
used to discretization
diffusion terms of theandadvection
the velocity andderivatives.
the diffusion Theterms gradient in the
∇Φflowof a
3. conservation
Least
2. Squares
Green–Gauss equations.
cell-based. The
node-based; gradients are computed in Ansys
given the variable Φ is used to discretization of the advection and the diffusion terms in the flow Fluent, according to the three following
1. Green–Gauss
methods:
3. Least Squares cell-based;
cell-based.
conservation
The equations. useThethe gradients are computed
theorem toincompute Ansys Fluent, the ∇Φaccording at the celltocenter the three c0: following
2. first two methods
Green–Gauss node-based; Green–Gauss
methods:
1. Least
Green–Gauss
The first cell-based;
two methods use the Green–Gauss theorem to compute the ∇Φ at the cell center c0:
3. Squares cell-based. →
2. Green–Gauss node-based; 1 X
1. Green–Gauss cell-based; (∇Φ)c0 = Φ f ·A f , (3)
The
Leastfirst
3. Green–Gauss two methods
Squares use the Green–Gauss
cell-based. V 1
theorem to compute the ∇Φ at the cell center c0:
2. node-based; ∇Φ f = Φ ∙ 𝐴⃗ , (3)
𝑉
3. Least Squares
The first cell-based.
two methods use the Green–Gauss theorem 1 to compute the ∇Φ at the cell center c0:
The face value Φf by default of the Green–Gauss ∇Φ = cell-based Φ is ∙ 𝐴⃗taken
, from the arithmetic average (3)
The first two methods
of the values at the neighboring cell centers: use the Green–Gauss 𝑉
theorem to compute the ∇Φ at the cell center c0:
1
∇Φ = Φ ∙ 𝐴⃗ , (3)
Φc0 + Φ𝑉 1ci
⃗
Φ f =∇Φ = . Φ ∙ 𝐴 , (4) (3)
2 𝑉
 The face value Φf by default of the Green–Gauss cell-based is taken from the arithmetic average
of the values at the neighboring cell centers:

Φ +Φ
Φ = . (4)
2
Sustainability 2020, 12, 10173 7 of 19
The face value Φf by default of the Green–Gauss node-based is taken by the arithmetic average of
the nodal values on the face:
The face value Φf by default of the Green–Gauss node-based is taken by the arithmetic average of
the nodal values on the face: ,
1 N f ,nodes
Φ = 1 Φ , (5)
X
Φf = 𝑁 , Φn , (5)
N f ,nodes n
where
where N are the number of the nodes on the face. The nodal values Φn are determined from the
f,nodes are the number of the nodes on the face. The nodal values Φn are determined from the
Nf,nodes
weighted
weighted averageof
average of the
the cell
cell values surrounding the
values surrounding the nodes.
nodes. The
The node-based
node-based gradient
gradient method
method is is not
not
available
availablewith
withthethepolyhedral
polyhedralmeshes.
meshes.
The
The third least squares
third least squares cell-based
cell-based method
method is is based
based on assumption the
on assumption the change
change in in the
the cell
cellvalues
values
vector 𝑟⃗r from
between →
betweenthe thecell
cellc0
c0and
andcicialong
alongthe
thevector i from the
the center
center of
of the
the cell
cell c0
c0 to
to ci
ci is
is expressed
expressed as:as:

∇Φ ) ·∆
(∇Φ ∙ ∆𝑟
→⃗ = Φ Φ )..
r i = (Φci − Φ (6)
(6)
c0 c0

4.4.Results
Results
Theinfluence
The influenceof of the
the setting
setting combination
combination the the above
above parameters
parameters onon the
the accuracy
accuracy of
of the
the calculation
calculation
is tested in this paper. The level of the temperature field scattering (numerical diffusion) is
is tested in this paper. The level of the temperature field scattering (numerical diffusion) is compared
compared
tothe
to theoriginal
originalsharp
sharp boundary
boundary of of two
two areas
areas with
with the
the temperature difference∆T
temperaturedifference ∆T== 100
100 K.
K. The
The study
studyalso
also
monitors in which cases the temperature values appear outside the range of the
monitors in which cases the temperature values appear outside the range of the specified boundaryspecified boundary
conditions,i.e.,
conditions, i.e.,outside
outsidethe
therange T ∈ (300K,K,400
rangeT∈(300 400K).
K).

4.1. Evaluation the Mesh Density and the Mesh Type on the Numerical Diffusion
4.1. Evaluation the Mesh Density and the Mesh Type on the Numerical Diffusion
It is generally known that the mesh density has a significant effect on the magnitude of the
It is generally known that the mesh density has a significant effect on the magnitude of the
numerical diffusion. Figure 6 shows the temperature fields in the median plane of the calculation
numerical diffusion. Figure 6 shows the temperature fields in the median plane of the calculation area
area (plane z = 0.125 m, see Figure 3) calculated using the hexahedral meshes, the coarse also the
(plane z = 0.125 m, see Figure 3) calculated using the hexahedral meshes, the coarse also the fine grids.
fine grids. The difference in the temperature scattering with the mesh density of 25 cells/m versus
The difference in the temperature scattering with the mesh density of 25 cells/m versus the mesh
the mesh density of 100 cells/m is shown. Figure 6a,b presents the results of the solutions using the
density of 100 cells/m is shown. Figure 6a,b presents the results of the solutions using the first-order
first-order upwind scheme and Figure 6c,d using the second-order upwind scheme. The similar effect
upwind scheme and Figure 6c,d using the second-order upwind scheme. The similar effect has the
has the grid density on the numerical diffusion using the first-order upwind scheme for the tetrahedral
grid density on the numerical diffusion using the first-order upwind scheme for the tetrahedral and
and polyhedral mesh types. Using the second-order upwind, QUICK, and the third-order MUSCL
polyhedral mesh types. Using the second-order upwind, QUICK, and the third-order MUSCL
discretization schemes, the scatterings of the temperature fields and their changes (by changing of the
discretization schemes, the scatterings of the temperature fields and their changes (by changing of the
grid density) are smaller in all meshes, but there are problems with the temperature values outside the
grid density) are smaller in all meshes, but there are problems with the temperature values outside the
range of the correct solution (more Section 4.4).
range of the correct solution (more Section 4.4).

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure
Figure6.6.Hexahedral
Hexahedralelements,
elements,influence
influenceofof
thethe
mesh
meshdensity
densityonon
thethe
temperature field
temperature scattering:
field (a)
scattering:
25 cells/meter, first-order; (b) 100 cells/meter, first-order; (c) 25 cells/meter, second-order;
(a) 25 cells/meter, first-order; (b) 100 cells/meter, first-order; (c) 25 cells/meter, second-order; (d) 100
cells/meter, second-order.
(d) 100 cells/meter, second-order.

