Chapter II

Review of Related Literature

A. Reading Comprehension
1. Nature of Reading
As our knowledge of the reading process has evolved, definitions of
reading have become more complex. Although “getting meaning from print” is
one way to define reading, such simplify definitions do not adequately present
the complexity of the process, nor do they reflect the interaction of factor
which enter into the reading act.

Reading is as approach in a thinking process-one in which the students

interacts with the textual material and sorts, evaluates, and reacts to its
organization and content. Numerous strategies for precieving patterns and
structures within sentence are included. In addition, according to Nunan
(2003) states reading is fluent process of readers combination of word
recognition, intellect and emotion interrelated with prior knowledge to
understand the message communicated. It means that the participants or the
reader transfer meaning from the text and give assessment from the text to
understand the message communicated.

The other opinions about definition of reading is decoding written

words so that the readers can produce them orally. Similarly, Nunan (2003:
68) who states that reading is a fluent process of readers combining
information from a text in their own background knowledge to build meaning.
The same way that reading requires the reader to focus attention on the
reading materials and integrate previously acquired knowledge and skills to
comprehend what someone else has written.

In addition Caroline T. Linse (2005; 69), reading is a set of skills that

involves making sense and deriving meaning from the printed word. In order
to read, we must be able to decode (sound out) the printed words and also
comprehend what we read.
2. Reading Comprehension
Reading comprehension allows the integration of knowledge that
facilitates training processes and successful coping with academic and
personal situations. In higher education, this reading comprehension has to
provide students with autonomy to self-direct their academic-professional
learning and provide critical thinking in favor of community service (UNESCO,
2009). However, research in recent years (Bharuthram, 2012; Afflerbach et
al., 2015) indicates that a part of university students are not prepared to
successfully deal with academic texts or they have reading difficulties
(Smagorinsky, 2001; Cox et al., 2014), which may limit academic training
focused on written texts. This work aims to review the level of reading
comprehension provided by studies carried out in different countries,
considering the heterogeneity of existing educational models.

The level of reading comprehension refers to the type of mental

representation that is made of the written text. The reader builds a mental
model in which he can integrate explicit and implicit data from the text,
experiences, and previous knowledge (Kucer, 2016; van den Broek et al.,
2016). At these levels of processing, the cognitive strategies used, are
different according to the domain-learning model (Alexander, 2004) from
basic coding to a transformation of the text. In the scientific literature, there
are investigations (Yussof et al., 2013; Ulum, 2016) that also identify levels of
reading comprehension ranging from a literal level of identification of ideas to
an inferential and critical level that require the elaboration of inferences and
the data transformation.

