Navigating Global Waters:

A Comprehensive Literature Review on Indonesian Foreign Policy

1. Introduction
In an era defined by interconnectedness and geopolitical complexities,
understanding the foreign policy of nations is paramount. Indonesia, the world's largest
archipelago nation and a pivotal player in Southeast Asia, stands at the crossroads of
diverse cultures, economies, and strategic interests. “Navigating Global Waters: A
Comprehensive Literature Review on Indonesian Foreign Policy” delves into the intricate
tapestry of Indonesia's international relations, offering a comprehensive exploration of its
diplomatic strategies, regional engagements, and global aspirations.
This literature review serves as a scholarly compass, guiding readers through the
dynamic landscape of Indonesian foreign policy. By synthesizing a wide array of academic
research, policy analyses, and historical perspectives, it seeks to illuminate the underlying
principles, drivers, and challenges shaping Indonesia's interactions with the international
community. From its foundational principles of “Bhinneka Tunggal Ika” (Unity in
Diversity) to its contemporary pursuits of economic development, maritime security, and
diplomatic multilateralism, Indonesia's foreign policy trajectory reflects a nuanced
interplay of domestic imperatives and external pressures.
Furthermore, this review scrutinizes Indonesia's evolving roles within key regional
and global forums, such as ASEAN, the Non-Aligned Movement, and the G20,
highlighting its efforts to balance national interests with broader aspirations for peace,
stability, and cooperation. Through an interdisciplinary lens encompassing political
science, international relations, economics, and cultural studies, it unravels the
complexities of Indonesia's engagements with major powers, neighboring states, and
emerging actors, shedding light on the strategies employed to navigate an increasingly
complex geopolitical environment.
As Indonesia continues to assert its influence on the world stage, this literature
review offers invaluable insights for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners seeking a
deeper understanding of the dynamics shaping Indonesian foreign policy. By critically
examining existing scholarship and identifying avenues for future research, it aims to
contribute to ongoing dialogues surrounding Indonesia's role in regional security, economic
integration, and global governance, thus enriching our collective understanding of the
nation's place in the ever-evolving landscape of international relations.
Indonesia's foreign policy is a multifaceted phenomenon, shaped by a combination
of historical legacies, geographical realities, and contemporary imperatives. At its core lies
a commitment to the principles of sovereignty, territorial integrity, and national unity,
which have guided the nation's interactions with the outside world since its independence
in 1945. However, Indonesia's foreign policy orientation has evolved significantly over the
decades, reflecting changing domestic priorities, regional dynamics, and global trends.
 One of the defining features of Indonesia's foreign policy is its emphasis on the
principle of “dynamic equilibrium,” as articulated by the country's first president, Sukarno.
This principle advocates for a balanced approach to international relations, avoiding
entanglement in power blocs or ideological alliances while pursuing an active and
independent role on the world stage. In practice, this has translated into a policy of non-
alignment, whereby Indonesia seeks to maintain friendly relations with all nations while
preserving its sovereignty and autonomy.
Central to Indonesia's foreign policy agenda is its engagement with regional
organizations, particularly the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Founded
in 1967, ASEAN has emerged as a cornerstone of Indonesia's diplomatic strategy,
providing a platform for cooperation and dialogue among Southeast Asian nations.
Indonesia has played a leading role in shaping ASEAN's agenda, advocating for principles
of non-interference, consensus-building, and peaceful resolution of disputes.
In recent years, Indonesia has also sought to expand its influence beyond Southeast
Asia, engaging with a diverse array of regional and global actors. This has included efforts
to strengthen ties with neighboring countries such as Australia, Japan, and India, as well as
initiatives to enhance cooperation with major powers like the United States, China, and the
European Union. At the same time, Indonesia has remained committed to promoting South-
South cooperation and solidarity among developing nations, as exemplified by its role in
the Non-Aligned Movement and the Group of 77.
Economic diplomacy has emerged as a key priority for Indonesia in recent years,
reflecting the growing importance of trade, investment, and economic cooperation in
shaping international relations. As Southeast Asia's largest economy and a major emerging
market, Indonesia has sought to leverage its economic potential to enhance its standing in
the global arena. This has involved efforts to attract foreign investment, promote trade
liberalization, and strengthen economic ties with key partners around the world.
Maritime security has also emerged as a focal point of Indonesia's foreign policy
agenda, given the country's vast maritime territory and strategic location at the crossroads
of major shipping routes. Indonesia has prioritized efforts to safeguard its maritime
interests, combat piracy and illegal fishing, and promote sustainable development of its
marine resources. This has involved close cooperation with regional partners, as well as
initiatives to enhance maritime surveillance, patrols, and capacity-building.