The grid type also has influence on the numerical diffusion of the transport quantity, although not
as significant as its density. The comparison of the temperature fields scatterings for all three types of
the coarse grids (25 cells/m) for the identically selected calculation scheme (second-order upwind) and
the method of the solution of the transport quantity gradients (Green–Gauss node-based) is shown in
Figure 7. Figure 7a–c document the temperature field from the Ansys Fluent software and Figure 7d
the temperature diagram in the horizontal axis of the calculation area (y = 0.5 m, z = 0.125 m). As it
 The grid type also has influence on the numerical diffusion of the transport quantity, although
not as significant as its density. The comparison of the temperature fields scatterings for all three types
of the coarse grids (25 cells/m) for the identically selected calculation scheme (second-order upwind)
and the method
Sustainability of 10173
2020, 12, the solution of the transport quantity gradients (Green–Gauss node-based) is shown 8 of 19
in Figure 7. Figure 7a–c document the temperature field from the Ansys Fluent software and Figure
7d the temperature diagram in the horizontal axis of the calculation area (y = 0.5 m, z = 0.125 m). As it
can be
can be seen
seen from
from Figure
Figure 7,7, the
the smallest
smallest scattering
scattering is
is achieved
achieved using
usingthe thetetrahedral
tetrahedralelements
elementsusing
usingthe
the
coarse mesh and the described calculation setting. Contrariwise, the biggest numerical diffusionarises
coarse mesh and the described calculation setting. Contrariwise, the biggest numerical diffusion arises
usingthe
using thehexahedral
hexahedralelements.
elements.TheThe ideal
ideal variant
variant (“ideal”)
(“ideal”) is the
is the illustrative
illustrative fictitious
fictitious casecase
withwith the
the zero
zero numerical diffusion
numerical diffusion in Figure 7d.in Figure 7d.

400
400
TT [K]
[K] Second
Second order
order
350
350 25
25 cells/m
cells/m
xx [m]
[m]
300
300
0.25
0.25 0.375
0.375 0.5
0.5 0.625
0.625 0.75
0.75
Ideal
Ideal hexahed
hexahed
tetrahed
tetrahed polyhed
polyhed
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure
Figure 7.
7. Coarse
Coarsemesh,
Coarse mesh, 25
mesh, 25 cells/meter,
25 cells/meter, second-order,
cells/meter, influence
second-order,influence
second-order, influenceof of the
ofthe grid
thegrid type
gridtype on
typeon the
onthe temperature
thetemperature
temperaturefieldfield
field
scattering:
scattering: (a)
(a) hexahedral;
hexahedral; (b) (b) tetrahedral;
tetrahedral; (c) polyhedral;
(c) polyhedral;
polyhedral;(d)(d) the
(d)the temperature
thetemperature diagram
diagraminin
temperaturediagram the
inthe direction
thedirection
direction
of
of horizontal
horizontal axis (y ===0.5
axis (y 0.5 m,zzz===0.125
0.5m,
m, 0.125m).
0.125 m).The
m). Thelegend
The legendis
legend isisidentical
identicalwith
identical withlegend
with legendin
legend inFigure
in Figure6.
Figure 6.6.

The temperature
The temperature fields using the the fine
fine mesh
mesh with
with the
the unchanged
unchangedcalculation
calculationparameters
parametersare
areinin
Figure 8. It
Figure It is
is obvious that the differences
differences in
in the
the individual
individualresults
resultsare
aresmaller.
smaller.The
Thetetrahedral
tetrahedralmesh
mesh
still achieves
still achieves thethe most
most accurate
accurate result.

400
400
TT [K]
[K] Second
Second order
order
350
350 100
100 cells/m
cells/m
xx [m]
[m]
300
300
0.25
0.25 0.375
0.375 0.5
0.5 0.625
0.625 0.75
0.75
Ideal
Ideal hexahed
hexahed
tetrahed
tetrahed polyhed
polyhed
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure
Figure 8.
8. Fine
Fine mesh,
mesh, 100100 cells/meter,
cells/meter, second-order, influence
second-order,influence
cells/meter, second-order, influenceof of the
ofthe grid
thegrid type
gridtype on
typeon the
onthe temperature
thetemperature
temperaturefieldfield
field
scattering:
scattering: (a)
(a) hexahedral;
hexahedral; (b)(b) tetrahedral;
tetrahedral; (c) polyhedral;
(c) polyhedral;
polyhedral;(d) (d) the
(d)the temperature
thetemperature diagram
diagraminin
temperaturediagram the
inthe direction
thedirection
direction
of
of horizontal
horizontal axis (y ===0.5
axis (y 0.5 m,zzz===0.125
0.5m,
m, 0.125m).
0.125 m).The
m). Thelegend
The legendis
legend isisidentical
identicalwith
identical withlegend
with legendin
legend inFigure
in Figure6.
Figure 6.6.

However, itit is
However, is important
importantto
toremember
rememberthatthatthe
theoverall
overallevaluation
evaluationofofthe
themesh
meshtype
typeisisnecessary
necessaryto
perform in parallel with the choice of the discretization scheme and the method of calculatingthe
to perform in parallel with the choice of the discretization scheme and the method of calculating the
gradient of
gradient of the
the transport
transport quantity
quantity on the control volume face (see next chapter).
chapter).

4.2. Evaluation
4.2. Evaluation of
of the
the Discretization
Discretization Schemes
Schemes in
in the
the Numerical
Numerical Diffusion
Diffusion
The discretization
The discretization schemes
schemeslisted
listedininSection
Section3.2, 3.2, except
except thethe power
power lawlaw scheme,
scheme, are are tested.
tested. The
The solution of the power law scheme is identical with the first-order upwind scheme
solution of the power law scheme is identical with the first-order upwind scheme in this type of the in this type of
the problem (|Pe|
problem (|Pe| > 10). > 10).
Figure 99 shows
Figure shows the
the temperature
temperature diagrams
diagrams for for all
all upwind
upwind schemes
schemes using
using the
the hexahedral
hexahedral mesh.
mesh.
The Green–Gauss
The Green–Gauss node-based
node-based method
method was was chosen
chosen forfor the
the transport
transport quantity
quantity gradients
gradients in inall
allcases
cases
presented here.
presented here.The Theresults
resultsusing
usingthethe coarse
coarse andand fine
fine grids
grids areare compared
compared here.
here. TheThe results
results of theof first-
the
first-order
order upwind
upwind scheme
scheme are significantly
are significantly diffusive,
diffusive, yet theyet differences
the differences are slight
are slight in other
in other cases.cases.
The
The smallest temperature field scatterings in this case is shown by the QUICK
smallest temperature field scatterings in this case is shown by the QUICK scheme using the fine mesh.scheme using the
fine mesh.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 10173 9 of 19
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18

400
400 400
400
TT [K] Hexahedral TT [K] Hexahedral
[K] Hexahedral [K] Hexahedral
25
25 cells/m
cells/m 100
100 cells/m
cells/m
350
350 Node-based
Node-based 350
350 Node-based
Node-based
xx [m]
[m] xx [m]
[m]
300
300 300
300
00 0.25
0.25 0.5
0.5 0.75
0.75 11 00 0.25
0.25 0.5
0.5 0.75
0.75 11

First-order
First-order QUICK
QUICK First-order
First-order QUICK
QUICK
Second-order
Second-order Third-order
Third-order Second-order
Second-order Third-order
Third-order
400
400 400
400
TT [K]
[K] TT [K]
[K]

