RESPIRATION

Respiration :

All living organisms, including plants, receive their energy required for their survival from
a chain of chemical reactions called respiration.

The term respiration was coined by Pepys (1966).

What is Respiration?

Respiration is a biochemical process, which is defined as the movement of air between the
external environment and the cell, tissues of a living species.

In this process, oxygen gas is inhaled in and carbon dioxide gas is exhaled out. It is
referred to as a metabolic process, as an organism obtains energy by oxidizing nutrients and
releasing waste products.

Do Plants Breathe?
Yes, like animals and humans, plants also breathe.
Plants do require oxygen for respiration which in return give out carbon dioxide.
 Unlike animals and humans, plants do not have any specialized structures for gaseous
exchange but they have stomata (present in leaves) and lenticels (present in stems) which are
involved in the exchange of gases.
Compared to animals and humans, plant roots, stems, and leaves respire at a very lower
rate.It is important to note here that respiration is not equal to breathing.
Breathing is just a part of respiration that takes place in both humans and animals.
Plants respire throughout its lifespan as the plant cell require energy for their survival, but
plants do not breathe as humans and animals do.
They breathe through the process called Cellular respiration.

In this process of cellular respiration, plants produce glucose molecules through

photosynthesis process by capturing the solar energy and converting it into glucose. There are
many live experiments to prove that plants do breath.
All plants do respire to provide energy for their cells to stay active or alive.

Process of Respiration in Plants

During respiration, very little amount of gas exchanges takes place within the different
parts of the plants. Therefore, each part takes care of its own energy requirements.
 Roots, stems, and leaves of plants exchange gases for respiration separately. As we all
know, leaves have tiny pores called stomata, which is used for the exchange of gases.
The oxygen, taken in through stomata is used by cells in the leaves to break down glucose
into carbon dioxide and water.

Respiration In Roots
Roots, the underground part of the plants absorb air from the air spaces present between
the soil particles.
Thus, the oxygen absorbed through roots are used to release energy which is later utilized
for the transportation of minerals and salts from the soil.

Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants prepare their own food. It takes place only in
the parts of plants that contain chlorophyll, i.e. only in the green parts of the plants.
The process of photosynthesis is so prominent that it sometimes masks the process of
respiration in plants.
However, we must know that respiration in plants occurs throughout the day while
photosynthesis process takes place only in the presence of light. Therefore, at night the
respiration in plants becomes prominent.
That is why we often hear that people are asked not to sleep under a tree at night. This may
cause suffocation due to the excessive presence of carbon dioxide released by trees as a result of
respiration.
Respiration In Stems
In the case of the stem, the air gets diffused in the stomata and passes through various
parts of the cell for respiration.
The carbon dioxide produced during this stage also diffuses through the stomata.
In higher plants or woody plants, the gaseous exchange is carried out by lenticels.

Respiration In Leaves
Leaves comprise of tiny pores referred to as stomata. The exchange of gases takes place
via stomata through the process of diffusion. Each stoma is controlled by Guard Cells.
The opening and closing of the stoma help in the exchange of gases between the
atmosphere and the interior of Leaves.

Differences between Respiration and Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis Respiration

This process is common to all green plants This process is common to all living things
containing chlorophyll pigments. including plants, animals, birds, etc.

It synthesizes foods. It oxidizes foods.

It stores energy. It releases energy.

Photosynthesis is an anabolic process. Respiration is a catabolic process.

It requires cytochrome. It also requires cytochrome.

It is Endothermal process. It is Exothermal process.

It is comprised of products like sugar, It is comprised of products like hydrogen and

oxygen, and water as products. carbon-dioxide.

During Photosynthesis, radiant energy is During Respiration, potential energy is

converted into potential energy. converted into kinetic energy.

It takes place continuously throughout the life

It takes place only in the presence of sunlight.
process from birth to death.

Types of Respiration
There are two main types of respiration.
Aerobic Respiration
Respiration occurring in the presence of oxygen is called aerobic respiration.
During aerobic respiration, food materials like carbohydrates, fats and proteins are
completely oxidised into CO2, H2O and energy is released.
Aerobic respiration is a very complex process and is completed in four major steps:
1. Glycolysis
2. Pyruvate oxidation (Link reaction)
3. Krebs cycle (TCA cycle)
4. Electron Transport Chain

Stages of Aerobic respiration :

a.Glycolysis (Glucose splitting):
It is the breakdown of one molecule of glucose (6 carbon) into two molecules of
pyruvic acid (3 carbon). Glycolysis takes place in cytoplasm of the cell. It is the first step of both
aerobic and anerobic respiration.

b.Pyruvate Oxidation :
Link reaction-conversion of pyruvic acid into acetyl coenzyme-A in mitochondrial matrix.

c. Krebs Cycle:
Krebs cycle-conversion of acetyl coenzyme A into carbon dioxide and water in the
mitochondrial matrix.

d. Electron Transport Chain:

Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation remove hydrogen atoms from the
products of glycolysis, link reaction and Krebs cycle release water molecule with energy in the
form of ATP in mitochondrial inner membrane called cristae.

Anaerobic Respiration
This type of respiration occurs within the cytoplasm of prokaryotic organisms like bacteria
and yeast.
In this process, less energy is released due to the incomplete oxidation of food in the
absence of oxygen. Carbon dioxide and Ethyl alcohol are produced during anaerobic respiration.
The overall process of respiration corresponds to a reversal of photosynthesis.
 Anaerobic decomposition of Protein is called Putrefaction.
It includes two steps:
1. Glycolysis
2. Fermentation

Glycolysis
Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell and is present in all living organisms.

 Glucose undergoes partial oxidation in glycolysis; to form two molecules of pyruvic acid.
 Two molecules of pyruvic acid are formed after partial oxidation of one molecule of
glucose during this process.
 First of all, glucose and fructose undergo phosphorylation to produce glucose-6-phosphate.
 The enzyme hexokinase facilitates this process.
 Two molecules of ATP are utilised during phosphorylation of one molecule of glucose.
 Two molecules of fructose-6-phosphate are formed at the end of this step.
 Fructose-6-phosphate is then converted into PGAL (Phosphoglyceraldehyde).
 Each molecule of PGAL then undergoes various steps to finally produce Pyruvic Acid.
 Four molecules of ATP are produced during this conversion.
  Since two molecules of ATP were utilised during phosphorylation of glucose, hence net
production of ATP at the end of glycolysis is two for each molecule of glucose.

Fermentation
In fermentation, say by yeast, the incomplete oxidation of glucose is achieved under
anaerobic conditions by sets of reactions where pyruvic acid is converted to CO2 and ethanol.
The enzymes, pyruvic acid e carboxylase and alcohol de hydrogenase catalyse these
reactions. Other organisms like some bacteria produce lactic acid from pyruvic acid.

Respiratory Quotient (RQ)

The ratio of volume of carbon dioxide given out and volume of oxygen taken in during
respiration is called Respiratory Quotient or Respiratory ratio. RQ value depends upon
respiratory substrates and their oxidation.

RQ = Volume of CO2 liberated

Volume of O2 consumed

Difference between Aerobic respiration and Anaerobic respiration :

S.No. Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

It occurs in all living cells of higher
1. It occurs yeast and some bacteria.
organisms.
It requires oxygen for breaking the Oxygen is not required for breaking the
2.
respiratory substrate. respiratory substrate.
The end products are alcohol and CO2 (or)
3. The end products are CO2 and H2O.
lactic acid. .
Oxidation of one molecule of glucose
4. Only 2 ATP molecules are produced.
produces 36 ATP molecules.
It consists of four stages-glycolysis,
It consists of two stages-glycolysis and
5. link reaction, TCA cycle and electron
Fermentation.
transport chain.
6. It occurs in cytoplasm and mitochondria. It occurs only in cytoplasm.
Photosynthesis :

Photosynthesis (Photo = light; synthesis = to build) is a process by which autotrophic

organisms like green plants, algae and chlorophyll containing bacteria utilize the energy from
sunlight to synthesize their own food.

In this process, carbon dioxide combines with water in the presence of sunlight and
chlorophyll to form carbohydrates.

During this process oxygen is released as a byproduct.

Photosynthesis occurs in green parts of the plant such as leaves, stems and floral buds.
The overall chemical equation for photosynthesis is:
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

Light reaction takes place in grana of chloroplast.

Dark reaction takes place in stroma of chloroplast.
Respiration involves both external and cellular respiration.
Role of Sunlight in Photosynthesis

The entire process of photosynthesis takes place inside the chloroplast. The structure of
chloroplast is such that the light dependent (Light reaction) and light independent (Dark
reaction) take place at different sites in the organelle

1. Light dependent photosynthesis (Hill reaction \ Light reaction)

This was discovered by Robin Hill (1939). This reaction takes place in the presence of
light energy in thylakoid membranes (grana) of the chloroplasts.

Photosynthetic pigments absorb the light energy and convert it into chemical energy ATP
and NADPH2. These products of light reaction move out from the thylakoid to the stroma of the
chloroplast.

2. Dark reaction (Biosynthetic phase):

Fixation and reduction of CO2 into carbohydrates with the help of assimilatory power
produced during light reaction. This reaction does not require light and is not directly light driven.
Hence, it is called as Dark reaction or Calvin-Benson cycle.

Factors affecting photosynthesis are further grouped into External or Environmental

factors and Internal factors.

I. External factors: Light, carbon dioxide, temperature, water, mineral and pollutants.
II. Internal factors: Pigments, protoplasmic factor, accumulation of carbohydrates, anatomy of
leaf and hormones.

Photosynthetic Pigments

Pigments involved in photosynthesis are called Photosynthetic pigments.

