Digital Games in Language Learning

DIGITAL GAMES IN LANGUAGE LEARNING
This edited volume provides a comprehensive overview of contemporary research into the
application of digital games in second and foreign language teaching and learning.
As the use of digital games in foreign language education continues to expand, there is a need
for publications that provide a window into recent innovations in this increasingly influential
area of language education. This volume is wide ranging in scope incorporating both theory and
practice and includes contributions from authorities in the field. Areas covered include research
reviews and a range of case studies conducted in a variety of international contexts.
This volume represents an essential guide to developments in this field and will have wide
appeal to students, language educators, game and instructional designers.
Mark Peterson is an Associate Professor at Kyoto University, where he established and now
directs a research lab focusing on computer assisted language learning.
Nasser Jabbari is an Assistant Professor of TESOL and Applied Linguistics at the University
of Essex. His research interest lies at the interface between L2 learning and digital technologies.
New Directions in Computer Assisted Language Learning
Series Editors: Mark Peterson and Mariusz Kruk
Understanding Emotions in English Language Learning in Virtual Worlds

Mariusz Kruk and Mirosław Pawlak
Digital Games in Language Learning

Case Studies and Applications
Edited by Mark Peterson and Nasser Jabbari
Individual differences in Computer Assisted Language Learning Research

Mirosław Pawlak and Mariusz Kruk
DIGITAL GAMES IN
LANGUAGE LEARNING
Case studies and applications
Edited by Mark Peterson and Nasser Jabbari

First published 2023
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Names: Peterson, Mark, 1965- editor. | Jabbari, Nasser, editor.
Title: Digital games in language learning : case studies and applications / edited by Mark
Peterson and Nasser Jabbari.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2023. | Series: New
directions in computer assisted language learning | Includes bibliographical
references and index. |Identifiers: LCCN 2022005916 (print) | LCCN 2022005917
(ebook) | ISBN 9781032145969 (hardback) | ISBN 9781032145976 (paperback) |
ISBN 9781003240075 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Language and languages–Computer-assisted instruction. | Language and
languages–Study and teaching–Foreign speakers. | Electronic games in education. |
Gamification. | LCGFT: Essays.
Classification: LCC P53.299 .D55 2023 (print) | LCC P53.299 (ebook) | DDC
418.0078/5–dc23/eng/20220524
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022005916
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022005917
ISBN: 978-1-032-14596-9 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-14597-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-24007-5 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003240075
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by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.
CONTENTS
List of figures vii

List of tables ix
List of contributors xi
Preface xv
Foreword xvi
Acknowledgements xvii
1 Digital games and foreign language learning: Context and future

development 1
Mark Peterson and Nasser Jabbari
2 A systematic review of theory-informed design and implementation

of digital game-based language learning 14
Rui Huang and Matthew Schmidt
3 Use of digital game creation tools in computer assisted language

learning: A systematic literature review 35
Anke Berns and Iván Ruiz-Rube
4 A methodological framework for analyzing the language in

digital games 52
Daniel H. Dixon
5 Direct qualitative assessment of language learning outcomes in

digital game-based interaction: An exploratory case study 74
Michael Hofmeyr
6 Let’s play videos and L2 academic vocabulary 93

Liss Kerstin Sylvén and John Löwenadler
vi Contents
7 Exploring ESL students’ perceived engagement in and experience

of content vocabulary learning through virtual reality games 109
Muleyke Sahinler Albayrak, Julian Chen and P. John Williams
8 Becoming a resourceful language learner in a narrative-driven

participatory game 136
Zeyu Cui, Jin Dong, Yang Liu, Michaela Nuesser, Huaiqing Zhang,
Dongping Zheng and Yuanqing Zuo
9 Interaction games to boost intercultural communication in virtual

worlds and video-communication: A case study 158
Kristi Jauregi-Ondarra and Silvia Canto
Index 183
FIGURES
2.1 PRISMA Flowchart of the Screening Process 20

2.2 Distribution of Theories in the 65 Manuscripts across
Six Meta-categories 23
3.1 Frequency of End-user Authoring Tools Used in FLL 42
3.2 Educational Level at Which End-user Authoring
Tools were Used 42
3.3 Learning Goals 43
3.4 Language Content and Skills Targeted 43
3.5 Duration of Study 44
3.6 Sample Size 44
3.7 Educational Outcomes 45
4.1 Interactive Speech in the Witcher 60
4.2 Immersive Speech Instance from Divinity 61
4.3 Example of the Attribute ‘Strength’ in Divinity 64
4.4 Comparison of Quest Text Instances from Skyrim (Top) and
Divinity (Bottom) 64
4.5 Example of Lore in the Witcher 65
4.6 Screenshot of a Tutorial Text Instance from the Witcher 66
4.7 Comparison of Linguistic Features Mean Frequency
Difference (Cohen’s d) 68
5.1 Example Bomb Consisting of a Timer and Three Puzzle Modules
on the Front Face 78
5.2 Example Keypad Module with Lambda-Like Symbol at the
Bottom Left 81
5.3 Example Three-Letter Label Appearing on the Side
of the Bomb 82
5.4 Example Simon Says Module with Yellow Button
Flashing 83
5.5 Example Maze Module 84
6.1 Frequency Levels Represented in the Data 99
6.2 Frequency Levels K2 and AWL in the Data 99
viii Figures
7.1 Sample of Google Cardboard VR (Othree, 2014) 114

7.2 A Screenshot from InCell (Luden.io, 2017a) 115
7.3 Sample of an Exit Slip Prompt Followed by a Participant’s
Response116
8.1 Collection 1: Let’s Get Started and Introduce Yourselves 146
8.2 Collection 2: Start off the Picture Book by Introducing the
Professional Roles (i.e., the Player Characters) the Participants
Will Need to Pick 147
8.3 Collection 3: Introduce the Professional Community Distributed
on Facebook and WeChat 147
8.4 Collection 4: Begin the Journey into Bizhuwanshang 148
8.5 Collection 5: Meet the Panda Family for Concluding the Story 148
9.1 VC Group Instructions for Task 3 163
9.2 VC Group Playing Snakes and Ladders 164
9.3 VW Group Playing Snakes and Ladders 164
9.4 VW Group Playing the Cultural Quiz 165
9.5 VC Group Playing the Escape Room 165
9.6 VW Group Playing the Treasure Hunt 166
9.7 Example 1a 175
9.8 Example 1b 176
9.9 Example 2 177
TABLES
2.1 Summary of Literature Reviews Focusing on DGBLL Since 2011 16