350
350 350
350

xx [m]
[m] xx [m]
[m]
300
300 300
300
0.35
0.35 0.4
0.4 0.45
0.45 0.5
0.5 0.55
0.55 0.6
0.6 0.65
0.65 0.35
0.35 0.4
0.4 0.45
0.45 0.5
0.5 0.55
0.55 0.6
0.6 0.65
0.65
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure9.
Figure 9.Influence
9. Influenceof
Influence ofthe
of thediscretization
the discretization scheme
discretization scheme choice
choice on temperature
on the temperature field
temperature field scattering,
fieldscattering, hexahedral
scattering,hexahedral
hexahedral
elements, node-based
elements, node-based
elements, method
node-basedmethod for the transport
methodforforthethe quantity
transport
transport gradients,
quantity
quantity y = y0.5= m,
y
gradients,
gradients, = 0.5 m, z =
0.5z m, z = 0.125
0.125
= 0.125 m:
m: (a) 25
(a) m:
25
points/meter; (b)
(a) 25 points/meter;
points/meter; 100 points/meter.
(b) 100(b) 100 points/meter.
points/meter.

Figure 10
Figure
Figure 10 shows
10 showsthe
shows the
thetemperature
temperature
temperature diagrams
diagrams
diagrams onlyonlyfor the
only for
forfine
thetetrahedral
the fine mesh (allmesh
fine tetrahedral
tetrahedral upwind
mesh (allschemes)
(all upwind
upwind
schemes) but the record on the horizontal axis in the higher layer is also added (y = 0.9 m, z = 0.125 m).
but
schemes)the record
but the on the
record horizontal
on the axis
horizontal in the
axis higher
in the layer
higher is
layeralso
is added
also added(y =(y0.9
= m,
0.9 m,z =
z =0.125
0.125 m).
m).
The
The Green–Gauss
The Green–Gauss
Green–Gauss node-based node-based
node-based method method
method was was chosen for the
was chosen for the transport transport quantity
transport quantity gradients
quantity gradients
gradients in in all
in all cases
all cases
cases
presented here.
presented
presented here. It
here. ItIt is
is in
is in this
in this case,
this case, when
case, when the different temperatures
the different temperatures limit limit is
limit is at
is at the
at thegreater
the greaterdistance
greater distancefrom
distance from
from
the
the entrance
entrance to
to the
the calculation
calculation area (x =
= 0.9
0.9 m).
m). It
It is
is evident
evident from
from the graphs
the entrance to the calculation area (x = 0.9 m). It is evident from the graphs that the mutual differences that the mutual
mutual differences
differences
in the
in
in the results
the results between
results between the
between the selected
the selected schemes
selected remain very
schemes remain very similar
similar along
along thethe entire
entire length
entire length of
length ofthe
of thesharp
the sharp
sharp
boundary
boundary of
of the
the different temperatures. The
The numerical
numerical diffusion
boundary of the different temperatures. The numerical diffusion increases slightly at the greater increases slightly at
at the
the greater
greater
distancefrom
distance
distance from the
from the entrance
the entrance to
entrance to the
to area (y
the area (y =
== 0.9
0.9 m).
m). TheThe results
results give
give only
only slight
only slight differences
slight differencesusing
differences usingthe
using the
the
tetrahedral mesh except of the first-order upwind scheme. The smallest temperature field scatteringisis
tetrahedral
tetrahedral mesh
mesh except
except of
of the
the first-order upwind scheme.
scheme. The smallest temperature
temperature field
field scattering
scattering is
now shown
now
now shown the
shown the third-order
the third-order MUSCL,
third-order MUSCL, and
MUSCL, and this
and this positivity
positivity is is slightly
slightly highlighted
highlighted at at the
the great
great distance.
great distance.
distance.
This also
This
This also applies
also applies to
applies to the
to the polyhedral
the polyhedral mesh.
polyhedral mesh. It It will
It will be
will be discussed
be discussed in
discussed in more detail in
more detail in the
the following
following chapters.
chapters.
chapters.

400
400 400
400
TT [K] y = 0.5 m; Tetra TT [K] y = 0.9 m; Tetra
[K] y = 0.5 m; Tetra [K] y = 0.9 m; Tetra
100
100 cells/m
cells/m 100
100 cells/m
cells/m
350
350 Node-based 350
Node-based 350 Node-based
Node-based
xx [m]
[m] xx [m]
300
300 300 [m]
300
0.45
0.45 0.475
0.475 0.5
0.5 0.525
0.525 0.55
0.55 0.85 0.875 0.9 0.925 0.95
0.85 0.875 0.9 0.925 0.95
First-order
First-order 0.5
0.5 QUICK
QUICK 0.5
0.5 First-order
First-order 0.9
0.9 QUICK
QUICK 0.9
0.9
Second-order
Second-order 0.5
0.5 Third-orderL
Third-orderL 0.5
0.5 Second-order
Second-order 0.9
0.9 Third-order
Third-order 0.9
0.9
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure10.
Figure 10.Influence
10. Influenceof
Influence ofofthe
thediscretization
the discretization scheme
discretization scheme choice
scheme choice on
on the
the temperature
temperature field scattering,
field scattering,
temperature field tetrahedral
scattering,tetrahedral
tetrahedral
elements,
elements, node-based
elements,node-based method
node-basedmethod for
methodfor the
forthe transport
transport
the quantity
quantity
transport gradients,
gradients,
quantity 100 points/meter,
100100
gradients, points/meter, z = 0.125
z = 0.125
points/meter, m:
m: (a)
z = 0.125 m:yy
(a)
==(a)
0.5
0.5y m; (b)
= 0.5
m; yy ==(b)
(b)m; 0.9
0.9ym.
= 0.9 m.
m.