2. Literature Review
2.1 G. R. Berridge Diplomacy: Theory and Practice, Hampshire dan New York:
Palgrave MacMillan, (2022)
“Diplomacy: Theory and Practice” by G. R. Berridge, published by Palgrave
MacMillan in 2022, offers a comprehensive exploration of the complexities and
nuances of diplomacy in the contemporary world. Berridge, a renowned scholar in the
field, brings together theoretical insights and practical examples to provide readers with
a thorough understanding of diplomacy as both an art and a science.
 One of the notable aspects of the book is its comprehensive coverage of
diplomatic theory. Berridge delves into the historical evolution of diplomacy, tracing
its roots back to ancient times and examining how it has adapted to the changing
geopolitical landscape. He explores various theoretical frameworks, including realism,
liberalism, constructivism, and postmodernism, offering critical insights into how these
perspectives shape diplomatic practices and outcomes.
In addition to theoretical discussions, Berridge offers practical insights drawn
from his extensive experience in the field. He analyzes case studies from around the
world, highlighting key diplomatic challenges and strategies employed by states and
international actors. By examining real-world examples, Berridge provides readers
with valuable lessons on the art of diplomacy, emphasizing the importance of
negotiation, communication, and strategic thinking in achieving diplomatic objectives.
Moreover, the book addresses contemporary issues and trends in diplomacy,
such as the impact of globalization, technological advancements, and the rise of non-
state actors. Berridge critically assesses the role of traditional diplomatic institutions,
such as embassies and ministries of foreign affairs, in an increasingly interconnected
world, while also exploring the emergence of new forms of diplomacy, such as digital
diplomacy and public diplomacy.
Throughout the book, Berridge adopts a lucid and accessible writing style,
making complex concepts understandable to both students and practitioners of
diplomacy. He incorporates a wealth of scholarly research and practical examples,
enriching the reader's understanding of the subject matter.

2.2 Michael Leifer, Indonesia’s Foreign Policy, Sydney, George Allen and Unwin,
1983.
“Indonesia’s Foreign Policy” by Michael Leifer, published by George Allen and
Unwin in 1983, remains a seminal work on the subject, offering a comprehensive
analysis of Indonesia's foreign relations during a critical period in its history. Leifer, a
respected scholar of Southeast Asian politics, provides readers with an in-depth
examination of Indonesia's foreign policy objectives, strategies, and challenges during
the era of President Suharto's New Order regime.
One of the key strengths of the book is its historical perspective. Leifer
contextualizes Indonesia's foreign policy within the broader framework of its post-
independence development, tracing the evolution of its diplomatic priorities and
engagements since the Sukarno era. By examining the historical legacies and domestic
political dynamics that shaped Indonesia's external relations, Leifer provides readers
with a nuanced understanding of the country's foreign policy trajectory.
Central to Leifer's analysis is an exploration of Indonesia's regional and global
engagements. He examines Indonesia's role within the Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN), its relations with neighboring countries, and its efforts to assert
leadership in the region. Additionally, Leifer discusses Indonesia's relations with major
powers such as the United States, China, and the Soviet Union, analyzing the factors
driving its strategic alignments and diplomatic maneuverings.
 Furthermore, Leifer delves into the ideological underpinnings of Indonesia's
foreign policy, particularly its anti-colonial and anti-imperialist stance during the
Sukarno era, and the subsequent shift towards pragmatic realism under Suharto. He
explores how Indonesia sought to balance its national interests with its desire for
regional leadership, navigating between conflicting priorities such as economic
development, security, and nationalism.
Another notable aspect of the book is its examination of the impact of domestic
politics on Indonesia's foreign policy decision-making. Leifer analyzes the role of key
actors within the Indonesian government, military, and bureaucracy, as well as the
influence of societal forces such as the business community and nationalist
organizations. By highlighting the interplay between domestic and international
factors, Leifer offers insights into the complexities of Indonesia's foreign policy
formulation and implementation.
Despite being published in 1983, Leifer's analysis remains relevant today for
scholars and policymakers interested in understanding Indonesia's foreign relations.
While some aspects of Indonesia's foreign policy may have evolved since the
publication of the book, Leifer's comprehensive analysis provides a solid foundation
for examining continuities and changes in Indonesia's diplomatic engagements over
time.