Photosynthetic pigments are of two classes namely, the primary pigments and accessory
pigments.
Chlorophyll a is the primary pigment that traps solar energy and converts it into electrical
and chemical energy. Thus it is called the reaction centre.
Other pigments such as chlorophyll b and carotenoids are called accessory pigments as they
pass on the absorbed energy to chlorophyll a (Chl.a) molecule. Reaction centres (Chl. a) and the
accessory pigments (harvesting centre) together are called photosystems.
Photoperiodism
Photoperiodism is the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night. It
occurs in plants and animals.
Photoperiodism can also be defined as the developmental responses of plants to the
relative lengths of light and dark periods.
They are classified under three groups according to the photoperiods: short-day plants,
long-day plants, and day-neutral plants.

Long-day plants
Long-day plants flower when the night length falls below their critical photoperiod.
These plants typically flower in the northern hemisphere during late spring or early
summer as days are getting longer.
In the northern hemisphere, the longest day of the year (summer solstice) is on or about 21
June.
After that date, days grow shorter (i.e. nights grow longer) until 21 December (the winter
solstice). This situation is reversed in the southern hemisphere (i.e., longest day is 21 December
and shortest day is 21 June).

Some long-day obligate plants are:

 Carnation (Dianthus)
 Henbane (Hyoscyamus)
 Oat (Avena)

Some long-day facultative plants are:

 Pea (Pisum sativum)
 Barley (Hordeum vulgare)
 Lettuce (Lactuca sativa)
 Wheat (Triticum aestivum)

Short-day plants
Short-day plants flower when the night lengths exceed their critical photoperiod.
They cannot flower under short nights or if a pulse of artificial light is shone on the plant
for several minutes during the night; they require a continuous period of darkness before floral
development can begin.
 Natural nighttime light, such as moonlight or lightning, is not of sufficient brightness or
duration to interrupt flowering.
In general, short-day (i.e.long-night) plants flower as days grow shorter (and nights grow
longer) after 21 June in the northern hemisphere, which is during summer or fall.
The length of the dark period required to induce flowering differs among species and
varieties of a species.
They usually grow in temperate climates.
Photoperiodism affects flowering by inducing the shoot to produce floral buds instead of
leaves and lateral buds.
Some short-day facultative plants are:
 Kenaf ( Hibiscus cannabinus)
 Marijuana (Cannabis)
 Cotton (Gossypium)
 Rice (Oryza)
 Jowar (Sorghum bicolor)
 Green Gram (Mung bean, Vigna radiata)
 Soybeans (Glycine max)

Day-neutral plants
Day-neutral plants, such as cucumbers, roses, and tomatoes, do not initiate flowering
based on photoperiodism.
Instead, they may initiate flowering after attaining a certain overall developmental stage
or age, or in response to alternative environmental stimuli, such as vernalisation (a period of low
temperature).

POINTS TO REMEMBER :
 Bioluminescence is the production and emission of light by a living organism.
 Stephen Hales (1727) – Father of Plant Physiology.
 Lichens are indicators of SO2 pollution and a pioneer species in xeric succession.
 NUTRITION AND DIETETICS

NUTRITION
The mode of taking food by an organism and utilizing it by the body is called
nutrition.
Modes of Nutrition in Plants
There are two modes of nutrition in organisms. They are
1. Autotrophic nutrition
2. Heterotrophic nutrition.
1. Autotrophic Nutrition (Auto = self; trophos = nourishment)
Green plants are the only organisms which can synthesize food for themselves
and also for other organisms including us.
The mode of nutrition in which organisms make their own food is called
Autotrophic Nutrition and such organisms are called autotrophs. eg : Green plants,
Euglena.
2. Heterotrophic nutrition: (Hetero = other; trophos = nourishment)
Non-green plants and most animals (like us) take in readymade food from
plants and other animals.
The mode of nutrition in which organisms depend on others for their food is
called Heterotrophic Nutrition. eg : All animals, including human beings.

Other Modes of Nutrition in Plants

There are some non-green plants which cannot prepare the food. They take
readymade food prepared by other plants.
They follow heterotrophic nutrition. They may be saprophytes, parasites,
insectivorous plants etc.
Saprophytes
 Fungi grow on dead organic matter.
 They produce digestive enzymes on the dead matter and change it into simple
nutrients.
 They absorb the nutrients in dissolved form (solution) and utilize it.

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  Such a mode of nutrition is called saprotrophic nutrition and those plants are
called saprotrophs. eg: mushroom, bread mould.
Parasites
Cuscuta cannot synthesize food. As it lacks chlorophyll, it depends on the tree
on which it is climbing for food.
The plant which provides food is called host and the plants which
consumes it is called parasite.

Symbiotic Plants
There is yet another mode of nutrition in which two different types of
organisms live together and mutually help each other for nutrition.

Lichens
The symbiotic association between algae and fungi is called lichens.
The algal partner is called Phycobiont or Photobiont and the fungal partner is
called Mycobiont.
Algae provide nutrition for fungal partner in turn fungi provide protection and
also help to fix the thallus to the substratum through rhizinae.

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 Asexual reproduction takes place through fragmentation, Soredia and Isidia.
Phycobionts reproduce by akinetes, hormogonia, aplanospore etc., Mycobionts
undergo sexual reproduction and produce ascocarps.
The phenomenon by which two different organisms live together for mutual
help is called symbiosis. The organisms are called symbionts.

Chemosynthetic autotrophs
Organisms which use sunlight energy for synthesis of food materials are called
photosynthetic organisms or photoautotrophs.
Those organisms which use chemical energy for the synthesis of carbon
compounds are called chemosynthetic organisms.
Examples for chemosynthetic autotrophs are Nitrosomonas, Beggiatoa.
Nitrosomonas oxidizes ammonia into nitrite.The energy liberated during this
process is used for the synthesis of carbohydrates.
Beggiatoa oxidises H2S to sulphur and water. During this, energy is released
and used for its growth.
Sulphur is stored as granules inside cell.

Chemosynthetic heterotrophs
Examples for chemosynthetic heterotrophs are fungi, most bacteria, animals
and man.

Mineral Nutrition
Woodward (1699) Observes : Plants grow better in muddy water than rain
water.
Characteristics of a Mineral element:-
1. Normal growth and reproduction must be dependent on particular
mineral elements.
2. An essential element must have direct influence on plant.
3. Essential elements must be indispensable and their substitution by
other elements must be impossible.
4. Some elements are required in very low quantities and status of
essentiality (or) non-essentiality is doubtful (eg) silicon.

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Functions of Minerals
1. Calcium - found in middle lamella
2. Nitrogen and Sulphur - in Proteins
3. Phosphorous - in nucleic acids.
4. Minerals influence Osmotic pressure of plant cell. It absorbed from soil, affects pH
of cell sap.
5. Elements like Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn acts as catalyst.
6. Elements like Ca, Mg, Na, K - Neutralize the toxic effects of other elements.
7. Elements like As, Cu, Hg show toxic effects at plants.
8. Deposition of ions like K+ and Ca++ on cell membrane changes its permeability.

Food Chain
Food chain, in ecology, the sequence of transfers of matter and energy in the
form of food from organism to organism. Food chains intertwine locally into a food
web because most organisms consume more than one type of animal or plant.

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Food Web
A food web (or food cycle) is a natural interconnection of food chains and a
graphical representation of what-eats-what in an ecological community.

Hydroponics
 Growth of plants in water and sand culture.
 Also known as soil-less agriculture, test-tube farming, tank farming (or)
chemical gardening.

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Uses
 To know which mineral essential for growth and development of plant.
 Increase yield of ornamentals such as gladioli, snapdragon, roses and
vegetables such as carrot, radish, potatoes, tomatoes & lettuce.
Advantages
1. Provide desired nutrient environment.
2. Acid-base balance can be easily maintained.
3. Mulching, changing of soil and weeding are eliminated.
4. Proper aeration of nutrition solution is possible.
5. Labour for watering of plants can be avoided
6. Tilling is not necessary.

Aeroponics

The aeroponic system is the high-tech type of hydroponic gardening. The

growth medium in this type is primarily air. The roots hang in the air and are misted
with nutrient solution.The misting is usually done for every few minutes, as roots will
dry out rapidly if the misting cycles are interrupted.

A timer controls the nutrient pump much like other types of hydroponic
systems, except the aeroponic system needs a short cycle timer that runs the pump for
a few seconds every couple of minutes.
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Aquaponics
Aquaponics is a system of a combination of conventional aquaculture with
hydroponics in a symbiotic environment, in which plants are fed with the aquatic
animals’ excreta or wastes.
Aquaponics consists of two main parts, aquaculture- for raising aquatic animals
like fish and hydroponics-for raising plants.

Biotechnology
Biotechnology is the science of applied biological process. In other words it is
science of development and utilization of biological processes, forms and systems for
the benefit of mankind and other life forms.
The term biotechnology was coined by Karl Ereky, a Hungarian Engineer in
1919.
Biotechnology has been extended to include any process in which organisms,
tissues, cells, organelles or isolated molecules such as enzymes are used to convert
biological or other raw materials to products of greater value.

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Green manure
Green manure is obtained by collection and decomposition of green leaves,
twigs of trees, shrubs and herbs growing in wastelands, field bunds etc.
Green manure improves soil structure, increases water holding capacity and
decreases soil loss by erosion. It also helps in reclamation of alkaline soils and reduces
weed proliferation.
It is a manure obtained from undecomposed green material derived from
leguminous plants e.g. Sunhemp (Crotolaria juncea), Dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata),
Sesbania (Sesbania speciosa).