Studies focused on higher education (Barletta et al., 2005; Yáñez

Botello, 2013) show that university students are at a literal or basic level of
understanding, they often have difficulties in making inferences and
recognizing the macrostructure of the written text, so they would not develop
a model of a situation of the text. These scientific results are in the same
direction as the research on reading comprehension in the mother tongue in
the university population. Bharuthram (2012) indicates that university
students do not access or develop effective strategies for reading
comprehension, such as the capacity for abstraction and synthesis-analysis.
Later, Livingston et al. (2015) find that first-year education students present
limited reading strategies and difficulties in understanding written texts.
Ntereke and Ramoroka (2017) found that only 12.4% of students perform
well in a reading comprehension task, 34.3% presenting a low level of
execution in the task.
 Factors related to the level of understanding of written information are
the mode of presentation of the text (printed vs. digital), the type of
metacognitive strategies used (planning, making inferences, inhibition,
monitoring, etc.), the type of text and difficulties (novel vs. a science
passage), the mode of writing (text vs. multimodal), the type of reading
comprehension task, and the diversity of the student. For example, several
studies (Tuncer and Bahadir, 2014; Trakhman et al., 2019; Kazazoglu, 2020)
indicate that reading is more efficient with better performance in reading
comprehension tests in printed texts compared to the same text in digital and
according to Spencer (2006) college students prefer to read in print vs. digital
texts. In reading the written text, metacognitive strategies are involved (Amril
et al., 2019) but studies (Channa et al., 2018) seem to indicate that students
do not use them for reading comprehension, specifically; Korotaeva (2012)
finds that only 7% of students use them. Concerning the type of text and
difficulties, for Wolfe and Woodwyk (2010), expository texts benefit more
from the construction of a situational model of the text than narrative texts,
although Feng (2011) finds that expository texts are more difficult to read
than narrative texts. Regarding the modality of the text, Mayer (2009) and
Guo et al. (2020) indicate that multimodal texts that incorporate images into
the text positively improve reading comprehension. In a study of Kobayashi
(2002) using open questions, close, and multiple-choice shows that the type
and format of the reading comprehension assessment test significantly
influence student performance and that more structured tests help to better
differentiate the good ones and the poor ones in reading comprehension.
Finally, about student diversity, studies link reading comprehension with the
interest and intrinsic motivation of university students (Cartwright et al.,
2019; Dewi et al., 2020), with gender (Saracaloglu and Karasakaloglu, 2011),
finding that women present a better level of reading comprehension than
men and with knowledge related to reading (Perfetti et al., 1987). In this
research, it was controlled that all were printed and unimodal texts, that is,
only text. This is essential because the cognitive processes involved in reading
comprehension can vary with these factors (Butcher and Kintsch, 2003; Xu et
al., 2020).
2.1 Macro and Micromanagement practices of Reading
Comprehension
i. Ecological systems theory in education
Bronfenbrenner’s EST is a widely utilized theoretical framework for
understanding individual within ecological settings (Neal and Neal, 2013). The
concept of EST has been utilized to emphasize the significance of setting-level
factors facilitating the development of contextual frameworks to elucidate
diverse phenomena, including psychosocial and academic outcomes among
adolescents (e.g., Seidman,1991). The perspective put forth by
Bronfenbrenner (1979) bears some similarity to the theories of social learning
by Bandura and sociocultural theory by Vygotsky, both of which acknowledge
the environment as a critical factor in development (Guy-Evans, 2020). The
ecological approach in classroom management includes setting an
environment for conducive learning. An example of instructional materials
that exhibit high continuity entails teacher-led activities such as reading aloud
to the students, demonstrating a concept, or playing audio recordings (Doyle,
2013). These activities involve a consistent and uninterrupted source of
information transmission. Studies carried out at the Research and
Development Center for Teacher Education have revealed that elementary
and junior high school educators who excel at classroom management
possess a solid ability to establish clear guidelines and procedures at the start
of the academic year (Emmer et al., 1980; Emmer and Gerwels, 2002;
Evertson and Emmer, 1982). These teachers implement the guidelines and
procedures on the first day and integrate them into a practical framework and
deliberately instruct students on how to follow them. In a larger ecological
context, participation in “structurally different settings,” especially engaging in
learning with “more mature or experienced” people, enhances student
development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Initially, their development increases
“as a function of the number of supportive links existing between that setting
and other settings (such as home and family)” (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Chen
et al., 2021). The involvement of community partners in the lives of students
has been observed to create new settings that facilitate student development
(Leonard, 2011). This is particularly relevant when students interact with
matured or experienced individuals, e.g., teachers, and reading coordinators.
In addition, promoting student development can be facilitated through
supportive communication between the settings. As previously described, the
investments made at the microsystem level represent a positive advancement
towards promoting student development (Guy-Evans, 2020; Leonard, 2011).
However, it remains unclear as to what the most effective means of engaging
many students may be. This study utilized the ecological perspective in
analyzing the reading practices of grade schools in the Philippines.
Micromanagement practices are the classroom strategies set by teachers;
micromanagement practices are the institutional strategies that involve the
school administration, reading coordinators, and teachers.

