Prof. Ed.

104: The Teacher and the Community, School Culture and Organizational Leadership

Introduction to Society, Community and Education

- Defining the Basic Concept

UNIT 1 – Society and Education

Education or school is an institution created by society. Education is a function of society and as

such arises from the nature and character of society itself. Society seeks to preserve itself and to do this it
maintains functions and institutions, one of which is education, to assure its survival, stability and
convenience. This module focuses on society as a context upon which the schools have been established.
Philosophical and Sociological philosophies that are related to the society as a foundation of schools and
schooling are emphasized. Further, principles and theories on school culture, social, and organizational
leadership are included to prepare prospective teachers to become school leaders and managers.

LEARNING CONTENTS: DEFINITION OF BASIC CONCEPTS

1. SOCIETY
- An organized group of persons associated together for religious, benevolent, cultural, scientific,
patriotic, or other purposes;
a. A body of individuals living as members of a community; community;
b. The body of human beings generally, associated or viewed as members of a community;
c. A highly structured system of human organization for large scale community living that
normally furnishes protection, continuity, security and a national identity for its members;
d. Such a system characterized by its dominant economic class or form.

2. COMMUNITY
a. a social group of any size whose members reside in a specific locality, share government, and
often have a common cultural and historical heritage.
b. a locality inhabited by such a group.
c. a social, religious, occupational, or other group sharing common characteristics or interests and
perceived or perceiving itself as distinct in some respect from the larger society within which it
exists:

3. EDUCATION
a. is a social institution through which a society’s children are taught basic academic knowledge,
learning skills, and cultural norms.
b. the act or process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge, developing the powers of
reasoning and judgment, and generally of preparing oneself or others intellectually for mature
life.
c. the act or process of imparting or acquiring particular knowledge or skills, as for a profession.
d. a degree, level, or kind of schooling: a university education.
e. the result produced by instruction, training, or study: to show one's education.
f. the science or art of teaching; pedagogics.

4. SOCIAL INTERACTION
a. This involves the careful assessment of the practices of everyday communicating between
people in various (usually) real-life contexts, such as doctor-patient visits, organizations, and
human-computer communication.
b. The process by which we act and react to those around us.
c. It has been defined as ‘any event by which one party tangibly influences the overt actions or
the state of mind of the other’ (Sorokin, 1928). It is a reciprocal and interdependent activity.
d. Defining social interaction, Gillin and Gillin (1948) wrote: ‘By social interaction we mean the
mutual or reciprocal influence, resulting in the modification of behavior, exerted through social
contact and communication which, in turn, are established by inter-stimulation and response.’

5. SCHOOL CULTURE
a. This generally refers to the beliefs, perceptions, relationships, attitudes, and written and
unwritten rules that shape and influence every aspect of how a school functions, but the term also
encompasses more concrete issues such as the physical and emotional safety of students, the
orderliness of classrooms and public spaces, or the degree to which a school embraces and
celebrates racial, ethnic, linguistic, or cultural diversity.
b. According to Fullan (2007) school culture can be defined as the guiding beliefs and values
evident in the way a school operates. ‘School Culture’ can be used to encompass all the attitudes,
expected behaviors and values that impact how the school operates.
 LEARNING CONTENT: UNIT I – SOCIETY AND EDUCATION

I. PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES
A. CLASSICAL PHILOSOPHIES

a. Idealism
Idealism is a philosophical approach that has as its central tenet that ideas are the only true
reality, the only thing worth knowing. In a search for truth, beauty, and justice that is enduring and
everlasting, the focus is on conscious reasoning in the mind. Plato, father of Idealism, espoused this view
about 400 years BC, in his famous book, The Republic. Plato believed that there are two worlds. The first
is the spiritual or mental world, which is eternal, permanent, orderly, regular, and universal. There is also
the world of appearance, the world experienced through sight, touch, smell, taste, and sound, that is
changing, imperfect, and disorderly. This division is often referred to as the duality of mind and body.
Reacting against what he perceived as too much of a focus on the immediacy of the physical and sensory
world, Plato described a utopian society in which "education to body and soul all the beauty and
perfection of which they are capable" as an ideal. In his allegory of the cave, the shadows of the sensory
world must be overcome with the light of reason or universal truth. To understand truth, one must pursue
knowledge and identify with the Absolute Mind. Plato also believed that the soul is fully formed prior to
birth and is perfect and at one with the Universal Being. The birth process checks this perfection, so
education requires bringing latent ideas (fully formed concepts) to consciousness.

In idealism, the aim of education is to discover and develop each individual's abilities and full
moral excellence in order to better serve society. The curricular emphasis is subject matter of mind:
literature, history, philosophy, and religion. Teaching methods focus on handling ideas through lecture,
discussion, and Socratic dialogue (a method of teaching that uses questioning to help students discover
and clarify knowledge). Introspection, intuition, insight, and whole-part logic are used to bring to
consciousness the forms or concepts which are latent in the mind. Character is developed through
imitating examples and heroes.

b. Realism
Realism believe that reality exists independent of the human mind. The ultimate reality is the
world of physical objects. The focus is on the body/objects. Truth is objective-what can be observed.
Aristotle, a student of Plato who broke with his mentor’s idealist philosophy, is called the father of both
Realism and the scientific method. In this metaphysical view, the aim is to understand objective reality
though “the diligent and unsparing scrutiny of all observable data.” Aristotle believed that to understand
an object, its ultimate form had to be understood, which being physically present, but ultimately, exists
whether or not a person is aware of it. A rose can exist in the mind without being physically present, but
ultimately, the rose shares properties with all other roses and flowers (its form), although one rose may be
red and another peach colored. Aristotle also was the first to teach logic as a formal discipline in order to
be able to reason about physical events and aspects. The exercise of rational thought is viewed as the
ultimate purpose for humankind.

c. Existentialism
The nature of reality for Existentialists is subjective, and lies within the individual. The physical
world has no inherent meaning outside of human existence. Individual choice and individual standards
rather than external standards are central. Existence comes before any definition of what we are. We
define ourselves in relationship to that existence by the choices we make. We should not accept anyone
else’s predetermined philosophical system; rather; we must take responsibility for deciding who we are.
the focus is on freedom, the development of authentic individuals, as we make meaning of our lives.

d. Pragmatism (Experientialism)
For pragmatists, only those things that are experienced or observed are real. In this late 19 th
century American philosophy, the focus is on the reality of experience. Unlike the Realists and
Rationalists, Pragmatists believe that reality is constantly changing and that we learn best through
applying our experiences and thoughts to problems, as they arise. The universe is dynamic and evolving,
a “becoming” view of the world. There is no absolute and unchanging truth, but rather, truth is what
works. Pragmatism is derived from the teaching of Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), who believed
that thought must produce action, rather than linger in the mind and lead to indecisiveness.

B. MODERN PHILOSOPHIES
a. Perennialism
Perennialism advocates for seeking, teaching, and learning universal truths that span across
historical time periods. These truths, Perennialists argue, have everlasting importance in helping humans
solve problems regardless of time and place. While Perennialism resembles essentialism at first glance,
perennialism focuses on the individual development of the student rather than emphasizing skills.
Perennialism supports liberal arts curricula that helps produces well-rounded individuals with some
knowledge across the arts and sciences. All students should take classes in English Language Arts foreign
languages, mathematics, natural sciences, fine arts, and philosophy. Like Essentialism, Perennialism may
tend to favor teacher-centered instruction; however, Perennialists do utilize student-centered instructional
activities like Socratic Seminar, which values and encourages students to think, rationalize, and develop
their own ideas on topics.

b. Progressivism
Progressivism focuses its educational stance toward experiential learning with a focus on
developing the whole child. Students learn by doing rather than being lectured to by teachers. Curriculum
is usually integrated across contents instead of siloed into different disciplines. Progressivism’s stance is
in stark contrast to both Essentialism and Perennialism in this manner. Progressivism follows a clear
pragmatic ontology where the learner focuses on solving real-world problems through real experiences.
Progressivist classrooms are student-centered where students will work in cooperative/collaborative
groups to do project-based, expeditionary, problem-based, and/or service-learning activities. In
progressivist classrooms, students have opportunities to follow their interests and have shared authority in
planning and decision making with teachers.

c. Humanism
The term “humanism” is ambiguous. Around 1806 humanismus was used to describe the classical
curriculum offered by German schools, and by 1836 “humanism” was borrowed into English in this
sense. In 1856, the great German historian and philologist Georg Voigt used humanism to describe
Renaissance Humanism, the movement that flourished in the Italian Renaissance to revive classical
learning. This historical and literary use of the word “humanist” derives from the 15th century Italian
term umanista, meaning a teacher or scholar of Classical Greek and Latin literature and the ethical
philosophy behind it.

The word “humanism” has a number of meanings, and because authors and speakers often don’t
clarify which meaning they intend, those trying to explain humanism can easily become a source of
confusion. Fortunately, each meaning of the word constitutes a different type of humanism — the
different types being easily separated and defined by the use of appropriate adjectives.

A. HISTORICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION

Historical Group Educational Curriculum Agents Influences on

or Period Goals Western
Education
Primitive societies To teach group Practical skills of Parents, tribal Emphasis on the
7000 B.C.5000 survival skills; to hunting, fishing, elders, and priests role of informal
B.C. Cultivate group food gathering education in
cohesiveness stories, myths, transmission of
songs, poems, skills and values.
dances
Greek 1600 BC – To cultivate civic Athenian: reading, Athens: private Athens: The
300 BC responsibility and writing, teachers and concept of the well-
identity with city arithmetic, drama, schools; Sophists; rounded, liberally
state; music, physical philosophers educated person
Athenian: to education, Sparta: military Sparta: The
develop-well- literature, poetry teachers, drill concept of the
rounded person Spartan: drill, sergeants military state
Spartan: to military songs and
develop soldiers tactics
and military
leaders
Roman To develop sense Reading, writing, Private schools Emphasis on ability
750 B.C. of civic arithmetic, Laws and teachers; to use for practical
A.D. 450 responsibility for of Twelve Tables schools of rhetoric skills; relating
republic and then (the earliest education to civic
empire; to develop written legislation responsibility
administrative and of ancient
military skills Roman law), law,
philosophy “
Arabic To cultivate Reading, writing, Mosques; court, Arabic numerals
A.D. 700 religious mathematics, schools and computation;
A.D. 1350 commitment to religious re-entry of classical
islamic beliefs; literature; materials on
To develop scientific studies science and
expertise in medicine
 ‘mathematics,
medicine, and
science
Medieval To develop Reading, writing, Agents Parish, Establishing the
A.D. 500 religious arithmetic, liberal chantry, and structure, content,
A.D.1400 commitment, arts; philosophy, cathedral schools; and organization of
knowledge, and theology; crafts; universities; the university as a
ritual; to military tactics apprenticeship; major institution of
reestablish social and chivalry knighthood higher education;
order; to prepare the
persons for institutionalization
appropriate roles and preservation of
knowledge
Renaissance To cultivate a Latin, Greek, Classical humanist An emphasis on
A.D. 1350 humanist who classical literature, educators and literary knowledge,
A.D. 1500 was expert in the poetry, art schools such as excellence, and
poetry, art classics lycee, gymnasium, style as expressed
—Greek and Latin grammar in classical
Latin; to prepare school literature; a two-
courtiers for track system
service to dynastic (knowledge and
leaders tools) of schools.
Reformation A.D. To cultivate a Reading, writing, Vernacular (one A commitment to
1500 sense of arithmetic, mother tongue use) universal education
A.D. 1600 commitment to a catechism, elementary schools to provide literacy
particular religious religious concepts for the masses; to the masses; the
denomination; to and ritual; Latin classical schools origins of school
cultivate general and Greek; for the upper systems with
literacy theology classes supervision to
ensure doctrinal
conformity.

B. SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
1. Structural-functional Theory (Structural Functionalism)
Herbert Spencer, the proponent of structural-functional views society as “a system of
interconnected parts each with a unique function. The parts have to work together for stability and
balance of society.” Society is compared to the human body with different but interrelated parts
performing different functions. Just as the human body has many parts, society has different but
interrelated parts performing different but interrelated components such as family, the state, the school,
the Church, mass media, economics. These must coordinate and collaborate for society to function well.
If one part of the human body does not function well, the whole body is affected. In the same way, when
one component does not do its part, society will not function well. The overall health of the organism
(society) depends upon the health of each structure.

2. CONFLICT THEORY
According to this theory, there are always two opposing sides in a conflict situation. People take
sides between maintaining the status quo and introducing change then arrive at an agreement. Conflict
theory welcomes conflict for that is the way to the establishment of a new society. Conflict theorists find
potential conflict between any groups where inequality exists; racial, gender, religious, political,
economic, and so on. Conflict theorists note that unequal groups usually have conflicting values and
agendas, causing them to compete against one another. This constant competition between groups forms
the basis for the ever-changing nature of society.

3. THE SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONIST THEORY PERSPECTIVE

Three tenets of symbolic interactionist theory are:
a. An individual’s action depends on meaning.
b. Different people may give different meanings to the same thing.
c. Meanings change as individuals interact with one another.

A. THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE FILIPINO CHARACTER: A SOCIO-

CULTURAL ISSUE
Below is an excerpt of the Report “A Moral Recovery Program: Building a People, Building a
Nation” submitted on April 27, 1988 by the Task Force to President Corazon Aquino, the Senate and the
members of the press by the Senator Leticia Shahani, the moving spirit behind the program.

The weaknesses of the Filipino character as cited in the Report are as follows:
1. Extreme family centeredness
2. Extreme personalism
3. Lack of discipline
4. Passivity and lack of initiative
5. Colonial mentality
6. Kanya-kanya syndrome, talangka mentality
7. Lack of self-analysis and self-reflection
8. Emphasis on porma rather than substance

There is so much good in the Filipino but so much needs to be changed, too. Many of our
strengths as a people are also sources of our weaknesses. Shahani’s report (1988) explains that family
orientation becomes in-group orientation that prevents us from reaching out beyond the family to the
larger community and the nation. In our personalism, we are warm and caring but this leads us to lack of
objectivity. We are concerned with people we know but unfair to people we don't know. In our flexibility,
we compromise precision and discipline. We are a joyful people with a sense of humor but we can't take
things with humor all the time for serious problems need serious analysis. Our faith in God is our source
of strength but this makes us dependent on forces outside us, do nothing that makes us submissive to
God's will. We are good at pakikipagkapwa-tao and so we can easily empathize, but we can at the same
time be envious of others. We can be hardworking and yet can be lazy and passive in the workplace.

This module discussed about the different philosophical perspectives: Idealism, Realism, Existentialism,
Pragmatism, Perennialism, progressivism and Humanism. This also discussed the historical foundation of
education, Sociological perspectives and the strengths and weaknesses of Filipinos. Understanding the
kind of society a child has leads to a better community and builds camaraderie between the teacher and
the learner.

“When a school introduces and trains each child of society into membership within such a little
community, saturating him with the spirit of service, and providing him with the instruments of effective
self-direction, we shall have the deepest and best warranty of a larger society which is worthy, lovely, and
harmonious.” – John Dewey

Unit 2 - School as a Social System

One of the official institutions for socialization is the school. It has grown in significance as
result of its sociological impacts and changes. The school is a formal institution of learning that
disseminates the greatest amount of information, abilities, and attitudes about the various subjects
needed to live a useful and fruitful life. Social systems theory has proven to be a reliable viewpoint for
explaining how schools operate. There are several roles and statuses for the teacher and the students in
the school's social structure. As a result, the school's social system attempts to equip its pupils with the
skills necessary to fill various social positions once they graduate. This module defined social
interactions and tactics required in maintaining a harmonious relationship with the larger school
community, introduced fundamental ideas of school as a social institution and developed professional
connections and collaboration with peers in the school community.

LEARNING CONTENTS: SOCIAL SYSTEMS MODEL

Systems theory, also called social systems theory (model)

In social science, it is the examination of society as a complex system of interconnected
elements, including people and their worldviews, in relation to one another (e.g., a country). The study
of systems in relation to one another within a bigger, more complex system is known as systems theory.
The fundamental tenet of systems theory is that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts, regardless
of the field to which it is applied. This means that certain aspects of the whole—the complex system—
cannot be readily explained or rationalized when looking alone at any one of its systems, or its parts,
when considering how smaller systems interact to affect the broader complex system holistically.

The School as a Social System

The School
✔ Is a system of social interaction.

✔ It is an organized whole comprising interacting personalities bound together in an organic

relationship (Waller, 1932)
✔ As a social system, it is characterized by an interdependence of parts, a clearly defined
population, differentiation from its environment, a complex network of social relationships and
its own culture.
Social System
✔ Is a social organization.

✔ Is a group of elements and activities that interact and constitute a single social entity (Longress,
2000)
✔ It is a model or organization that possesses creativity beyond its component parts; it is
distinguished from its environment by a clearly defined boundary; it is composed of subunits,
elements and subsystems that are interrelated within relatively stable patterns of social order.
(Olsen, 1970)

What does “Social System” refer to?

• Refers to the activities and interaction of groups consisting of members brought together for a
common purpose
• Classroom is a good example of social system
✓ Ethos

✓ Norm

✓ Values

✓ Psychological aspects

“Basic Assumption for Social System Models”

Assumption - is a fact/statement that is taken for granted.
1 Social systems are open systems.
2 Social systems consist of interdependent parts, characteristics, and activities that contribute to and
receive from the whole.
3 Social systems are people.
4 Social systems are goal oriented.
5 Social systems are structural.
6 Social systems are normative.
7 Social systems are sanction bearing.
8 Social systems are political.
9 Social systems have distinctive cultures.
10 Social systems are conceptual and conceptual and relative.
11 All formal organizations are social systems: But all social systems are not formal organizations.

Key Elements of School as a Social System

Schools are social system with the following key parts:

1. Structure
✓ roles are expectations of positions that are arranged in a hierarch.

2. Individual
✓ the individual is a key unit in any social system; regardless of positions, people bring with
them individual needs, beliefs and a cognitive understanding of the job.

3. Culture
✓ represents the unwritten feeling part of the organizations: its share values.

4. Politics
✓ informal power relations that develop spontaneously.

5. Core
✓ the teaching-learning process is the technical core of schools.

6. Environment
✓ everything outside the organization; source of inputs.

7. Outputs
 ✓ the products of the organizations, e.g. educated students.

8. Feedback
✓ communication that monitor behavior.

9. Effectiveness

✓ the congruence between expected and actual outcomes.