Nanotechnology in Agriculture
Currently nanotechnology provides different nano devices and nano material
that have a unique role in agriculture.
For example, Nano biosensors is used to detect moisture content and nutrient
status in the soil.
Nanotechnology can offer Nano-fertilizers for efficient nutrient management,
Nano-herbicides for selective weed control in crop field, Nano nutrient particles to
increase seed vigor, Nano-pesticides for efficient pest management.
Hence, nanotechnology have greater role in crop production with
environmental safety, ecological sustainability and economic stability.

Bioremediation
It is defined as the use of microorganisms or plants to clean up environmental
pollution. It is an approach used to treat wastes including wastewater, industrial waste
and solid waste.
Bioremediation process is applied to the removal of oil, petrochemical residues,
pesticides or heavy metals from soil or ground water.

Biofertilizers

Biofertilizers are substances that contain living microorganisms which, when

applied to seeds, plant surfaces, or soil, colonize the rhizosphere or the interior of the

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plant and promote growth by increasing the supply or availability of primary nutrients
to the host plant.

Biopharming also known as molecular pharming is the production and use of

transgenic plants genetically engineered to produce pharmaceutical substances for use
of human beings. This is also called “molecular farming or pharming”.

These plants are different from medicinal plants which are naturally available.

Bioprospecting
Bioprospecting is the process of discovery and commercialization of new
products obtained from biological resources.
Bioprospecting may involve biopiracy, in which indigenous knowledge of
nature, originating with indigenous people, is used by others for profit, without
authorization or compensation to the indigenous people themselves.

Biopiracy
Biopiracy can be defined as the manipulation of intellectual property rights
laws by corporations to gain exclusive control over national genetic resources, without
giving adequate recognition or remuneration to the original possessors of those
resources.
Examples of biopiracy include recent patents granted by the U.S. Patent and
Trademarks Office to American companies on turmeric, ‘neem’ and, most notably,
‘basmati’ rice. All three products are indigenous to the Indo-Pak subcontinent.

Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP)

The green fluorescent protein (GFP) is a protein containing 238 amino acid
residues of 26.9 kDa that exhibits bright green fluorescence when exposed to blue to
ultraviolet range (395 nm).
GFP refers to the protein first isolated from the jellyfish Aequorea victoria.
GFP is an excellent tool in biology due to its ability to form internal
chromophore without requiring any accessory cofactors, gene products, enzymes or
substrates other than molecular oxygen.
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Cryopreservation
Cryopreservation, also known as Cryo-conservation, is a process by which
protoplasts, cells, tissues, organelles, organs, extracellular matrix, enzymes or any
other biological materials are subjected to preservation by cooling to very low
temperature of –196°C using liquid nitrogen.
At this extreme low temperature any enzymatic or chemical activity of the
biological material will be totally stopped and this leads to preservation of material in
dormant status.
Later these materials can be activated by bringing to room temperature slowly
for any experimental work.

Applications of Biotechnology
• This science has an invaluable outcome like transgenic varieties of plants
e.g. transgenic cotton (Bt-cotton), rice, tomato, tobacco, cauliflower, potato and
banana.
• The development of transgenics as pesticide resistant, stress resistant and
disease resistant varieties of agricultural crops is the immense outcome of
biotechnology.
• The synthesis of human insulin and blood protein in E.coli and utilized for
insulin deficiency disorder in human is a breakthrough in biotech industries in
medicine.
• The synthesis of vaccines, enzymes, antibiotics, dairy products and beverages
are the products of biotech industries.
• Biochip based biological computer is one of the successes of biotechnology.
• Genetic engineering involves genetic manipulation, tissue culture involves
aseptic cultivation of totipotent plant cell into plant clones under controlled
atmospheric conditions.
• Single cell protein from Spirulina is utilized in food industries.
• Production of secondary metabolites, biofertilizers, biopesticides and
enzymes.

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 • Biomass energy, biofuel, Bioremediation, phytoremediation for
environmental biotechnology.

Metabolites Examples
Primary
Enzymes Protease, lipase, peroxidase
Amino acid Proline, leucine

Organic acid Acetic acid, lactic acid

Vitamins A, B, C

Secondary
Pigments Carotenoids, anthocyanins

Alkaloids Morphine, codeine

Essential oil Lemon grass oil, rose oil

Toxins Abrin, ricin

Lectins Concanavalin A

Drugs Vinblastin, curcumin

Polymeric Rubber, gums, cellulose
substances

MEDICINAL PLANTS :
S. Tamil Name Botanical Name Drug Parts Disease cured
No. used
1 Katralai Aloe vera Anthraquinon Leaves Heal wounds,
es Skin disease,
Cancer.

2 Tulsi Ocimum sanctum Essential oil Leaves Cold, Fever,

Skin disease
3 Nannari Hemidesmus Terpene Roots Bacterial
indicus infections,
Diarrhoea

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4 Nilavembu Andrograhis Terpenoids All parts Dengue fever,
paniculata Diabetes,
Chikungunya
5 Vepalai Wrightia tinctoria Flavonoids Latex, Psoriasis,
Leaves Diarrhoea,
Swellings
6 Cinjona maram Cinchona Quinine Bark Malaria,
officinalis Pneumonia
7 Chivan Rauwolfia Reserpine Root Blood pressure,
Amalpodi serpentina Antidote for
(Sarpagandha) Snake bite
8 Thaila maram Eucalyptus Essential oil Leaves Fever,
globulus Headache
9 Pappali Carica papaya Papain Leaf, Dengue
Seed
10 Nithya kalyani Cathyranthus Alkaloids All parts Leukemia,
roseus Cancer

Father of Indian Medicines

Ayurveda Charaka Samhita

Yoga Patanjali
Unani Hippocrates (BUKRATH)
Siddha Agasthya
Homeopathy Samuel Hahnemann

Plant growth substances

Based on the origin and biological activities plant growth substances are
grouped into three – growth regulators, phytohormones and growth inhibitors.

Growth regulator
It is a hormone like synthetic organic compound. In small amounts, it
modifies the growth and development either by promoting or inhibiting the growth.
Eg. Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA).

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Phytohormones
These are organic substances produced by the plant.
The phytohormones are broadly grouped under five major classes namely
auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene and abscisic acid.

Auxin
This hormone is present in the seed embryo, young leaves, and apical buds of the
meristem.

Functions of Auxins
 Stimulation of cell elongation, cell division in cambium, differentiation of
phloem and xylem, root initiation on stem cuttings, lateral root development in
tissue culture
 Delaying leaf senescence
 Suppression of lateral bud growth when supplied from apical buds
 Inhibition or promotion of fruit and leaf abscission through ethylene
stimulation
 Fruit setting and growth induced through auxin in some plants
 Auxin can delay fruit ripening
 In Bromeliads, the auxin hormone promotes flowering
 Stimulation of flower parts, femaleness of dioecious flowers, and production of
high concentration of ethylene in flowering plants

Cytokinin
They are synthesized in roots and then transported to other parts of the plant.
Functions of Cytokinins
 Stimulation of cell division, growth of lateral buds, and apical dominance
 Stimulation of shoot initiation and bud formation in tissue culture
 Leaf cell enlargement that stimulates leaf expansion
 Enhancement of stomatal opening in some plant species
 Etioplasts converted into chloroplasts through stimulation of chlorophyll
synthesis.

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Ethylene
Ethylene is present in the tissues of ripening fruits, nodes of stems, senescent
leaves, and flowers.

Functions of Ethylene
 Leads to release of dormancy state
 Stimulates shoot and root growth along with differentiation
 Leaf and fruit abscission
 Flower induction in Bromeliad
 Stimulation of femaleness of dioecious flowers
 Flower opening is stimulated
 Flower and leaf senescence stimulation
 Stimulation of Fruit ripening

Gibberellin
Gibberellins are present in the meristems of apical buds and roots, young leaves,
and embryo.
Functions of Gibberellins
 Stimulates stem elongation
 Leads to development of seedless fruits
 Delays senescence in leaves and citrus fruits
 Ends seed dormancy in plants that require light for induction of germination

Abscisic Acid
Abscisic acid is found mostly near leaves, stems, and unripe fruit.

Functions of Abscisic Acid

 Stimulation of closing of stomata
 Inhibition of shoot growth
 Inducing seeds for synthesizing storage of proteins

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Deficiency diseases, Symptoms and Cause
Name of the deficiency Deficiency minerals
disease and symptoms
1. Chlorosis (Overall) Nitrogen, Potassium, Magnesium,
Sulphur, Iron, Manganese, Zinc and
Molybdenum.
a. Interveinal chlorosis Magnesium, Iron, Manganese and Zinc
b. Marginal chlorosis Potassium
2. Necrosis (Death of the tissue) Magnesium, Potassium, Calcium, Zinc,
Molybdenum and Copper.
3. Stunted growth Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Calcium,
Potassium and Sulphur.
4. Anthocyanin formation Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Magnesium and
Sulphur
5. Delayed flowering Nitrogen, Sulphur and Molybdenum
6. Die back of shoot, Reclamation Copper
disease,
Exanthema in citrus (gums on bark)
7. Hooked leaf tip Calcium
8. Little Leaf Zinc
9. Brown heart of turnip and Boron
Internal cork of apple
10. Whiptail of cauliflower and Molybdenum
cabbage
11. Curled leaf margin Potassium
12. Seed dormancy Gibberellic acid

16
POINTS TO REMEMBER :
 Grey water is reusable waste water from residential, commercial and industrial
bathroom sinks, bath tub, shower drains and washing of clothes.