2.2 Literature Search Results in Ten Academic Databases 19
2.3 Coding Scheme for this Systematic Review Study 21
2.4 Sociocultural Theories and Publication Sources 23
2.5 Cognitive Theories and Publication Sources 24
2.6 Motivation Theories and Publication Sources 24
2.7 SLA, Constructivism, and Behavioural Theories Publication
Sources24
2.8 Theory-informed Design, Implementation, and Evaluation
by Game Types 26
3.1 Searches Performed 39
3.2 Classification of Studies Included 41
3.A List of Studies Included 51
4.1 The Single Player Off line Corpus (SPOC) Word and Text Counts 56
4.2 Features of Conversation Included in Analysis 57
4.3 Spoken Game Registers: Interactive Speech and Immersive Speech 59
4.4 Written Game Registers: Character and Quest Text 62
4.5 Written Game Registers: Lore and Tutorial Text 63
4.6 SPOC Word and Text Counts per Register Category 67
4.7 Features of Conversation Mean Frequencies per 1,000 Words 67
4.8 Linguistic Features Mean Frequency Differences and Standard
Deviations (Cohen’s d)69
5.1 Summary of Probable Acquisition Episodes (PAEs) Involving
the Acquisition of Vocabulary 80
5.2 Summary of Probable Acquisition Episodes (PAEs) Involving
the Acquisition of Grammatical Structures 81
7.1 Summary of Participants’ Demographic Information 113
7.2 Summary of VR Games and Relevant Subject Areas 114
7.3 Summary of Data Collection Procedure 115
7.4 ESL Learners’ Overall Perceptions and Effects of Headset-Enabled
VR Games on Vocabulary Acquisition 118
x Tables
7.5 Summary of Vocabulary Items Students Wrote in Exit Slips 121

8.1 Keyword Group and Keywording Codings of Becoming 143
8.2 Keyword Group and Keywording Codings of Caring 144
8.3 Keyword Group and Keywording Codings of Coordinating 145
8.4 Keyword Group and Keywording Codings of Second Order 145
8.5 The Five Most Frequently Occurring Keywords among
All Collections and the Percentage of Contribution of Each
Keyword to Each Collection 149
8.6 Themes of Clips Embedding Becoming a Resourceful Learner 150
8.7 Occurrence of Becoming a Resourceful Learner in Different Collections 151
8.8 Mediator and Learner 151
9.1 Number of Students Responses According to Research Instruments
per Condition 167
9.2 Statistical Analysis Related to Games 168
9.3 Statistical Analysis Related to Technology and Environment 170
9.4 Statistical Analysis Related to Engagement and Flow 172
9.5 Statistical Analysis Related to Anxiety and Self-efficacy 173
9.6 Statistical Analysis Related to Lingua Franca Use and
International Dimension 174
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Muleyke Sahinler Albayrak received her B.S. degree in English language teaching from Gazi
University, Turkey and her M.S. degree in educational technologies from Fatih University,
Turkey. She is a PhD candidate in the School of Education at Curtin University, Western
Australia. Her current research is concerned with utilizing headset enabled 3D virtual reality
games to teach content-based vocabulary to ESL learners. She has worked as a project coordinator
at Fatih University IT Academy, Turkey, aiming to develop gifted students’ coding skills.
Anke Berns currently holds a position as a Senior Lecturer of German at the University of
Cadiz, receiving her PhD in 2002. Her research focuses on the use of emerging technologies in
the teaching and learning of foreign languages. Anke is particularly interested in design-based
research, learner motivation, and learner needs. She has collaborated on several EU-funded
projects and has made numerous contributions to peer-reviewed journals and conferences.
Silvia Canto is a Lecturer of Spanish at Utrecht University. Her research activity focuses on task
design for virtual exchanges (virtual worlds, videoconferencing, and immersive virtual reality)
and the added value these practices represent to encourage intercultural communication in the
language curricula. She has collaborated on European research projects that integrate virtual
exchanges in blended language programmes. A list of publications with the results of her research
can be found at the following URL: https://www.uu.nl/staff/SCanto/Research%20output
Julian Chen is a Senior Lecturer of Applied Linguistics/TESOL and the Course Coordinator of
Asian Languages at the School of Education, Curtin University. His research involves technology-
enhanced language learning, task-based language teaching, 3D virtual learning, netnography,
and action research. His work has appeared in multiple flagship journals such as Modern
Language Journal, TESOL Quarterly, Language Teaching Research, System, Computers & Education,
ReCALL, and Computer-assisted Language Learning. He is currently the Book Review Editor
of the Australian Review of Applied Linguistics Journal, and Editor of the timely volume, Emergency
Remote Teaching and Beyond: Voices from World Language Teachers and Researchers (Springer).
Zeyu Cui received his B.S. degree in Geographic Information Science from Northeast Forestry
University, Harbin, China in 2019. He is currently working on his master’s degree at the Institute
xii List of Contributors
of Forest Resources Information Techniques, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing, China. His
major research interest is utilizing 3-D simulation in forestry.
Daniel H. Dixon is an Assistant Professor at Georgia State University. His research focuses
on Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) and, in particular, Digital Game-based
Language Learning (DGBLL). Before coming to NAU in 2018, he spent four years teaching
at the University of Utah Asia Campus which opened in 2014 in Songdo, South Korea. Before
moving to South Korea, he spent most of 2014 teaching in Cuiabá in the State of Mato Grosso
in Brazil working as a Fulbright English Teaching Assistantship. He received his MA in Applied
Linguistics at the University of Utah in Salt Lake City in 2014.
Jin Dong is a PhD candidate in the Department of East Asian Languages and Literatures at
the University of Hawai’i at Mānoa. She received her Master’s degree in Second Language
Acquisition from Beijing Language and Culture University. Her research interests include (trans)
languaging, Distributed Language, Ecolinguistics, Virtual World/Reality, and Game-Assisted
Language Learning.
Michael Hofmeyr is a Specially Appointed Associate Professor in the Graduate School of