● Internal
The relative level of goal achievement serves as an indicator of the need to adjust one or more of
the elements of the transformation process.

● External
Different constituencies in the community evaluate the school’s products.

The School as a Community

1. Defining School as a community

A school is an educational institution designed to provide learning spaces and learning

environments for the teaching of students (or "pupils") under the direction of teachers. A school is a place
where children are educated. We often refer to this place as a school when we talk about the time children
spend there and the activities they do there.

A community is a social unit (a group of living things) with commonality such as norms,
religion, values, customs, or identity. Communities may share a sense of place situated in a given
geographical area (e.g. a country, village, town, or neighborhood) or in virtual space through
communication platforms.

Community can be defined as multidimensional within:

a. Location - where it is, the influence of the environment and systems of control.
b. Structure - the administrative elements and guidance that determine equality of provision.
c. Process - the management of people and development of a shared understanding of beliefs and
values.

The principles on which community provision is built are based on certain assumptions that relate to
inclusive practice:

▪ Education is part of social provision, strongly related to all other branches of social provision;
education does not exist just as an academic entity.
▪ Social provision is determined by the prevailing social and economic framework of society.

▪ Throughout civilized history, the level of social provision has sustained societies in an unequal
manner, balancing those who ‘have’ with those who ‘have not’.
▪ Both social and educational provision have become more centrally controlled.

▪ There has been a move towards devolution of power at an operational level, reflecting the need to
provide community-type activities led by the community
▪ There is a greater emphasis on participation that has contributed to the emancipation of the teacher.

School Climate and Culture

School climate refers to the school's effects on students, including teaching practices; diversity; and
the relationships among administrators, teachers, parents, and students.

School culture refers to the way teachers and other staff members work together and the set of
beliefs, values, and assumptions they share. A positive school climate and school culture promote
students' ability to learn.

A school culture will manifest itself in many forms:

▪ communications – stories, legends, symbols and slogans

▪ practice – rites, rituals and ceremonies

▪ physical forms – location, style and condition of the school buildings, fixtures and fittings

▪ common language – phrases or jargon common to the school.

Ethos
Differences between schools may be explained in terms of organizational and social structure
which also reflect the interpersonal relationships that create the ethos, the shared beliefs and values. The
whole-school feeling exists to such an extent that it drives the school as a community towards achieving
goals.

Ethos is multidimensional, as no single definition would apply to the many situations that occur
in the life of the school community.

Environment
There is a distinctive link between the atmosphere created in schools and their environment. An
uncared-for school building, regardless of age, will reflect an uncaring community. Working in an
environment that is in need of repair (as most schools are) creates stress; working in an environment that
is unhealthy is not conducive to effective teaching and learning.

Members of the school community need encouragement in order to fulfil their potential; a
stimulating environment will produce stimulating results. Members of the school community need to
consider how to create a positive environment.

This may include:

▪ good quality displays of pupils’ work and achievements covering full range of ability

▪ bright, open spaces with carpeted floors and plants, pictures and photographs

▪ clean buildings: no litter, adequate bins that are emptied, working toilet facilities

▪ supervised areas for study

▪ adequate facilities for every subject, e.g. PE and music store areas.

School and Community

It emerges that the connection between the school and the community is not static but develops
on a continuum. The level at which the school reaches its community and vice versa is their level of
community orientation. There are three possible patterns of connection between the school and the
community: Closed-door Pattern, Open-door Pattern and the balanced pattern.

1. The Closed Door Pattern

The school deals with all the child’s educational and social problems, and community
involvement and intervention are minimal. With a closed system like the laws of nature (entropy), the
energy of the system will deteriorate. Therefore, according to Friedman (1986), the closed door policy
towards the community needs feedback. In Friedman’s view a closed door policy will waste energy
without the right guidance. In the absence of constant input from the parents and the community, the
school will be unaware of changes occurring in these systems, and hence will be unable to adapt itself and
its curricula to these changes and will keep degenerating.

2. The Open Door Pattern

The school and the parents operate as open systems, so that information flows freely in both
directions. The school with an open door policy makes the parents partners to their child’s educational
process and strives to become an influential factor in the life of the community. A basic assumption of
systems theory is that the open system is designed to process the inputs of its external environment, only
to return the processed product to the environment for its use and benefit. The exchange of energy occurs
in a cyclic nature. The final and improved product serves as a new source of energy passing from the
environment to the system. In this way the deteriorating entropy process is stopped (Katz and Kahn,
1978). According to Friedman (1986), the school with an open door policy receives its pupils from the
parents, teaches them and raises their level of education, in order to return them to their community. In
their adult life they will produce a new generation of pupils, whose contribution to their children’s
education is expected to be greater than that of their parents’ generation.

3. The Balanced Pattern

The school and the parents set the degree of closeness or distance between them, in order to
achieve their educational and social goals to the optimal extent. When the distance is large, the school has
to bridge the gap and reach out to the community; when the distance is small, the school has to close its
gates somewhat.

LEARNING CONTENT: School as a Learning Community

I. School as a Learning Community

A learning community is one in which all members acquire new ideas and accept responsibility for
making the organization work. The educational leader’s task is to change the goals of the organization so
that learning is rewarded for all participants. This means that all the workers—school janitor to school
head—must feel that their insights are valued and taken into account in community life. In addition,
parents and students must be seen as participants in the life of the school, not simply recipients of services
that the professionals deemed important.

Learning Community

A learning community is a group of people who share a common interest in a topic or area, a
particular form of discourse about their phenomena, tools and sense-making approaches for building
collaborative knowledge and valued activities.

- When people come together and work toward a common goal, a community is formed. In schools, that
goal is learning. It seems almost trite to label schools as learning communities; of course, schools bring
groups of diverse people together with a common goal of student learning. Schools reflect the inherent
characteristics of learning community.

- When we say School as Learning Community it can be done by the teachers and the leaners who has a
common goal like just for example Why we need as learners to go to school because our main goal is to
learn by the help of our teachers. They developed or to enhanced our intellectual capacity and also, they
teach on how the proper behavior, values and character. We work together to achieve our main goal just
like the community there has a common interest.

II. Community of Practice

The term “CoP” was first introduced by Etienne Wenger an education practitioner and scholar who
described CoP’s as groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do and learn
how to do it better as they interact regularly.

Wenger argues that there are three crucial characters;

✔ domain: a common interest that connects and holds together the community;

✔ community: a community is bound by the shared activities they pursue (for example, meetings,
discussion) around their common domain;
✔ practice: members of a community of practice are practitioners; what they do informs their
participation in the community; and what they learn from the community affects what they do.

“The domain is like a leader that connects and holds together the community. And the community is the
members who follow the leader. They are going to shared activities they pursue like just for example
meeting or discussion in that way they have interaction wherein they have a common domain or goal.”

(4) Four types of Community of Practice

1. Knowledge Sharing Communities – where an informal group of people come together with the idea
to develop new knowledge that improves processes or performance.

2. Best Practices Communities – where an informal group of people come together to share and learn
best practices. The focus is on developing, validating, documenting and disseminating best practices to all
members within the organization.

3. Problem Solving Communities - where an informal group of people come together bringing expertise
from various groups and focusing on a specific problem or issue.

4. Innovation Communities - where an informal group of people, mostly from the technical areas come
together and focus on new and emerging areas of technology and where there may be an opportunity to
gain an edge.

Benefits of Community of Practice

⮚ It's a powerful vehicle for sharing ⮚ Increases access to expertise across the
knowledge. school.
⮚ Help drive strategy. ⮚ Helps school personnel do their jobs.

⮚ Supports faster problem solving. ⮚ Cross fertilization of ideas.

⮚ Builds core competencies. ⮚ Helps a knowledge school personnel stay

current.
⮚ Quickly disseminates best practices for
optimal operational performance. ⮚ Provides challenges and opportunities to
contribute.
⮚ Builds a sense of community with
colleagues and within the school. ⮚ Helps develop individual skills.

III. School Learning Action Cells (SLAC): Professional Learning Communities

The Department of Education released a policy on the Learning Action Cell (LAC) as a K-12
Basic Education Program School-Based Continuing Professional Development Strategy for the
Improvement of Teaching and Learning in accordance with the enactment of Republic Act 10533 or the
Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013. This DepEd advocacy means that every teacher should be
properly guided and equipped with the know-how of the teaching learning processes by revisiting or
updating certain areas or concerned in performing the duties and responsibilities of an effective and
productive teacher.

What is Learning Action Cells (LACs)

✔ A School-based professional Instructional dialogues

✔ A forum for team learning among teachers

✔ An alternative means to cascade a model of teacher- training

✔ A school- based problem -solving process

✔ A School-based In-Service training (INSET)

The Learning Action Cells (LACs) is DepEd’s primary mechanism for the professional
development of teachers. It is a school-based professional instructional dialogues a forum for team
learning among teachers an alternative means to cascade a model of teacher-training a school-based
problem-solving process a school-based In- Service Training (INSET).
In the DepEd, a Learning Action Cell (LAC) is a group of teachers who engage in collaborative
learning sessions to solve shared challenges encountered in the school facilitated by the school head or a
designated LAC Leader. LACs will become the school-based communities of practice that are positive,
caring, and safe spaces.
As stated in DepEd Order No. 35, s. 2016, Learning Action Cell (LAC) is a session conducted by
group of teachers who engage in collaborative learning sessions to solve shared challenges encountered in
school. Such challenges may include learner diversity and student inclusion, content and pedagogy,
assessment and reporting, and 21st century skills and ICT integration. DepEd envisions that these LAC
Sessions will serve as a school-based continuing professional development strategy for the improvement
of teaching and learning.

Professional Learning Community

• A professional learning community, or PLC, is a group of educators that meets regularly, shares
expertise, and works collaboratively to improve teaching skills and the academic performance of students.
The term is also applied to schools or teaching faculties that uses mall-group collaboration as a form of
professional development.
• Shirley Hord, an expert on school leadership, came up with perhaps the most efficient
description of the strategy: “The three words explain the concept: Professionals coming together in a
group—a community—to learn.”

Professional learning Community tend to serve two broad purposes:

• Improving the skills and knowledge of educators through collaborative study, expertise exchange, and
professional dialogue.
• Improving the educational aspirations, achievement, and attainment of Students through stronger
leadership and teaching. Professional learning Communities often function as a form of action research.

IV. Global Issues that concern schools and Society

 The world has become a global village. We have become a citizen of a global community. What
takes place in one part of the globe no matter how far affects us. It is a "small world after all" so goes the
song. In this lesson, we will venture on global issues that affect schools and us. It is hoped that you are
able to propose solutions to social problems which have become current global issues.

Top 10 Current Global Issues (Chloe Turner)

1. Climate Change
The global temperatures are rising, and are estimated to increase from 2.6 degrees Celsius to 4.8
degrees Celsius by 2100. This would cause more severe weather, crises with food and resources and
the spread of diseases. The reduction of greenhouse emissions and the spreading of education on the
importance of going green can help make a big difference. Lobbying governments and discussing
policies to reduce carbon emissions and encouraging reforestation is an effective way of making
progress with climate change.

2. Pollution
Pollution is one of the most difficult global issues to combat, as the umbrella term refers to ocean
litter, pesticides and fertilizers, air, light and noise pollution. Clean water is essential for humans and
animals, but more than one billion people don’t have access to clean water due to pollution from toxic
substances, sewage or industrial waste. It is of the utmost importance that people all over the world
begin working to minimize the various types of pollution, in order to better the health of the planet
and all those living on it.

3. Violence
Violence can be found in the social, cultural and economic aspects of the world. Whether it is
conflict that has broken out in a city, hatred targeted at a certain group of people or sexual harassment
occurring on the street, violence is a preventable problem that has been an issue for longer than
necessary. With continued work on behalf of the governments of all nations, as well as the individual
citizens, the issue can be addressed and reduced.

4. Security and Well Being

The U.N. is a perfect example of preventing the lack of security and well-being that is a serious
global issue. Through its efforts with regional organizations and representatives that are skilled in
security, the U.N. is working toward increasing the well-being of people throughout the world.

5. Lack of Education
More than 72 million children throughout the globe that are of the age to be in primary education
are not enrolled in school. This can be attributed to inequality and marginalization as well as poverty.
Fortunately, there are many organizations that work directly with the issue of education in providing
the proper tools and resources to aid schools.

6. Unemployment
Without the necessary education and skills for employment, many people, particularly 15- to 24-
years old, struggle to find jobs and create a proper living for themselves and their families. This leads
to a lack of necessary resources, such as enough food, clothing, transportation and proper living
conditions. Fortunately, there are organizations throughout the world teaching people in need the
skills for jobs and interviewing, helping to lift people from the vicious cycle of poverty.

7. Government Corruption
Corruption is a major cause of poverty considering how it affects the poor the most, eroding
political and economic development, democracy and more. Corruption can be detrimental to the
safety and well-being of citizens living within the corrupted vicinity, and can cause an increase in
violence and physical threats without as much regulation in the government.

8. Malnourishment & Hunger

Currently there are 795 million people who do not have enough to eat. Long-term success to
ending world hunger starts with ending poverty. With fighting poverty through proper training for
employment, education and the teaching of cooking and gardening skills, people who are suffering
will be more likely to get jobs, earn enough money to buy food and even learn how to make their own
food to save money.

9. Substance Abuse
The United Nations reports that, by the beginning of the 21st century, an estimated 185 million
people over the age of 15 were consuming drugs globally. The drugs most commonly used are
marijuana, cocaine, alcohol, amphetamine stimulants, opiates and volatile solvents. Different classes
of people, both poor and rich, partake in substance abuse, and it is a persistent issue throughout the
world. Petitions and projects are in progress to end the global issue of substance abuse.
10. Terrorism
Terrorism is an issue throughout the world that causes fear and insecurity, violence and death.
Across the globe, terrorists attack innocent people, often without warning. This makes civilians feel
defenseless in their everyday lives. Making national security a higher priority is key in combating
terrorism, as well as promoting justice in wrongdoings to illustrate the enforcement of the law and the
serious punishments for terror crimes.

The 17 Sustainable Development Goals for the period of 2015-2030

1. No poverty. End poverty in all its form everywhere.

2. No hunger. End hunger, achieve food security and improve nutrition and promote sustainable
agriculture.
3. Good Health and Well-being. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.
4. Quality Education. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote life-long learning
opportunities for all.
5. Gender Equality. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.
6. Clean water and Sanitation. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation
for all.
7. Affordable Clean Energy. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for
all.
8. Decent work and Economic growth. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth,
full and productive employment and decent work for all.
9. Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and
sustainable industrialization and foster innovation.
10. Reduce inequality within among countries.
11. Sustainable Cities and communities. Make cities and human settlement inclusive, safe, resilient and

sustainable.
12. Responsible and construction and production. Ensure sustainable consumption and production
patterns.
13. Climate action. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impact (in line with the United
Nations Frameworks Conservation on Climate Change).
14. Life below water. Conserve and sustainably use the ocean seas, and marine resources for sustainable
development.
15. Life on land. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
manage forests, combat desertification, and halt reverse land degradation and half biodiversity loss.
16. Partnerships for the goals. Promote peaceful ad inclusive societies for sustainable development,
provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institution at all level.
17. Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the
global partnership for sustainable development.

SUMMARY
1. Systems theory is an interdisciplinary study of systems, as they relate to one another within a larger,
more complex system.
2. The school is a system of social interaction.
3. Social System is a social organization.
4. School climate refers to the school's effects on students, including teaching practices; diversity; and
the relationships among administrators, teachers, parents, and students.
5. School culture refers to the way teachers and other staff members work together and the set of
beliefs, values, and assumptions they share. A positive school climate and school culture promote
students' ability to learn.
6. A learning community is a group of people who share a common interest in a topic or area, a
particular form of discourse about their phenomena, tools and sense-making approaches for building
collaborative knowledge and valued activities.
7. The Learning Action Cells (LACs) is DepEd’s primary mechanism for the professional development
of teachers.
8. The world has become a global village. We have become a citizen of a global community. What
takes place in one part of the globe no matter how far affects us.

Unit 3 - The Teacher and the Community

The Teacher and the Community

 Teachers are perhaps the most essential members of our society. They give children purpose, set
them up for success as citizens of our world, and inspire in them a drive to do well and succeed in life. The
children of today are the leaders of tomorrow, the backbones of the future and teachers are that critical
point that makes a child ready for their future. As future educators you have the power to shape leaders of
the future in the best way for society to build positive and inspired future generations and therefore design
society, both on a local and global scale. Educators have the most important job in the world. Those who
have an impact on the children of society have the power to change lives. Not just for those children
themselves, but for the lives of all. This module identifies the various stakeholders as integral
environmental resource of the wider school community, it presents sociological considerations affecting
the learning environment in relation to the external environment and it also reflect on laws and regulations
that apply to teachers specially as specified in the Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers.

A. External Environments and Accountability of Schools

The External Environment
All outside factors that may affect a school make up the external environment. The external
environment is divided into two parts:
 Directly interactive: This environment has an immediate and firsthand impact upon the school. This
includes teachers, administrators, learners, community, stakeholders, etc.
 Indirectly interactive: This environment has a secondary and more distant effect upon the school.
This includes, pertinent laws, codes, and statuettes related to the education and school’s operation.

To succeed and thrive, schools must adapt, exploit, and fit with the forces in their external
environments. Organizations such as “Schools” are groups of people deliberately formed together to serve
a purpose through structured and coordinated goals and plans. As such, schools operate in different
external environments and are organized and structured internally to meet both external and internal
demands and opportunities.
While the type, size, scope, location, purpose, and mission of an organization all help determine
the external environment in which it operates, it still must meet the requirements and contingencies of that

environment to survive and prosper.

The Environment-Structure Fit

Change the Structure to fit the Environment
— If the environment is stable, a mechanistic structure is an effective accommodation.
— If the environment is unstable, then an organic structure is the better fit.
— If the environment is stable and the organizational structure is organic, a dysfunctional flexibility
emerges.
— If the environment is unstable and the structure is mechanistic, a dysfunctional rigidity is produced.

1. Resource-Dependence Perspective
Resource dependency theory is based on the principle that an organization, such as a school, must
engage in transactions with other actors and organizations in its environment in order to acquire
resources. Although such transactions may be advantageous, they may also create dependencies that are
not. Resources that the school needs may be scarce, not always readily obtainable, or under the control of
uncooperative organizations. The resulting unequal exchanges generate differences in power, authority,
and access to further resources.