 Dr. Verghese Kurein, was the founder of National Dairy Development Board
(NDDB) and was called the Architect of India’s Modern Dairy Industry and
the Father of White Revolution.
 NDDB designed and implemented the world’s largest dairy development
programme called OPERATION FLOOD.
 The Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI) was established by
the Government of India in 1947 at Cochin, Kerala State.
 The Central Institute of Brackish Water Aquaculture (CIBA) was established in
1987 with its headquarters at Chennai.
 Bee-keeping industry is one of the important activities of Khadi and Village
Industries Commission (KVIC).
 World Health Day – 7th April
 World Malaria Day – 25th April
 World AIDS Day – 1st December
 World Anti -Tuberculosis Day – 24th March
 When we cut onion, we get tears in the eyes with irritation, because of the
presence of a chemical, propanethial s-oxide in onion.
 The Ripening of fruits is controlled by Ethylene.
 World Food Day, October-16 is celebrated by the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO).

17
 CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS

 Theophrastus, “Father of Botany” used the morphological characters to

classify plants into trees, shrubs and herbs.
 Aristotle classified animal into two groups.
 Carl Linnaeus classified living world into two groups namely Plants and
Animals based on morphological characters. His classification faced major
setback because prokaryotes and Eukaryotes were grouped together.
 Similarly fungi, heterotrophic organisms were placed along with the
photosynthetic plants.
 Study of structure and function of fungi is called Mycology.
 Study of structure and function of algae is called phycology.
 Study of virus is called Virology.
 Study of bacteria is called Bacteriology.
 Study of micro-organisms, in general is called Microbiology
 In course of time, the development of tools compelled taxonomists to look for
different areas like cytology, anatomy, embryology, molecular biology,
phylogeny etc., for classifying organisms on earth.
 Thus new dimensions to classifications were put forth from time to time.

Need of Classification:
Classification is essential to achieve following needs
• To relate things based on common characteristic features.

Two Kingdom Three Kingdom Four Kingdom Five Kingdom

Carl Linnaeus Ernst Haeckel Copeland (1956) R.H. Whittaker
(1735) (1866) (1969)
1. Plantae 1. Protista 1. Monera 1. Monera
2. Animalia 2. Plantae 2. Protista 2. Protista
3. Animalia 3. Plantae 3. Fungi
4. Animalia 4. Plantae
5. Animalia
• To define organisms based on the salient features.
• Helps in knowing the relationship amongst different groups of organisms.
• It helps in understanding the evolutionary relationship between organisms.
2
 A comparison of classification proposed for classification of living world is given
above.
Five Kingdom Classification :

Criteria Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic

Level of Unicellular Unicellular Multicellular Tissue/organ Tissue/organ/

organizati and organ system
on unicellular
Cell wall Present Present in some Present (made Present absent
(made up of (made up of up of chitin or (made up of
Peptidoglycan cellulose), cellulose) cellulose)
and absent in others
Mucopeptides)

Nutrition Autotrophic Autotrophic- Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic

(Phototrophic, Photosynthetic, -parasitic or (Photosynthe (Holozoic)
Chemoautotrop Heterotrophic Saprophytic tic)
hic)
Heterotrophic
(parasitic and
saprophytic)
Motility Motile or non- Motile or non- Non-motile Mostly Non- Mostly motile
motile motile motile
Organism Archaebacteria Chrysophytes, Yeast, Algae, Sponges,
s , Eubacteria, Dinoflagellates, Mushrooms Bryophytes, Invertebrates
Cyanobacteria, Euglenoids, and Molds Pteridophyte and
Actinomycetes Slime molds, s, Vertebrates
and Amoeba, Gymnosperm
Mycoplasma Plasmodium, s and
Trypanosoma, Angiosperms
Paramecium

Microbes
Microorganisms differ from each other in size, morphology, habitat, metabolism and
several other features. Microbes may be unicellular (Bacteria), multicellular (Fungi),
acellular (not composed of cells-Virus). Types of microbes include bacteria, viruses, fungi,
microscopic algae and protists.
3
VIRUSES
 The word virus is derived from Latin meaning ‘poison’,
 Viruses have both living and non-living characters, Hence viruses are regarded as a
separate entity.
 It is excluded in Whittaker’s five kingdom classification.
 Viruses are now defined as Ultramicroscopic, disease causing intra cellular obligate
parasites.
 There are serious entities which are considered as “Biological Puzzle” and cause
disease in man. They are called viruses. (BOX)
 Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) cause severe damage to commercially important
tobacco crop.

Living Characters :
 Presence of nucleic acid and protein.
 Capable of mutation
 Ability to multiply within living cells.
 Able to infect and cause diseases in living beings.
 Show irritability.
 Host –specific

Non-living Characters
 Can be crystallized.
 Absence of metabolism.
 Inactive outside the host.
 Do not show functional autonomy.
 Energy producing enzyme system is absent.
Virion
An intact, infective virus particle which is non-replicating outside a host cell is called
virion.

Viroids
A viroid is a circular molecule of RNA without a capsid. viroids cause several
economically important plant diseaes, including Citrus exocortis.

4
Prions (pronounced “preeons”)
‘Prion’ means proteinaceous infective particle (‘Protein gone bad’). The term
'prion' was coined by Stanley B. Prusiner in 1982. Prions are viral particles which contain
only proteins.
They do not contain nucleic acid. They are infectious and smaller than viruses. Prions
are found in neurons and are rod shaped. Prions induce changes in normal folded proteins
They are causative agents for about a dozen fatal degenerative disorders of the central
nervous systems of humans and other animals. eg: M.Creutzfeldt-Jacob Disease (CJD),
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy
(BSE)Commonly known as mad cow disease, etc.
Stanley Prusiner did research work on prions and was awarded Nobel Prize.

Classification of virus:
Viruses are not classified as members of the five kingdoms. The type of the host they
infect, viruses are classified mainly into the following four types.
l. Plant viruses includings, algal viruses-RNA/DNA
2. Animal viruses including human viruses-DNA/RNA
3. Fungal viruses (Mycoviruses) - ds RNA
4. Bacterial viruses (Bacteriophages) including cyanophages-DNA

Interferons (IFN8):
Host coded proteins of cytokine family that inhibit viral replication. They are
produced by intact animal or cultured cells in response to viral infection or other inducers.

Significance of Viruses:
1. Viruses are a kind of biological puzzle to biologists since they are at the threshold
of living and non-living things showing the characteristics of both.
2. Viruses are very much used as biological research tools due to their simplicity of
structure and rapid multiplication. They are widely used in research especially in the field of
molecular biology, genetic engineering, medicine etc.
3. Viruses are used in eradicating harmful pests like insects. Thus they are used in
Biological Control Programmes.
4. Plant viruses cause great concern to agriculturists. Bacteriophages attack the N2
fixing bacteria of soil and are responsible for reducing the fertility of soil.
5. In industry, viruses are used in preparation of sera and vaccines.

5
Viral diseases :

Plant diseases Animal diseases Human diseases

1. Tobacco mosaic 1. Foot and mouth disease of 1. Common cold
2. Cauliflower mosaic cattle 2. Hepatitis B
3. Sugarcane mosaic 2. Rabies of dog 3. Cancer
4. Potato leaf roll 3. Encephalomyelitis of horse 4. SARS(Severe Acute
5. Bunchy top of banana Respiratory Syndrome)

6. Leaf curl of papaya 5. AIDS(Acquired Immuno

7. Vein clearing of Lady’s Deficiency Syndrome)

finger 6. Rabies

8. Rice tungro disease 7. Mumps

9. Cucumber mosaic 8. Polio

10. Tomato mosaic disease 9. Chikungunya

11. Necrotic ring spot disease 10. Small Pox

of stone fruits (cherry, peach,
11. Chicken pox
plum, etc.)
12. Measles

BACTERIA
 Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1676) discovered simple microscope.
 Robert Hooke (1820) – discovered compound microscope – BACTERIA
named as ‘Infusorial animalcules”
 Louis Pasteur (1822-95) made a detailed study of Bacteria and proposed
Germ theory of disease.
 Robert Koch proves the cause & effect relationship between microbes and
animal diseases.
 Ehrenberg (1829) – First use the term Bacterium.

Different shapes of Bacteria :

Arrangement of Cocci Examples

Diplococci cocci are arranged in pairs Streptococcus pneumoniae

Streptococci cocci are arranged in chains Streptococcus pyogenes

6
Tetracocci cocci are arranged in packets of four Aerococcus sp
cells

Staphylococci cocci are arranged in grape-like Staphylococcus aureus

clusters

Arrangement of Bacilli Examples

Diplobacilli diplobacilli appear in pairs Klebsiella sp

Streptobacilli bacilli are arranged in chains Streptobacillus sp

Coccobacilli short and stumpy and appear ovoid Haemophilus sp

Arrangement of Spirilla Examples

Vibrio comma-shaped bacteria Vibrio cholerae

Spirilla rigid spiral structure Helicobacter pylori

Spirochetes helical shape and flexible bodies Treponema pallidum

Benefits Activities of Bacteria:

Beneficial aspects Bacteria Role

1. Soil fertility
Ammonification 1. Bacillus ramosus Convert complex proteins in the dead bodies of
2. Bacillus mycoides plants and animals into ammonia which is later
converted into ammonium salt

Nitrification 1. Nitrobacter Convert ammonium salts into nitrites and

2. Nitrosomonas nitrates

Nitrogen fixation 1. Azotobacter (i) Converting atmospheric nitrogen into organic

2. Clostridium nitrogen

3. Rhizobium (ii) The nitrogenous compounds are also

oxidized to nitrogen
(iii) All these activities of bacteria increase soil
fertility