2.3 Franklin B. Weinstein, Indonesian Foreign Policy and the Dilemma of

Dependence: From Sukarno to Soeharto, Equinox Publishing (2007)
“Indonesian Foreign Policy and the Dilemma of Dependence: From Sukarno to
Soeharto” by Franklin B. Weinstein, published by Equinox Publishing in 2007, offers
a comprehensive examination of Indonesia's foreign relations from the Sukarno to the
Soeharto era. Weinstein, a distinguished scholar specializing in Southeast Asian
politics, provides readers with an insightful analysis of Indonesia's diplomatic
evolution during a period marked by significant domestic and international changes.
One of the book's notable strengths is its historical perspective. Weinstein
begins by contextualizing Indonesia's foreign policy within the broader framework of
its post-independence development, tracing the continuity and change in its diplomatic
priorities and strategies across different political regimes. By exploring the legacies of
Sukarno's revolutionary nationalism and Soeharto's authoritarian pragmatism,
Weinstein offers readers a nuanced understanding of the ideological and strategic
factors shaping Indonesia's foreign relations.
Central to Weinstein's analysis is an examination of Indonesia's regional and
global engagements. He delves into Indonesia's role within ASEAN and its efforts to
balance between asserting leadership in Southeast Asia and navigating relations with
major powers such as the United States, China, and the Soviet Union. Additionally,
Weinstein explores Indonesia's participation in multilateral forums and its
contributions to global governance issues, highlighting its emergence as a key player
in the international arena.
 Furthermore, Weinstein explores the dilemma of dependence that has
characterized Indonesia's foreign policy discourse. He analyzes the tensions between
Indonesia's aspirations for national autonomy and its reliance on external actors for
economic aid, military support, and diplomatic recognition. Through case studies and
empirical analysis, Weinstein sheds light on how Indonesia sought to navigate this
dilemma, balancing between asserting its sovereignty and pragmatically engaging with
the international community.
Another notable aspect of the book is its examination of the domestic
determinants of Indonesian foreign policy. Weinstein discusses the role of key political
actors, including the military, bureaucracy, and business elites, in shaping Indonesia's
diplomatic priorities and decisions. He also explores the influence of societal forces
such as nationalism, Islamism, and regionalism on Indonesia's external relations,
providing readers with insights into the complex interplay between domestic politics
and foreign policy.
Despite being published in 2007, Weinstein's analysis remains relevant for
scholars and policymakers interested in understanding Indonesia's foreign relations.
While some aspects of Indonesia's foreign policy may have evolved since the
publication of the book, Weinstein's comprehensive analysis provides a valuable
framework for examining continuities and changes in Indonesia's diplomatic
engagements over time.

2.4 Dewi Fortuna Anwar, Indonesia’s foreign relations: policy shaped by the ideal of
‘dynamic equilibrium’
“Indonesia’s Foreign Relations: Policy Shaped by the Ideal of 'Dynamic
Equilibrium'“ provides a nuanced and insightful analysis of Indonesia's foreign policy
approach, as articulated by Dewi Fortuna Anwar, a prominent Indonesian political
scientist and diplomat. Originally published on East Asia Forum in 2014, Anwar's
article offers a compelling exploration of Indonesia's diplomatic philosophy, which she
characterizes as guided by the concept of “dynamic equilibrium.”
Anwar's central argument revolves around the notion that Indonesia's foreign
policy is characterized by a delicate balance between competing interests and priorities,
both domestically and internationally. Drawing on historical precedents and
contemporary examples, she illustrates how Indonesia seeks to navigate a complex web
of relationships with various actors, including major powers, regional neighbors, and
international institutions.
One of the key strengths of Anwar's analysis is her emphasis on Indonesia's
commitment to maintaining independence and autonomy in its foreign relations. She
highlights Indonesia's historical struggle against colonialism and imperialism, as well
as its leadership role in promoting decolonization and non-alignment during the Cold
War era. Through this lens, Anwar portrays Indonesia as a staunch advocate for
sovereignty and self-determination in global affairs.
Moreover, Anwar explores how Indonesia's foreign policy is influenced by a
diverse array of factors, including domestic politics, economic interests, security
 concerns, and cultural values. She underscores the importance of pragmatism and
flexibility in Indonesia's diplomatic engagements, arguing that the country must adapt
to changing geopolitical realities while upholding its core principles and objectives.
Anwar's analysis also sheds light on Indonesia's role within the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and its broader engagement with the Asia-Pacific
region. She discusses Indonesia's efforts to promote regional stability, economic
cooperation, and multilateralism, while also addressing challenges such as territorial
disputes, maritime security, and human rights.
Furthermore, Anwar reflects on Indonesia's evolving relationship with major
powers such as the United States, China, and Japan. She examines how Indonesia seeks
to balance between competing interests and leverage its strategic position as a middle
power in the global arena. Anwar also considers Indonesia's engagement with emerging
powers and non-state actors, highlighting the country's commitment to fostering
dialogue, cooperation, and mutual understanding.