Humanities at Osaka University, where he teaches general linguistics and English for academic
purposes. He has published research articles and book chapters on computer-assisted language
learning, innovative approaches for teaching critical thinking in an EFL context, and linguistic
diversity in Japan. He is currently pursuing a doctoral degree in Applied Linguistics at Kyoto
University.
Rui Huang is a doctoral candidate with a major in Educational Technology in the School of
Teaching and Learning and minor in Computer Science with a focus on Human-Centered
Computing at the University of Florida. She holds a M.Ed in Curriculum and Instruction with a
focus on Learning Technology from University of Minnesota. Her primary research focuses on
the design, development, implementation, and assessment of immersive learning environments
for second language learners and vulnerable populations. She serves as the Editorial Assistant
for the Journal of Research on Technology in Education (an ISTE flagship journal).
Nasser Jabbari is a lecturer in applied linguistics and language teaching, Department of

language and linguistics at the University of Essex (UK). He received a Ph.D. (in curriculum
and instruction, ESL) from Texas A&M University (USA). His research interests include both
‘naturalistic’ and ‘tutorial’ CALL, more specifically, language use and learning in social media
and online gaming environments. His current research focuses on the psycholinguistic and
sociocultural processes underlying SLA and L2 socialization in multi-lingual and multi-cultural
contexts of massively multiplayer online (role-playing) games.
Kristi Jauregi-Ondarra is an Associate Professor at Utrecht University and a member of the

‘Language Education’ research group at UiL-OTS. Her main area of research is on CALL,
particularly on the role virtual exchanges play in language learning processes, the development
of intercultural awareness and changes on teachers’ pedagogical methodologies. Her recent focus
of study centers on the impact immersive Virtual Reality, Augmented Reality and games have
on language learning processes. She has initiated and coordinated innovative European projects
(TeCoLa, TILA & NIFLAR) and has published extensively on CALL relevant issues (https://
www.uu.nl/staff/MKJauregiOndarra/Research%20output).
List of Contributors xiii
Yang Liu received her B.S. degree in digital media technology from Harbin Normal University,
Harbin, China in 2017. She is currently working on her Ph.D. degree at the Institute of Forest
Resources Information Techniques, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing, China. Her major
research interests include utilizing satellite and ground-based sensors for wetland resource
monitoring.
John Löwenadler is an Associate Professor of Language Education at the University of

Gothenburg. He has carried out research on a number of different topics, such as theoretical
linguistics, the relationship between first and second language learning and different aspects of
language assessment. His studies have involved qualitative as well as quantitative data, such as
test-taker introspections and large-scale assessment data. John Löwenadler has published papers in
journals such as Language Testing, Nordic Journal of Linguistics, Morphology and Constructions
and Frames, as well as authored chapters in a number of anthologies.
Michaela Nuesser is a Ph.D. student at the University of Hawai’i at Mānoa’s Second Language
Studies Department. Going through teacher education in Germany, she received a Master of
Education in German and English from RWTH Aachen University and then a Master of Arts
in German from the University of Alabama, both in 2019. Her interests are Ecolinguistics,
Distributed Language, Psycholinguistics, and Virtual Reality use in Language Teaching. She is
part of the RIDLLE group that designs distributed language learning environments.
Mark Peterson is an Associate Professor of foreign language studies at Kyoto University. He

has published widely in the field of computer assisted language learning and is the author of
Computer Games and Language Learning (Palgrave) and editor of Digital Games and Language
Learning: Theory, Development and Implementation (Bloomsbury). Dr Peterson established and now
directs a research lab (https://petersonlab.weebly.com) dedicated to investigating the effective
use of digital technologies in foreign language learning.
Iván Ruiz-Rube is an Assistant Professor at the University of Cadiz. He received his master’s
degree in software engineering and technology from the University of Seville in 2010 and his
PhD from the University of Cadiz in 2013. His fields of research are technology-enhanced
learning and software process improvement. He has published several papers in these fields.
Previously, he has worked as a software engineer for consulting companies such as Everis Spain
S.L. and Sadiel S.A.
Matthew Schmidt, Ph.D., is Associate Professor at the University of Florida (UF) in the
Educational Technology program, faculty in the Institute for Advanced Learning Technologies,
and director of the Advanced Learning Technologies Studio. His primary research interest
centers around design and development of innovative educational courseware and computer
software with a particular focus on individuals with disabilities and their families/caregivers. His
secondary research interests include immersive learning and learning experience design.
Liss Kerstin Sylvén is Professor of Language Education at the University of Gothenburg.

She obtained her Ph.D. in English linguistics, and her research interests include various
perspectives of computer assisted language learning (CALL), content and language integrated
learning (CLIL), second language vocabulary acquisition, motivation, individual differences
and extramural English. She has co-authored a book about extramural English (Palgrave
MacMillan, 2016), and edited a volume about CLIL (Multilingual Matters, 2019). She has
xiv List of Contributors
published in, among others, CALICO Journal, the International Journal of Bilingual Education
and Bilingualism, Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Education, Studies in Second
Language Learning and Teaching, and ReCALL.
P. John Williams is a Professor of Education and the Director of Graduate Research in the School
of Education at Curtin University in Perth, Western Australia, where he teaches and supervises
research students in STEM and technology education. Apart from Australia, he has worked and
studied in a number of African and Indian Ocean countries and in New Zealand and the United
States. His current research interests include STEM, mentoring beginning teachers, PCK
and electronic assessment of performance. He regularly presents at international and national
conferences, consults on Technology Education in a number of countries, and is a longstanding
member of eight professional associations. He is the series editor of the Springer Contemporary
Issues in Technology Education and is on the editorial board of six professional journals. He has
authored or contributed to over 250 publications, and has been elected to the International
Technology and Engineering Education Association’s Academy of Fellows for prominence in
the profession.
Huaiqing Zhang received his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in forest management from the Chinese
Academy of Forestry (CAF), Beijing, China in 1998 and 2001, respectively. He is currently
a Professor, Chief Expert on visualization and simulation, and Director of the Department
of Visualization Simulation and Monitoring at the Institute of Forest Resources Information
Techniques, Chinese Academy of Forestry in Beijing, China. His major research interests
include forest visualization and simulation techniques, and monitoring of wetland resources
using satellite and ground-based sensors.
Dongping Zheng is an Associate Professor in the Department of Second Language Studies at