Resource-dependence characteristics:

 Dependence is characterized as the extent of the need for resource and its availability.
 It is directly related to the need for resources controlled by other organizations/stakeholders.
 If organizations are unable to generate resources internally, they must enter into external exchanges
which may consume vital resources and/or demand changes from the organization. (Pfeffer,1982,
997).

 General Environmental Resources, Availability of Resources and Dependence

The general environmental resource lies in the school environment which refers to factors with in
the school that influence the teaching-learning process. The school environment includes classrooms,
library, technical workshops, teachers’ quality, teacher’s methods, peers, among other variables that can
affect the teaching-learning process. The extent to which pupils learn could be enhanced depending on
what the school environment provides to the learners and the teacher.
It is believed that a well-planned school will gear up expected outcomes of education that will
facilitate good social political and economic emancipation, effective teaching-learning process and
academic performance of pupils.

2. Administering Resource Environments

 Schools’ Environmental resource management is the management of the interaction and
impact of community on the school environment. It is not, as the phrase might suggest, the management
of the school environment itself.

Characteristics of a Good School Environment

1. A Clear and Shared focus

Everybody knows where they are going and why. The focus is on achieving a shared vision, and all
understand their role in achieving the vision. The focus and vision are developed from common
beliefs and values creating a consistent direction for all involved.

2. High Standards and Expectations for all students

Teachers and staff believe that all students can learn and meet high standards. While recognizing that
some students must overcome significant barriers, these obstacles are not seen as impossible to
achieve. Students are offered an ambitious and rigorous course of study.

3. Effective School Leadership

Effective instructional and administrative leadership is required to implement change processes.
Effective leaders are proactive and seek help that is needed. They nurture an instructional program
and school culture to learning and professional growth. Effective leaders have different styles and
roles – teachers and other staff often have a leadership role.

4. High Levels of Collaboration and Communication

There is a strong teamwork among all staff across all grades and subject areas. Everybody is involved
and connected to each other; including parents and members of the community, to identify problems
and work on solutions.

5. Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessments aligned to the State Standards

The planned and actual curricula are aligned with the essential academic learning requirements.

Research-based teaching strategies and materials are used. Staffs understand the role of classroom
and state assessments, what the assessment measures, and how student work is evaluated.

6. Frequent Monitoring of Learning and Teaching

A steady cycle of different assessments identifies students who need help. More support and
instructional time are provided, either during the school day or outside normal school hours, to
students who need more help. Teaching is adjusted based or frequent monitoring of student progress
and needs. Assessment results are used to focus and improve instructional programs.

7. Focused Professional Development

A strong emphasis is placed on training staff in areas of most need. Feedback from learning and
teaching focuses extensive and ongoing professional development. The support is also aligned with
the school or district vision and objectives.

8. Supportive Learning Environment

The school has a safe, civil, healthy, and intellectually stimulating learning environment. Students
feel respected and connected with the staff and are engaged in learning. Instruction is personalized
and small learning environments increase students contact with teachers.

9. High Level of Family and Community Involvement

There is a sense that all has a responsibility to educate students, not just teachers and staffs in schools.
Families, as well as businesses, social service agencies, and community colleges and universities all
play a vital role in this effort.

Schools Accountability
One of the most prominent issues in education policy today, accountability is a key element in
the success of education improvement systems. Literally the process by which students, teachers, and
administrators give an account of their progress, accountability is a means by which policy makers at the
DepEd—and parents and taxpayers—monitor the performance of students and schools. Accountability
systems include a range of mechanisms, from simply requiring schools to report on progress to the DepEd
and the public, to placing consequences—rewards for high performance and sanctions for poor
performance—on the results of performance measures.

Accountability plans generally include three components:

 Standards to identify the subject matter knowledge and skills to be learned.
 Tests aligned with the standards.
 Consequences of differing levels of goal attainment.
Accountability and Reform (W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008. 2011)

The drive for accountability is based on three underlying principles:

 Schools should be held accountable for higher standards of performance.
 Schools should be provided with assistance to build their capacities for delivering improved
education.
 Schools must increase the quality and quantity of their performance outcomes, especially student
achievement.

A. Adapting to External Environment

Factors outside the school or organization are the elements of the external environment. The
school has no control over how the external environment elements. The external environment embraces
all general environmental factors and school’s specific-related factors. The general environmental factors
include those factors that are common in nature and generally affect the school. Enumerated below are
external environment that shapes the school.

1. National Standards and Frameworks

The National Framework for Professional Standards for teaching provides the basis for agreement
on and consistency around what constitutes quality teaching facilitates the articulation of the knowledge,
understanding, skills and values for effective teaching through development of standards at the local
level. Standards set clear performance expectations for students, helping them understand what they need
to do to meet the standards. Standards lead to improved student performance and promote more
challenging, equitable, and rewarding experiences for all learners.

National standards and framework call for the creation of new structures and professional bodies
through which policy makers and the profession can meet on equal terms and exercise their joint
responsibility for standards in teaching. The nature and content of teaching standards vary according to
their purpose. When we say national standards, these are created by a variety of national organizations.

These are voluntary and students are not held accountable to them. But when we say national
frameworks, these are part of the national preparedness system. They describe how the whole community
can work together to achieve the national preparedness goal. Additional to the national framework, the
national preparedness goal is to secure and resilient nation with the capabilities required across the whole
community to prevent, protect against, mitigate, respond to, and recover from the threats and hazards that
pose the greatest risk.

What is the Philippine Qualifications Framework (PQF)?

The PQF describes the levels of educational qualifications and sets the standards for qualification
outcomes. It is a quality assured national system for the development, recognition and award of
qualifications based on standards of knowledge, skills and values acquired in different ways and methods
by learners and workers of the country.

Qualifications
It refers to the formal certification that a person has successfully achieved specific learning
outcomes relevant to the identified academic, industry or community requirements. A Qualification
confers official recognition of value in the labor market and in further education and training.

Objectives:
(a) To adopt national standards and levels of learning outcomes of education;
(b) To support the development and maintenance of pathways and equivalencies that enable access to
qualifications and to assist individuals to move easily and readily between the different education and
training sectors and between these sectors and the labor market; and
(c) To align domestic qualification standards with the international qualifications framework thereby
enhancing recognition of the value and comparability of Philippine qualifications and supporting the
mobility of Filipino students and workers.

The Philippine Qualifications Framework - It is a collaborative program by the Department of

Education (DepEd), Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA), Commission on
Higher Education (CHED), Professional Regulation Commission (PRC) and Department of Labor and
Employment (DOLE).

The ASEAN Qualifications Reference Framework (AQRF)

The ASEAN Charter, which was signed by the ten ASEAN Leaders in Singapore on 20 November
2007, provides the basis for an ASEAN Qualifications Reference Framework (AQRF). The Charter aims
to: “create a single market and production base which is stable, prosperous, highly competitive and
economically integrated with effective facilitation for trade and investment in which there is free flow
of goods, services and investment; facilitated movement of business persons, professionals, talents and
labor; and free flow of capital” and “develop human resources through closer cooperation in
education and life-long learning and in science and technology, for the empowerment of the peoples of
ASEAN and for the strengthening of the ASEAN Community”

Purpose The purpose of the AQRF is to enable comparisons of qualifications across ASEAN Member
States (AMS) that will:
• Support recognition of qualifications
• Encourage the development of qualifications frameworks that can facilitate lifelong learning
• Encourage the development of national approaches to validating learning gained outside formal
education
• Promote and encourage education and learner mobility
• Promote worker mobility
• Lead to better understanding of qualifications systems
• Promote higher quality qualifications systems

The AQRF will support and enhance each ASEAN Member State’s national qualifications
framework or qualifications system while providing a mechanism to facilitate comparison, transparency
and higher quality qualifications systems. This is achieved through:
• A process of peer learning across AMS, for example in design and operation of qualifications systems
• A better understanding of a Member State’s national qualifications system, for example by making it
clearer to those in other AMS
• Applying quality processes used in other AMS

2. Internationalization
Internationalization of higher education is described as 'the process of integrating an international,
intercultural and global dimension into the goals, teaching/learning, research and service functions of
a university or higher education system'. Internationalization emphasizes the relationship between and
among nations, people, cultures, institutions, systems while globalization stresses the concept of
worldwide flow of economy, ideas, culture, etc.

Internationalization is a process of change which is tailored to meet the individual needs and
interests of each higher education entity. Consequently, there is no 'one size fits all' model of
internationalization. Adopting a set of objectives and strategies which are 'in vogue' and for 'branding'
purposes only negates the principle that each program, institution, or country needs to determine its
individual approach to internationalization based on its own clearly articulated rationales, goals and
expected outcomes. This recognizes that the internationalization process is driven by an assessment of
individual needs and priorities and that a 'formulaic' or latest fad approach is not appropriate, beneficial or
sustainable. This truth can also present challenges. For example, what if an institution or county sees
internationalization of higher education as a tool for economic gain or political advantage? This is an
example where the academic purposes and values of cooperation, mutual benefit and partnership need to
be emphasized.

After several decades of intense development internationalization has grown in scope, scale and
importance. There is no question that it has transformed the world of higher education, but
internationalization has also undergone fundamental changes itself. The key question is whether the
changes have been for better or worse? For instance, twenty-five years ago could anyone has imagined
that international student mobility in 2014 would be big business and more closely aligned to the
recruitment of brains for national innovation agendas than helping developing countries build human
capacity. Recent national and worldwide surveys of university internationalization priorities and
rationales show that establishing an international profile or global standing is becoming more important
that reaching international standards of excellence. Capacity building through international cooperation
projects is being replaced by status building initiatives to gain world class recognition and higher
rankings. Awarding two degrees from institutions located in different countries based on the workload for
one diploma is being promoted through some rather dubious double degree programs. And all of this is in
the name of internationalization?

At the same time, there are countless examples of positive initiatives which illustrate how
collaborative scholarship, cross-border education exchange, and campus-based internationalization
strategies contribute to the development of individuals, institutions, nations, and the world at large. The
benefits of internationalization are many and varied, so are potential risks and unintended consequences.

Quality issues and challenges related to internationalization.

It is forecasted that by 2025 the demand for international education will grow to 7.2 million
students- a quantum leap from 1.2 million students in 2000. Some, but certainly not all of this demand,
will be met by student mobility. Consequently, the number of new providers are delivering programs to
students in their home countries is accelerating at an unprecedented rate. It is no longer just students,
faculty, and researchers who are internationally mobile - -academic programs are being delivered across
borders and branch campuses are being established in developing and developed countries around the
world.

While, these new developments are intended to increase access to higher education and meet the
appetite for foreign credentials and employment, there are serious issues related to the quality of the
academic offer, the integrity of the new types of providers, and the recognition of credentials. The
increase in the number of foreign degree mills (selling 'parchment' only degrees) and accreditation mills
(selling bogus accreditations for programs or institutions), and rogue for-profit providers (not recognized
by national authorities) are realities that face students, parents, employers, and the academic community.
Who would have guessed two decades ago that international education would be struggling to deal with
fake degrees and accreditations; academic credentials that are earned but not recognized; and non-
regulated 'fly by night' institutions? Of course, it is equally important to acknowledge innovative
developments by bona fide new providers and universities who are delivering high quality programs and
legitimate degrees through new types of arrangements and partnerships (franchise, twinning, branch
campus). The perpetual issue of balancing cost, quality and access significantly challenges the benefits
and risks of cross-border education.

Regional institutional agreements and networks

It if is often believed that the greater number of international agreements or network

memberships a university has the more prestigious and attractive it is to other institutions and students.
But practice shows that most institutions cannot manage or even benefit from a hundred plus agreements.
To maintain active and fruitful relationships requires a major investment of human and financial
resources from individual faculty members, departments and international offices. Thus, the long list of
international partners often reflects paper-based agreements not productive partnerships. Quantity is
perceived as more important than quality and the international agreements list is more of a status symbol
than a record of functional academic collaborations. A more recent trend is the paring down of the
number of agreements to ten or twenty institution-wide priority partnerships.
This can lead to more comprehensive and sustainable relationships but also to a sense of
disgruntlement among faculty members and researchers about a top-down approach to international
collaboration and the curtailment of individual international research or curricular interests.

Academic mobility

The expansion of academic mobility schemes is a hallmark of internationalization today. Twenty-

five years ago, could anyone has anticipated that international academic mobility for students, as well as
scholars and professors, would have the potential to grow into a highly competitive multi-million-dollar
international recruitment business. Several countries are investing in major marketing campaigns to
attract the best and brightest talent to study and work in their institutions in order to supply the 'brain
power' for innovation and research agendas. The complexities and challenges related to academic and
profession mobility should not be underestimated. Nor should the potential benefits. But it is impossible
to ignore the latest race for attracting international students and academics for 'brain power' and for
'income generation'. The original goal of helping developing country students to complete a degree in
another country and then return home to contribute to national development is fading fast as nations
compete in the 21st century brain race.

It is impossible to gaze into a crystal ball to forecast the future, but if the experiences of the last
decade are harbingers of the future it is likely that the competition for the brightest of students and
scholars will only increase bringing with it benefits for some countries and higher education institutions
and losses for others. Perhaps technology and social networking will bring new opportunities for brain
sharing that will mitigate the overall effect of winners and losers, but the current obsession with global
rankings and the economic competitiveness agenda suggest otherwise. For better or worse, the great brain
race through student mobility is likely to be in active mode for a while.

A recent trend has been the establishment of collaborative programs between institutions in
different countries that lead to double (or multiple degrees) and in some cases joint degrees -although the
latter face steep legal constraints.

Joint programs are intended to provide a rich international and comparative academic experience
for students and to improve their opportunities for employment. But, with all new ideas, come
questionable adaptations and unintended consequences. For instance, in some cases, double degrees can
be nothing more than double counting one set of course credits. Situations exist where two/three
credentials (one from each participating institution) are conferred for little more than the work load
required for one degree. While it may be very attractive for students (and potential employees) to have
two degrees from institutions in two different countries, the situation can be described as the thin edge of
academic fraud if course requirements for two full degrees are not completed or differentiated learning
outcomes not achieved. It is important to point out that there are many excellent and innovative joint and
double degree programs being offered, but one of the unanticipated consequences is the potential misuse
or abuse of degree granting and recognition protocols.

The impact of new forms of international academic mobility on the recognition and promotion of
indigenous and diverse cultures is a subject that evokes strong positions and sentiments. Many believe
that modern information and communication technologies and the movement of people, ideas, and
cultures across national boundaries presents new opportunities to promote one's culture to other countries
and to enhance the fusion and hybridization of cultures. An important benefit is a greater understanding of
cultural diversity and hopefully stronger intercultural appreciation and communications skills. Others
contend that these same forces are eroding national cultural identities and that, instead of creating new
hybrid cultures, indigenous cultures are being homogenized which in most cases means Westernized.
Because education has traditionally been seen as a vehicle of acculturation, these arguments focus on the
specifics of curriculum content, language of instruction (particularly the increase in English) and the
teaching/learning process in international education.

MOOCs
It is still too soon to say what the impact of MOOCs on international higher education. In general,
MOOCs have a powerful role to play in broadening access to non-formal learning opportunities which is
an underdeveloped area of international higher education. However, the question looms large as to how
long it will be before the majority of MOOCs will offer formal credentials accredited by the providing
institution or a third party. Far into the future, the crystal ball presents a faint and very fuzzy picture of
students customizing their own menu of programs by combining courses offered by local, regional and
international public and private providers; through face to face, distance and a combination of the two –
all of which will be accredited by different agencies with a final qualification being offered by a local or

TNE provider. MOOCs may eventually be seen as a stimulus for this scenario! Who knows?

Universities rankings

There is no question that international and regional rankings of universities have become more
popular and problematic in the last five years. The heated debate about their validity, reliability and value
continues. But at the same time, university presidents state that a measurable outcome of
internationalization is the achievement of a specific position in one or more of the global league tables.
But it is an incorrect assumption that the purpose of a university's internationalization efforts is to
improve global brand or standing. This confuses an international marketing campaign with an
internationalization plan. The former is a promotion and branding exercise; the latter is a strategy to
integrate an international, intercultural and global dimension into the goals and teaching, research, and
service functions of a university. The objectives, anticipated outcomes and investment in a global
branding initiative are different from those required for academic internationalization. It is a myth that an
international marketing scheme is the equivalent of an internationalization plan. This does not deny the
fact, that a strategic and successful internationalization agenda can lead to more international visibility,
but recognition is not the goal- it is a by-product.

Internationalization vs. regional characteristics and connection with the local community

Internationalization acknowledges and builds on local, national and regional priorities, policies and
practices. Internationalization is intended to complement, harmonize, and extend the local dimension, not
dominate it. If this fundamental truth is not respected there is a strong possibility of back lash and for
internationalization to be seen as a homogenizing or hegemonic agent. Honoring and building on local
culture and context is a fundamental tenet of internationalization.

3. Globalization

Historical Background

Globalization – described as a structural phenomenon of increasing interdependence among

various parts of the world, for which the effects of an action feel at a distance has produced a variety of
economic, cultural, and social changes that have shaped the world over the past 50 years. Without doubt
this process was favored by development and pervasiveness of digital technologies that make the
communications faster and the information more easily sharable. Globalization has had a relevant impact
also in the educational field: the convergence of models of educational organizations, the
internationalization of key competencies definition and the diffusion of large-scale assessment of
student's performance (PISA-OECD), are only a few of more relevant aspects of this process.

Globalization and education are highly interrelated from a historical view. At the most basic
level, historical processes that many identify as essential precursors to political-economic globalization
during the late modern colonial and imperialist eras influenced the development and rise of mass
education. Thus, what we commonly see around the world today as education, mass schooling of
children, could be regarded as a first instance of globalization’s impact on education, as in many non-
Western contexts traditional education had been conceived as small-scale, local community-based, and as
vocational or apprenticeship education, and/or religious training.

Positive and negative impacts globalization in education has led to.

1. Globalization has radically transformed the world in every aspect. But it has especially transformed
the world economy which has become increasingly inter-connected and inter-dependent. But it also
made the world economy increasingly competitive and more knowledge based, especially in the
developed western countries
2. Global education interconnects methods of teaching from worldwide systems to encourage the
international development of environmental sustainability, as well as contribution toward fortifying
global industries. These educational initiatives prioritize global access to school from the primary to
the university levels, instigating learning experiences that prepare students for multinational
leadership roles.
3. As education serves as foundational to global stability, the development of multicultural awareness
from an early age may integrate ideologies sourced from various societies in order to arrive at well-
balanced conclusions regarding issues that surround the world as a whole. Globalization and
education then come to affect one another through mutual goals of preparing young people for
successful futures during which their nations will grow increasingly connected.
4. With globalization some of the challenges for knowledge, education and learning will provide today’s
learners the ability to be more familiar and comfortable with abstract concepts and uncertain
situations.
5. Information society and global economy requires a holistic understanding of systems thinking,
including the world system and business eco-system. Globalization uses a holistic approach to the
problems. The interdisciplinary research approaches are seen as critical to achieving a more
comprehensive understanding the complex reality currently facing the world system.