It
ItIt is
is apparent
is apparent that
apparent that the
that the calculation
calculation in in all cases using
cases using the
using the first-order
the first-order upwind
first-order upwind scheme
upwind scheme creates
creates aaa
scheme creates
significantly larger
significantly larger
significantly scattering of the transport quantity
larger scattering of the transport quantity in
quantity in comparing
in comparing
comparingwith with the
withthe other
theother schemes.
otherschemes. Although
schemes.Although
Although
the
the higher-order
higher-order discretization
discretization schemes
the higher-order discretization schemes giveschemes give
give the
the small mutual
small mutual differences, but the results are
but the
the results
results are more
aremore
more
pronounced
pronounced
pronounced for the for
for the
the different
different choice
choice of the methods of the transport quantity gradients. This
the methods of the transport quantity gradients. This willbe
methods of the transport quantity gradients. This will
will be
be
evaluated
evaluated in
evaluated in the
in the next
the next section.
next section.
section.
 Sustainability 2020,
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4.3.Evaluation
4.3.
4.3. Evaluationofof
Evaluation ofthe
theTransport
the TransportQuantity
Transport QuantityGradients
Quantity Gradientson
Gradients onthe
on theNumerical
the NumericalDiffusion
Numerical Diffusion
Diffusion
4.3. Evaluation
Theinfluence
influenceof theofTransport
themethod
methodQuantity
choiceGradients
forthe on the Numerical
thetransport
transport Diffusion
quantity gradientssolving
solvingofofthe
thenumerical
numerical
The
The influence of the
of the method choice
choice for
for the transport quantity
quantity gradients
gradients solving of the numerical
diffusion
The is
diffusion
diffusion is presented
influence
ispresented
presented here
of the
here
here for
method
forall
for all fine
allfine
fine mesh
choice
mesh
mesh types
fortypes
types (100
the transport cells/meter).
(100cells/meter).
(100 cells/meter). The temperature
quantity gradients change
solvingchange
Thetemperature
The temperature recordfor
of the numerical
change record
record for
for
yyydiffusion
===0.9;
0.9;zzz===is0.12
0.9; 0.12
0.12 misis
presented
m
m isshown
shown
here in
shown inFigures
for
in Figures
Figures 11–15.types
all fine 11–15.
mesh
11–15. Thefirst-order
The
The first-order upwindThe
(100 cells/meter).
first-order upwind
upwind scheme doesnot
temperature
scheme
scheme does
does notchange
not dependrecord
depend
depend onthe
on
on the
the
gradient
for y = 0.9;
gradient
gradient ofof
ofzthethe
the transport
= 0.12 m is shown
transport
transport quantity
quantity
quantity ∇Φ,
∇Φ, as
∇Φ,
in Figures as Table
as11–15.
TableThe
Table 2 was
22 was shown.
first-order
was The
shown.upwind
shown. temperature
scheme does
The temperature
The temperature field scattering
notscattering
field
field depend onisis
scattering is
significant
the gradient
significant
significant (it
(it was
(itof
was
was also
thealso
also shown
transport
shown in
shownquantity Section
in Section
in ∇Φ,
Section 4.2.)
4.2.)
4.2.) and
as Table
and it varies
and itit2varies
varies only
was shown. due
The
only due
only due to the mesh
totemperature
to the mesh
the type
field
mesh type
type change (Figure
scattering
change
change is
(Figure
(Figure
11).
significant
11).
11). (it was also shown in Section 4.2.) and it varies only due to the mesh type change (Figure 11).

400
400
400 T [K]
[K]
390 TT[K] First-order
First-order
390
390 First-order
upwind scheme
upwind scheme
380 upwind scheme
380
380
370
370
370
360
360
360
350
350
350
340
340
340
330
330
330 Cell Hexa
Hexa Cell Terta
Terta Cell Poly
Poly
320 Cell
Cell Hexa Cell
Cell Terta Cell
Cell Poly
320
320 Node Hexa Node Terta Node Poly
310 NodeHexa
Node Hexa NodeTerta
Node Terta NodePoly
Node Poly
310
310 Least Hexa Least Terta Least Poly
LeastHexa
Least Hexa LeastTerta
Least Terta LeastPoly
Least Poly
300 x [m]
[m]
300
300 xx[m]
0.8
0.8 0.82
0.82 0.84
0.84 0.86
0.86 0.88
0.88 0.9
0.9 0.92
0.92 0.94
0.94 0.96
0.96 0.98
0.98 1
0.8 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.9 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 11

Figure 11.
Figure 11. First-order
First-order upwind
upwind scheme:
scheme: influence
influence of
of the
the method
method choice
choice for
for the
the solving
solving of of the
the transport
transport
Figure
Figure11.
11.First-order
First-orderupwind
upwind scheme:
scheme: influence
influence of
of the method choice for the
the solving
solving of of the
thetransport
transport
quantity gradients
quantity gradients and
and the
the mesh
mesh type
type on
on the
the numerical
numerical diffusion;
diffusion; 100
100 cells/m;
cells/m; y = 0.9;
0.9; z == 0.125
0.125 m.
m.
quantity
quantitygradients
gradientsand
andthe
themesh
meshtype
type on
on the
the numerical
numerical diffusion;
diffusion; 100 cells/m; yy===0.9;
0.9; zzz==0.125
0.125m.
m.

400
400
400 T [K]
[K]
390 TT[K]
390 Hexahedral mesh
Hexahedral mesh
390 Hexahedral mesh
380
380
380
370
370
370
360
360
360
350
350
350
340
340
340
330
330
330 Sec. Cell
Cell QUICK Cell
Cell Third Cell
Cell
320 Sec.
Sec. Cell QUICK
QUICK Cell Third
Third Cell
320
320 Sec. Node QUICK Node Third Node
310
Sec.Node
Sec. Node QUICKNode
QUICK Node ThirdNode
Third Node
310
310 Sec. Least
Sec.Least
Least QUICK Least
QUICKLeast
Least Third Least
Third Least
Sec. QUICK Third Least
300 x [m]
[m]
300
300 xx[m]
0.8
0.8 0.82
0.82 0.84
0.84 0.86
0.86 0.88
0.88 0.9
0.9 0.92
0.92 0.94
0.94 0.96
0.96 0.98
0.98 1
0.8 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.9 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 11

Figure 12. Hexahedral

Figure Hexahedral mesh: influence
influence of the method
method choice
choice for
for the
the solving
solving ofof the
the transport
transport quantity
quantity
Figure 12.
12. Hexahedral mesh:
mesh: influence of
of the
the method
method choice for the solving ofof the
the transport
transportquantity
quantity
gradients and
gradientsand the
andthe mesh
themesh type
meshtype on
typeon the
onthe numerical
thenumerical diffusion;
numericaldiffusion; 100 cells/m;
100cells/m;
diffusion; 100
100 cells/m; y =
cells/m;yyy== 0.9; z =
0.9;zz==
=0.9; 0.125
=0.125
0.125
0.125m.m.
m.
m.
gradients

400
400
400 T [K]
[K]
390 T Tetrahedral mesh
mesh
390 T [K]
390 Tetrahedral
Tetrahedral mesh
380
380
380
370
370
370
360
360
360
350
350
350
340
340
340
330
330 Sec. Cell
Cell QUICK Cell
Cell Third Cell
Cell
330 Sec.
Sec. Cell QUICK
QUICK Cell Third
Third Cell
320
320 Sec. Node QUICK Node Third Node
320 Sec.Node
Sec. Node QUICKNode
QUICK Node ThirdNode
Third Node
310
310 Sec. Least QUICK Least Third Least
Least
310 Sec.Least
Sec. Least QUICKLeast
QUICK Least Third
Third Least
300 x [m]
[m]
300
300 xx[m]
0.8
0.8 0.82
0.82 0.84
0.84 0.86
0.86 0.88
0.88 0.9
0.9 0.92
0.92 0.94
0.94 0.96
0.96 0.98
0.98 1
0.8 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.9 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 11