the University of Hawai’i at Mānoa. She is also affiliated with the Center for Linguistics and
Applied Linguistics at Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, China. Her research interests
include (trans) languaging, ecolinguistics, virtual world/reality, and mobile-assisted place-based
language learning. Her interdisciplinary research effort has focused on creating distributed
language learning environments to contextualize being and becoming with ecological niches.
Her publications appear in diverse journals, e.g., Language Sciences, Modern Language Journal,
Linguistics and Education, ReCALL, CALICO, Educational Technology Research and Development.
She leads the RIDLLE group that designs distributed language learning environments.
Yuanqing Zuo received his B.S. degree in geographic information science from Wuhan
University of technology, Wuhan, China in 2019. He is currently working on his master’s degree
at the Institute of Forest Resources Information Techniques, Chinese Academy of Forestry,
Beijing, China. His major research interests include visual simulation in forestry.
PREFACE
As digital gaming continues to expand its reach across the globe, educators are increasingly
turning their attention to harnessing its potential for learning. Educators in the field of foreign
language education are in the forefront of this development. An examination of the current lit-
erature reveals a significant increase in the work in this field in recent years. However, although
this trend is to be welcomed, it is also evident that research is still limited in scope. In fact, there
are many aspects of the application of digital games in foreign language learning that remain
under-researched. It is in this context that this volume was first proposed. As the field expands,
it is clear that there is a pressing need for more book-length publications that bring together
reviews and other types of evaluative research that can provide guidance in both the concep-
tualization and implementation of future studies. Moreover, there is also a need for case studies
and other types of work that will provide a window into contemporary applications of digital
games in learner-based research. Although the editors are aware that no one volume can com-
pletely capture the diverse nature of work in this area, it is their hope that this publication can
contribute to beneficial and systematic development in the field.
This edited volume incorporates work from a multinational group of researchers working in
a variety of contexts and as such, it offers new and significant insights into the nature of contem-
porary research. Furthermore, the range of studies examined in this volume offers practitioners
the opportunity to access a rich source of both findings on and innovative approaches to the
application of digital games in language learning. Looking to the future, it is the editors’ view
that the collection of studies in this volume will act as a valuable resource to educators, research-
ers and students, as they embark on research in this dynamic and exciting field of endeavor.
FOREWORD
The desire to play is a fundamental characteristic of all human beings. The homo ludens in each
of us provides a powerful motivation to engage in games and gaming, now framed for the lan-
guage learner within a digital world. With this in mind, using gaming to stimulate L2 learning
has been one of the most promising nascent areas of research and application in L2 studies. As
such, the present publication – Digital games in language learning and teaching: case studies and appli-
cations, edited by Mark Peterson and Nasser Jabbari – is a welcome addition that brings language
practitioners up to date on gaming for L2 development.
This nine-chapter book covers a broad range of issues with an eye to tackling head-on two
problems that have plagued the field of language gaming from the start: (1) The lack of a learning
theory that could frame or underpin both game design and implementation, and (2) the scant evi-
dence of linguistic gains specifically attributed to the gaming activities themselves. (In all fairness,
tracking linguistic progress remains a thorny issue for all L2 studies.). In Chapter 2, the authors
analyze a representative sampling of gaming articles to show that only about a third of them make
explicit reference to a learning theory, with the sociocultural approach being the most popular and,
more likely than not, mostly applied to design issues. References to other prominent L2 theories
and issues of implementation are scarce. By drawing attention to this situation, this publication
renders a decided service to the field, a vox clamantis, as it were to other researchers.
Other chapters reveal the latest trends in game creation tools, enabled VR, gamified digital
books, YouTube-based game videos, and intercultural game-based learning. Chapter 4 deserves
special mention, too, as it provides a conversation analysis approach based on communicative
situations. As most of the linguistic evidence cited in the gaming literature deals with lexical
progress, an in-depth look at which conversational situations are dealt with in certain games is
of great interest. One hopes that other topics in syntax and formulaic language will also become
familiar themes for future gaming research.
As with all technology, the digital infrastructure of the digital gaming world is changing at a
frightening pace, which is why this book makes such a felicitous mark and, no doubt, it will be
much appreciated by the L2 field.
Robert Blake
Professor Emeritus
University of California Davis
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The editors would like to express their gratitude to the following reviewers who made an invaluable
contribution to the production of this volume:
Krzysztof Kotuła (Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Poland)