7
2. Antibiotics
1. Streptomycin Streptomyces griseus It cures urinary infections, tuberculosis,
meningitis and pneumonia

2. Aureomycin Streptomyces It used as a medicine to treat whooping cough

aureofaciens and eye infections

3. Chloromycetin Streptomyces It cures typhoid fever.

venezuelae

4. Bacitracin Bacillus licheniformis It is used to treat syphilis

5. Polymyxin Bacillus polymyxa It cures some bacterial diseases

3. Industrial Uses

1. Lactic acid Streptococcus lactis Convert milk sugar lactose into lactic acid
and
Lactobacillus
bulgaricus

2. Butter Streptococcus lactis, Convert milk into butter, cheese, curd and
Leuconostoc yoghurt
citrovorum

3. cheese Lactobacillus
acidophobus,
Lactobacillus lactis

4. Curd Lactobacillus lactis

5. Yoghurt Lactobacillus
bulgaricus

6. Vinegar Acetobacter aceti This bacteria oxidizes ethyl alcohol obtained

(Acetic acid) from molasses by fermentation to vinegar(acetic
acid)

8
Plant diseases caused by Bacteria

S.No. Name of the Name of the disease Name of the pathogen

Host
1. Rice Bacterial blight Xanthomonas oryzae

2. Apple Fire blight Erwinia amylovora

3. Carrot Soft rot Erwinia caratovora

4. Citrus Citrus canker Xanthomonas citri

5. Cotton Angular leaf spot Xanthomonas malvacearum

6. Potato Ring rot Clavibacter michiganensis subsp.

sepedonicus

7. Potato Scab Streptomyces scabies

Animal diseases caused by Bacteria

S. Name of the Name of the disease Name of the pathogen

No Animal
1. Sheep Anthrax Bacillus anthracis

2. Cattle Brucellosis Brucella abortus

3. Cattle Bovine tuberculosis Mycobacterium bovis

4. Cattle Black leg Clostridium chanvei

FUNGI
Fungi have been included in plant kingdom.

9
Salient Features:

 Non-chlorophyllous, eukaryotic organisms

 They are universal in their distribution.
 They resemble plants in that they have cell walls. But lack chlorophyll (most
 important attribute of plants)
 Mushrooms, moulds and yeasts are the common fungi
 The study of fungi is known as Mycology.

Distinguishing Features of Fungi:

1. They have definite cell wall made up of chitin - a biopolymer made up of n-acetyl
glucosamine units.
2. They are without chlorophyll, hence they exhibit heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
They may be saprotrophic in their mode of nutrition or parasitic or symbiotic.
3. Usually non-molite (Except the subdivision of Mastigomycotina)
4. Storage product is not starch but glycogen and oil
5. They reproduce mostly by spore formation. However sexual reproduction also
takes place.

Plant diseases caused by Fungi:

S.No Name of the disease Causal organism

.
1. Blast of Paddy Magnaporthe grisea

2. Red rot of sugarcane Colletotrichum falcatum

3. Anthracnose of Beans Colletotrichum lindemuthianum

4. White rust of crucifers Albugo candida

5. Peach leaf curl Taphrina deformans

6. Rust of wheat Puccinia graminis tritici

ALGAE
 Autotrophic organisms.
 Have chlorophyll.

10
  Study of Algae is known as Algology or phycology
 Plant body is called thallus, no vascular tissues.
 Most of the algae are aquatic either fresh water or marine.
 The free floating and free swimming minute algae are known as
phytoplanktons.
 Some species of algae and fungi are found in association with each other and
they are called Lichens.
 Litmus is obtained from Lichen.
 Some species are epiphytes (ie., they live on another plant or another algae)
and some of them are lithophytes (ie., they grow attached to rocks).
 Chlamydomonas Example for unicellular and motile
 Chlorella - non motile

Economic Importance of Algae:

Algae as Food:
 Algae are important as a source of food for human beings, domestic animals and
fishes.
 Species of Porphyra are eaten in Japan, England and U.S.A, Ulva, Laminaria,
 Sargassum and Chlorella are also used as food in several countries. Sea weeds
(Laminaria, Fucus, Ascophyllum) are used as fodder for domestic animals.

11
Algae in Agriculture:
 Various blue green algae such as Oscillatoria, Anabaena, Nostoc, Chlostridium,
Aulosira increase the soil fertility by fixing the atmospheric nitrogen.
 In view of the increasing energy demands and rising costs of chemical making
nitrogenous fertilizers, much attention is now being given to nitrogen fixing bacteria
and blue green algae.
 Many species of sea weeds are used as fertilizers in China and Japan.

Algae in Industry:

Agar - agar:
This substance is used as a culture medium while growing bacteria and fungi in the
laboratory. It is also used in the preparations of some medicines and cosmetics. It is obtained
from the red algae Gelidium and Gracilaria.
A phycocolloid Alginic acid is obtained from brown algae. Algin is used as
emulisifier in ice creams, tooth pastes and cosmetics.
Iodine:
It is obtained from kelps (brown algae) especially from species of Laminaria
Diatomite:
It is a rock like deposit formed on the siliceous walls of diatoms (algae of
Chrysophyceae).
Sewage Disposal:
Algae like Chlorella are grown in large shallow tanks containing sewage. These
algae produce abundant oxygen by rapid photosynthesis.
Microorganisms like aerobic bacteria use these oxygen and decompose the organic
matter and thus the sewage gets purified.
Harmful effects of Algae
Harmful algal blooms can:

 Produce extremely dangerous toxins that can sicken or kill people and animals
 Create dead zones in the water
 Raise treatment costs for drinking water
 Hurt industries that depend on clean water

12
Single cell protein

The term ‘single cell protein’ was coined in 1966. The dried cells of microorganisms
used as food or feed for animals and they are collectively known as Microbial proteins.

This term was replaced by a new term ‘single cell protein’.

Organisms used for SCP production

Algae Chlorella, Spirulina and chlamydomonas

Fungi Saccharomyces cereviseae, Volvoriella and Agaricus
campestris
Bacteria Pseudomonas and Alkaligenes

Economic importance of Algae

Name of the Algae Economic importance

Beneficial activities
Chlorella, Laminaria, Sargassum, Ulva, Food
Enteromorpha

Gracilaria, Gelidiella, Gigartina Agar Agar – Cell wall material used for media
preparation in the microbiology lab.
Packing canned food, cosmetic, textile paper
industry

Chondrus crispus Carrageenan – Preparation of tooth paste, paint,

blood coagulant

Laminaria, Ascophyllum Alginate – ice cream, paints, flame proof

fabrics

Laminaria, Sargassum, Ascophyllum, Fucus Fodder

Diatom (Siliceous frustules) Diatomaceous earth– water filters, insulation

material, reinforcing agent in concrete and
rubber.

Lithophyllum, Chara, Fucus Fertilizer

Chlorella Chlorellin -Antibiotic

Chlorella, Scenedesmus, Chlamydomonas Sewage treatment, Pollution indicators

13
Harmful activity
Cephaleuros virescens Red rust of coffee

Pteridophytes
These plants are mostly small herbaceous and grow well in moist, cool and shady
places where water is available.
Economic importance of Pteridophyte

Pteridophyte Uses
Rumohra adiantiformis (leather leaf fern) Cut flower arrangements

Marsilea Food

Azolla Biofertilizer

Dryopteris filix–mas Treatment for tapeworm.

Pteris vittata Removal of heavy metals from soils -

Bioremediation

Pteridium sp. Leaves yield green dye

Equisetum sp. Stems for scouring

Psilotum, Lycopodium, Selaginella, Ornamental plants

Angiopteris, Marattia

Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms (Gr. Gymnos= naked; sperma= seed) are naked seed producing plants.
They were dominant in the Jurassic and cretaceous periods of Mesozoic era. The members
are distributed throughout the temperate and tropical region of the world.

14
Economic importance of Gymnosperms

S.No Plants Products uses

1. Cycas circinalis, Cycas Sago Starch used as food
revoluta

2. Pinus gerardiana Roasted seed Used as a food

3. Abies balsamea Resin (Canada Used as mounting medium in

balsam) permanent slide preparation

4. Pinus insularis, Pinus Rosin and Turpentine Paper sizing and varnishes
roxburghii

5. Araucaria (monkey's Tannins Bark yield tannins and is used in

puzzle), Picea and Leather industries
Phyllocladus

6. Taxus brevifolia Taxol Drug used for cancer treatment

7. Ephedra gerardiana Ephedrine For the treatment of asthma,

bronchititis

8. Pinus roxburghii Oleoresin Used to make soap, varnishes and

printing ink

9. Pinus roxburghii, Picea Wood pulp Used to make papers

smithiana

10. Cedrus deodara wood Used to make doors, boats and

railway sleepers

11. Cedrus atlantica oil Used in perfumery

12 Thuja, Cupressus, whole plant Ornamental plants/Floral Decoration

Araucaria, and
Cryptomeria

Angiosperms
Spermatophytes also include plants bearing ovules enclosed in a protective cover
called Ovary, such plants are called Angiosperms. They constitute major plant group of our
earth and are adapted to the terrestrial mode of life.

15
 This group of plants appeared during the early cretaceous period (140 million years
ago) and dominates the vegetation on a world scale. The sporophyte is the dominant phase
and gametophyte is highly reduced.