Figure 13.
Figure Tetrahedral
Tetrahedral mesh:
13. Tetrahedral mesh: influence
influence of
of the
the method
methodchoice
choicefor
forthe
thesolving
solvingofof
ofthe
thetransport
transportquantity
quantity
Figure
Figure 13.
13. mesh:
Tetrahedral mesh: influence
influence of
of the
the method
method choice
choice for
for the
the solving
solving the
of the transport
transport quantity
quantity
gradients
gradients and
and the
the mesh
mesh type
type on
on the
the numerical
numerical diffusion;
diffusion; 100
100 cells/m;
cells/m; yy =
= 0.9;
0.9; z
z =
= 0.125
0.125 m.
m.
gradientsand
gradients andthe
themesh
meshtype
typeon
onthe
thenumerical
numericaldiffusion;
diffusion;100
100cells/m;
cells/m;yy==0.9;0.9;zz==0.125
0.125m.m.
 Sustainability 2020, 12, 10173 11 of 19
tainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 21

10 10
[%] Hexahedral mesh [%] Second-order scheme
8 8

6 6

4 4

2 2
x [m] x [m]
0 0
0.8 0.825 0.85 0.875 0.9 0.925 0.95 0.975 1 0.8 0.825 0.85 0.875 0.9 0.925 0.95 0.975 1
-2 -2
Sec. Cell QUICK Cell Third Cell Hexa Cell Tetra Cell Poly Cell
Sec. Node QUICK Node Third Node Hexa Node Tetra Node Poly Node
Sec. Least QUICK Least Third Least Hexa Least Tetra Least Poly Least
10 10
[%] Tetrahedral mesh [%] QUICK scheme
8 8

6 6

4 4

2 2
Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW x [m] 12x of
[m]18
0 0
0.8 0.825 0.85 0.875 0.9 0.925 0.95 0.975 1 0.8 0.825 0.85 0.875 0.9 0.925 0.95 0.975 1
-2 -2
achieved using the third-order MUSCL with the Green–Gauss node-based method option. The second-
Sec. Cell QUICK Cell Third Cell Hexa Cell Tetra Cell Poly Cell
order upwind
Sec. Node and the QUICK
QUICK Node schemes with options,
Third Node the Green–Gauss
Hexa Node node-based,
Tetra Node and the least
Poly Node
Sec. Least QUICK Least Third Least Hexa Least
squares cell-based methods, using this grid show good, almost identical results, in terms of the Tetra Least Poly Least
10 10
[%]
diffusivity on their accuracy, and is Polyhedral
comparable mesh to the QUICK [%] hexahedral mesh scheme. Third-order scheme
8 8
The percentage expression of the of the transport quantity error value from the ideal sharp limit
in6 the line y = 0.9 m is shown in Figure 14. The area in the 6 immediate vicinity of this limit x∈ (0.88 m,

0.92
4 m) is not evaluated. The reason is the discontinuous 4 function of ideal values. Figure 14a (left)
presents
2 the effect of different combinations of the calculation 2 parameters on the specific meshes. The
percentage expression of the error from the ideal x [m] value is in accordance with the real temperature x [m]
0 0
diagram
0.8 in Figures
0.825 12, 13,0.9
0.85 0.875 or 15. Figure
0.925 0.9514b (right)1 shows 0.8
0.975 the effect of the
0.825 0.85 mesh
0.875 0.9type and
0.925 the0.975
0.95 method 1
-2 -2
for the solving of the transport quantity gradient on the results of the chosen upwind scheme.
Sec. Cell QUICK Cell Third Cell Hexa Cell Tetra Cell Poly Cell
Polyhedral
Sec. Node mesh (Figures 14 and 15):Third
QUICK Node the Node
numerical diffusion
Hexa Node using theTetra
polyhedral
Node meshPolyis not
Node
Sec. Least QUICK Least Third Least Hexa Least Tetra Least Poly Least
affected by the choice of the methods for the solving of the transport quantity gradient. The small
(a) (b)
differences arise only by changing of the discretization scheme. The second-order upwind and the
QUICKFigureschemes show the
14. Percentage sameofresults,
values the errorwhere
fromthe the temperature field ofscattering
ideal sharp limit is largerfield
the temperature thaninthe
solving used the vicinity
the immediate third-order
of thisMUSCL.
limit: (a)Compared
combination to ofother meshes,
calculation the results
parameters on show
specificthe average
meshes;
(b) combination of calculation parameters for a specific upwind scheme; 100 cells/m; y = 0.9; z = 0.125 m.
diffusivity.

400
T [K]
390 Polyhedral mesh
380
370
360
350
340
330
320 Sec. Cell QUICK Cell Third Cell
Sec. Node QUICK Node Third Node
310 Sec. Least QUICK Least Third Least
300 x [m]
0.8 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.9 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 1

Figure15.
Figure 15.Polyhedral
Polyhedralmesh:
mesh: influence
influence of
of the
the method
method choice
choicefor
forthe
thesolving
solvingofofthe thetransport
transportquantity
quantity
gradientsand
gradients andthe
themesh
meshtype
typeon
on the
the numerical
numerical diffusion;
diffusion;100 cells/m;yy= =0.9;
100cells/m; = 0.125
z =z 0.125
0.9; m. m.

4.4.The
Values of theof
results Transport
the otherQuantities outside schemes
discretization the Rangeprove
of the Input Parameters
the certain dependence from the choice of
the method for theofsolving
The choices transport quantity
the discretization scheme andgradients and they
the method differ
for the according
solving to the mesh
of the transport type.
quantity
gradient affect to the formation of the transport quantity values outside the range of the input
parameters; it is also affected in the accuracy of the numerical calculations.
The lowest temperature deflections occur using of the hexahedral mesh. Their values outside the
boundary conditions T∈ (300 K, 400 K) are documented in Figure 16. The results differ significantly in
comparing with the results using the other mesh; therefore, the scale in this case is ten times smaller
Sustainability 2020, 12, 10173 12 of 19

Hexahedral mesh (Figures 12 and 14): the choice of the method for the solving transport quantity
gradients affects the results in the combination using the Second-order upwind and the third-order
MUSCL. The Green–Gauss node-based method shows significantly larger scattering of the temperature
field in comparing with the other two methods. The greatest numerical diffusion arises using the
second-order upwind scheme and all methods for solving the transport quantity gradients. The highest
diffusivity using the hexahedral mesh (second-order upwind scheme and Green–Gauss node-based
method) is comparable to the same calculation using the tetrahedral mesh (Figure 13). The calculation
using the QUICK scheme, using the hexahedral mesh, is one of the most accurate, and the choice
method for solving the transport quantity gradients in this case will not affect the results.
Tetrahedral mesh (Figures 13 and 14): the method for solving the transport quantity gradient
using the tetrahedral mesh affects the results for all discretization schemes, and the differences are
more pronounced than used the hexahedral mesh. In the case of the Green–Gauss cell-based method
choice, the numerical calculations have almost identical results in all discretization schemes and
their diffusivity is the most pronounced. Conversely, the smallest scattering of the temperature
field is achieved using the third-order MUSCL with the Green–Gauss node-based method option.
The second-order upwind and the QUICK schemes with options, the Green–Gauss node-based, and the
least squares cell-based methods, using this grid show good, almost identical results, in terms of the
diffusivity on their accuracy, and is comparable to the QUICK hexahedral mesh scheme.
The percentage expression of the of the transport quantity error value from the ideal sharp
limit in the line y = 0.9 m is shown in Figure 14. The area in the immediate vicinity of this limit
x ∈ (0.88 m, 0.92 m) is not evaluated. The reason is the discontinuous function of ideal values. Figure 14a
(left) presents the effect of different combinations of the calculation parameters on the specific meshes.
The percentage expression of the error from the ideal value is in accordance with the real temperature
diagram in Figure 12, Figure 13, or Figure 15. Figure 14b (right) shows the effect of the mesh type and the
method for the solving of the transport quantity gradient on the results of the chosen upwind scheme.
Polyhedral mesh (Figures 14 and 15): the numerical diffusion using the polyhedral mesh is not
affected by the choice of the methods for the solving of the transport quantity gradient. The small
differences arise only by changing of the discretization scheme. The second-order upwind and the
QUICK schemes show the same results, where the temperature field scattering is larger than the solving
used the third-order MUSCL. Compared to other meshes, the results show the average diffusivity.