Mariusz Kruk (University of Zielona Góra, Poland)
Chengchen Li (Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China)
Maryam Sadat Mirzaei (Riken, Japan)
Mirosław Pawlak (Adam Mickiewicz University, Poland)
Joanna Pitura (Pedagogical University of Cracow, Poland)
Majid Elahi Shirvan (University of Bojnord, Iran)
Aleksandra Wach (Adam Mickiewicz University, Poland).
1
DIGITAL GAMES AND FOREIGN
LANGUAGE LEARNING
Context and future development
Mark Peterson and Nasser Jabbari
1.1 Introduction
The spread of digital gaming as a global phenomenon continues to accelerate. As is emphasized
in the literature, the gaming industry is expanding at an unprecedented rate, and its influence
is increasingly felt not only in youth culture but also in the social, economic, and educational
realms (Reinhardt & Sykes, 2014). In the sphere of education, digital games in their many man-
ifestations are being increasingly deployed as a means to facilitate learning across a wide range
of domains (Connolly et al., 2012). Influenced by this trend, in the field of CALL, researchers
have highlighted the opportunities for language learning provided by digital games (Reinhardt
& Sykes, 2012). These include extensive exposure to target language (TL) input, meaningful,
challenging and motivating interaction involving languaging, problem solving, and participa-
tion in diverse and multinational game-focused online communities (Peterson, 2013). In this
context, educators have explored the potential of a variety of digital games for language learning
in a diverse and growing body of work. This effort incorporates two main approaches. One
strand of research involves the implementation of learner-based studies that adopt qualitative,
quantitative, and mixed methods. Moreover, in an effort to better comprehend this complex
phenomenon, researchers have also produced increasing numbers of reviews, meta-analyses,
and theoretically informed position papers that draw on developments in contemporary second
language acquisition (SLA) research. The emergence of this body of research in a relatively short
period of time is testament to the growing interest in, and influence of, work in this area on the
wider CALL research community.
As research in all its forms continues to expand, there is a need for publications that provide
a window into developments in contemporary work and pedagogy, involving both the theory
and application of contemporary digital games in second and foreign language learning. In this
context, the current volume aims, in part, to enhance understanding of this promising field.
Although no single publication can fully incorporate the broad range of work currently being
undertaken, it is the authors’ hope that this volume may assist in this important task. In addition,
this publication is further designed to provide insights that may, going forward, support innova-
tive and principled development in the future. The discussion in the following section focuses on
providing an overview of the studies incorporated in this edited volume and will also examine
some of their significant findings.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003240075-1
2 Mark Peterson and Nasser Jabbari
1.2 An overview of this volume