2.5 Rizal Sukma, “Indonesia’s Security Outlook, Defence Policy and Regional
Cooperation”, Asia-Pacific Countries’ Security Outlook and Its Implications for
the Defense Sector
Rizal Sukma's article, “Indonesia’s Security Outlook, Defence Policy and
Regional Cooperation,” contributes significantly to the understanding of Indonesia's
security landscape within the broader context of the Asia-Pacific region. Published as
a chapter in a larger work titled “Asia-Pacific Countries’ Security Outlook and Its
Implications for the Defense Sector,” Sukma's analysis offers a comprehensive review
of Indonesia's security outlook, defense policy, and its engagement in regional
cooperation initiatives.
One of the article's key strengths lies in its detailed exploration of Indonesia's
security challenges and priorities. Sukma provides insights into the diverse array of
security threats facing Indonesia, including traditional concerns such as territorial
integrity, military modernization, and defense capabilities, as well as non-traditional
challenges like terrorism, transnational crime, and natural disasters. By examining
these multifaceted security issues, Sukma underscores the complex and dynamic nature
of Indonesia's security environment.
Moreover, Sukma delves into Indonesia's defense policy and strategic outlook,
offering analysis on how the country's defense posture is shaped by its historical
experiences, geopolitical considerations, and national interests. He discusses
Indonesia's emphasis on a “minimum essential force” doctrine, which prioritizes self-
reliance, territorial defense, and non-alignment in its defense strategy. Sukma also
explores Indonesia's defense modernization efforts and its pursuit of strategic
partnerships with key international actors to enhance its defense capabilities.
Another significant aspect of Sukma's analysis is his examination of Indonesia's
engagement in regional cooperation mechanisms, particularly within the framework of
ASEAN and other multilateral forums. He discusses Indonesia's role in promoting
regional security architecture, confidence-building measures, and conflict resolution
 mechanisms in Southeast Asia. Sukma also highlights Indonesia's participation in
initiatives such as the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), the East Asia Summit (EAS),
and maritime security cooperation efforts, reflecting its commitment to fostering peace,
stability, and cooperation in the Asia-Pacific region.
Furthermore, Sukma reflects on the implications of Indonesia's security outlook
and defense policy for the broader defense sector in the Asia-Pacific region. He
discusses the potential for collaboration, capacity-building, and joint exercises among
regional actors to address common security challenges and build mutual trust. Sukma
also emphasizes the importance of dialogue, diplomacy, and conflict prevention in
managing tensions and promoting regional peace and stability.

2.6 Benjamin S. Day, Valerie M. Hudson, Foreign Policy Analysis: Classic And
Contemporary Theory, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers (2020)
“Foreign Policy Analysis: Classic and Contemporary Theory” by Benjamin S.
Day and Valerie M. Hudson, published by Rowman & Littlefield Publishers in 2020,
offers a comprehensive examination of the theories and frameworks that shape the
study of foreign policy. Day and Hudson, both esteemed scholars in the field of
international relations, provide readers with a thorough exploration of classic and
contemporary approaches to understanding the decision-making processes, actors, and
dynamics that influence foreign policy formulation and implementation.
One of the key strengths of the book is its systematic review of classic theories
of foreign policy analysis. Day and Hudson delve into foundational perspectives such
as realism, liberalism, and constructivism, offering readers a deep understanding of
how these theoretical frameworks conceptualize states, power, interests, and
interactions in the international system. By critically assessing the strengths and
limitations of each approach, the authors provide readers with a solid theoretical
foundation for analyzing foreign policy dynamics.
Moreover, Day and Hudson incorporate contemporary perspectives and debates
into their analysis. They explore emerging theories such as feminist, postcolonial, and
critical approaches to foreign policy, which offer new insights into issues of identity,
agency, and power in international relations. By engaging with these diverse
perspectives, the authors broaden the scope of foreign policy analysis and encourage
readers to critically reflect on traditional assumptions and biases in the field.
Another notable aspect of the book is its focus on the role of individual and
collective actors in foreign policy decision-making. Day and Hudson examine the
influence of leaders, bureaucracies, interest groups, and public opinion on the
formulation and execution of foreign policy. They also explore the impact of domestic
politics, institutional structures, and societal norms on the behavior of states in the
international arena. Through case studies and empirical analysis, the authors illustrate
how these factors shape foreign policy outcomes in different contexts.
Furthermore, Day and Hudson address contemporary challenges and trends in
foreign policy analysis, such as globalization, technological innovation, and the rise of
non-state actors. They discuss how these developments are reshaping the conduct of
diplomacy, the nature of conflict, and the dynamics of international cooperation. By
examining these issues through multiple theoretical lenses, the authors offer readers a
nuanced understanding of the complexities of contemporary foreign policy..