4.4. Values of the Transport Quantities outside the Range of the Input Parameters
The choices of the discretization scheme and the method for the solving of the transport quantity
gradient affect to the formation of the transport quantity values outside the range of the input
parameters; it is also affected in the accuracy of the numerical calculations.
The lowest temperature deflections occur using of the hexahedral mesh. Their values outside the
boundary conditions T ∈ (300 K, 400 K) are documented in Figure 16. The results differ significantly
in comparing with the results using the other mesh; therefore, the scale in this case is ten times
smaller than the following images. The highest deflections occurred using the dense mesh (100 cells/m)
using the third-order MUSCL with the Green–Gauss cell-based method. The frequency of these
deflections in the median plane of the calculation area (plane z = 0.125 m, see Figure 3) is shown in
Figure 17a. Although the frequency is relatively high, these deflections can be considered negligible
due to their minimum values. Figure 17b shows the frequency of the deflections using the Second-order
upwind scheme with the Green–Gauss node-based; this shows the second highest values using the
hexahedral mesh.
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T [K] Hexahedral mesh ; 25 cells/meter T [K] Hexahedral mesh ; 100 cells/meter

T [K]
0.7 Hexahedral mesh ; 25 cells/meter T [K]
0.7 Hexahedral mesh ; 100 cells/meter
0.7
0.7 0.7
0.7
0.6
0.6 0.6
0.6
0.6 0.6
0.5
0.5 0.5
0.5
0.5 0.5
0.4
0.4 0.4
0.4
0.4 0.4
0.3
0.3 0.3
0.3
0.3 0.3
0.2
0.2 0.2
0.2
0.2 0.2
0.1
0.1 0.1
0.1
0.1 0.1
0.0
0.0 0.0
0.0
0.0 0.0

Node
Least
Cell

Node
Node

Cell

Least
Cell

Least
Cell

Least

Node

Least

Least
Node
Node

Cell

Node
Node

Cell
Cell

Least
Cell

Least
Node
Least
Cell

Node
Node

Cell

Least
Cell

Least
Cell

Least

Node

Least

Least
Node
Node

Cell

Node
Node

Cell
Cell

Least
Cell

Least
QUICK;Node
QUICK;Least
QUICK;Cell

Third;Node
First;Node

Third;Cell

Third;Least
Second;Cell

Second;Least
First;Cell

First;Least

Second;Node

QUICK;Least

Third;Least
QUICK;Node
Second;Node

QUICK;Cell

Third;Node
First;Node

Third;Cell
Second;Cell

Second;Least
First;Cell

First;Least
Second;

Third;
First;

QUICK;

Second;
First;

QUICK;

Third;
Second;

Third;
First;

QUICK;

Second;
First;

QUICK;

Third;
First;

Second;

QUICK;

Third;

QUICK;

Third;
First;

Second;
First;

Second;

QUICK;

Third;

Second;
First;

QUICK;

Third;
First;

Second;

QUICK;

Third;

QUICK;

Third;
First;

Second;
First;

Second;

QUICK;

Third;

Second;
First;

QUICK;

Third;
Extreme below 300 K Extreme above 400 K Extreme below 300 K Extreme above 400 K
Extreme below 300 K Extreme above 400 K Extreme below 300 K Extreme above 400 K
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 16. Hexahedral mesh: the extreme values of the transport quantities outside the range of the
Figure 16.
16. Hexahedral
Hexahedral mesh:
mesh: the
the extreme
extreme values
values of the transport
of the transport quantities
quantities outside
outside the
the range
range of
ofthe
the
correct solution: (a) coarse mesh ; (b) fine mesh.
correct
correctsolution:
solution:(a)
(a)coarse
coarsemesh
mesh;; (b)
(b) fine
fine mesh.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure
Figure17.
Figure 17.Frequency
17. Frequencyof
Frequency ofthe
of thetransport
the transportquantity
transport quantity deflections
quantity deflections outside
deflections the range
outside the range of
range of input
of input parameters
input parameters (white
parameters(white
(white
field),
field), fine
fine mesh:
mesh: (a)
(a) hexahedral,
hexahedral, third-order
third-order MUSCL;
MUSCL; (b)
(b) hexahedral,
hexahedral, second-order;
second-order; (c)
(c) tetrahedral;
tetrahedral;
field), fine mesh: (a) hexahedral, third-order MUSCL; (b) hexahedral, second-order; (c) tetrahedral; (d)
(d)
polyhedral.
(d) polyhedral.
polyhedral.

The
The significant
significant extreme
extreme deflections
deflections ofof the specified temperature field values
values forfor solving
solving the
the
The significant extreme deflections of the specified temperature field values for solving the
transport quantity
transportquantity
transport gradient
quantity gradient using
gradient using the
using the tetrahedral
the tetrahedral mesh
tetrahedral mesh occur,
mesh occur, the third-order MUSCL for all methods.
occur, the third-order MUSCL for all methods.
methods.
ItIt isis markedly
markedly for for the
the coarse
coarse mesh, see Figure 18a. The deflection values using the the fine
fine mesh
mesh are
arein
in
It is markedly for the coarse mesh, see Figure 18a. The deflection values using the fine mesh are in
Figure
Figure 18b.
18b. The
The first
first and
and second-order
second-order upwind and the QUICK
QUICK schemes
schemes have
have the
the
Figure 18b. The first and second-order upwind and the QUICK schemes have the targeted 10 × smaller targeted
targeted 10
10 ×× smaller
smaller
scale
scale(identical
scale (identicalwith
(identical withthe
with thehexahedral),
the hexahedral),because
hexahedral), because
because the
the temperature
the temperature
temperature values outside
values
values outside
outside the range
thethe T∈
T∈T(300
range
range (300 K,
K, 400
∈ (300 K,
400
K)
400are K)inare
order of the
in order ofmagnitude lowerlower
the magnitude (maximum
(maximum±0.4 ±0.4
K) than usingusing
K) than the third-order MUSCL.
the third-order This
MUSCL.
K) are in order of the magnitude lower (maximum ±0.4 K) than using the third-order MUSCL. This
scheme
This scheme
scheme has
has the
hasscale
the identical
the scale
scale to
to the
thetocoarse
identical
identical mesh.
the coarse
coarse mesh.mesh.