As researchers emphasize, there is a pressing need for rigorous evaluative work in the field of
CALL (Plonsky & Ziegler, 2016) and, in particular, expanding areas such as digital game-based
language learning (henceforth DGBLL) (Xu et al., 2020). Moreover, a common theme in the
research literature is the need for expansion in the types of review work that play a central role in
shaping the future research agenda (Peterson, 2021). The second chapter of this volume entitled
A Systematic Review of Theory-Informed Design and Implementation of Digital Game-Based Language
Learning by Rui Huang and Matthew Schmidt marks a significant contribution to work in this
area. The authors acknowledge that review work is increasing. However, they draw attention
to a research gap in the literature concerning the limited number of systematic reviews that
focus on exploring the theoretical groundings that influence the design, implementation, and
evaluation of empirical research. In an effort to address this issue, the authors of this chapter
conduct a rigorous systematic review of 65 theory-informed studies involving both serious and
commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) digital games undertaken during the period 2011–2020. The
analysis of this peer-reviewed work reveals that the most frequently referenced body of theory
was sociocultural research, followed by various cognitive theories. It was further found that in
the majority of studies, theory was utilized to inform the research design. Research projects
where theory influenced evaluation and implementation were less frequent. The authors draw
attention to the limited number of theory-informed studies in the current research base and
argue that going forward, there is a need for additional learner-based work in which SLA theory
places a central role in informing design, evaluation, and implementation.
A growing trend in contemporary CALL research is the attempt to maximize the potential
for learning provided by many COTS digital games by adapting them to better meet the needs
of the language classroom. Work in this area has focused primarily on the adaption of mas-
sively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) and has produced some encouraging
results (Chotipaktanasook & Reinders, 2018). In this context, recent developments in end-user
authoring tools have made it feasible for CALL practitioners to create digital games specifically
designed to facilitate foreign language learning. Research in this area is therefore set to expand.
However, to date, no reviews have been reported in the literature that could contribute to
principled development work in this area. The third chapter of this volume Use of Digital Game
Creation Tools in Computer Assisted Language Learning: A Systematic Literature Review by Anke Berns
and Iván Ruiz-Rube addresses this issue. The authors report on the findings of a systematic
review that investigated 12 peer- reviewed research studies on the application of these tools. The
analysis shows that research focused on the use of three authoring tools: Scratch (https://scratch.
mit.edu), App Inventor (http://appinventor.mit.edu), and CoSpaces (https://cospaces.io/edu/). It
was found that Scratch was the most frequently implemented tool and that the majority of stud-
ies were carried out in primary education contexts. The authors further note that the majority of
the research focused on designing games that enhance oral skills. Other areas of interest included
writing and vocabulary learning. Although the studies reported positive learning outcomes, the
discussion in this chapter draws attention to limitations including the small number of partici-
pants and relatively brief durations of the majority of the projects. Based on the results of their
analysis, the authors note the need for more research and highlight the importance of teacher
training in this area.
An important area of interest in current research on DGBLL concerns analysis of the particu-
lar linguistic environments provided (Thorne et al., 2012). This is clearly a significant issue, as a
major motivation for projects that seek to engage learners with various genres of digital games is
the potentially valuable exposure provided to the TL. However, there is a tendency to generalize
Digital Games and Foreign Language Learning 3
claims regarding learning outcomes to specific genres. This may be problematic, as is noted
in the literature, there can be considerable variation in game mechanics and features within
specific game genres (Reinhardt, 2021). The fourth chapter by Daniel Dixon A Methodological
Framework for Analyzing the Language in Digital Games addresses this issue. In an attempt to better
understand the specific linguistic environments presented by one class of digital game, namely,
single-player role-playing games the author draws on two sources. Reinhardt’s (2019) design
informed approach to research in DGBLL and also the model of register analysis proposed by
Biber and Conrad (2019). These approaches are incorporated into a comprehensive framework
designed to facilitate the description, categorization, and analysis of the TL found in digital
games. Analyzing the TL from four games of the above genre that share similar designs and
mechanics, the author identifies six unique register categories specific to these games including
two spoken and four written registers. This chapter concludes by noting the potential of this
approach in identifying the specific nature of the linguistic input learners receive in different
types of digital game. Moreover, the author further highlights the possibilities presented to
evaluate the effectiveness of particular digital games for language learning and also the potential
for enhancing the credibility of the generalizations made regarding the benefits of participating
in DGBLL.
One of the hypothesized benefits of utilizing digital games lies in the opportunities they
may provide for learners to engage in authentic, meaningful, and goal-directed interaction in
the TL (Pasfield-Neofitou, 2014). As noted in the literature, many well-designed digital games
incorporate these features that are a major element in task-based approaches to language learn-
ing that seek to facilitate language development (Reinhardt & Thorne, 2020). The fifth chapter
in this volume Direct Qualitative Assessment of Language Learning Outcomes in Digital Game-Based
Interaction: An Exploratory Case Study by Michael Hofmeyr, reports on research that investigated
the use of the cooperative puzzle game, Keep Talking and Nobody Explodes by a group of EFL
learners based at a university in Japan. In this research, the learners were required to cooperate
in completing meaning-focused information gap tasks embedded in the game, such as, sharing
information in the TL to defuse a simulated bomb before the timer reaches zero. The researcher
focused on analyzing the TL output produced by the participants over four game sessions that
were conducted over a one-month period. Discourse analysis of the data revealed that the above
game’s particular information gap format elicited the production of authentic and meaning-fo-
cused TL output. Data further showed preliminary evidence suggesting that participation in
the research appeared to facilitate L2 vocabulary learning and grammatical knowledge. The
researcher argues that the promising findings of this study highlight the potential of this type of
game and draw attention to the need for further research.
A noteworthy strand of research on the use of digital games in foreign language education
concerns the investigation of the informal online communities and interactive media associated
with many of these games (Ryu, 2013). Researchers have drawn attention to the potential of
game-focused communities, networks, and spaces that frequently operate outside the confines
of traditional educational institutions (Reinhardt & Thorne, 2016). It is claimed that in these
environments, users are not only exposed to TL rich contexts but are also provided with oppor-
tunities to engage in authentic TL use and to experience language socialization (Thorne et al.,
2009). Due to these conditions, researchers assert that many online game-related communi-
ties provide access to contexts that may be conducive to aspects of second language learning
(Vazquez-Calvo et al., 2019). Anecdotal evidence suggests that game-related online media and
communities are very popular with players (SuperData, 2020) and given the global reach of dig-
ital gaming, it is reasonable to assume a considerable number of language learners participating
in these online ecologies. However, research in this area is still in its infancy, and to date, few
learner-based studies have been implemented that investigate the potential of exposure to partici-
pation in these highly diverse internet-based online groups in language learning. The sixth chapter
in this volume entitled, Let’s Play Videos and L2 Academic Vocabulary, by Liss Kerstin Sylvén and
John Löwenadler, explores one aspect of this intriguing phenomenon, namely, web-based video
game playthroughs. In order to explore the potential of these media, the authors utilized mixed
methods to analyze the nature of TL produced by three of the most popular content creators in the
well-known playthrough YouTube channel, Let’s Play (https://www.youtube.com/user/LetsPlay).
Data analysis revealed that Let’s Play provides extensive exposure to TL of both an academic
and colloquial nature. Findings further suggest that the genre offers contextual, text, visual, and
explanatory support providing plentiful opportunities for vocabulary learning. The researchers
concluded that the promising findings of their preliminary research indicate that further empirical
work is needed in order to confirm the benefits of learner exposure to game playthroughs.
Immersive virtual reality technologies have long been of interest to CALL practitioners (Sadler
& Dooly, 2013; Schwienhorst, 2002). Research work in this area has primarily focused on the
investigation of desktop 3D virtual worlds such as the well-known Active Worlds and Second Life
(Lan et al., 2016; Toyoda & Harrison, 2002). Although not conclusive, research studies involving
diverse learner groups and conducted in a variety of contexts have produced findings indicating
that these technologies may be employed to the benefit of language learners (Peterson et al.,
2019). However, research that explores the use of digital games in combination with immersive
virtual reality technologies in learner-based projects is limited. The seventh chapter in this vol-
ume, Exploring ESL Students’ Perceived Engagement in and Experience of Content Vocabulary Learning
Through Virtual Reality Games by Muleyke Sahinler Albayrak, Julian Chen, and P. John Williams,
adds to the literature in this area. In this exploratory case study, the authors implemented a suite
of digital games, focusing on a variety of content areas using a Google headset at a school in
Australia. Participant feedback data indicated that playing the VR-based games was enjoyable,
and the immersion provided enhanced engagement with the content and motivation to learn.
Although technical factors were highlighted as limitations, the learners further claimed that play-
ing the games enabled them to acquire and retain significant amounts of content-based vocabulary.
As was noted at an earlier stage of this discussion, research on aspects of contemporary
DGBLL is expanding. However, there are many areas that remain under-researched (Peterson
et al., 2020). One area of promise where there is limited research at present concerns the imple-
mentation of digital games in combination with websites and social media to create distributed
online learning environments (Cui et al., 2021). In the eighth chapter of this volume entitled
Becoming a Resourceful Language Learner in a Narrative-Driven Participatory Game by Zeyu Cui, Jin
Dong, Yang Liu, Michaela Nuesser, Huaiqing Zhang, Dongping Zheng and Yuanqing Zuo
report on the findings of a pilot study that investigated the above area. In this exploratory mixed
methods research, the researchers implemented an original bilingual interactive digital book
(Bizhuwanshang) that incorporates game features and a theme that is set in China (environ-
mental degradation). This digital book was implemented in combination with relevant websites,
videoconferencing (Zoom), and social media (Facebook and Web Chat) to investigate relational
dynamics between learners. The participants were Chinese EFL learners based at a university in
the Pacific. The researchers found that the interactive narrative-driven features of the game and
use of the online communication resources elicited the use of the TL as a resource and mediating
tool. Moreover, the analysis further revealed that the affordances provided fostered participation,
translanguaging, role play, linguistic embodiment, and cross-cultural collaboration.
One significant area of research on the application of digital games in CALL concerns the role
of effective factors. Studies have been undertaken that examine areas such as learner beliefs, anx-
iety, willingness to communicate and motivation (Peterson et al., 2020). An examination of the
research carried out to date shows that although the majority of studies are small scale in nature
and scope, they suggest that participation in gameplay involving a variety of game genres elicits
positive learner feedback in the above areas (Lee, 2019; Liu & Chu, 2010; Reinders & Wattana,
2015). However, few studies have attempted to explore these affective variables in the context
of large-scale projects that combine the use of digital games with online communication tools
and that are intercultural in nature. The ninth chapter in this volume entitled Interaction Games
to Boost Intercultural Communication in Virtual Worlds and Video-Communication: A Case Study by
Kristi Jauregi-Ondarra and Silvia Canto attempts to fill this gap in the literature by examining
the application of three games in the above context. This large-scale research involved a total of
80 learners of Spanish based in two universities in the Netherlands and United Kingdom. The
researchers utilized mixed methods including analysis of recordings of learner gameplay, dairies,
and semi-structured interviews. The findings of this project indicate that participation elicited
positive learner feedback indicating that motivation and engagement were enhanced by playing
digital games in a multimodal intercultural communication context.
1.3 Future implications