6. It enhances the student’s ability to manipulate symbols. Highly productive employment in today’s
economy will require the learner to constantly manipulate symbols, such as political, legal and
business terms, and digital money.
7. Globalization enhances the student’s ability to acquire and utilize knowledge. Globalization enhances
the ability of learners to access, assess, adopt, and apply knowledge, to think independently to
exercise appropriate judgment and to collaborate with others to make sense of new situations.
8. Globalization produces an increased quantity of scientifically and technically trained persons. The
emerging economy is based on knowledge as a key factor of production and the industries demand
the employees remain highly trained in science and technology.
9. It encourages students to work in teams. To be able to work closely in teams is the need for
employees. Working in teams requires students to develop skills in-group dynamics, compromise,
debate, persuasion, organization, and leadership and management skills.
10. Globalization breaks the boundaries of space and time. Using advanced information and
communications technologies, a new system of knowledge, education and learning should apply a
wide range of synchronous and asynchronous activities that aid teacher and student in breaking
boundaries of space and time.
11. Globalization meets the knowledge, education and learning challenges and opportunities of the
Information Age. Knowledge based businesses often complain that graduates lack the capacity to
learn new skills and assimilate new knowledge. Globalization makes it easier for businesses.
12. Globalization creates and supports information technologists, policy makers, and practitioners for the
purpose of rethinking education and supports mechanisms for the exchange of ideas and experiences
in the use of educational technologies.
13. Globalization encourages explorations, experimentation to push the frontiers of the potential of
information technologies and communications for more effective learning.
14. Global sharing of knowledge, skills, and intellectual assets that are necessary to multiple
developments at different levels.
15. Mutual support, supplement and benefit to produce synergy for various developments of countries,
communities and individuals.
16. Creating values and enhancing efficiency through the above global sharing and mutual support to
serving local needs and growth.
17. Promoting international understanding, collaboration, harmony, and acceptance to cultural diversity
across countries and regions.
18. Facilitating communications, interactions, and encouraging multi-cultural contributions at different
levels among countries.
19. The potential fallback of globalization in education can be the increased technological gaps and
digital divides between advanced countries and less developed countries.
20. Globalization in education may end up creating more legitimate opportunities for a few advanced
countries for a new form of colonization of developing countries.

A. The Teacher and the Community

 The Why and How of School and Community Partnership
When schools and community organizations work together to support learning, everyone benefits.
Partnerships can serve to strengthen, support, and even transform individual partners, resulting in
improved program quality, more efficient use of resources, and better alignment of goals and curricula
(Harvard Family Research Project, 2010).
First and foremost, learning partnerships can support student outcomes (see, for example, Little,
Wimer, & Weiss, 2008). For example, the Massachusetts Afterschool Research Study found that
afterschool programs with stronger relationships with school teachers and principals were more
successful at improving students’ homework completion, homework effort, positive behavior, and
initiative. This may be because positive relationships with schools can foster high quality, engaging, and
challenging activities, along with promoting staff engagement (Miller, 2005).
In addition to supporting student learning directly, partnerships can have additional benefits to
students and their families. They can
 provide continuity of services across the day and year, easing school transitions and promoting
improved attendance in after school programs;
 facilitate access to a range of learning opportunities and developmental supports, providing
opportunities for students and teachers alike to experiment with new approaches to teaching and
learning;
 facilitate information sharing about specific students to best support individual learning; and
 provide family members with alternative entry points into the school day to support their student’s
learning.

Learning partnerships can also greatly benefit schools. They can

 complement the academic curriculum with a wider range of services and activities, particularly
enrichment and arts activities that may not available during the school day;

 support transitions across the school years, particularly the critical middle to high school transition,
which research indicates is a key predictor of high school graduation (Neild, Balfanz, & Herzog,
2007);
 reinforce concepts taught in school without replicating the school day, often exposing classroom
teachers working in the after school program to new pedagogies;
 improve school culture and community image through exhibitions and performances that help “shine
the light” on students whose talents may not be apparent in the classroom; and
 gain access to mentors, afterschool staff, and other resources to support in ‐school learning and
improve the teaching and learning in the classroom itself.

Finally, learning partnerships with schools can strengthen and support community partners. They can
 help gain access to and recruit groups of students most in need of support services;
 improve program quality and staff engagement, particularly when there is crossover between school
and community organization staff;
 foster better alignment of programming to support a shared vision for learning, one which aligns
curriculum to support state and local standards; and
 maximize resource use such as facilities, staff, data, and curriculum.

 The Teacher’s Ethical and Professional Behavior

Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers, Article III.

The very title of this Unit indicates that teachers are expected to be part of the community. To be
part of the community, means to participate in the life of that community. What is that community
referred to here? The 8 Sections of Article III of the Code of Ethics refers to the community within the
school and the community outside the school, how can teachers be a part of the community? The various
Sections of Article III give more details.

Teacher as Facilitator of Learning

Article III, Section 1 states that the teacher is a facilitator of learning and the development of
the youth. Therefore, shall render the best service by providing an environment conducive for such
learning and growth. Facilitator comes from the word “facilitate” which means to make something easy
or easier. You as, the professional teacher, facilitate learning or make learning easier. Learning is a
difficult task and is made easier when you make dry lesson interesting, exciting and enjoyable. As a
professional teacher, you make learning easier when you simplify the complex and concretize the
abstract. This is what is ethical for every professional teacher like you ought to do. This you can do after
four long years of academic preparation. What happens sometimes, however, is teachers complicate the
simple and teaches only at the abstract level. To facilitate learning, a conducive learning environment is
necessary. It has been proven that learners learn best in a pleasant environment. A pleasant environment
is where the learners can be themselves because teachers are caring. No need to put best self forward
because teachers and classmates truly care and take you for who you are. All forms of bullying have no
place in a conducive learning environment. A conducive learning environment makes learners believe
they can do the work and they feel accepted. A favorable learning climate is not competitive where
everyone is tense. The teacher who believes that “Every child deserves a champion, an adult who will
never give up on them, who understands the power of connection and insists they become the best they
can possibly be’” like Teacher Rita Pierson in TED Talk is a facilitator of learning. ‘

Teacher Leadership and Initiative for Community Participation

Section 2 refers to the “leadership and initiative of the professional teacher to participate in
community movements for moral, social, economic and civic betterment of the community.” As
professional teachers you do not live in an ivory tower, meaning you are not supposed to be removed nor
aloof from community life. Schools are at the heart of communities and you as professional teachers are
expected to be in the world and to be in the world with others and for others (borrowing the words of
Heidegger).
The words in Section 2 of Article III are “provide leadership and initiative...” This implies that
as a professional teacher you have not to wait for community to ask for help. Section 6 further explicates
how you can show your professional leadership, to wit: “Every teacher is an intellectual leader in the
community, especially in the barangay, and shall welcome the opportunity to provide such leadership
when needed, to extend counseling services, as appropriate, and to be actively involved in matters
affecting the welfare of people.”
You do not just welcome the opportunity to lead. Section 2, states that you, the professional
teacher ought to take the initiative to offer your help for the improvement of the community . Many a
time, you can be a guidance counselor, a prayer leader, commentator or reader in religious celebrations,
fiesta coordinator, judge in or coach for a contest, financial adviser, a nurse, a doctor, commentator,
prayer rolled into one.

Providing leadership and initiative also means working with the community. This means getting
the parents and other members of the community participate in school activities. Teachers, as they
participate in community affairs prove that they “are the most responsible and most important members of
society because their professional efforts affect the fate of the earth.”

Professional Teacher with Honor and Dignity

Section 3 states: “Every teacher shall merit reasonable social recognition for which purpose he
shall behave with honor and dignity at all times and’ refrain from such activities as gambling,
smoking, drunkenness, and other excesses much less illicit relations.” Obviously, if as a professional
teacher, you are an inveterate gambler, Chain smoker and alcoholic or if it is common knowledge that you
are engaged in an illicit relationship, how can you have moral authority? Who will listen to you when you
advise your class not to smoke, not to drink alcoholic drinks, not to gamble, etc.? Your audience will say
“Look, who is talking!” It is a matter of “do what I say not what I do Society expects so much of teachers
that when they fail to y live up to the challenge to behave or model good behavior, they an “condemned
without trial!” It is no wonder why many are afraid to answer the call to teach. Society seems to expect
much more professional teachers than from any other professional and so look a teacher with scrutinizing
eyes. The quotation states “The influence of a good teacher can never be erased” but the influence of a
dishonorable teacher is as lasting.”

Teacher’s Attitude Toward Local Customs and Traditions

Section 4 expects every teacher to live for and with the community and shall, therefore study
and understand local customs and traditions in order to have a sympathetic attitude, therefore, refrain
from disparaging the community.” The professional teacher is neither ethnocentric nor xenocentric.
He/she is not ethnocentric and so does not look down on community’s culture because of the thought that
his/her culture is superior to the culture of the community. Neither is he/she xenocentric and so looks at
his/her culture as inferior in to other community’s culture.
Fortunate and happy is the community that has teachers who live with them, exert effort to
understand their local customs and traditions and consequently appreciate the same. This author sees no
culture as perfect. Every culture including hers has its positive and negative aspects. What we need to
pass on are the positive aspects of the culture. We need to purify, however, the negative aspects with
teacher pointing them out tactfully and sincerely.

The Professional Teacher and Information Update

Section 5 states that the teacher “shall help the school inform the community about the school’s
work, accomplishments, need and problems. Community here refers to internal as well as external
stakeholders. Internal stakeholders include the students, the parents of the students and the teachers. The
external stakeholders are the other parents in the community without children enrolled in school,
barangay officials and other government officials, non-government organizations, government
organizations, alumni /alumnae and retirees. Why do these stakeholders have to be informed? The school
is there for the community and so the community has the right to be informed about its activities,
accomplishments, needs and problems, informing them about the school’s projects, needs and problems
give them a sense of ownership. Having a sense of ownership, these stakeholders will participate more
actively in the resolution of school’s problems and needs.

The Parents-Teachers Association

We have Parents’ and Teachers’ Associations (PTA) in place in every school. Some private
schools call it Home School Association or Family Advisory Council. This is for internal stakeholders
only. A PTA is an association of teachers and parents with children who are enrolled in a school. It is a
forum for discussions on school problems and how they can be solved.

The School Governing Council

Other than the PTA is the School Governing Council. The SGC has different membership and
functions. A School Governing Council as a policy-making body has the school head as Chief Executive
Officer, Manager and Chief Operations Officer. The formation of SGC in every school is a proof of
school head sharing his/her leadership with members of the community.
It determines general policies on student welfare, discipline, wellbeing; it is concerned with the
development and implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the School Improvement Plan (SIP), and
reporting of the progress of the SIP implementation to the schools. Division Superintendent and the
community.
In addition to PTAs are the School Governing Council in every public school. This School
Governing Council shares in the management of the school with School Head as Chair. This School
Council is another opportunity for communities to participate in school activities.

The Professional Teacher and Government Officials and Other Professionals

Section 7 states: “Every teacher shall maintain harmonious and pleasant personal and official
relations with other professionals, with government officials and with the people individually or
collectively.” As a professional teacher, you cannot afford not to be in pleasant relations with others
especially those with whom you work with like other professional teachers. It is always best to be in good
terms with everyone else in the community.

Desiderata gives this advice: “As far as possible, without surrender, be on good terms with all
persons. speak your truth quietly and clearly; and listen to others, even the dull and the ignorant they
too have their story.”

The Professional Teacher Does Not Use Position to Proselyte

Finally, Section 8, says: “A teacher possesses freedom to attend church and worship as
appropriate, but shall not use his position and influence to proselyte others.” To be in a position means
to have power or influence for a purpose, i.e. for you to use that position to perform your job as a
professional teacher. It is highly unprofessional for a teacher like you to use your position of influence to
proselyte. Besides freedom of religion is guaranteed by the 1987 Philippine Constitution. “No law shall
be made respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof. The free
exercise and enjoyment of religious profession and worship, without discrimination or preference,
shall forever be allowed.” (Article II, Section 6).

B. The Teacher and the State (Article 2, Code of Ethics)

Section 1. The schools are the nurseries of the future citizens of the state: each teacher is a trustee of the
cultural and educational heritage of the nation and is under obligation to transmit to learners such heritage
as well as to elevate national morality, promote national pride, cultivate love of country, instill allegiance
to the constitution and for all duly constituted authorities, and promote obedience to the laws of the state.

Section 2. Every teacher or school official shall actively help carry-out the declared policies of the state,
and shall take an oath to this effect.

Section 3. In the interest of the State and of the Filipino people as much as of his own. every teacher shall
be physically, mentally and morally fit.

Section 4. Every teacher shall possess and actualize a full commitment and devotion to duty.
Section 5. A teacher shall not engage in the promotion of any political, religious, or other partisan interest,
and shall not. directly or indirectly, solicit, require, collect, or receive any money or service or other
valuable material from any person or entity for such purposes

Section 6. Every teacher shall vote and shall exercise all other constitutional rights and responsibility.

Section 7. A teacher shall not use his position or facial authority or influence to coerce any other person to
follow any political course of action.

Section 8. Every teacher shall enjoy academic freedom and shall have privilege of expounding the
product of his researches and investigations: provided that, if the results are inimical to the declared
policies of the State, they shall be brought to the proper authorities for appropriate remedial action.

SUMMARY

 All outside factors that may affect a school make up the external environment.
 To succeed and thrive, schools must adapt, exploit, and fit with the forces in their external
environments.
 Accountability is a key element in the success of education improvement systems.
 The National Framework for Professional Standards for teaching provides the basis for agreement on
and consistency around what constitutes quality teaching facilitates the articulation of the knowledge,
understanding, skills and values for effective teaching through development of standards at the local
level.
 The PQF describes the levels of educational qualifications and sets the standards for qualification
outcomes.
 The AQRF will support and enhance each ASEAN Member State’s national qualifications

framework or qualifications system while providing a mechanism to facilitate comparison,

transparency and higher quality qualifications systems.
 Internationalization of higher education is described as 'the process of integrating an international,
intercultural and global dimension into the goals, teaching/learning, research and service
functions of a university or higher education system'.
 Globalization – described as a structural phenomenon of increasing interdependence among various
parts of the world, for which the effects of an action feel at a distance has produced a variety of
economic, cultural, and social changes that have shaped the world over the past 50 years.
 When schools and community organizations work together to support learning, everyone benefits.
Partnerships can serve to strengthen, support, and even transform individual partners, resulting in
improved program quality, more efficient use of resources, and better alignment of goals and
curricula
 Teachers are expected to be part of the community.

Unit 4 - The Teacher as School Culture Catalyst

The Teacher as School Culture Catalyst

School leaders are constantly trying to find alternative ways to leverage and explore teacher
leadership potential in their school building(s). Teacher leaders that are willing to go above and beyond
their general duties. Teacher leaders are the type of educators that fall under the motif of potentially
taking on additive responsibilities that will help to improve the school community. By infusing shared
leadership in the school community, responsibility and accountability becomes a shared belief, that can be
utilized as a catalyst for change in the school community.

A. Structure in Schools
A bureaucracy is a large, formal, secondary organization characterized by a hierarchy of
authority, a clear division of labor, explicit rules, and impersonal interactions between its members. In
theory, bureaucracies are meritocracies that improve efficiency, ensure equal opportunities, and increase
efficiency. In reality, some individuals benefit from structural privileges and social origins like a
dominant race, language, or culture to which some other individuals may not have access. The
foundations of the current educational system originated in the Industrial Revolution. The school
environment became structured around hierarchy, standardization, and specialization. The
bureaucratization of schools makes it difficult to instigate appropriate and immediate change when it is
required by the changing needs of a society. In a pluralistic society, disseminating the dominant culture
through public education is a topic of heated social debate. Religious, cultural, and ethnic groups can feel
marginalized and alienated when they are forced to conform to bureaucratic structures. Advances in
information technologies provide constant connectivity to the virtual world. Schools have begun to take
advantage of these virtual tools as enhancements and replacements of physical school structures and face-
to-face learning experiences.

1. Classical Weberian Bureaucracy

What is a Bureaucracy?

 Weber's bureaucratic theory contributes significantly to the classical organizational theory which
explains that precise organization structure along with the definite lines of authority is required in an
organization to have an effective workplace.
 “It is specific form of organization defined by complexity, division of labor, permanence,
professional management, hierarchical coordination and control, strict chain of command, and legal
authority.”
 “In its ideal form, bureaucracy is impersonal and rational and based on rules rather than ties of
kinship, friendship, or patrimonial or charismatic authority.
 “Bureaucratic organization can be found in both public and private institutions.”

Max Weber bureaucracy ideally has the following characteristics:

 Specialization and Division of Labor.

 Hierarchical Authority Structures.
 Rules and Regulations.
 Efficient and uniform requirements.
 Impersonality and Personal Indifference.
 Achievement-based advancement.

WEBER’S MODEL FOR BUREAUCRACY

 Weber listed several preconditions for the emergence of bureaucracy: the growth in size of the
population being administered, the growth in complexity of the administrative tasks being carried out,

and the existence of a monetary economy requiring a more efficient administrative system.
 Weber identified in bureaucracies a rational-legal authority in which legitimacy is seen as coming
from a legal order and the laws enacted within it. This is contrasted with traditional forms of
authority, which arose from phenomena like kinship.
 Rationalization describes a transition in society, wherein traditional motivators of behavior, like
values, beliefs, and emotions, are replaced with rational calculations.
 Weber termed the increasing rationalization in Western societies an “iron cage” that traps individuals
in systems based solely on efficiency, rational calculation and control.

Weberian Structure in Schools

 Bureaucratic authority at the expense of professional consideration.

 Authority based on position in the hierarchy.
 Professional structure delegates decision making to professionals.
 Chaotic structures low bureaucratization and professionalization.
 Bureaucratic structures compliment technical competence and specialization of teachers.
 Professional structure is loose fluid and informal.