TT [K]
[K] Tetrahedral mesh ; 25 cells/meter T [K] Tetrahedral
Tetrahedral mesh
mesh ;; 100
100 cells/m
cells/m
T [K]
7.0 Tetrahedral mesh ; 25 cells/meter T [K]
0.7 7.0
7.0
7.0 0.7
0.7 7.0
7.0
6.0 0.6
0.6 6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0 0.6 6.0
5.0 0.5
0.5 5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0 0.5 5.0
0.4
0.4 4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0 0.4 4.0
4.0 0.3 3.0
3.0 0.3
0.3 3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0 0.2 2.0
2.0 0.2
0.2 2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0 0.1 1.0
1.0 0.1
0.1 1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0 0.0
0.0 0.0
0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
Cell

Least
Least
Cell

Node
Least

Node
Node
Cell
Node

Cell
Least

0.0
Cell

Least
Least
Cell

Node
Least

Node
Node
Cell
Node

Cell
Least

0.0
Third;Cell

Third;Least
QUICK;Least
QUICK;Cell

Third;Node
Second;Least

QUICK;Node
Second;Node
First;Cell
First;Node

Second;Cell
First;Least
Least
Cell

Cell

Least
Least

Node
Node
Cell

Node
Node

Cell
Least

Least
Cell

Cell

Least
Least

Node
Node
Cell

Node
Node

Cell
Least

QUICK;Least
QUICK;Cell

Third;Cell

Third;Least
Second;Least

QUICK;Node
Second;Node
First;Cell

Third;Node
First;Node

Second;Cell
First;Least

Third;
First;

QUICK;
Second;

Third;
First;

QUICK;
Second;

Third;
Second;

QUICK;
First;

Second;

Third;
First;

QUICK;

Third;
Second;

QUICK;
First;
First;

QUICK;

Third;

Second;
Second;

Third;
First;

QUICK;
First;

QUICK;

Third;
Second;

Second;

QUICK;

Third;
First;

Second;
First;

QUICK;

Third;
Second;

QUICK;

Third;
First;

Second;
First;

QUICK;

Third;

Extreme above 400 K

Extreme above 400 K
Extreme
Extreme below
below 300
300 K
K Extreme
Extreme above
above 400
400 K
K Extreme
Extreme below
below 300
300 K
K
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure 18.
18. Tetrahedral
Tetrahedral mesh:
mesh: the
the extreme
extreme values
values of the transport
transport quantities
quantities outside
outside the
the range
range of
ofthe
the
Figure 18. Tetrahedral mesh: the extreme values of the transport quantities outside the range of the
correct
correctsolution:
solution:(a)
(a)coarse
coarsemesh;
mesh; (b)
(b)fine
finemesh.
mesh.
correct solution: (a) coarse mesh; (b) fine mesh.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 10173 14 of 19
Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 18

The absolute
The absolute highest
highest deflections
deflections of
of the
the temperature
temperature values
values occur
occur forfor the
the calculation
calculation using
usingthethe
Green–Gauss node-based method, both the fine and the coarse mesh, and this is the highestvalue
Green–Gauss node-based method, both the fine and the coarse mesh, and this is the highest value
exceedance of
exceedance of all
all variants ofTT== 400
variants of 400K,
K,see
seeFigure
Figure18.
18.The
Thefrequency
frequency ofof
thethe
deflections
deflections forfor
thisthis
case is inis
case
Figure 17c.
in Figure 17c.
Using the
Using the polyhedral
polyhedral mesh
mesh gives
gives almost
almost zero
zero exceeding
exceeding values
values in
in the
the range
range of of TT∈∈ (300
(300 K,K, 400
400 K)
K)
except for the third-order MUSCL. This applies to all methods for solving the
except for the third-order MUSCL. This applies to all methods for solving the transport quantity transport quantity
gradient;see
gradient; seeFigure
Figure19.
19.The
The highest
highest deflections
deflections occur
occur for calculation
for the the calculation
usingusing the Green–Gauss
the Green–Gauss node-
node-based method. Figure 17d shows the frequency of
based method. Figure 17d shows the frequency of the deflections.the deflections.

T [K] Polyhedral mesh ; 25 cells/meter T [K] Polyhedral mesh ; 100 cells/meter

7.0 7.0
6.0 6.0
5.0 5.0
4.0 4.0
3.0 3.0
2.0 2.0
1.0 1.0
0.0 0.0
QUICK; Node
QUICK; Least
QUICK; Cell

Third; Node
First; Node

Third; Cell

Third; Least
Second; Cell

Second; Least
Second; Node
First; Cell

First; Least

QUICK; Least
QUICK; Cell

Third; Cell

Third; Least
Second; Least

QUICK; Node
Second; Node
First; Cell

Third; Node
First; Node

Second; Cell
First; Least
Extreme below 300 K Extreme above 400 K Extreme below 300 K Extreme above 400 K
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 19.
19. Polyhedral
Polyhedral mesh:
mesh: the
the extreme
extreme values
values of the transport quantities outside
outside the
the range
range of
ofthe
the
correct
correctsolution:
solution:(a)
(a)coarse
coarsemesh;
mesh;(b)
(b)fine
finemesh.
mesh.

5.Discussion
5. Discussion

5.1. Mesh Type

5.1. Mesh Type
Hexahedral mesh:
Hexahedral mesh:
• Using the correct combination of the calculation parameters achieve the most accurate results of
• Using the correct combination of the calculation parameters achieve the most accurate results of
all tested tasks, but the results are diffusive with incorrect settings (for more see Section 5.2).
all tested tasks, but the results are diffusive with incorrect settings (for more see Section 5.2).
• The lowest deflection of the entered values of the transport quantity Φ occur on this mesh.
• The lowest deflection of the entered values of the transport quantity Φ occur on this mesh.
•• The The calculations
calculations are
are less
less sensitive
sensitive to
to the
the choice
choice of
of methods
methods for
for solving
solving the
the transport
transportquantity
quantity
gradient than using the tetrahedral mesh, unfortunately, in many cases, it is notpossible
gradient than using the tetrahedral mesh, unfortunately, in many cases, it is not possibleto
tocreate
create
the hexahedral cells for complex geometries separately.
the hexahedral cells for complex geometries separately.
Tetrahedral mesh:
Tetrahedral mesh:

•• The disadvantage
The disadvantage is is the
the large
large number
number of of cells
cells and,
and, thus,
thus, the
the greater
greater complexity
complexity of
of calculations.
calculations.
•• The sensitivity to the choice of calculation parameters is high, but with the correct combination,
The sensitivity to the choice of calculation parameters is high, but with the correct combination,
can achieve
can achieve good
good results
results (for
(for more
more see
see Section
Section 5.2).
5.2).

Polyhedralmesh:
Polyhedral mesh:

•• In many
In many cases,
cases, itit is
is recommended
recommended for great savings in the number
number of of cells
cells and,
and, thus,
thus, less
less difficulty
difficulty
in the
in the calculations.
calculations.
•• The
The accuracy
accuracy of
of thethe solutions is average to below average
average in
in this
this submitted
submitted study
study(see
(seeSection
Section5.25.2
for
for more
more information).
information).