The chapters in this volume highlight a number of important findings and influential areas
in contemporary research on the use of digital games in language learning. The findings
further raise a number of important issues relevant to the nature, scope, and conduct of
future research studies. The remainder of this chapter will now focus on providing a dis-
cussion of these areas.
1.3.1 The role of theory

One area of importance relevant to future research highlighted in this volume concerns the role of
theory. As has been observed in the literature on CALL, the implementation of theory-informed
studies that draw on developments in SLA research is of central importance (Chapelle, 2009;
Chun, 2016). Although researchers acknowledged that there is no generally accepted theoretical
framework for pursuing research, they nonetheless emphasize that such work contributes to the
conduct of credible and productive development work in the field (Huh & Hu, 2005; Levy, 2000).
However, in the context of DGBLL, it is noteworthy that while learner-based research work is
increasing, theoretically informed studies are limited. In this context, researchers assert that there
appears to be a need for further work that draws on SLA research both at the conceptual level and
also in terms of implementation (Jabbari & Eslami, 2019; Jabbari, 2021). As the second chapter in
this volume shows, of the SLA theories currently employed in research, work influenced by soci-
ocultural conceptions of SLA predominates. This finding is unsurprising, given that the bulk of
theory-informed research to date has involved role-playing games that are frequently designed to
facilitate real-time social interaction and the development of online communities. Although such
work predominates, it is clear the research base as a whole would benefit from the perspectives
provided by studies that draw on alternative strands of SLA theory. The recent study by Scholz and
Schulze (2017) provides a useful exemplar of this type of approach.
1.3.2 Research foci

A noteworthy feature of the current research base is its emphasis on particular areas of foreign lan-
guage development. An examination of the literature reveals that there is a preponderance of stud-
ies that explore vocabulary learning and affective factors (Peterson et al., 2020). These areas have
attracted considerable attention, as research to date has shown that participation in DGBLL involving
commercial role-playing and simulation games has produced broadly positive findings in regard
to these areas. However, in addition to these areas, as research continues to expand, there is a need
for more work that investigates other aspects of L2 learning with digital games. At present, work
in this area is limited. In this context, learner-based studies focusing on the role of gaming in the
development of the four skills would represent a welcome addition to the research base. Moreover,
work focusing on the role of participation in digital gaming on pragmatic and syntactic development
would also enrich our understanding of how language development may be facilitated. Furthermore,
as contributions to this volume show, the impact of gaming on learners’ intercultural knowledge and
skills represents another promising area for investigation in future research projects.
A noteworthy aspect of contemporary research is that the majority of studies focus on two par-
ticular game genres, namely, simulation and role-playing games. Although research involving these
games has produced some positive findings, studies have also produced evidence indicating that
other game genres are also worthy of investigation. Recent technological advances have witnessed
the emergence of a new generation of virtual reality-based games and tools that offer a higher degree
of player immersion than is possible with conventional desktop environments (Godwin-Jones, 2016).
In an example of this approach, researchers have implemented location-based augmented reality
games in a number of exploratory learner-based studies. The promising reported results suggest that
these games, if implemented carefully, and in consideration of learner needs, may provide access to
conditions in which learning can occur (Sydorenko et al., 2019; Zheng et al., 2018). These encour-
aging findings suggest that additional work involving this type of game is justified. A further applica-
tion of recent VR technologies with potential in future research concerns the use of head mounded
VR headsets such as Oculus Rift in gaming. Although work in this area is preliminary in nature,
studies have produced evidence indicating that immersion and engagement are supported by the
technology. There is also evidence that vocabulary learning, enjoyment, and intercultural knowl-
edge can be enhanced by the use of this technology (Cheng et al., 2017; Lai & Chen, 2021).
1.3.3 Methodology
In a related area, the findings reported in this volume draw attention to the important role
that developments in methodology play in advancing research. Early work on DGBLL tended
to reflect the quantitative research paradigms that predominated at the time (Peterson, 2013).
However, as studies in this volume demonstrate, the expansion of SLA research that incorpo-
rates qualitative approaches to data analysis has increasingly influenced contemporary work in
DGBLL. The learner-focused studies in this volume mirror this trend. As these studies show,
researchers are increasingly employing innovative qualitative research approaches and the use
of mixed methods in an effort to better understand the complex nature of learning with digital
games. In the authors’ view, this trend represents a positive development as it provides a wel-
come means to broaden the research base. Although it should be acknowledged that work in this
area presents a number of challenges relating to, for example, data collection and observation
(Reinders, 2017), it is also significant in that it offers the prospect of obtaining potentially valu-
able insights into the nature of language learning with digital games.
1.3.4 Evaluation
A further area that will likely be of interest in future research concerns the evaluation of primary
studies. Reflecting an influential trend in SLA research in recent years, CALL researchers have
increasingly carried out review and analysis work (Boulton, 2015). Reviews, research synthesis,
and meta-analysis studies have been carried out into learning outcomes in expanding areas of
CALL research with relevance to DGBL including computer-mediated communication (Lin,
2014; Sauro, 2011) and virtual worlds (Peterson et al., 2019). As has been observed in this vol-
ume, an increasing number of studies have also analyzed the results of learner-based DGBLL
research. Although subject to limitations, this body of work has reported broadly positive results
across studies (Thompson & von Gillern, 2020; Tsai & Tsai, 2018). In terms of evaluation, the
pursuit of further meta-analysis studies into the application of specific game genres in DGBLL
offers the prospect of providing potentially valuable insights into effectiveness. Moreover, as
work continues to advance, there remains a need for the pursuit of not only meta-analysis but
also a wide range of rigorous evaluative work including narrative reviews and research synthesis.
Research of this nature will play an important role in raising awareness of significant issues in
the field, drawing attention to areas with potential for future investigation.
1.3.5 Replication
Replication is another avenue of research on DGBLL that would appear to be ripe for inves-
tigation in future work. The need for more replication studies is a long-running theme in the
CALL literature (Bikowski & Schulze, 2015; Porte, 2013). The considerable constraints facing
researchers in the educational sciences dictate that exact replication is, in most cases, not feasible
(Chun, 2012). Nonetheless, possibilities exist to conduct conceptual replication studies relating
to many areas of CALL. In the context of DGBLL research, a number of small-scale conceptual
replication studies have been reported involving the use of role-playing and simulation games.
This research has reported some positive findings related to the areas of vocabulary learning and
the role of affective influences on language development such as willingness to communicate
(Ranalli, 2008; Reinders & Wattana, 2015). In an effort to enhance the validity and generaliz-
ability of research and facilitate systematic development of the field, the conduct of additional
conceptional replication studies in these and other areas appears to be warranted.
1.3.6 Educator roles