2. Hall’s Organizational Inventory (HOI) - is used to measure organizational (school) bureaucracy.

Richard H. Hall (1963) developed an organizational inventory that measures various characteristics of
the bureaucracy. Hall (1963) through his school organizational inventory (SOI) categorized bureaucracy
into six areas. These are:
(a) hierarchy of authority.
(b)specialization.
(c) rules
(d) impersonality,
(e) procedural specifications,
(i) technical competence.

3. Formalization of Structure (Hoy & Sweetland)

Formalization
The formalized organizational structure focuses on roles and positions rather than the
people in the positions. Formalization is the process of creating a formalized structure and includes
the maintenance of that formal structure over time. Formalization of an organizational structure is
commonly initiated in an attempt to rationalize the decision-making process. The formalized
organization is critical for the organization in which issues are known and changes are implemented
slowly and purposefully.
Formalization refers to the management of an organization through written rules, regulations,
and procedures (Hoy & Miskel, 2004/2010). Hoy and Sweetland (2001) divided formalization into two
aspects: coercive and enabling. The coercive nature of bureaucratic school structures is associated with
bureaucratic rules, procedures, and regulations which restrict employee autonomy by forcing them to
display compliance behaviors, and punishing those who do not comply (Adler & Borys, 1996). Hoy
(2003) stated that the dominance of coercive rules and procedures in bureaucratic organizations could
have a negative impact on collaboration, motivation, communication, and organizational trust.
Therefore, it is safe to argue that organizational rules in coercive formalization reinforce employee
compliance behavior, punish those who do not abide by the rules, and closely control employee
behavior (Hoy & Sweetland, 2001). Kimbrough and Todd (1967) criticized bureaucratic structures in
schools and stated nine claims as to why schools should not be bureaucratic organizations:

(a) The inability to legitimize differences in ideas among the personnel depresses creativity;
(b) New ideas generated from within would possibly be subject to scrutiny by the official hierarchy,
especially if those ideas were in conflict with perceived rational teaching behavior;
(c) Bureaucracy does not adequately allow for personal growth and the development of mature healthy
personalities;
(d) Bureaucratic organizations do not have adequate structures or processes for the review of
decisions;

(e) Bureaucratic organizations are unable to accommodate the diversity of external inputs needed for
democratic school systems;
(f) The extrinsic reward system stimulates conformity rather than innovation;
(g) Prior organizational resource commitments to subunits within the organization make it difficult to
develop innovative solutions to new problems;
(h) Bureaucracy does not take the informal organization into account; and
(i) lines of communication are often closed because of hierarchical divisions.

Enabling formalization refers to the construction of rules, regulations, and procedures in such a way
that enable employees to solve the problems they encounter, to take initiative in organizational processes,
and to continue professional improvement (Adler & Borys, 1996). According to Hoy and Miskel
(2004/2010), in enabling formalization, the bureaucratic rules are more flexible and the employee needs
are taken into consideration. Hoy and Sweetland (2001) also argued that enabling formalization assists in
encouraging employee collaboration in organizational processes and creates a working environment based
on mutual trust and respect.

Two kinds of Formalization

1. Coercive
- A rigid set of procedures that punishes and attempts to force compliance.

2. Enabling
- A flexible set of best practices that enables one to deal more effectively with inevitable problems.

3. Enabling and Hindering Structures

Enabling Organization, Enabling Hierarchy, Enabling Rules

 Use two-way communication  Practice openness

 View problems as opportunities  Embrace the unexpected
 Seek mutual solutions  Correct mistakes
 Support differences

Hindering Organization, Hindering Hierarchy, Coercive Rules & Procedures

 Impose top-down communication  Be cautious and closed

 View problem as constraints  Fear the unexpected
 Force consensus  Punish mistakes
 Suspicious of differences

4. Mintzberg’s Coordinating

Coordination is a fundamental activity in organizing work and a classical term in the

organizational vocabulary (Groth, 1999; Kärreman, 1996). Coordination can be seen as action
performed in order to: “Bring different elements of a complex activity or organization into a
harmonious or efficient relationship” (Oxford Concise Dictionary, 1999). Coordination can
 also be described in terms of mechanisms. Well-known sets of mechanisms are for example
proposed by March and Simon (1958) and Mintzberg (1983, 1998). The latter set of
mechanisms from Mintzberg which put forward mutual adjustment, direct supervision, and
standardization of skills, work processes, results, and norms, have a large impact on
organizational theory literature.

Henry Mintzberg suggests that organizations can be differentiated along three basic dimensions:
(1) the key part of the organization, that is, the part of the organization that plays the major
role in determining its success or failure;
(2) the prime coordinating mechanism, that is, the major method the organization uses to
coordinate its activities; and
(3) the type of decentralization used, that is, the extent to which the organization involves
subordinates in the decision-making process.

Using the three basic dimension key parts of the organization, prime coordinating
mechanism, and type of decentralization and Mintzberg suggests that the strategy an
organization adopts and the extent to which it practices that strategy result in five structural
configurations: simple structure, machine bureaucracy, professional bureaucracy,
divisionalized form, and adhocracy.

Henry Mintzberg (1992, 2009) suggests that organizations can be differentiated along three basic
dimensions:

1. The key part of the organization.

 The strategic apex – is top management and its support staff.

 The operative core – are the workers who actually carry out the organization’s tasks.
 The middle line – is middle and lower-level management.
 The techno structure – are analysts such as engineers, accountants, planners, researchers, and
personnel managers.
 The support staff – are the people who provide indirect services.

2. Prime Coordinating Mechanism

 Direct supervision means that one individual is responsible of the work of others.

 Standardization of work process exists when the content of work is specified or programmed.
 Standardization of skills exists when the kind of training necessary to do the work is specified.
 Standardization of output exists when the results of the work are specified. Because the “raw
material” that is processed by the operative core (teacher) consists of people (students), not things,
standardizations.
 Mutual adjustment exists when work is coordinated through informal communication.

3. Type of Decentralization

 Vertical decentralization is the distribution of power down the chain of command, or shared authority
between superordinate and subordinates is any organization.
 Horizontal decentralization is the extent to which non administrators (including stuff) make decisions,
shared authority between line and staff.
 Selective decentralization is the extent to which decision-making power is delegated to different units
within the organization.

The DepEd Organizational Structure (based on Republic Act No. 9155)

Republic Act No. 9155 (RA 9155), An Act Instituting A Framework of Governance for
Basic Education, Establishing Authority and Accountability, Renaming the Department of
Education, Culture and Sports as the Department of Education, and for Other Purposes,
otherwise known as the Governance of Basic Education Act of 2001, was issued. It provided a
framework for the governance of education, decentralizing governance to the field, and
making the schools and learning centers the heart of the education system. The law also
established the authority and accountability of the various organization levels of the
Department of Education (DepEd).

Rationale of the Organizational Structures

 The rationalized organizational structures and staffing patterns were a result of the thorough study of
the DepEd Change Management Team (CMT) on the current structures, functions and staffing
 complement of the DepEd offices vis-à-vis the long-term education reforms, requirements of the
learners and the changing environment, and national government policies.
 The approved organizational structures are consistent with the provisions of RA 9155 in applying the
principles of decentralization and shared governance to ensure accountability and relevance to the
context, and development needs of the learners and stakeholders of the various organizational levels.
 In developing the organizational structures, the DepEd CMT also identified the themes or
organizational strands common to all levels of the Department. These organizational strands reflect
the similarity of functions and objectives of offices and units.

Changing School Culture

According to Schein (2004) points out that it is critical that leaders recognize that changing
culture doesn’t occur overnight. It is a process and he offers a number of specific suggestions
about how this process can be systematically implemented. Most of the people-teachers, students
and parents who collectively determine what the school’s culture is like have limited incentive to
listen to you. Managing school’s culture is not dependent on the authority that has based on your
position, but can only be affected by increasing your influence over behaviors, beliefs,
relationships and other complex dynamics present in the school that are often unpredictable.

What leaders can do…

 Recognize the need to use an inclusive process for planning any change
 Provide opportunity for teachers to talk about the change and discuss the implications for their works
 Be intentional in how you talk with people and how you interact: use each encounter as an
opportunity to model the behaviors you desire
 Commit to opportunities for continued discussion of the reform once it is implemented

Steps to Changing Culture

 Create a crisis of faith to look with new eyes at the world around you and generate some tentative
theories.
 Compare these lessons to those implicit in both your aspirations for the school and in your current
behaviors and activities.
 Create a consensus in terms of aspirations that not only addresses the gaps but also builds on current
strengths.
 Analyze the modes through which culture is communicated – formal and informal, conscious and
unconscious– and adapt them to your new direction.

 Create cultural capacity– a particular way of working in school which balances the need to create a
strong shared identity with the need to constantly adapt and grow.

Transforming School Culture

Six key strategies to develop collaborative school cultures:
1. Strengthen the school's culture
2. Stimulate and reinforce Cultural Change through Structured Collaboration
3. Foster staff development
4. Encourage direct and frequent communication about cultural norms, values, beliefs, resulting in
shared vision.
5. Develop Leaders at all levels
6. Empower staff, give autonomy.

Organizational Climate of Schools

To understand what the organizational climate definition is we should begin by reading an

interpretation from one of the most respected authors on Human Resources, Professor Idalberto
Chiavenato:

“A set of measurable properties of the perceived work environment, directly or indirectly,

created by individuals who live and work in this environment and that influences the motivation
and behavior of these people.”

In this definition of organizational climate, we can note two striking features:

1. The organizational climate is a concept “perceived” by employees. Importantly, it is dependent on a
value judgment which can vary greatly from person to person.
2. The organizational climate affects productivity, motivation and employee behavior.
 Besides these two factors, it is interesting to note some others to understand fully what the
organizational climate definition is.

An Organizational climate definition: What are the main features?

 It is a perception of the work environment.
 It is a “psychological atmosphere.”
 It is a quick picture of the relationship between the organization and its employees.
 It is a set of properties that can be measured by the correct instruments.
 It is related to the quality and suitability of the work environment.
 It has to do with the support that employees feel they receive from the organization.
 The organizational structure strongly influences the organizational climate.
 The organizational climate is a reflection of the degree of employee motivation.
 It has positive and negative effects on people’s behavior in the workplace.

ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE

 Is concerned with large unit; it characterizes properties of an entire organization of major subunits.
 Describes a unit of organization rather than evaluates it or indicates emotional reaction to it.
 Arises from routine organizational practices that are important to the organization and its members.
 Influences members’ behaviors and attitudes.

TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE OF SCHOOL

1. OPEN SCHOOL CLIMATE

 Open school climate is characterized by teacher relations that are professional, collegial, friendly,
and committed to the education of students.
 The principal is supportive and professional and does not restrict or direct teachers with orders.

2. CLOSED SCHOOL CLIMATE

 Closed school climate is characterized by teacher’s relations that are disengaged, distant, suspicious,
and not professional.
 The principal is directive, restrictive, and not supportive.

3. HEALTHY SCHOOL CLIMATE

 A healthy school climate is characterized by institutional integrity—teachers are protected from
disruptive outside forces.
 The principal has influence with superiors, gets needed resources, and has an integrated leadership
style that is concerned with both the task at hand and the social well- being of teachers.

 Morale is high and there is a general press for academic achievement by teachers, parents, and
students.

4. UNHEALTHY SCHOOL CLIMATE

 An unhealthy school climate is vulnerable to disruptive outside forces
 Principal has little influence with superiors, resources are scarce, and the principal neither sets
direction nor is supports teachers.
 Morale is poor and there is limited attention to academic matters because the teacher had given up.

E. Changing the Climate of Schools

School environments vary greatly. Whereas some schools feel friendly, inviting, and supportive,
others feel exclusionary, unwelcoming, and even unsafe. The feelings and attitudes that are elicited by a
school’s environment are referred to as school climate. Although it is difficult to provide a concise
definition for school climate, most researchers agree that it is a multidimensional construct that includes
physical, social, and academic dimensions.

The physical dimension includes:

 Appearance of the school building and its classrooms;

 School size and ratio of students to teachers in the classroom;
 Order and organization of classrooms in the school;
 Availability of resources; and z Safety and comfort.

The social dimension includes:

 Quality of interpersonal relationships between and among students, teachers, and staff;
 Equitable and fair treatment of students by teachers and staff;
 Degree of competition and social comparison between students; and
 Degree to which students, teachers, and staff contribute to decision-making at the school.

The academic dimension includes:

 Quality of instruction;
 Teacher expectations for student achievement; and
 Monitoring student progress and promptly reporting results to students and parents.

Many factors affect school climate:

 School Engagement
 Welcoming Environment
 Family Involvement

Why School Climate is Important?

A school’s environment-and the degree to which students feel connected, accepted, and respected–
heavily influences student’s:

 Academic Achievement
 Mental and Behavioral Health
 Overall School Success

The Importance of School Climate

 The way teachers interact with students

 The way classroom time is used
 The standards teachers hold for students
 The expectations teachers have for their students
 A positive school climate fosters student’s feelings of belonging and strengthens their feelings of
academic efficiency.
 Strong feelings of academic deficiency led to better school performance.

How to Improve School Climate

 Positive Discipline

 Prevention and Interventions

 Cultural Competence
 Physical and Psychological Safety
 School Connectedness
 Home-School Collaboration

How School Psychologist Can Help

 Develop and implement positive behavior supports.

 Foster trusting relationships among students and staff.
 Support improved home-school-community engagement using consultation and collaboration.
 Improve access to a quality of mental and behavioral health supports.
 Develop and integrate programming to foster school climate, prevent violence, and balance physical
and psychological safety.

SUMMARY
School culture is the character of a school that gives the school qualities beyond its structure,
resources and practices. It is created by all the people in the school. It is not inherited and so is not passed
on through the genes. School culture includes school climate and so school culture is broader than school
climate. School climate is relational while school culture is a deeper level of reflection of shared values,
beliefs and traditions. Undoubtedly, school culture affects learning and so schools must, by all means,
build positive not toxic school culture.

Unit 5 – The Teacher as an Organizational Leader

The Teacher as an Organizational Leader

 The notion of teacher leadership is not new, but recently it has been transformed. In the past,
teacher leadership roles have been limited in scope and established at the prerogative of school
administrators. Teachers have long served as team leaders, department chairs, association leaders and
curriculum developers. In these roles teachers have often served as "representatives" rather than "leaders"
who enact change (Livingston, 1992). In addition, leadership roles for teachers have traditionally lacked
flexibility and required a lengthy, ongoing commitment of time and energy. Often the decision to take on
leadership tasks has been accompanied by a decision to get out of teaching and into administration.

A. Defining Leadership

Leadership is a critical aspect of all social endeavors. In schools, talented leadership is

essential to student achievement. School leadership impacts all facets of education: teacher
motivation, shaping the conditions and the environment in which teaching and learning occurs,
and interaction with the broader community.

Leadership is a complex process by which a person influences others to accomplish a

mission, task, or objectives and directs the organization in a way that makes it more cohesive and
coherent. A person carries out this process by applying her leadership attributes. (beliefs, values,
ethics, characters, knowledge, and skills)

Leadership is the ability of an executive to direct, guide, and influence the behavior and
work of others in order to achieve specific goals in a given situation. A manager's ability to
inspire trust and zeal in his or her subordinates is known as leadership. Leadership is the ability to
influence the behavior of others. It is also defined as the ability to persuade a group to work
toward a common goal. Leaders must create future visions and inspire organizational members to
want to achieve those visions.

Leadership is an influence relationship among leaders and followers resulting in outcomes

that reflect shared purposes.

Principle of Leadership

1. Know yourself and seek self-improvement- in order to know yourself, you have to understand you
be, know, and do attributes. Seeking self-improvement means continually strengthening your
attributes.
2. Be technically proficient- as a leader, you must know your job and have a solid familiarity with your
employees’ job.
3. Seek responsibility and take responsibility for your action- analyze the situation, take corrective
action, and move to the next question.

4. Make sound and timely decision- use good problem solving, decision making, and planning tools.
5. Set the example- be a good role model, they must not only hear what they are expected to do, but
also see.
6. Know your people and look out for their well-being – know human nature and the importance of
sincerity caring for your workers.
7. Keep your people informed- know how to communicate to your people
8. Develop a sense of responsibility in your people- develop goods characters traits within your people
that will help them carry out their professional responsibility.
9. Ensures that tasks are understood, supervised, and accomplished- communication is the key to
this responsibility.
10. Train your people as a team- although many so-called leader call their organization, department,
section, they are not really teams, they are just a group of people doing their jobs.
11. Use the full capabilities of your organization- by developing a team spirit, you will be able to
employ your organization, department, section, to its fullest capabilities.

FOUR FACTORS OF LEADERSHIP

✓ Followers- Followers are the subordinates of a head. Leader must know his people.
✓ Leader- Leader must know his people. The fundamental starting point is having a good understanding
of human nature, such as needs, emotions, and motivation.
✓ Communication- Communication maintains good relationship between leader and followers as well as
shows the leader efficiency. A head lead through two-way communication.
✓ Situation- The situation normally has a greater effect on a leader's action than his or her traits. This is
because while traits may have an impressive stability over a period of time, they have little consistency
across situations.

B. The Nature of Administrative Work

 Good leadership in schools is the practice of encouraging and enabling school-wide
teaching expertise in order to achieve a strong rate of progress for all learners. For teaching
staff and future leaders in the education sector, it’s important to understand what the
benchmark is for good leadership in schools, and how it can be used to drive lasting change.

1. Trait Approach to Leadership

The trait theory of leadership focuses on identifying different personality traits and
characteristics that are linked to successful leadership across a variety of situations. This line of
research emerged as one of the earliest types of investigations into the nature of effective
leadership and is tied to the "great man" theory of leadership first proposed by Thomas Carlyle in
the mid-1800s.

Carlyle's theory of leadership was based on the rationale that:

 Certain traits produce certain patterns of behavior.
 Patterns are consistent across different situations.
 People are "born" with leadership traits.

The trait approach to leadership concentrates on the idea that great leaders are born with
the given abilities, and not a learned ability.
According to Northouse (2016),” the situational approach stresses that leadership is composed of
both a directive and a supportive dimension, and that each has to be applied appropriately in given
situation.
According to this theory, the most effective leaders are those that are able to adapt their style to
the situation and look at cues such as the type of task, the nature of the group, and other factors that might
contribute to getting the job done.