ii. Reading programs and practices in the Philippines

In the Philippine educational system context, a significant issue involves
Filipino children in reading. This concern is notably associated with sub-
optimal academic outcomes, particularly in public schools. For instance, the
academic performance of Grade 5 students was evaluated in selected schools
across six Southeast Asian countries. Apparently, the Philippines ranks as the
second-lowest performer in reading, with an efficiency score of 10%, just
above Laos having an efficiency of only 2% (UNICEF, 2020). In a recent study
conducted by Rivera and Aggabao (2020), it was discovered that Grade 5
students exhibited challenges in their reading abilities, specifically in word
recognition and reading comprehension. Developing reading ability is crucial
for students to acquire knowledge and improve their learning skills. The
acquisition of reading proficiency is a crucial factor in the educational
advancement of children, as well as in cultivating their aptitude for literacy
and active participation in society (Department of Education, 2019). Because
of that, the DepEd introduced different reading programs that the grade
schools are mandated to follow and implement (Abril et al., 2022; Mondigo,
2022). DepEd in the Philippines mandated the implementation of the Informal
Reading Program (Phil-IRI) in all public schools nationwide. Its purpose is to
address concerns regarding the improvement of literacy. DepEd Order No. 14
(2018) specifies the processes for implementing the Phil-IRI in elementary
and secondary schools nationwide, focusing on students in Grades 3–6. The
document outlines the responsibilities of educational leaders at various levels
and emphasizes the need to use this tool effectively. The PhilIRI program
incorporates graded passages to assess learners’ competency in silent
reading, oral reading, and reading comprehension (Abril et al., 2022).
Assessments are significant techniques in measuring kids’ reading proficiency.
This data is the foundation for designing supplemental reading programs
focused on improving their skills. DepEd Order No. 14, series 2018, drafted
the revised guideline of PHIL-IRI, introducing the reading program to the
secondary level. In the present context, despite the implementation of
reading programs at the elementary level, many students who have
completed primary education continue to be categorized as slow or non-
readers. The current state of the educational system suggests persistent
challenges in enhancing literacy skills, particularly among students who
struggle with reading and writing (Abril et al., 2022; Mondigo, 2022). These
learners often exhibit inadequate reading comprehension andstruggle to keep
up with their peers. Within three years, the Philippine Department of
Education, with the assistance of the United States Agency for International
Development (USAID), amassed information on the reading proficiency of
8877 young students in the early primary grades (Pouezevara, 2016). The
data was gathered in English, Filipino, and four native languages, which
varied according to the region. The assessments provided a chance to
customize and improve the Early Grade Reading Assessment (EGRA), widely
acknowledged globally, to suit the requirements of local languages and data.
The purpose of developing the EGRA was to establish a dependable and
sound evaluation of aptitudes that has a role in developing reading abilities
(Dubeck and Gove, 2015). EGRA serves multiple purposes beyond the
assessment of discrete skills through its specific subtasks. The first utility of
this measure lies in its potential to establish a foundational level of proficiency
in reading acquisition during the early stages (UNESCO, 2014; Concern
Worldwide,2014; Halliday et al., 2012). Different institution-level strategies
were implemented in the Philippines, i.e., PHIL-IRI and EGRA. This study
wanted to explore how teachers implement them within micro- and
micromanagement levels. This study determined how teachers utilize their
data, develop programs, and integrate specific reading guidelines.
2. The Importance of Reading Comprehension
There are some reasons why reading is important to get students to
read especially reading English texts. Harmer states that there are some
reasons why reading becomes so important:
a. Reading gives many exposures to students’ language acquisition They will
unconsciously learn a new word, grammar and extract meaning of the word
in contexts. When they read, they get many kinds of language exposures
from many different kinds of texts, they repeat the exposures and easily
memorize them.
b. Reading texts provide a good model for English. A good model of text is
important to be given in teaching English. Hence, it helps students recognize
the pattern of phrase, clauses, and sentences within the text. Before reading,
good readers tend to set goals for their reading. They note the structure, or
organization of the text, and often create a mental overview or outline of the
text to help them decide whether it is relevant to their goals. Reading fluency
is a very important part of reading comprehension as readers who spend their
time decoding words tend to lose the understanding of what is being read. A
major goal of reading comprehension instruction, therefore, is to help
students develop the knowledge, skills, and experiences they must have if
they are to become competent and enthusiastic readers. In addition, Harrison
(2004) argues that the importance of reading is not only related to the
development of knowledge but also it is related to the people thinking
capability.This capability will be the basic development of emotional, moral
and verbal intelligence. Moreover, these developments determine what kind
of person people would be. Goodman in Burt, Peyton, and Adam (2003; p.4)
states that it is important to learn reading since it (1) helps people learn to
think new language, (2) helps people build better vocabulary, (3) helps
people more comfortable with written English, (4) can help people plan to
study in English - speaking country. Reading not only helps us in the reading
ability but also helps us at the other skills too. To get more knowledge the
good readers realize about the importance of reading. From the benefits of
reading above, those benefits will help the students a lot in their life then.
Reading is important for students both to develop their knowledge and
develop the way they think related to the development of moral, emotion, as
well as verbal intelligence. Reading is a very important skill that students have
to master. Any exposure from reading gives many benefits for the students in
the process of acquiring language and developing their thinking and
emotional. Opportunities to expose English texts more helps the reader
accustome to written English texts. It will develop their awareness in
decoding a printed language and recalling the meaning.
3. Process of Reading Comprehension
Spratt et al (2005) define reading as a process of responding to,
making sense a text being read and connecting it with readers’ prior
knowledge. In making sense of information, readers connect new knowledge
to the knowledge they know already. It is believed that relating to readers’
prior knowledge will make readers memorize the new knowledge
longer.Brown ( 2004) states that reading is a process of negotiation meaning.
In this process, the readers bring their understanding about the meaning of
texts they read. It implies that the readers’ understanding about the text is
the result of interaction between their thought and the meaning of the texts
they read. Reading comprehension process must be occurred in reading
process. Therefore, there are many theories which underlie the notions of
reading comprehension. One of them is proposed by Boardman (2007), et.al.
They define reading comprehension as a multi component highly complex
process that involves many interactions between readers and what they bring
to the text.10 Then, Merisou (2007) proposes that reading comprehension is
a complex process in which the reader constructs meaning by interacting with
the text using his previous knowledge and experience and information that
can be found in the text. The more background information related to the text
the reader processes, the easier it is for him to understand the text. Merisou
asserts that when reading the text, someone activates their previous
knowledge about the topic. Sadoski (2004) describes that reading
comprehension is the process in getting meaning of the texts. It is an active
process in which readers try to interpret the meaning of the texts. Without
any effort to interpret the texts’ meaning, the texts will remain meaningless.
The meaning of the text is not something which is instantly offered. It
requires the readers to do reading comprehension process.
b. English Literacy
1.1 English Mastery
In learning English, it is important for the learners to understand the
concept of language in order to make easier in language acquisition. As we
know, in mastering English there are some areas to be learnt. They are
English skills and components. As Harmer (2007) explained that language
skills work together closely. Not only language skills, but also “component of
language knowledge must be accounted for in academic and interactional
competence” (Saville, 2006). It is clear that both language skills and
component of language are important and have their own roles which support
each other in learning English Language. Since the focus of this study is
grammatical accuracy and speaking fluency, grammar is part of English
components and speaking is part of English skills. It implies that grammatical
accuracy and speaking fluency also has their roles in learning English.