Difference between Gymnosperms and Angiosperms

16
S.No Gymnosperms Angiosperms
1. Vessels are absent [except Gnetales] Vessels are present

2. Phloem lacks companion cells Companion cells are present

3. Ovules are naked Ovules are enclosed within the ovary

4. Wind pollination only Insects,

Insects,
wind,
wind,
water,
water,
animals
animals
etc.,etc.,
act as
act as
pollinating
pollinating
agents
agents

5. Double fertilization is absent Double fertilization is present

6. Endosperm is haploid Endosperm is triploid

7. Fruit formation is absent Fruit formation is present

8. Flowers absent Flowers present

ADAPTATION OF PLANTS:
Any feature of an organism or its part that enables it to exist under conditions of its
habitat is called adaptation. On the basis of water availability, plants have been classified as:

(i) Hydrophytes
(ii) Xerophytes
(iii) Mesophytes

Hydrophytes

Plants growing in or near water are called hydrophytes. Hydrophytes may be free
floating or submerged plants living in lakes, ponds, shallow water, marshy lands and marine
habitat.
Adaptations of hydrophytes
1. Roots are poorly developed as in Hydrilla or absent as in Wolffia.
2. Plant body is greatly reduced as in Lemna.
3. Submerged leaves are narrow or finely divided. e.g. Hydrilla.
4. Floating leaves have long leaf stalks to enable the leaves move up and down in
response to changes in water level. e.g. Lotus.
5. Air chambers provide buoyancy and mechanical support to plants as in Eichhornia
(swollen and spongy petiole).

17
Biological Oxygen Demand:
Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is a very charming plant. It is called as
‘Cindrella of the plant kingdom’. It covers entire surface of the water resources like ponds
and lakes. It will not allow the light to penetrate into the water and increases the Biological
Oxygen Demand leading to the death of aquatic plants and animals.
It also alters the water clarity and decreases phytoplankton production, dissolved
oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and heavy metals.

Algae Blooms:
Sudden sprout of algae growth, which can affect the water quality adversely and
indicate potentially hazardous changes in local water chemistry.

18
Xerophytes
Plants that grow in dry habitat are called xerophytes.
These plants develop special structural and physiological characteristics to meet the
conditions of their habitat.
Adaptations of xerophytes
1. They have well developed roots. Roots grow very deep and reach the layers where
water is available as in Calotropis.
2. They store water in succulent water storing parenchymatous tissues. e.g. Opuntia,
Aloe vera.
3. They have small sized leaves with waxy coating. e.g. Acacia. In some plants, leaves
are modified into spines. e.g. Opuntia.
4. Some of the xerophytes complete their life cycle within a very short period when
sufficient moisture is available

Mesophytes
Mesophytes are common land plants which grow in situations that are neither too wet
nor too dry. They do not need any extreme adaptations.
Adaptations of mesophytes
1. The roots of mesophytes are well developed and are provided with root caps.
2. The stem is generally straight and branched.
3. The leaves are generally broad and thin.
4. The presence of waxy cuticle in leaves traps the moisture and lessens water loss.
5. Leaves have stomata which close in extreme heat and wind to prevent transpiration.

19
Biodegradable waste:
Organic waste, typically coming from a plant or animal sources, which other living
organisms can break done.
Oil spill:
The harmful release of oil into the environment, usually through water, which is very
difficult to clean up and often kills, birds, fish and other wildlife.
Bio-Pesticides
Bio-pesticides are biologically based agents used for the control of plant pests. They
are in high use due to their non-toxic, cheaper and eco-friendly characteristics as compared to
chemical or synthetic pesticides.
Bio-pesticides have become an integral component of pest management in terms of
the environmental and health issues attributed to the use of chemicals in agriculture.

Hybridization
Hybridization is the method of producing new crop varieties in which two or more
plants of unlike genetical constitution is crossed together that results in a progeny called
hybrid.
Hybridization offers improvement in crop and is the only effective means of
combining together the desirable characters of two or more varieties or species.

Bio-fortification
Breeding crops with higher levels of vitamins and minerals or higher protein and
healthier fats – is the most practical means to improve public health.
20
POINTS TO REMEMBER :
 World Habitat Day was observed on 1st Monday of October.
 Bamboo is one of the fast growing plants, during active growth phase.
 Victoria amazonica, the leaves of this plant grow up to 3 metres across. A mature
Victoria leaf can support an evenly distributed Load of 45 Kilograms or apparently
young person.
 The Amazon Rain Forest in South America produces half of the world’s oxygen
supply.
 Kangaroo rat does not drink water at all. Whatever food it eats and oxygen it gets
from air combine together to form water inside the body.
 The mountain goat namely Nilgri Tahr can find small spaces on rock to climb with
ease and keep its balance as it feeds.
 Spending winters in a dormant condition is called Hibernation. eg. Turtle

 Young female calf is called a Heifer (Until she has her first calf). Young male is
called bull calf.
 Xylotomy-The study of wood by preparing sections for microscopic observation.
 Earthworms take organic wastes as food and produce compost castings. So
Earthworms are known as Farmers' friend.

21
 THE CELL - BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

 A cell is a structural and functional unit of all living organisms.

 Approximate number of cells in the human body is 3.7 X1013 or 37,000,000,000,000.
 Organisms contain organs, organs composed of tissues, tissues are made up of cells;
and cells are formed of organelles and organelles are made up of molecules.
 Anton van Leewenhoek (1632-1723) studied the structure of bacteria, protozoa
spermatozoa, red blood cells under the simple microscope.
 The word cell was first coined by Robert Hooke in 1665.
 In 1838, the German botanist Schleiden proposed that all plants are made up of plant
cells.
 Theodore Schwann studied and concluded that all animals are also composed of cells.
 Cell theory was again rewritten by Rudolf Virchow in 1858.
 Robert Brown in 1831 discovered the presence of nucleus in the cells of orchid roots.
 Purkinje coined the term protoplasm for the slimy substance that is found inside the
cells.
 The smallest cells are found among bacteria (0.2 to 0.5 microns). The largest plant
cell is the ovule of Cycas.
CELL BIOLOGY
CELL THEORY
In the year (1839) Schleiden and Schwann have jointly proposed the “Cell Theory”

The important aspects of cell theory are:

1. All living organisms are made up of minute units, the cells which are the
smallest entities that can be called living.
2. Each cell is made up of protoplasm with a nucleus and bounded by plasma
membrane with or without a cell wall.
3. All cells are basically alike in their structure and metabolic activities.
4. Function of an organism is the sum total of activities and interaction of its
Constituent cells.

Exception to cell Theory

1. Viruses are biologists’ puzzle. They are an exception to cell theory. They lack
protoplasm, the essential part of the cell.

2
 2. Bacteria and cyanobacteria (Blue Green algae) lack well organized nucleus.
3. Some of the protozons are acellular.
4. The coenocytic hyphae of some fungi eg. Rhizopus have undivided mass of
protoplasm, in which many nuclei remain scattered.
5. Red Blood Corpuscles (RBC) and mature sieve tubes are without nuclei.

Cell Principle or Cell Doctrine

The important features of cell doctrine are:
1. All organisms are made up of cells.
2. New cells are produced from the pre-existing cells.
3. Cell is a structural and functional unit of all living organisms.
4. A cell contains hereditary information which is passed on from cell to cell
during cell division.
5. All the cells are basically the same in chemical composition and metabolic
activities.
6. The structure and function of the cell are controlled by DNA.
7. Sometimes the dead cells may remain functional as tracheids and vessels in
plants and horny cells in animals. Horny cells are the Stratum corneum which is the
outermost layer of the epidermis.

Programmed Cell Death

Programmed Cell Death (PCD) plays a very important role by balancing cell
growth and multiplication. In addition, cell death also eliminates unnecessary cells.

PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELL (PLANT CELLS)

All living things found on the planet earth are divided into two major groups namely,
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes based on the types of cells these organisms possess.

Prokaryotic cells lack a well defined nucleus and have a simplified internal
organization. Bacteria and Cyanobacteria are prokaryotes.

Eukaryotic cells have a more complicated internal structure including a well defined,
membrane-limited nucleus. The cytosol of eukaryotic cells contains an array of fibrous
proteins collectively called the cytoskeleton. Fungi, plants and animals are eukaryotes.

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The differences between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Features Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Size of the cell ~1-5μm ~10-100μm

Nuclear character Nucleoid, no true nucleus, True nucleus with nuclear

membrane

DNA Usually circular without Usually linear with histone

histone proteins proteins

RNA/Protein Couples in cytoplasm RNA synthesis Inside nucleus/

synthesis Protein synthesis in cytoplasm

Ribosomes 50S+ 30S 60S + 40S

Organelles Absent Numerous

Cell movement Flagella Flagella and cilia

Organization Usually single cell Single, colonial and multicellular

Cell division Binary fission Mitosis and meiosis

Examples Bacteria and Archaea Fungi, plants and animals

CELL WALL
The cells of all plants, bacteria and fungi have a rigid, protective covering outside the
plasma membrane called cell wall.
Among the vascular plants , only certain cells connected with the reproductive
processes, are naked, all other cells have walls.

Chemical Composition
In bacteria the cell wall is composed of peptidoglycon. In Fungi it is made up
of chitin.
The plant cell wall is made up of cellulose. Besides cellulose certain other chemicals
such as hemicellulose, pectin, lignin, cutin, suberin, silica may also be seen deposited on the
wall.

Functions of cell wall

1. It gives definite shape to the cell.
2. It protects the internal protoplasm against injury.
3. It gives rigidity to the cell

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 4. It prevents the bursting of plant cells due to endosmosis.
5. The walls of xylem vessels, tracheids and sieve tubes are specialized for long
distance transport.
6. In many cases, the cell wall takes part in offense and defense.

Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is all of the material within a cell, enclosed by the cell membrane,
except for the cell nucleus. The material inside the nucleus and contained within the nuclear
membrane is termed the nucleoplasm.
The main components of the cytoplasm are cytosol – a gel-like substance, the
organelles – the cell's internal sub-structures, and various cytoplasmic inclusions. The
cytoplasm is about 80% water and usually colorless.

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CELL MEMBRANE

All the prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are enclosed by an elastic thin covering
called plasma membrane.
It is selectively permeable since it allows only certain substances to enter or leave the
cell through it.
In addition to this, eukaryotic cells possess intracellular membranes collectively
called cytoplasmic membrane system that surrounds the vacuole and cell organelles.
Plasma membrane and the sub-cellular membranes are together known as biological
membranes.

Structure of cell Membrane

1. About 75 A thick
2. The Outer and inner layers are formed of protein molecules whereas the
middle one is composed of two layers of phospholipid molecules.

PLASMA MEMBRANE

The plasma membrane is made up of lipoprotein. It controls the entry and exit of
small molecules and ions. The enzymes involved in the oxidation of metabolites (i.e., the
respiratory chain) as well as the photosytems used in photosynthesis are present in the plasma
membrane.

Functions of plasma membrane

 Transporting nutrients into and metabolic wastes out of the cell.

 Preventing unwanted materials from entering the cell.
 The intercellular and intra cellular transport is regulated by plasma membrane.
 The plasma membrane maintains the proper ionic composition pH(~7.2) and
osmotic pressure of the cytosol.

Membrane Transport:
Substances are transported across the membrane either by:
1. Passive Transport or
2. Active Transport

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PASSIVE TRANSPORT
Physical processes
Passive Transport of materials across the membrane requires no energy by the cell
and it is unaided by the transport proteins.
The physical processes through which substances get into the cell are
1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis
Diffusion
 It is a type of Passive Transport.
 Diffusion is the movement of molecules of any substance from a region of it’s
higher to a region of its lower concentration.
 This can be described as ‘downhill transport’. Diffusion through the bio membrane
takes place in two ways.

Osmosis
It is the special type of diffusion where the water or solvent diffuses through a
selectively permeable membrane from a region of high solvent concentration to a region of
low solvent concentration.

Role of Osmosis
1. It helps in absorption of water from the soil by root hairs.
2. Osmosis helps in cell to cell movement of water.
3. Osmosis helps to develop the turgor pressure which helps in opening and closing of
stomata.

Active transport
It is vital process. It is the movement of molecules or ions against the concentration
gradient. i.e the molecules or ions move from the region of lower concentration towards the
region of higher concentration. The movement of molecules can be compared with the uphill
movement of water.

CELL ORGANELLES
All eukaryotic cells contain a membrane bound nucleus and numerous other
organelles in their cytosol.
A Typical plant cell contains the following organelles and parts:

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Plastids
Plastids are the largest cytoplasmic organelles bounded by double membrane. These
are found in most of the plant cells and in some photosynthetic protists. These are absent in
prokaryotes and in animal cells. Plastids are of three types namely chloroplasts,
Chromoplasts and leucoplasts.

Chloroplasts
They are the sites of Photosynthesis. They are found only in plant cells. They are
surrounded by an inner and outer membrane, a complex system of thylakoid membranes in
their interior contains the pigments and enzymes that absorb light and produce ATP.

Chromoplasts
Chromoplasts are coloured plastids other than green. They are found in coloured parts
of plants such as petals of the flower, pericarp of the fruits etc.

Leucoplasts
 Leucoplasts are the colourless plastids.
 These colourless plastids are involved in the storage of carbohydrates, fats and oils
and proteins.
 The plastids which store carbohydrates are called amyloplasts.
 The plastids storing fats and oils are called elaioplasts.
 The plastids storing protein are called proteinoplasts.

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Endoplasmic reticulum
These are a network of inter connected membranes. Two types of Endoplasmic
Reticulum are recognised.
1. Rough E.R
2. Smooth E.R

Rough ER
 The endoplasmic reticulum is responsible for protein synthesis in a cell.
 Ribosomes are sub-organelles in which the amino acids are actually bound together to
form proteins.
 There are spaces within the folds of ER membrane and they are known as Cisternae.

Smooth ER
 This type of ER does not have ribosomes.

Vacuoles
 The vacuoles form about 75% of the plant cell. In the vacuole the plant stores
nutrients as well as toxic wastes.
 If pressure increases within the vacuole it can increase the sing of the cell.
 In this case the cell will become swollen. If the pressure increases further the cell will
get destroyed.
 Specific to plant cells is a structure called the tonoplast.
 The tonoplast is the membrane that surrounds the central or large vacuole of the
plant.

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Function of the Vacuole
A vacuole is usually found in all plant and fungal cells, as well as some cells of
protists, animals, and bacteria.
These membrane-bound structures are basically just enclosed compartments that are
filled with both inorganic and organic molecules, along with water to support the organelle.

Golgi Apparatus
The electron microscopic observation of Golgi bodies reveals the presence of
three membranous components, namely,
1. Disc shaped group of flattened sacs or cisternae
2. Small vesicles
3. Large vacuoles.

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Functions

1. It produces secretory vesicles like zymogen granules that may have enzymes
inside.
2. It forms the certain yolk substances in the developing oocytes.
3. It helps in retinal pigment formation in the retinal cells.
4. It helps in the formation of acrosome in sperm cells.

Lysosomes

 Lysosomes are kind of waste disposal system of the cell.

 Lysosomes originate either from the Golgi apparatus or directly from the endoplasmic
reticulum. Each lysosome is a round structure. It is filled with a dense material.

Functions
1. Lysosomes help to keep the cell clean by digesting any foreign material as
well as worn out cell organelles.
2. When the cell gets damaged lysosomes may burst and the enzymes digest
their own cell.
3. Therefore lysosomes are also known as suicidal bags of a cell.
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Endocytosis and exocytosis
Endocytosis and exocytosis are active processes involving bulk transport of materials
through membranes, either into cells (endocytosis) or out of cells (exocytosis).

Mitochondria
 In the cytoplasm of most cells, large size filamentous, rounded or rod like structure
known as mitochondria may be seen. The mitochondria are bounded by two membranes
made of proteins.
 The outer membrane forms a bag like structure around the inner membrane which
gives out many finger like folds on the lumen of the mitochondria. The folds of inner
mitochondrial membrane are known as cristae.
 Are self perpetuating semi-autonomous bodies.

Function
1. Mitochondria are considered to be the power houses of the cell because they
are the seat of cellular respiration.
2. They also synthesize the energy rich compound ATP- Adenosine Tri Phosphate.
Ribosomes
 Ribosomes are found in all cells, both prokaryotic and eukaryotic except in
mature sperm cells and RBCs.
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  In eukaryotic cells they occur freely in the cytoplasm and also found attached
to the outer surface of rough ER.

Centrioles

 Centrioles were first described by Henneguy and Leuhossek in 1897.

 The Centrioles are micro tubular structures, found in two shapes-rod shaped and
granules located near the nucleus of animal cell.
 At the time of cell division, the centrioles produce the spindle fibres and astral bodies.
They also decide the plan of cell division.

Nucleus
Nucleus is the most obvious sub cellular organelle. It is round or oval in outline and
possesses four parts. They are:
1. Nuclear Membrane
2. Nucleoplasm
3. Chromatin Reticulum
4. Nucleolus

The nuclear membrane is the outer delicate covering of the nucleus. It contains pores
of different dimensions.
The nucleoplasm is the protoplasmic substance of the nucleus. It is also known as
nuclear sap or karyoplasm.

13
 Chromatin Reticulum is composed of a network with highly elongated chromatin
threads which overlap one another and are embedded in the nucleoplasm. At the time of the
cell division, the chromosomes become clearly visible.
The nucleolus is generally present in the nucleus of most of the cells. The nucleolus
become enlarged during active period of cell division and are less developed in quiescent
stage. It is often called as cell organizer.

The nuclear pore is a protein-lined channel in the nuclear envelope that regulates the
transportation of molecules between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
Functions
1. It controls all metabolic processes and hereditary activities of the cell.
2. The nuclear membrane allows exchange of ions between nucleoplasm and
cytoplasm.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL

S. Plant cell Animal Cell
No
1 Usually they are larger than animal cells Usually smaller than plant cells

2 Cell wall present in addition to plasma Cell wall absent

membrane and consists of middle
lamellae, primary and secondary walls

3 Plasmodesmata present Plasmodesmata absent

4 Chloroplast present Chloroplast absent

5 Vacuole large and permanent Vacuole small and temporary

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6 Tonoplast present around vacuole Tonoplast absent

7 Centrioles absent except motile cells of Centrioles present

lower plants

8 Nucleus present along the periphery of the Nucleus at the centre of the cell
cell

9 Lysosomes are rare Lysosomes present

10 Storage material is starch grains Storage material is a glycogen granules

CELL DIVISION
Body cells of all animals and plants undergo a cell division called Mitosis, involving
changes in the structure of chromosomes, but without any change in the chromosomal
number.
The germinal epithelial cells of animals undergo Meiosis cell division, involving
changes in the structure and number of chromosomes.

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Mitosis
Mitosis is divided into the following 4 sub stages.
1. Prophase 2. Metaphase 3. Anaphase 4. Telophase
Mitosis – Equational Cell Division
Cytokinesis
The division of the cytoplasm is called cytokinesis and it follows the nuclear division
by the formation of cell wall between the two daughter nuclei. The formation of cell wall

16
begins as a cell plate also known as phragmoplast formed by the aggregation of vesicles
produced by Golgi bodies.