2. Situations and Leadership

Successful leaders could look at situations with different perspectives. They assess the
situation and behaviors of the team members in play, after which they determine the type of
leadership approach to use to get the best result. The situational leadership theory and
situational leadership model work to ensure success, due to the following:

1. It is a more flexible approach to leadership

2. It encourages successful collaboration among team members
3. Adaptability is encouraged to fit past, present & future situations
4. It assesses maturity levels of people within the organization
5. It encourages socio-emotional support for subordinates
6. It encourages provision of direction & guidance for subordinates
7. Work productivity can be enhanced with situational leadership
8. It can boost employee motivation within a business organization
9. It increases awareness of current organizational situations
10. Situational Leadership can counter volatility
11. Situational Leadership can counter uncertainty
12. Situational Leadership can decipher situational complexity
13. Situational Leadership can beat ambiguity
14. Using Situational Leadership, you can control all possible outcomes
15. Using Situational Leadership, adapt your style to those you lead

Situational leadership is a relationship-oriented type of leadership. It bases a leader’s

directives on the readiness and ability of his followers. This is why it is seen as a “flexible
approach”. The leader does not use a single style of leadership across all his team members. In
order for it to work, the leader must have established a relationship with his team members in
order to understand their state of mind when receiving directions for the tasks they need to
complete. Looking at Ken Blanchard’s model for the succeeding examples: a leader will most
likely use a directive style of leadership to a new employee as they are still new at learning
their task. However, the same leader may delegate the task of training to their most tenured and
highly motivated team member.

3. Behaviors and Leadership

Adopting positive leadership behavior can motivate your team to be more effective and increase
its ability to reach goals. It also helps you to retain top talent within your department, as team members
will value the opportunity to work alongside you. Learning how to behave like a leader can take practice
and a strong sense of self-awareness as you monitor your own actions. In this article, we discuss why
leadership behaviors are so important within an organization and share some simple steps you can take to
start to develop your own effective leadership behavior.
 Behavioral leadership theory is a management philosophy that evaluates leaders according to the
actions they display in the workplace. Supporters of this theory believe that all you need to do to be an
effective leader is to learn a certain set of behaviors. If you are interested in becoming a more efficient
leader or in implementing a new leadership style, you can benefit from learning about behavioral
leadership theory.
What is behavioral leadership theory?

Behavioral leadership theory argues that the success of a leader is based on their
behavior rather than their natural attributes. Behavioral leadership theory involves observing and
evaluating a leader's actions and behaviors when they are responding to a specific situation. This
theory believes that leaders are made, not born. Proponents of this theory suggest that anyone can
become an effective leader if they can learn and implement certain behaviors.

Behavioral leadership theory is highly relevant in several fields. This theory promotes
the idea that all leaders are capable of learning and developing through adopting beneficial
behaviors and performing them in their workplace. Behavioral leadership theory also encourages
leaders to be self-aware of their behavior and to recognize how it affects the productivity and
morale of their team.

Types of behavioral leadership

There are several key styles of behavioral leadership. Each one involves a different set of
behaviors and may be more or less effective in certain work environments:
 People-oriented leaders  Country club leaders
 Task-oriented leaders  Sound leaders
 Participative leaders  Opportunistic leaders
 Staus-quo leaders  Paternalistic leaders
 Indifferent leaders
 Dictatorial leaders

People-oriented leaders
People-oriented leaders focus on behaviors that allow them to meet the needs of the people they
interact with, including supervisors, employees and clients. They are primarily driven by interpersonal
connection and communication. People-oriented leaders build relationships with their team members to
motivate them to perform well. This type of leader favors behavior related to:
 Encouraging collaboration
 Rewarding success
 Observing their team's progress
 Mentoring team members

Task-oriented leaders

Task-oriented leaders are primarily focused on setting goals and achieving objectives. Task-oriented
leaders thrive in a well-structured environment and often show authoritative behavior. They are typically
more focused on their team's final results rather than the day-to-day developmental process. Behaviors
that are common for a task-oriented leader include:
 Initiating projects
 Organizing processes
 Clarifying instructions
 Gathering relevant data

Participative leaders
Participative leaders make an effort to include their entire team in decision-making processes. They
prioritize active communication, collaboration and feedback. Participative leaders know their team's
strengths and weaknesses and assign tasks accordingly. This leadership style allows every team member's
voice to be heard and considered. Participative leaders are likely to:
 Facilitate team meetings
 Ask for constructive feedback
 Take suggestions for improvement
 Delegate tasks to other team members

Status-quo leaders
Status-quo leaders make an effort to prioritize both productivity and employee satisfaction. They
ensure that all tasks are finished on time while also providing support and encouragement to their team
members. Staus-quo leaders typically meet the needs of their team without going above or beyond
expectations. Some behaviors associated with status-quo leaders include:
 Distributing tasks evenly
 Requiring regular progress reports
 Enforcing company policies fairly
  Responding to feedback neutrally

Indifferent leaders
Indifferent leaders do not prioritize interaction or communication with their team. They usually
oversee progress from a distance and do not contribute to their team's daily efforts. They are primarily
focused on personal success and advancement. Due to the lack of cooperation, an indifferent leadership
style is widely considered the most ineffective of the behavioral leadership types. Behaviors typical for
indifferent leaders include:
 Avoiding questions
 Procrastinating
 Self-preserving
 Assigning unwanted tasks to others

Dictatorial leaders
Dictatorial leaders often value results more than they do people. They may pressure their team
members to perform well even during stressful or challenging periods. Dictatorial leaders are often
successful in delivering high-quality results but may experience high-turnover rates due to employee
dissatisfaction and burnout. The behaviors of a dictatorial leader include:
 Setting inflexible deadlines
 Disregarding excuses
 Ignoring feedback
 Achieving short-term goals

Country club leaders

Country club leaders prioritize their team members' happiness and satisfaction level. They believe
that a team that is comfortable and well-provided for is more likely to be successful. Team members are
likely to show high levels of trust and loyalty when working with country club leaders. Some country
club leaders might sacrifice productivity in exchange for improving their team's morale or workplace
relationships. Country club leaders' behavior often involves:
 Responding to team member feedback
 Focusing on employees' well-being
 Defending employees' interests and rights
 Supporting the team members' decisions

Sound leaders
Sound leadership is considered the most effective type of behavioral leadership. However, it is
typically difficult to practically implement. Sound leaders equally prioritize productivity and team
morale. They value their team members, set achievable goals and deliver high-quality results. They are
intrinsically motivated to succeed and find satisfaction in supporting their team's progress. Sound leaders
exhibit behaviors like:

 Encouraging open communication

 Allowing employees to work independently
 Listening to and implementing feedback
 Providing training and continuing education to team members

Opportunistic leaders
Opportunistic leaders pick and choose different behaviors from the previous styles. They can adjust
and adapt their leadership style to fit a particular situation. They are goal-oriented and will use whatever
methods are necessary to achieve their objectives. For example, they might adopt a dictatorial persona in
the weeks leading up to a major deadline and then shift to country club leadership afterward to repair their
relationship with their team. The specific behaviors of an opportunistic leader vary, but may include:
 Lack of consistency
 Pursuing results regardless of cost
 Enforcing their own standards for success
 Caring for their team to improve performance

Paternalistic leaders
This leadership style strives to be stern but fair, much like a father with a child. Paternalistic leaders
are goal-oriented but are willing to be flexible regarding methodology. They frequently set lofty goals and
reward team members that achieve them. They value their team members' individual skills and offer
opportunities for them to develop professionally. Other behaviors associated with the paternalistic style
include:
 Rewarding positive behavior or success
 Disciplining failure
 Disregarding feedback
 Offering leadership opportunities to promising employees
4. Leadership Effectiveness
Leadership Effectiveness is the key analyst of organizational success or failure while examining
the factors that lead to organizational success.
 To lead a team, you need to understand leadership effectiveness and for this, it is necessary to learn to
understand, to be understood later, if we want to change a situation, we must change ourselves, to be
able to change effectively, we must first change our perceptions.
 To relate effectively with other people, we must learn to listen. And this requires emotional control.
Listening requires having highly developed qualities of character such as patience, being open to
change and criticism and wanting to understand.
 It is important and effective to act from a low emotional level, give advice and direct at high levels.

1. Personality
Successful leaders have a pleasing personality. Personality is the sum of physical, mental, and social
qualities. Personality is the only characteristic of a good leader to influence the subordinates.

2. Human Skills
The human skills refer to interpersonal skills. The leader must understand the feelings, emotions, and
expectations of the subordinates. Such knowledge would enable the leader to develop interpersonal
relationships with the subordinates, which are vital in any organization.

3. Communication Skills
Effective leaders are good communicators. Effective communication in three critical areas is the key
to win trust and confidence of the subordinates:
 Enabling employees to understand the company’s overall business strategy.
 Informing the employees and sharing information with them.

4. Administrative Skills
Leadership should be administered as required to undertake management functions such as planning,
organizing, directing and controlling.

5. Decision Making
Leadership Effectiveness helps leaders in effective decision making. There is a need to identify the
problems. Accordingly, alternation solutions must be listed. After analyzing the cost-benefit of every
alternative solution, the leaders need to select the best solution to solve the problem.

6. Conceptual
Leadership should be conceptual as it helps to visualize and analyze problems or situations. A top-
level leader considers a long-term perspective. They need to handle difficult or complex situations.

7. Innovations

Leadership should bring in innovation in an organization. Innovation should be creative. Therefore,

the leader should have the imagination to develop new ideas or new was to handle the activities or situations.
A good subordinate expects the leader to be innovative.

8. Initiative
The quality of leadership should be initiated, as the leader should be initiated. Effective leadership
can take place only when the leader is at the position to do the right things at the right time without being
reminded.
The decision should be taken without causing delay and inconvenience to others. Therefore, the
leader should initiate the subordinates as well.

9. Intelligence
An intelligent leader is efficient enough to make decisions and to deal with people. There is a need to
have intellectual intelligence and emotional intelligence. This would enable ineffective leadership of taking
the right decisions not only in the interest of the organization but also in the interest of employees.

10. Ethics and Values

Leadership effectiveness also involves ethics and values. There shouldn’t be any kind of cheating or
manipulation. It is important to have honesty, integrity, compassion, and courage among the leaders.

11. Respect and Trust

People are naturally drawn to leaders whom they trust and respect. Fear and control-based leadership
could get some followers in the short-term, but such coercive leaders will not earn the loyalty of subordinates.
To build a loyal team, a leader must be trustworthy.

12. Delegation
One cannot do everything. The leader needs to delegate tasks effectively. The leader needs to know
each member’s strengths and weaknesses and delegate responsibilities accordingly. This would make the
team members feel appreciated and recognized.

13. Appreciation
A leader should value each team member and makes each member feel valued. Each member of the
team feels their role is important and appreciated. Praise in public and criticize in private.

14. Handling Success and Failures

It is very important that a great leader should know how to handle each success and failure. Celebrate
the successes. At the same time, the leader should learn from the failures. Remember- whenever there is a
success; attribute it to the entire team. When the team faces a failure, accept responsibility for the failure.

5. Contingency Models of Leadership

What Is the Contingency Theory of Leadership?

Throughout history, multiple schools of thought have argued about the most effective leadership
style. Popular among them is the Contingency Theory of Leadership. It states that a leader’s effectiveness
doesn’t depend on their abilities. External factors like environment, culture and social relationships
influence the leadership process. Contingency theorists suggest that no matter how talented leaders are,
they’ll likely struggle to meet demands at some level. For example, the COVID-19 pandemic has forced
some of the most successful leaders to shut down their business ventures.

Types Of Contingency Theories

Fred Edward Fielder, an Austrian-American psychologist proposed the first comprehensive

Contingency Theory of Leadership. Subsequent contingency theories emerged: Hersey-Blanchards’
Situational Leadership Theory and Robert House’s Path-Goal Theory. Let’s look at the different
contingency theories in detail.

1. Fielder’s Contingency Theory

This theory suggests that successful leaders exercise control over a situation that’s influenced by three
distinct factors. The Fiedler Contingency Model was created in the mid-1960s by Fred Fiedler, a scientist
who studied the personality and characteristics of leaders. The model states that there is no one best style
of leadership. Instead, a leader's effectiveness is based on the situation.

1. Leader-Member Relations:

If you’re well-liked and trusted by your team, you can communicate your ideas with greater conviction

and it’s easier for you to exercise effective leadership.

2. Task Structure:

When there’s a structured approach to work, your team finishes their work on time. A well-specified
plan of action directs everyone to their goals.

3. Position Power:

The more power (and influence) you have over your team, the greater control you have over your
situation to exercise successful leadership.

Fielder’s Contingency Model also suggests two key leadership styles.

 Task-oriented leadership: You prioritize performance, structures, plans and schedules to get things
done.
 Relationship-oriented leadership: You foster positive relationships with your team, peers and
coworkers by encouraging teamwork and collaboration.

2. Hersey-Blanchard Contingency Theory

Created by two leadership experts—Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard, the Situational Leadership
Theory suggests that no leadership style is superior to another. Instead of focusing on environmental
factors, individuals should adapt their leadership style based on activities and relationships. The theory
proposes different leadership styles:

 Delegating Style, where you allow your team to take responsibilities and make decisions.
 Participating Style, where you help those who struggle to meet their targets or lack the confidence to
carry out responsibilities.
 Selling Style, where you communicate ideas and strategies in persuasive ways to boost your team’s
productivity.
 Telling Style, where you provide direction and closely monitor your team’s progress.

3. Path-Goal Contingency Model

Developed by Robert J. House, a professor of leadership and organizational behavior, the Path-
Goal Theory states that a leader must shed light on the path to a goal. In other words, an effective leader
is someone who provides clear direction, sets big milestones and supports those pursuing their goals.
There are various path-goal leadership styles.

 Directive Leadership: You let your team know about your expectations and help them schedule work
accordingly.
 Supportive Leadership: You treat everybody with equal importance and create a friendly and
supportive work environment.
 Participative Leadership: You consult your team members during decision-making; this establishes
trust between you and your team.
 Achievement-Oriented Leadership: You set challenging milestones and expect everybody to perform
their best; you guide them wherever necessary.

Two Sides of Contingency Theory of Leadership

Now that we’ve established how leadership styles change according to situations, let’s explore
the advantages and disadvantages of the Contingency Leadership Theory.

Advantages
1. Contingency theory is grounded in empirical research and has developed over the years. It has
broadened the scope of understanding leadership.
2. Since the theory proposes that no particular leadership style is perfect, you get to define leadership the
way you want to. You set your own rules, targets and expectations.
3. Since the Contingency Theory is situation-specific, it helps to keep up with changing business needs
and is ideal for fast-paced businesses.

Disadvantages
1. As there isn’t any standard definition of effective leadership, you have no examples to learn from.
2. Your interpersonal relationships and contexts matter more than your abilities. There is too much
emphasis on the situation.
3. As there isn’t any single optimal solution to a problem, you may spend hours before you’re able to
resolve the problem(s).

C. Transformational Leadership

Effective school leaders apply their educational expertise and management skills in order to focus
their efforts, and those of their teaching staff, on improving the quality of student learning outcomes. Part
of this involves keeping up-to-date on the latest teaching technologies and trends. It also requires
excellent interpersonal skills – as leaders work with students, staff, parents and external communities to
gain constant feedback and find opportunities to innovate. School leaders need to have a solid grasp of
operational best practices and an aptitude for enabling continuous development. Good leadership in
schools helps to foster both a positive and motivating culture for staff and a high-quality experience for
learners. Leaders at all levels in schools can contribute to this by developing the top skills needed by
school leaders.

Transformational leadership is a leadership theory where a leader works with followers to identify
the changes needed, create a vision through inspiration, and execute the change with a group of highly
committed followers. Transformational leadership is the new leadership paradigm as it focuses on
charismatic and affective leadership elements (PSU WC, 2016, L.10). As the name suggests, the
leadership theory seeks to create a new approach to leadership. Over time, the leadership model has
become popular following its focus on intrinsic motivation as well as follower development which is in
line with the needs of most workgroups that may require inspiration and empowerment to succeed in
difficult times (Northouse, 2016).

Development of Transformational Leadership:

Transformational leadership emerged as a significant leadership style that linked the roles of
leaders and followers. Transformational leaders are believed to tap the potential and motives of followers
to make it easier to reach the goals of the team. The style illustrates that leadership is different from
power since it is inseparable from the needs of the followers (Northouse, 2016). It means that the leader
does not act because of the power bestowed on him by his leadership position. He acts in the interest of
the followers seeking to work with them to attain the set vision. A transformational leader may spend
time seeking to influence the followers to understand and accept his vision.

The Four I's

In Bass' interpretation, he identified four separate elements that make up a Transformational Leader,
which became known as the 4 I's. These were:

1. Idealized Influence (II)

2. Intellectual Stimulation (IS)
3. Inspirational Motivation (IM)
4. Individualized Consideration (IC)

These 4 elements, in Bass' view, were crucial if a leader wished to inspire, nurture and develop their
followers.
 These would be used to create an open, communicative and diverse culture, allowing followers to
freely share ideas and therefore to empower them on an individual level.

Transformational leaders are often described as mentors and role models as they lead by example,
encouraging an environment where innovative thinking is aligned with the values, beliefs and objectives
of the organization, and individuals are openly recognized for their contributions, and for going above-
and-beyond the norm expected of them.

1. Idealized Influence (II)

Idealized Influence: They believe in the philosophy that a leader can influence followers only
when he practices what he preaches. The leaders act as role models that followers seek to emulate. Such
leaders always win the trust and respect of their followers through their action. They typically place their
followers needs over their own, sacrifice their personal gains for them, ad demonstrate high standards of
ethical conduct. The use of power by such leaders is aimed at influencing them to strive for the common
goals of the organization.

This refers to the way in which Transformational Leaders exert their influence within a group.
 These leaders are deeply respected by their team due to the example that they set for others.
 Behind this, they provide a clear vision and a sense of belonging which encourages individuals to buy
into the long-term objectives of the organization, and drives them to achieve their own goals.

2. Intellectual Stimulation (IS)

Intellectual Stimulation: Such leaders encourage their followers to be innovative and creative.
They encourage new ideas from their followers and never criticize them publicly for the mistakes
committed by them. The leaders focus on the “what” in problems and do not focus on the blaming part of
it. They have no hesitation in discarding an old practice set by them if it is found ineffective.

Transformational Leaders create a diverse and open environment, within which they encourage
others to innovate and to form new ideas for the organization and themselves.

They seek other paths to goals which stray from the norm and openly push others to challenge
their own beliefs and values, as well as those of the company. This is why this style of leadership can play
such an influential role in Change and Strategic Planning.