5.2.Discretization
5.2. DiscretizationScheme
Schemeand
andthe
theMethod
Methodfor
forSolving
Solvingthe
theTransport
Transport Quantity
Quantity Gradients
Gradients
First-order upwind
First-order upwind scheme:
scheme:

•• Produces very
Produces very diffusive
diffusive results, but it is easy to implement and its calculations are very stable.
• This scheme is convenient for starting calculations.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 10173 15 of 19

• This scheme is convenient for starting calculations.

Second-order upwind scheme:
• It is more accurate than the first-order upwind scheme, but it is generally stated that it can lead to
the values—that they are outside the range of the input in the regions with the strong gradients [38].
It is reflected in both the hexahedral and the tetrahedral mesh, but the deflections of the values are
very low (see Figures 16 and 18), and the frequency of the occurrence does not exceed the other
cases (see Figure 17b).
• This scheme achieves the weakest results among the higher order schemes using the
hexahedral mesh.
• Conversely, the solution using the tetrahedral mesh with the choice of the node-based and the
least methods, together with the QUICK scheme, is relatively accurate, and comparable to the
most accurate, using the hexahedral mesh (see Figures 12–14).
QUICK scheme:
• The scheme, stated in [37], is suitable mainly for the structured hexahedral meshes, but it can be
used for the unstructured or hybrid meshes.
• Using the hexahedral mesh, this scheme presents the most accurate results of all tested variants,
regardless of the choice of the method for solving the transport quantity gradient.
• The QUICK scheme, using the tetrahedral mesh, gives the results in terms of the size of the
numerical diffusion comparable to the hexahedral mesh with the combination the Green–Gauss
node-based or the least squares cell-based methods (Figures 12–14), but there are slightly higher
values of the temperature field value deflections. (Figures 16 and 18).
• The combination of the QUICK scheme with the Green–Gauss cell-based method for solving the
transport quantity gradient is not suitable for the tetrahedral mesh; the results are very diffusive.
Third-order MUSCL:
• The scheme has the potential to improve the spatial accuracy for all types of grids by reducing
the numerical diffusion and it is available for all transport equations. This is confirmed only
by the numerical calculations using the tetrahedral mesh in combination with the Green–Gauss
node-based method. However, the occurrence of the values outside the correct solution is high
(see Figure 13, Figure 14 or Figure 18), and the high deflections are also for the other methods.
• This scheme shows the high deflections of the values of the transport quantity for the tetrahedral
and the polyhedral meshes in all methods for solving the transport quantity gradient (see Figures 18
and 19).
The recommended combinations of the calculation parameters are in Table 3. The unrecommended
settings are listed in Table 4.

Table 3. Recommended combinations of the calculation parameters settings for three mesh types.

Method for
Discretization Numerical
Mesh Type Solving Transport Out Range Values
Scheme Diffusion
Quantity Gradient
Method does not Lowest of all
Hexahedral QUICK scheme Significantly low
affect variants
Green–Gauss
Second-order and node-based, or
Tetrahedral Small Low
QUICK schemes least squares
cell-based
Second-order and Method does not
United Low
Polyhedral QUICK schemes affect
Method does not
Third-order Average High
affect
Sustainability 2020, 12, 10173 16 of 19

Table 4. Inappropriate combinations of the calculation parameter for hexahedral and tetrahedral meshes.

Discretization
Mesh Type Explanation
Scheme
High diffusion, the largest for Green–Gauss node-based choice,
Second-order scheme
Hexahedral values outside the input range are low, Figurs 12, 14, and 16.
High diffusion for Green–Gauss node-based choice, values
Third-order scheme
outside the input range significantly high, Figurs 12, 14, and 16.
Height diffusion for Green–Gauss cell-based choice, Figurs 13
Tetrahedral All schemes
and 14.

6. Conclusions
The presented work compares the physical accuracy of the calculation in the CFD code in the
Ansys Fluent software using the offered discretization calculation schemes, the methods of the transport
quantity gradients solving on the cell faces, and the influence of the mesh type. The sharp boundary
of two areas with the different temperatures is created in the direction of the flow direction in the
calculation area. The FVM simulates the 3D stationary flow of the fictitious gas so that only the
advective transfer in the terms of the momentum and the heat arises. Ideally, the diffuse transmission
should not occur. The level of the scattering of the temperature field (numerical diffusion) against
the original sharp boundary of the two areas is monitored and also in which cases the values of the
transport quantity (temperature) appear outside the range of the specified boundary conditions, i.e.,
outside the T ∈ range (300 K, 400 K). The frequencies of the deflections and the value deflections from
the correct solution are evaluated.
The article offers the options for reducing of the numerical errors by setting the correct combination
of the calculation parameters. The recommended combinations of the calculation parameters settings for
the numerical modeling of the airflow effect on the buildings, including the partial results, are described
in detail in the Results section. Their global summary is commented in the Discussion section.
The results of the presented study contribute to the development of the methodology for the
numerical studies focused on the sustainable architecture. The conclusions will be used in solving
specific problems of construction engineering practices, for example, in solving the velocity of
substances in the porous domain of building materials and soils.
Final practical summary:
• The coarse mesh is to be clearly more accurate.
• The first-order upwind scheme does not depend on the choice of the methods for the solving
of the transport quantity gradient, it produces the very diffusive results, but the calculation is
stable, and it is suitable for starting calculations that are more complex. When calculating with
the first-order upwind scheme, the values of the transport quantity Φ do not occur outside the
input range.
• The QUICK scheme shows the best results with the low diffusivity, even with the low values Φ
outside the input range. The effect of the choice of the methods for solving the transport quantity
gradient is manifested only on the tetrahedral mesh.
• Although the third-order MUSCL is able to calculate the acceptable diffusivity, the values Φ
outside the input range are significantly high compared to other discretization schemes.
• The Green–Gauss cell-based method for the solving the transport quantity gradient is not suitable
for the tetrahedral mesh; it shows the diffusive results for all discretization schemes except the
first-order upwind.
• The Green–Gauss node-based method for the solving of the transport quantity gradient is not
suitable for the hexahedral mesh using the second-order upwind and the third-order MUSCL.
It shows the diffusive results with these schemes.
• The advantage of the polyhedral mesh with the low number of cells and, thus, less computational
complexity, is negatively balanced by the higher diffusivity in all discretization schemes. The effect
Sustainability 2020, 12, 10173 17 of 19

of the method for solving the transport quantity gradient option has no effect on the results on
this mesh.

Author Contributions: V.M. performed the numerical simulations and analysis of results. V.M. and K.K.
participated in the design of this study and drafted the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by VŠB-TUO by the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports of the
Czech Republic.
Acknowledgments: Financial support from VSB-Technical University of Ostrava by means of the Czech
Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports through the Institutional support for conceptual development of
science, research, and innovations for the year 2020 and from the Scientific Grant Agency of the Ministry of
Education of Slovak Republic and support from the Slovak Academy of Sciences the project VEGA 1/0374/19 are
gratefully acknowledged.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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