Significance of Mitosis
1. As a result of mitosis two daughter cells which are identical to each other and
identical to the mother cell are formed.
2. Mitotic cell division ensures that the daughter cells possess a genetical identity,
both quantitatively and qualitatively.
3. Mitosis forms the basis of continuation of organisms.
4. Asexual reproduction of lower plants is possible only by mitosis.
5. Vegetative reproduction in higher plants by grafting, tissue culture method are also
a consequence of mitosis.
6. Mitosis is the common method of multiplication of cells that helps in the
growth and development of multi- cellular organism.
7. Mitosis helps in the regeneration of lost or damaged tissue and in wound
healing.
8. The chromosomal number is maintained constant by mitosis for each species.
Meiosis
Meiosis is a kind of cell division, which occurs in the germinal epithelial cells of the
gonads to form the gametes.
Meiosis takes place in the specialized diploid cells of gonads and produces four
haploid gametes, each having half the number of chromosomes as compared to the parent
cell.
Meiosis is completed in two successive divisions – Meiosis-I and Meiosis-II.
In Meiosis-I, as the chromosomal number is reduced to half, it is called Reduction
division. Meiosis-II is similar to Mitosis.
Meiosis - I
The various events of Meiosis-I are studied under four sub-stages namely Prophase-I,
Metaphase-I, Anaphase-I and Telophase-I.

Meiosis - II
Meiosis-II is similar to Mitosis and so it is called Meiotic Mitosis. The events of
Meiosis-II are studied in four sub-divisions as, Prophase-II, Metaphase-II, Anaphase- II and
Telophase-II.

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Difference Between Mitosis and Meiosis
Mitosis Meiosis
One division Two divisions

Number of chromosomes remains the Number of chromosomes is halved

same

Homologous chromosomes line up Homologous chromosomes line up in pairs at

separately on the metaphase plate the metaphase plate

Homologous chromosome do not pair Homologous chromosome pair up to form

up bivalent

Chiasmata do not form and crossing Chiasmata form and crossing over occurs
over never occurs

Daughter cells are genetically identical Daughter cells are genetically different from the
parent cells

Two daughter cells are formed Four daughter cells are formed

Tissues and tissue systems

Histology - The branch of biology that deals with the study of tissues
The study of internal structure of plants reveals many types of tissues.
Tissues can be classified into two types – Meristematic tissue and permanent tissue.
A meristematic tissue (meristos = dividible) is a group of identical cells that are in a
continuous state of division.

Classification of meristem
Based on its position, the meristem is divided into three types – apical meristem,
intercalary meristem and lateral meristem.
Some cells produced by meristematic tissue stop dividing and acquire certain change
to become permanent tissues of the plant. This change from meristematic to permanent tissue
is called differentiation.

Classification of permanent tissue

Based on the constituent cells, the permanent tissue is classified into two types –
simple tissue and complex tissue.

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Simple tissue
A tissue with the cells of similar structure and function is called simple tissue. It is of
three –parenchyma, collenchymas and sclerenchyma.
 Collenchyma and Parenchyma are living tissue.
 Sclerenchyma is a dead tissue.

Complex tissue
A tissue that consists of several kinds of cells but all of them function together as a
single unit is called complex tissue. It is of two types – xylem and phloem.

Xylem
Xylem is a complex tissue that is mainly responsible for the conduction of water and
mineral salts from roots to other parts of the plant.

Phloem
Phloem is a complex tissue. It conducts food materials to various parts of the plant.
Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance
Gregor Johann Mendel was the first to explain the mechanism of transmission of
characters from the parents to the offsprings. He is the pioneer of Modern Genetics, he is
called The Father of Genetics.

Mendel conducted cross breeding experiments in the garden pea plant (Pisum
sativum).
Monohybrid cross ratio (F2 Generation) 1:2:1
Dihybrid cross ratio (F2 Generation) 9:3:3:1

Gene Concept
The important features of the gene concept are:
i. Genes are transmitted from parents to off springs and are responsible for the
physical and Physiological characteristics of an organism.
ii. The genes are present on the chromosome.
iii. A single gene may have more than one functional state or form. These
functional states are referred to as alleles.
iv. Genes may undergo sudden heritable changes called mutations, induced by
chemical and physical factors.

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 v. Genes undergo duplication by a phenomenon called replication.
vi. The gene information is contained as a sequence of nucleotides which is called
genetic code. The sequence of three nucleotides that code for an aminoacid is
called Codon.

Molecular structure of a gene

A gene, is made of DNA. The gene may be subdivided in to different units such as
Recon, Muton, Cistron and Operon.
Recon
It is that smallest portion of a gene which can undergo crossing over and
recombination and may be as small as a single nuclecotide pair.
Muton
It is the smallest unit of a gene that can undergo mutation and can involve a pair of
nucleotides.
Cistron
It is the functional unit which can synthesize one polypeptide.
Operon
It is a group of genes having an operator, a structural gene and other genes in
sequence which all functions as a unit.

Chromosomes
Chromosomes are the physical carriers of genes, which are made up on DNA and
associated proteins. The term chromosome was introduced by waldeyer in 1888.
Chromosomes occur in all the living organisms.

The bacterial chromosomes are circular. It has closed circular DNA. Linear
chromosomes are found in eukaryotes. Bridges in 1916 was the first to prove that the genes
are carried on the chromosome.

In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA molecule is packaged into thread-like structures
called chromosomes. Each chromosome is made up of DNA tightly coiled many times
around proteins called histones that support its structure.

Each chromosome has a constriction point called the centromere, which divides the
chromosome into two sections, or “arms.” The short arm of the chromosome is labeled the “p
arm.” The long arm of the chromosome is labeled the “q arm.” The location of the

20
centromere on each chromosome gives the chromosome its characteristic shape, and can be
used to help describe the location of specific gene.

In addition to a chromosome, certain bacteria contain a small, extra-chromosomal

circular DNA called plasmid. The plasmid is responsible for the antibiotic resistance in
some bacteria.

These plasmids are very much used in genetic engineering where the plasmids are
separated and re-incorporated, genes (specific pieces of DNA) can be inserted into plasmids,
which are then transplanted into bacteria using the techniques of genetic engineering.

Types of chromosomes
The chromosomes are classified into different types based on shape and position of
the centromere.
According to the position of centromere, the eukaryotic chromosomes may be rod
shaped (telocentric and acrocentric), L-shaped (sub-metacentric) and v- shaped (metacentric)
chromosomes.
There are two types of chromosomes based on their function. They are autosomes
and sex chromosomes.

1. Autosomes
They control the somatic characteristics of an organism.
2. Sex chromosomes
These chromosomes are involved in the determination of sex.

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Some other types of chromosomes are:

Unusual chromosomes
These chromosomes are abnormal chromosomes. They differ from the basic structure
of normal chromosomes. Eg. B-chromosomes and Double minutes. B-chromosomes are
also called supernumerary and accessory chromosomes.

Special types of chromosomes

Polytene chromosomes were observed by C.G. Balbiani in 1881 in the salivary
glands of Drosophila.
Lampbrush chromosomes were first observed first observed by Flemming in 1882.
It looked like brushes. They occur at the diplotene stage of meiotic prophase in occytes of an
animal Salamandor and in giant nucleus of the unicellular alga Acetabutaria.

DNA
DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all
other organisms. Nearly every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA.
Most of the DNA is located in the cell nucleus (where it is called nuclear DNA), but a
small amount of DNA can also be found in the mitochondria (where it is called mitochondrial
DNA or mtDNA).

Structure of DNA

 DNA is a macromolecular substance with double stranded polynucleotide.

 Each nucleotide is made up of pentose sugar, a phosphate group and a
nitrogenous base.
 Ribose is the constituent sugar in RNA and De-oxyribose in DNA.
 The nitrogenous bases are of two kinds – purines and pyrimidines.
 The nitrogenous bases found in DNA are adenine, guanine, cytosine and
thymine, whereas in RNA thymine is replaced by uracil.
 In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick proposed double helix DNA model.
 Erwin Chargaff in 1949 showed that
I. The bases pair in specific manner. Adenine always pairs with thymine
and guanine pairs with cytosine.
II. Total amount of purine nucleotides is always equal to the total amount
of pyrimidine nucleotides i.e.[A] + [G] = [T] + [C].

22
 III. The proportion of adenine is equal to thymine and so also of guanine is
equal to cytosine. But the [A] + [T] need not necessarily be equal to
[G] + [C].

Transgenic plants
 These plants were made to resist insect pests, viruses or herbicides through
incorporation of foreign gene into DNA of host plant cells.
 Streptomyces hygroscopicus encodes an enzyme, capable of inactivating the
herbicide ‘Basta’.
 Genes from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt2) have been introduced into several crops,
including tomato and cotton, and field-testing has demonstrated impressive results
against many pests.
 A strain of Pseudomonas putida that contained a hybrid plasmid. Genes
responsible for the decomposition of the hydrocarbons like camphor and octane
respectively present in the oil. This strain could grew rapidly on crude oil because
it was capable of metabolizing hydrocarbons more efficiently.

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STEM CELLS

 They are undifferentiated cells which undergo unlimited divisions and give rise to
one or more different types of cells. Embryonic stem cells differentiate into
different tissues and organs.

 Stem cells are used in the treatment of certain degenerative diseases.

 In present days umbilical cord blood is collected at the time of child birth and is
being stored in stem cell banks to treat any diseases in the future.

POINTS TO REMEMBER:
 Nerve cells do not undergo cell division due to the absence of centrioles.
 Air spaces in stems and petioles of lotus are useful for floating in water.
 Gene walking involves the complete sequencing of large more than 1 kb stretches of
DNA.

24