3. Inspirational Motivation (IM)

Inspirational Motivation: The foundation of transformational leadership is the promotion of
consistent vision, mission, and a set of values to the members. Their vision is so compelling that they
know what they want from every interaction. Transformational leaders guide followers by providing them
with a sense of meaning and challenge. They work enthusiastically and optimistically to foster the spirit
of teamwork and commitment.
Transformational Leaders play an important role in improving performance, by working to raise
through team morale through motivational techniques and acting as inspiration for their followers.
 They are happy to communicate their high expectations to individual followers and motivate them on
a singular level to gain their commitment to a shared organizational or team belief.
 When the individual is committed to organizational goals, it intrinsically encourages them to work
harder to reach these objectives.

When combined with the Individual Influence that Transformational Leaders exert, Inspirational
Motivation helps make up these leaders' charisma.
1. Individualized Consideration (IC)

Individualized Consideration: Leaders act as mentors to their followers and reward them for
creativity and innovation. The followers are treated differently according to their talents and knowledge.
They are empowered to make decisions and are always provided with the needed support to implement
their decisions.

Transformational Leaders actively work to create a diverse environment and supportive environment,
where individual differences are respected and celebrated.

 They will know each of their followers individually and will happily listen to any concerns or needs
that their team members may have.
 They will act as mentors and coaches for team members, working to develop, empower and inspire
them to achieve more and to be more.
This individual effort is key to achieving the best results and creating future leaders.

Becoming a Transformational Leader

You should now have a good understanding of the behaviors and attributes that Bass considers all
true Transformational Leaders to possess.
Becoming one is not an overnight phenomenon - individuals have to work to become a leader of
high inspiration, and it may be suited to some personalities over others - but here are some steps which
one can take to drive themselves towards the next level of leadership:
1. Identify individual strengths and weaknesses
2. Develop an inspiring vision for the future
3. Motivate everyone to buy into the vision
4. Manage and involve yourself in delivery
5. Reinforce your relationships with the team: trust, loyalty

Theory and Research about Transformational Leadership

Criticisms of Transformational Leadership Theory

 Transformational leadership makes use of impression management and therefore lends itself to
amoral self-promotion by leaders
 The theory is very difficult to be trained or taught because it is a combination of many leadership
theories.
 Followers might be manipulated by leaders and there are chances that they lose more than they gain.

Implications of Transformational Leadership Theory

The current environment characterized by uncertainty, global turbulence, and organizational

instability calls for transformational leadership to prevail at all levels of the organization. The followers
of such leaders demonstrate high levels of job satisfaction and organizational commitment, and engage in
organizational citizenship behaviors. With such a devoted workforce, it will definitely be useful to
consider making efforts towards developing ways of transforming organization through leadership.

A. Evolutionary Leadership Theory (ELT)

Evolutionary Leadership is a capacity to mobilize oneself and others to consciously and effectively
redesign worldviews, cultures, and institutions for a more just, sustainable, and flourishing world.

Evolutionary leadership theory (ELT) argues that humans possess specialized psychological
mechanisms for solving coordination problems through leadership and followership. We discuss the
evolutionary functions and psychological processes underlying leadership, and how to study leadership
and followership from an integrated evolutionary perspective.

Seven (7) competencies of Evolutionary Leadership Theory (ELT)

1. Personal Evolution
Personal Evolution Competency supports leaders in developing a complexity of consciousness
and a new worldview through becoming a different kind of observer of the world. Most of our leaders
operate from conventional mind [Kegan, 1982] influenced by the tribal mindset that makes people put
their tribe’s survival first and consider their tribe’s culture as the main point of reference for
understanding and dealing with our complex world. Developing Personal Evolution Competency requires
continuous efforts towards understanding our human nature and consciously evolving our mindset to
embrace the complexity of the world and transcend limiting beliefs and assumptions that undermine our
ability to build a more just, sustainable, and flourishing world.

2. Emotions & Generative Language

 Evolutionary Leaders use the power of emotions and language to bring forth new realities. This
competency invites leaders to master their emotions in a way that sets the foundation for healthy
relationships, for caring, for seeing the other as a legitimate other [Maturana, et al, 1996], and for setting
the context for generative dialogue. This competency also includes developing philosophical
understanding of language and its relationship with emotions which facilitates conscious articulation of
new possibilities and empowers leaders to declare bold stands and purposes for a just, flourishing, and
sustainable world. Though developing deeper understanding of humans as emotional and linguistic
beings, language becomes a powerful tool that shapes human reality and elicits commitments to effective
action. Evolutionary Leaders use this powerful generative language to facilitate the emergence of new
historical narratives, a new story of life and human beings that promotes meaning, purpose, solidarity
among people, and harmony with our natural world.

3. Systems Thinking
We need to be aware of the fact that we exist within a multiplicity of systems: natural systems,
living systems, social systems, and technological systems, to name a few. This competency enables
leaders to see systems, design new ones, and influence those systems toward systemic sustainability.
Systems Thinking offers powerful tools for observing the dynamics and outcomes of systems. It is a
discipline for seeing the whole not just parts, a method for seeing visible and invisible causes of our world
problems.

4. Systemic Sustainability
Most people think of sustainability exclusively as an environmental issue. Systemic Sustainability
defines sustainability as a macro-complex system made up of three important sub-systems:
Environmental Sustainability, Human Sustainability, and Institutional Sustainability. Each one of these
sub-systems supports the existence of the other two which makes all three sub-systems mutually
interdependent. Together, the three sub-systems bring forth an emergent complex new system:
sustainability as a coherent property that supports the well-being of all three systems.

5. Ontological Designing
Ontological Designing is a discipline for consciously designing our life worlds, our institutions,
our products, our processes, and our self, so that they contribute toward the futuring of sustainment of life
on this planet [Fry, 2009].

6. Adaptive Work & Collaboration

An adaptive challenge is a challenge that involves a disparity between values and circumstances
[Heifetz, 1994], a challenge in which learning must occur for an effective solution to be found. Our world
today is full of adaptive challenges, and our leaders often misdiagnose these challenges and treat them as
technical problems that they think they already know the answers to, which causes the problems to
persist. Global poverty, hunger, climate change, energy, nuclear proliferation, and many others are
examples of adaptive challenges.

7. Evolutionary Visions, Scenarios, and Wisdom

This competency supports leaders in understanding our evolutionary history as living systems,
and as human beings. It also invites us to develop wisdom in order to make the right choices for our
future. Wisdom asks you to consider the importance of those actions, the choices, and the long-term
consequences of those actions. Evolutionary Leaders think in terms of evolutionary time, and use their
understanding of evolutionary principles to design and direct the process of human evolution. They can
think strategically in terms of 10, 25, 50, or 100 years or more to envision that we can design and build a
better world.

E. Teacher Leadership

What is Teacher Leadership?

Teachers typically define career satisfaction in terms of their ability to be of service to others and
make a difference in the lives of their students (McLaughlin & Lee, 1988). Similarly, the leadership
considerations of teachers are grounded in their desire to improve the quality of teaching and learning for
all students. Studies have shown that teachers do not subscribe to traditional definitions of leadership as
"higher" or "superior" positions within the organizational hierarchy (Devaney, 1987). Instead, teachers
view leadership as a collaborative effort, a "banding together" with other teachers to promote professional
development and growth and the improvement of educational services (Troen & Boles, 1992).

Today, leadership roles have begun to emerge and promise real opportunities for teachers to
impact educational change-without necessarily leaving the classroom. Teachers are now serving as
research colleagues, working as advisor-mentors to new teachers, and facilitating professional
development activities as master teachers. Teachers also act as members of school-based leadership
teams, instructional support teams and leaders of change efforts (Livingston, 1992). In addition, teachers
are forging a number of new and unique leadership roles through their own initiative by developing and
implementing programs they personally believe will result in positive change (Troen & Boles, 1992).
What We Know About the Work Lives of Teacher Leaders
In spite of the fact that roles continue to expand, little is known about the teachers who take on
leadership roles and their experiences. Researchers are only beginning to understand the complexities
involved in creating and implementing leadership positions for teachers. Several recent studies have
attempted to document the lives of teachers as they confront the challenges of leadership. These have
shown that while lead teachers typically find their new roles and responsibilities enormously rewarding,
they also encounter a variety of constraints and tensions.

What Do Teacher Leaders Do?

In one of the most extensive studies on the work of teacher leaders, Lieberman, Saxl, and Miles
(1988) focused on what teachers actually did when they assumed leadership positions designed to provide
assistance to other teachers. The authors found that the work of lead teachers was varied and largely
specific to the individual context of the school. In order to be effective with their colleagues, lead teachers
found it necessary to learn a variety of leadership skills while on the job. Those skills included:

 Building trust and developing rapport

 Diagnosing organizational conditions
 Dealing with processes
 Managing the work
 Building skills and confidence in others

School leaders concluded that restructuring school communities to incorporate leadership positions
for teachers will require teacher leaders to take certain actions. These include: placing a nonjudgmental
value on providing assistance, modeling collegiality as a mode of work, enhancing teachers' self-esteem,
using different approaches to assistance, making provisions for continuous learning and support for
teachers at the school site and encouraging others to provide leadership to their peers.

 Personal Gains.
Studies have shown that leadership positions can yield significant personal benefits to those
involved. Intellectual and professional growth and decreased isolation are personal gains teachers
reported in their new leadership roles.

 Intellectual and professional growth.

Teachers report that their knowledge and skills in teaching increased dramatically as a result of their
involvement in leadership positions (Porter, 1987; Lieberman et al., 1988; Troen & Boles, 1992).
New skills and knowledge also lead to increased confidence among lead teachers and a stronger
commitment to teaching. Professional growth was more often the result of collaboration with peers
than activities separated from the normal school routine. Growth occurred as lead teachers observed
and assisted other teachers, worked with administrators, and were exposed to new concepts and

ideas.

 Decreased isolation.
Teacher leaders report a significant decrease in isolation as a result of opportunities to work with
others outside of the classroom. Studies have found, however, that in most instances isolation only
decreased for those involved in leadership positions and had little bearing on the isolation felt by the
larger teaching force (Porter, 1987; Wasley, 1989). Other studies have shown that under certain
conditions lead teachers are successful in facilitating cooperation and collegiality more broadly
among faculty members, thereby decreasing the isolation many teachers experience (Lieberman, et.
al., 1988; Hart, 1990).

 Confronting Obstacles
While leadership roles can provide important benefits, they have also proven to be highly
problematic. Studies have shown that lead teachers confront a number of constraints as they learn to
negotiate new roles and relationships.

 Role Definitions.
Studies suggest that problems often result when teacher leadership roles are not well defined (Hart,
1990; Hatfield, et al., 1987; Wasley, 1989). When responsibilities involved with leadership are not
well delineated confusion results and tensions mount, not only for lead teachers but also for those
who work with them (i.e., administrators, classroom teachers). At the same time, however,
researchers point to the need for lead teachers to participate in the definition and creation of their
new roles. Teacher leaders who are given the opportunity to create and shape their own roles receive
more support and experience greater success than those who are less willing and able to take
initiative (Hart, 1990).

 Time.
 Teacher leaders report that time constraints significantly limit their ability to succeed in the dual
roles of both teacher and leader (Dierks, et al., 1988; Fay, 1992; Lieberman, et al., 1988; Porter,
1987; Wasley, 1989). With additional responsibilities and little extra time, teachers are often forced
to make sacrifices that compromise their ability to be effective in both roles.

 School culture.
A lack of support and encouragement from school administrators and teaching colleagues often poses
the biggest obstacles for teacher leaders. Lead teachers found that school norms of privacy and
isolation made it difficult to foster collegiality and promote the sharing of ideas. Teacher leaders

were repeatedly confronted by the "egalitarian nature of teaching" and had to work hard to gain
acceptance and respect (Hart, 1990; Lieberman, et al., 1988; Wasley, 1989). The selection of lead
teachers by the administration, which violated the "equal status" of teachers, often exacerbated the
problems and bred resentment and hostility toward teachers in leadership positions (Devaney, 1987;
Hart, 1990; Wasley, 1989). Lead teachers often blamed the administration for failing to support
leadership roles and engendering a hostile environment (Hart, 1990; Troen & Boles, 1992).

F. Instructional Leadership

What are instructional leadership skills?

Instructional leadership skills are the traits possessed by effective educational leaders to inspire
action and optimism. These leaders set an example for others by treating people fairly and making an
impression with their honesty and integrity. Effective leaders are supportive of those around them and
provide inspiration to achieve individual and collective goals. They use their excellent communication
skills to gather feedback, ask for ideas and make informed decisions regarding the processes of the
educational institutions they run.
Instructional leadership is most commonly associated with school principals who manage
curriculums, budgeting and scheduling and are responsible for the success of each student in their
schools. These individuals often strive to empower teachers to become leaders themselves, distributing
the weight of the school's responsibilities more equitably and providing a model of teamwork for students
to look up to. This method of leadership in education became popular in the '80s and '90s and continues to
evolve based on societal and educational needs.

Examples of instructional leadership skills

Instructional leadership skills and effective teaching are directly related to the success of the students
in a classroom setting. An instructional leader advocates for effective teaching by providing clarity and
support for teachers as well as procuring the necessary resources to maximize teaching effectiveness.
Some specific skills related to instructional leadership include:

 Communication skills  Team building and collaboration

 Effective planning  Optimism
 Trustworthiness  Interaction with parents
 Competence

Communication skills
Verbal and written communication skills are essential to leadership success. An instructional
leader must be able to effectively communicate their intentions regarding students' education. This may
involve emails and other written communication, or it could mean holding meetings with teachers to set
goals and assess lesson plans.

Effective planning
An instructional leader's ability to research and provide necessary resources improves learning
and allows teachers to be more effective at their jobs. For example, a principal may adopt new technology
for teaching tools and for overseeing staff initiatives, and this process requires planning. Instructional
leaders must be able to maintain a balance between procedure and adaptability to support creativity and
innovative teaching in their schools.

Trustworthiness
A positive and fair leader easily earns the trust of their staff, allowing the staff to look to the
leader in good times as well as challenging times. A good instructional leader can remain calm and fair
during a discussion where people present opposing ideas, weighing the merits and drawbacks of each
while gathering feedback from other members of staff who would be affected by any changes in plans.
An instructional leader's balanced judgment leads their teachers to trust and respect them, and this trust
helps build a united educational community.
Competence
Teachers rely on instructional leaders for information associated with instructional methods,
current trends in education and other pertinent news related to effective teaching. Additionally, principals
are expected to be a visible representation of positivity and transparency in the institution, leading by
example and focusing on important learning objectives to promote innovations in teaching.

Team building and collaboration

As the role ultimately responsible for the success of a school, an instructional leader must be
adept at uniting the staff and students to further the creation of new ideas and teaching methods. They
must be able to create a dependable team that works together to create a more effective and positive
learning environment.

Optimism
Staff and students often adopt the disposition of their leader, so an instructional leader must
maintain a positive attitude regardless of their current situation. The more upbeat and excited a leader is,
the more this attitude spreads to teachers and students, creating an overall environment of positivity. This
is also true when providing encouragement, rewarding a good job and focusing on the success and
happiness of teachers, students and the institution as a whole.

Interaction with parents

Instructional leaders recognize the importance of a parent's role in the success of their child and
the cumulative effect on the success of the school. Principals can identify family members as a critical
resource for important events such as fundraisers and extracurricular activities. To get parents excited
about participating in these events, principals sometimes choose to host workshops or meetings so that
parents can become familiar with each other as well as with teachers and school policies. It also provides
them with opportunities to offer their input and ideas to improve the learning environment for their
children.

1. School-based Management (SBM)

What is school-based management? School based management is a decentralized management
initiative by developing power or authority to school heads, teachers, parents and students. (SBM) is a
strategy to improve education by transferring significant decision-making authority from the DepEd
Central Office, regional offices, division offices to individual schools. SBM provides principals, teachers,
students, and parents greater control over the education process by giving them responsibility for
decisions about the budget, personnel, and the curriculum. Through the involvement of teachers, parents,
and other community members in these key decisions, SBM can create more effective learning
environments for children.
SBM and the Principle of Subsidiarity SBM is in keeping with the principle of subsidiarity which
States that it is the people at the lowest level who will know best their problems and so are in the best
position to address the same. This tenet holds that “nothing should be done by a larger and more complex
organization which can be done as well by a smaller and simpler organization.

In other words, any activity which can be performed by a more decentralized entity should be done
by that more decentralized entity. Those in the higher echelon are far removed from the scene and are
therefore not as involved and as informed as those from those below.

Advantages of SBM

The following are strengths of SBM:

 Allow competent individuals in the schools to make decisions that will improve learning;
 Give the entire school community a voice in key decisions;
 Focus accountability for decisions;
 Lead to greater creativity in the design of programs;
 Redirect resources to support the goals developed in each school;
 Lead to realistic budgeting as parents and teachers become more aware of the school’s financial
status, spending limitations, and the cost of its programs; and,
 Improve morale of teachers and nurture new leadership at all levels.

Through SBM, decision making authority is devolved to school heads, teachers, parents and
students. This is school empowerment. This reduces bureaucratic controls on schools and encourage
school heads, teachers and parents to use greater initiative in meeting the needs of students and
community. This results in a sense of community school ownership which makes the school realize its
vision, and mission.

Involving stakeholders - parents, teachers, students and other members of the community - is also
helpful in the mobilization of local resources to complement public resources. Concrete proof of this is
the number of classrooms built as a result of the strong partnership between schools and communities and
successful school community programs.
 Through SBM, problems and needs at the school level get solved faster and specific personalities
and cultures are taken into consideration. These personalities and cultures are usually ignored in multi-
layered in hierarchical organization like DepEd. In a hierarchical organization, straight jacket rules,
procedures and allocation norms are given and apply to all. It takes time to solve problems if schools have
to wait for answers from above. As a result, teachers, parents and students are frustrated due to delays.

In SBM, schools take the responsibility to plan and implement their School Improvement Plans
(SIP). The table that you scrutinized in the Activity phase of the lesson is a of a part of a School
Improvement Plan). It is the schools themselves, not DepEd higher offices that know best their problems
and the solutions to these problems. It is the schools that determine the number and kind of teachers they
need, the kind of learning materials and resources they need. Since schools are given more power to direct
themselves, they made accountable for results. SBM makes schools accountable to the stakeholders.

Legal Basis of SBM

The Philippine Constitution provides that Congress shall enact a local government code that will
institutionalize. a system of decentralization (Article 10, Sec. 3) whereby local government units shall be
extended more power, authority. The Local Government Code in 1991 is a fulfillment of this
Constitutional provision.
This means that long before the Department of Education (DepEd) legally introduced
decentralization in schools through School-Based * Management (SBM) in 2001 through the enactment
of RA 9155, local government units were already empowered for local governance. RA 9155, Basic
Governance Act transfers the power and authority as well as the resources to the school level. School
empowerment is based on the assumption that the school heads including teachers, key leaders in the
community, parents know best the root and solution to the problem.

Conditions for the Success of SBM

 Teachers, school heads must be given the opportunity to make choices. They must actively
participate in school improvement planning.
 The involvement of parents and teachers must be strongly encouraged and highly welcomed.
 Stakeholders must participate in the development of a School Improvement Plan. They must have a
say on resource allocation to meet specific needs.
 Higher authorities must actively encourage thoughtful experimentation and innovation in an
atmosphere where mistakes are viewed as learning experiences. They must be willing to share their
authority with the academic and the larger community.
 Teachers must develop reflection, problem solving.

School Improvement Plan (SIP)

What is a school improvement plan?

A school improvement plan is a road map that sets out the changes a school needs to make to
improve the level of student achievement and shows how and when these changes will be made. School
improvement plans are selective: they help principals, teachers, and school councils answer the questions
“What will we focus on now?” and “What will we leave until later?” They encourage staff and parents to
monitor student achievement levels and other factors, such as the school environment, that are known to
influence student success. With up-to-date and reliable information about how well students are
performing, schools are better able to respond to the needs of students, teachers, and parents. A school
improvement plan is also a mechanism through which the public can hold schools accountable for student
success and through which it can measure improvement. One of the first steps—a crucial one—in
developing an improvement plan involves teachers, school councils, parents, and other community
members working together to gather and analyze information about the school and its students, so that
they can determine what needs to be improved in their school. As the plan is implemented, schools
continue to gather this kind of data. By comparing the new data to the initial information on which the
plan was based, they— and the public—can measure the success of their improvement strategies.
Pursuant to Republic Act No. 9155 known as Governance of Basic Education Act of 2001, this
policy aims to strengthen School-Based Management (SBM) by further devolving the governance of
education to schools, empowering school teams and personnel, expanding community participation and
involvement, and making the delivery of education services to the learners more responsive, efficient, and
effective through an enhanced school planning and communication process.
The School Improvement Plan (SIP) is a roadmap that lays down specific interventions that a
school, with the help of the community and other stakeholders, will undertake within a period of three
consecutive school years. The implementation of development activities integral to it are in the school
such as projects under the Continuous Improvement Program (CIP), the creation and mobilization of
Learning Action Cells (LACs), and the preparation of the School Report Card (SRC). SIP seeks to
provide those involved in school planning an evidence-based, systematic approach with the point of view
of the learner as the starting point. Ultimately, it is envisioned to help schools reach the goal of providing
access to quality education.
The SRC is a tool for advocating and communicating the school situation, context, and
performance to internal and external stakeholders. Its objective is to increase the participation and
involvement of the community and other stakeholders in making the school a better place for learning.

The School Improvement Plan (SIP) Guidebook is provided which details the procedure in
preparing the enhanced SIP and SRC. The enclosed guidelines and the Guidebook shall serve as the
official reference in the preparation and implementation of the SIP and SRC. Concerned offices, local
government units (LGUs), and development partners are urged to conform to these guidelines as they
implement projects and activities related to school planning in DepEd schools.

Working with School Stakeholders: Brigada Eskwela

The Brigada Eskwela is the National Schools Maintenance Week that aims to bring together all
education stakeholders to participate and contribute their time, effort, and resources to prepare public
school facilities for the opening of the school year in June.

The Brigada Eskwela Program is one of the most important programs in DepEd. In the spirit of
bayanihan, private institutions/individuals, government agencies, local government units, and other
organizations contribute to DepEd campaign to ensure accessible and quality basic education. The
components of the program are the following:
 Brigada Eskwela (National Schools Maintenance Week),
 Brigada Eskwela Plus (Partnership Support for Access), and
 Brigada Pagbasa (Partnership Support for Quality Education).

All regional directors (RDs) and schools division superintendents (SDSs) shall mobilize their
partnerships focal persons to ensure the effective implementation of Brigada Eskwela Program in all
public elementary and secondary schools and the involvement of the community and local stakeholders.
School heads (SHs) shall take the lead in planning the activities geared towards making schools
ecologically conscious, resilient, clean, safe, and conducive to learning. No Brigada Eskwela fee shall be
collected from parents or solicited from other volunteers.

Individuals or groups from the national government agencies (NGAs), local government units
(LGUs), private sectors, international organizations, and other parties interested to help the schools and
volunteers may coordinate with any of the following:

a. External Partnerships Service (EPS) of the DepEd Central Office,

b. Education Support Services Division (ESSD) in the ROs,
c. Social Mobilization and Networking Section (SocMob) under the Schools Governance and Operations
Division (SGOD) in the SDOs, and
d. SHs of the beneficiary school/s, for guidance.

All DepEd employees are encouraged to join the Brigada Eskwela activities by offering their skills,
sharing their time or providing their in-kind assistance and support to public schools near their residence.
Interested employees are given two days to do volunteer work on official time, provided that such work is
approved by their heads of offices. Further, nonteaching personnel shall earn Compensatory Time Off
(CTO) for the complete eight hours of participation in the maintenance effort on the last day of Brigada
Eskwela Week, which is a Saturday.

Teaching personnel is entitled to earn vacation service credits arising from their active involvement
in the Brigada Eskwela activity. Teachers shall earn a one-day service credit for the accumulated eight
hours of participation in the maintenance effort.

G. Roles and Competencies of School Heads

As stipulated in Chapter 1, Section 5, E of RA 9155 the school head is an administrative and an

instructional leader. Because the main function of school is students’ learning, the school head must
spend more time as an instructional leader. As an instructional leader, he/she supervises instruction by
observing teachers while they teach, conducting post-observation conferences with individual teachers,
mentoring and coaching them, ensuring that teachers have the needed resources for teaching. While
physical improvement and fund sourcing — the concerns of administrative leadership - help improve
schools, the more important concern is improvement of instruction as this has a direct bearing on
learning. More often than not, however, school heads spend more time soliciting funds for 4 flagpoles, a
stage, a classroom, path-walk, waiting shed, etc. leaving no time left for instructional supervision.

Competencies for School Heads: The NCBSSH

In the list of competencies expected of school heads, there are competencies for both instructional
leadership and administrative leadership. Let's take a look at the competencies expected of school heads
as contained in the National Competency-Based Standards for School Heads (NCBSSH) issued in DepEd
Order 32, s. 2010 on April 16, 2010.

CORE PRINCIPLE
School heads are competent, committed and accountable in providing access to quality and relevant
education for all through transformational leadership and high degree of professionalism.

DOMAINS AND COMPETENCY STRANDS

Domains and Competencies for School Heads in Southeast Asia

Instructional Leadership
Like the NCBSSH for Philippines, the competency framework for Southeast Asian school heads
also includes domains for instructional leadership and administrative leadership. The domain On
Instructional Leadership encompasses 4 competencies:
1) leading Curriculum implementation and improvement;
2) creating a learner centered environment:
3) supervising and evaluating teachers Performance; and
4) delivering planned learning outcomes

Administrative Leadership This includes strategic thinking and innovation (Domain}), stakeholders’
engagement (Domain 4) and managerial leadership (Domain 5). For the enabling competencies for each
domain, refer to the Table above. Personal excellence, another Domain (Domain 3), relates to both
instructional and administrative leadership. Whatever personal improvement school heads have on their
personal effectiveness by pursuing continuous professional development redounds to improved
administrative and instructional leadership.

School Head and the Community

Like a refrain in a song, the idea that the school and community are partners in the education of the
child has been said repeatedly in this book. Rightly so, to be faithful to the descriptive title of this course,
The Teacher and the Community, School Culture and Organizational Leadership. In the NCBSSH,
several strands and indicators point to this school and community partnership. The strands are as follows:
involves internal and external stakeholders in formulating and achieving school vision, mission, goals and
objectives (Domain 1 A)

 Explains the school vision to the general public (Domain 1A)

 Aligns the School Improvement Plan/Annual Improvement Plan with national, regional and local
education policies and thrusts (Domain 1B)
 Communicates effectively SIP/AIP to internal and external stakeholders (Domain 1B)
 Involves stakeholders in meetings and deliberations for decision - making (Domain 1D)

 Provides feedback and updates to stakeholders on the status of progress and completion of programs
and projects.
 Creates and manages a school process to ensure student Progress is conveyed to students and
parents/guardians, regularly (Domain 2 C)
 Recognizes high performing learners and teachers and supportive parents and other stakeholders
(Domain 3 A)
 Prepares financial reports and submits/communicates the same to higher education authorities and
other education partners (Domain 6)
 Maintains harmonious and pleasant personal and official relations with superiors, colleagues,
subordinates, learners, parents and other stakeholders (Domain 7 A)
 Listens to stakeholders' needs and concerns and responds appropriately in consideration of the
political, social, legal and cultural context

In the Southeast Asian Competency Framework, the following competencies strengthen school and
community partnership.
1) promoting shared responsibility for school improvement;
2) managing education alliances and networks and
3) sustaining collaborative relationships with stakeholders.

H. Creating a Positive School Culture

The Meaning of School Culture

School culture is one of the most complex and important concepts in education (Schein, 1985). It
generally refers to the beliefs, perceptions, relationships, attitudes and written and unwritten rules that
shape and influence every aspect of how a school functions. However, the term also encompasses more
concrete issues such as the physical and emotional safety of students, the orderliness of classrooms and
public spaces or degree to which a school embraces racial, ethnic, linguistic and cultural diversity.
According to Spacey school culture consists of the norms and shared experiences that evolve over
school’s history. In fact, Scott and Marzano (2014) state that “school culture is reinforced by norms,
expectations and traditions, including everything from dress codes to discipline systems to celebrations of
achievement. Therefore, it may be described as the character of a school that gives a school qualities
beyond its structures, resources and practices. They are “built through the everyday business of school
life. It is the way business is handled that both forms ‘and reflects the culture.” (Sophier, J. 1985)
Culture as a Social Construct Culture is a social construct not a genetic construct. This means that
school culture is, therefore, something that we do not inherit or pass on through the genes. Rather, it is
something that we create and shape. It is shaped by everything that all people in school see, hear, feel and
interact with. It is a creation of the school head, teachers, parents, non-teaching staff students and
community. Sea? Slade (2014) elaborates: Within a couple of minutes of walking into a school or a
classroom, you can tell, define almost taste the culture that permeates that space. Is it an open, sharing
environment? Or is it a rigid, discipline - defined playing field? It is safe and welcoming, or intimidating
and confronting? Does it welcome all voices, or does it make you want to shrink? Is it waiting for
instruction and leadership or is it self-directed with a common purpose?

School Climate and School Culture

How does school climate differ from culture? These terms are frequently used interchangeably
but school climate is more relational; it is illustrated by the attitudes and behaviors of the school staff and
is focused on the style of the school's organizational system. School climate refers to the school's effects
on students, including teaching practices, diversity and the relationships among administrators, teachers,
parents and students. School climate is driven by and reflected in daily interactions of staff,
administration, faculty, students support staff and the outside community.
School culture is a deeper level of reflection of shared values, beliefs, and traditions between staff
members. School culture refers to the way teachers and other staff members work together and the set of
beliefs, values and assumptions they share. School culture is a broader term and so is inclusive of school
climate.

The Role of School Culture in Learning

School culture matters. Research confirms the central role of culture to school success. School
culture can be positive or negative or toxic. A positive school culture fosters improvement, collaborative
decision making, professional development and staff and student learning. A negative culture fosters the
opposite.

Elements of a Positive Culture

Positive School Climate is characterized by the following:

 Collegiality - The school atmosphere is friendly. You work in an atmosphere where responsibility
and authority are shared by everyone. You can be yourself. You have not to put your best forward to
impress others. The school head does not throw his/her weight. He/she does not make his/her
authority felt by his/her colleagues.

 Experimentation — The atmosphere encourages experimentation and so will welcome mistakes as

part of the learning process. No student, no teacher gets punished for a mistake. Mistakes are not
intended. They give a lot of lesson. Referring to his 10,000 failed attempts then he was experimenting
in the light. bulb, Edison said: "I have not failed. I've just found 10,000 ways that won't work.’

 High expectations - It has been said one’s level of achievement is always lower than one’s level that
aspiration. So set high expectations for high achievement. Two problems arise here, Robert J.
Marzano warns us:

*First, expectations are subtle and difficult to change. Teachers may be unaware that they have low
expectations for some students; even when they become aware, they may have - difficulty changing
their expectations because their beliefs and biases have developed over the years.
*Second, what actually communicates expectations to students is teacher behavior. If teachers
consciously work to change their biases but don’t change their behavior toward those students from
whom they have tended to expect less, their change of attitude will have little effect on student
achievement.

 Trust and confidence - Students, teachers, school heads and parents relate well and work well when
relationships are solidly built on trust and confidence. In fact, honest and open communication (# 12
in this list) is possible only when there is trust and confidence in each other in the school community.
I can share my inner thoughts only when I am confident that I do not get ostracized when I do.
 Tangible support - Everyone in the school community gets concrete support for the good that they
do. Support comes in not just in words but in action. School head sees to it that LCDs in the
classrooms are functioning.

 Reaching out to the knowledge base - Teachers care to grow professionally to update themselves on
content knowledge and pedagogy, the first domain in the Philippine Professional Standards for
Teachers.

 Appreciation and recognition - Certainly words of appreciation and recognition make classroom
climate highly favorable. A reminder to teachers: “You are not made less when you praise others.
Instead, you become magnanimous. So do not be stingy with your sincere praise. The problem
sometimes is our eyes are so quick to see the negative and so we despise them immediately but our
eyes are blinded to the good and so we overlook them and fail to appreciate.

 Caring, celebration, humor - Kids don’t care what you know until they know that you care. They
don't listen to teacher when teacher doesn’t care. It may be good to remind teachers that many of
students, especially those who struggle, don’t receive nearly enough positive feedback in the
classroom or in their personal lives.

*“When kids are taught with a proactive, praise-heavy approach, they tend to do better,” says Erin
Green of Boys Town. But be specific. Generic, overly generalized comments such as “Good job!”
don’t really help. Complimenting a specific behavior (“Thanks for showing respect to our visiting
guest’), on the other hand, reinforces that particular behavior.

 Involvement in decision making - Involving others who are concerned with decisions to be made
enhances sense of ownership. They also feel important.

 Protection of what is important -What schools consider important must form part of their tradition
and so must be protected by all means. In the Activity above, mention was made on School Canteen
Policies that include “no soft drinks, no chocolate etc.” and CLAYGO because the school considers
nutrition and health and cleanliness as important.

 Traditions - A school must have an intentional culture-based program on shared values, beliefs, and
behaviors. This strengthens sense of community. A truly positive school culture is not characterized
simply by the absence of gangs, violence or discipline. problems but also by the presence of a set of
norms and values that focus school community’s attention on what is most important and motivate
them to work hard toward a common purpose.

 Honest and open communication - No one gets ostracized for Speaking up his mind. The
atmosphere is such that everyone is encouraged to speak his mind without fear of being ostracized.
The agreement at every discussion is “agree to disagree.

Shared Norms: Teacher and Student Norms

Shared norms for both teachers and students contribute to a positive school culture. Boss and Larmer
(2018) share teacher norm to student norms to contribute to a fair and an engaging learning environment,
a characteristic of a positive school culture. They check on the following norms each week.

I. School Policies and their Functions

Importance of Policies

Schools in partnership with their community have their own picture of what they want to be
(vision statement) and so must offer services and must do what they are supposed to do (mission
statement) in order to realize what they envisioned themselves to be. For these to happen, policies must be
in place. Observance of these policies ensure, everyone in the school community to toe the line. If
conditions an ideal like when all members of the school community are perfect-school heads, teachers,
students, parents, non-teaching personnel and other members of the outside community there may be no
need for a policy. The truth is conditions in the school community and in this world are far from ideal and
persons that make the school community are far from perfect and so the need for policies.

One may wonder as to why the Department of Education has issued very stringent policies and
guidelines for PTAs in matters of collecting contributions. Even engaging in any partisan political activity
within school premises is written as one prohibited activity. There must a history to that. Perhaps
malversation of funds and other forms of abuse happened in the past. Schools’ policy on the grading
system is important for everyone concerned to know how grades are computed. Both students and parents
know how grades are derived objectively. Percentage weights for each component are clear. Teachers are
guided in their assessment practices. The grading policy ensures objective assessment practice. Without
the grading " policy, grading may become highly subjective. Similarly, if there are no policies on
students’ tardiness and absenteeism, students may just come in late or absent. The policies on students’
tardiness and absenteeism certainly will curb tardiness and absenteeism to ensure learning.

Effective Policy Formulation and Implementation in a School community Partnership.

The policies on grading, student tardiness an absenteeism came from above, DepEd Central
office. At times there is need for policies from above. But policies do not need to come from above all the
time.

There are times when a school formulates a policy to address a local problem. In fact, this is how
it should be in a school-community partnership. Ideally, a policy must not be formulated by the school
head by himself/herself. The school head must lead in the policy formulation process. The word “lead”
implies that an effective policy formulation process must be participatory. This means that it is best that
the rest of the school and community be involved. Two good heads are better than one. Besides
participation of school and community develops a sense of ownership of such formulated policy which
ensures a more effective implementation. This is school empowerment in action. Aside from involving
the school and community in policy formulation, a school head must ensure wide dissemination and
correct and clear understanding of the policy.

SUMMARY

Effective teacher leaders share a set of dispositions and attitudes. They are energetic risk takers
whose integrity, high efficacy, and content knowledge give them credibility with their colleagues. Their
desire to work with adults is grounded in their belief that systems-level change will positively impact
student learning, and that their contributions to the profession are important and needed. The natural
curiosity of teacher leaders makes them life-long learners who are open to new experiences and
challenges. Juggling many important professional and personal roles, they effectively prioritize their work
to maintain a sense of balance. Teacher leaders often seek like-minded colleagues with similar positive
intentions as allies, however they also value different ideas and approaches that move the work forward.
Difficult challenges require teacher leaders to tap into their deep sense of courage, and their unwavering
perseverance helps them to follow through. When best-laid plans have unexpected outcomes, teacher
leaders are open to constructive criticism. They reflect on their experience, learn from it, and then with
resilience move forward to the next challenge.

Good luck on your exam! You can do it!