As research advances, a further area of interest in future studies lies in the role of the teacher. A
great deal of the current literature on DGBLL focuses on conceptional issues and speculation,
but it is striking that there are far fewer studies concerned with teacher roles. This is somewhat
surprising as early work highlighted the benefits of combining gameplay with teacher-designed
supplementary materials and scaffolds (Miller & Hegelheimer, 2006; Ranalli, 2008). However,
relatively few recent studies have followed up on this promising line of research (for a note-
worthy recent exception, see Wang, 2019). This situation has led to calls for a move away from
research that focuses primarily on games themselves to studies that place a greater emphasis on
investigating the role of the teacher in facilitating learning outcomes (deHaan, 2021). Areas
of possible investigation relating to pedagogy-orientated work are numerous. For example, in
addition to the area noted above, studies that carry out an in-depth exploration into the nature
of active teacher intervention in learner-based projects and the role of debrief in supporting
learning could be of particular value, as may research that investigates teacher attitudes and the
many factors that influence selection of particular game genres for classroom use. The effort
to better understand teacher roles in learning with digital games has clear implications for the
future of the field. If DGBLL is to move from the margins to the mainstream of language educa-
tion, in other words, to become normalized (Bax, 2003), then there is a pressing need for more
research that demonstrates its benefits in terms of praxis.
1.3.7 Curricular integration

Future research that focuses on teacher roles may also encompass studies that examine the role
of effective curricular integration. This is an important issue, as many educators must work
within established curricula and institutional constraints (Ott et al., 2013). Recent quantita-
tive and mixed methods studies involving role-playing and simulation games have produced
findings indicating that when these games types are carefully integrated into the regular
curriculum, positive learning outcomes related to vocabulary learning and learner attitudes
can be achieved (Franciosi et al., 2016; Hitosugi et al., 2014; Reinders & Wattana, 2015).
Although this work represents a step forward, the limited number of current studies in this
area highlight that these findings are not definitive. At present, many aspects of this complex
phenomenon remain under-researched. In this context, there is still considerable scope for
additional studies to explore this issue (Godwin-Jones, 2014). One approach to the study of
game integration involving learners of advanced levels of language proficiency that appears of
particular promise is the pedagogical framework proposed by Thorne and Reinhardt (2008),
known as bridging activities. This is designed to enhance learning and critical awareness through
facilitating the analysis of learner texts produced in new digital media such as multiplayer
games. In this framework, the instructor plays a central role as learners experience guided
exploration focusing on the areas of interactional features, genre, and grammar. The ultimate
aim of this model is to assist learners in bridging their in-class and technology-mediated lan-
guage use and literacy practices.
1.3.8 Game creation

In the view of the editors, authoring represents an area of great promise and is likely to be
the subject of increasing attention in future research. In an effort to better meet the needs
of their learners, practitioners have long engaged in the creation of CALL software using
authoring tools (Otto & Pusack, 2009). However, in the past, this effort was hampered
somewhat by the limitations of the available content creation tools. As the discussion in
this volume shows, the emergence of a new generation of powerful, highly accessible, and
scalable authoring tools provides language educators with unprecedented opportunities to
design learning activities that better meet the needs of their learners, overcoming many
of the limitations of generic commercial software packages. The findings of learner-based
studies have demonstrated that many COTS games have great potential as learning environ-
ments in CALL, particularly for learners of advanced levels of language proficiency (Thorne
et al., 2009). However, research shows that some COTS games may also have limitations,
including a steep learning curve, complex in-game cultures, and the prevalence of TL reg-
isters that are of limited application outside the game context. These factors coupled with
the cognitively demanding nature of the gameplay may make such games unsuitable for
certain learner groups (deHaan et al., 2010). In this context, contemporary game authoring
tools offer new opportunities to overcome these limitations, providing access to tailor-made
games that are designed to focus on meeting specific learner needs. The application of user-
end development tools to design engaging, motivating, and effective educational games
remains a challenging endeavour that involves careful consideration of an interplay of fac-
tors including proficiency levels, task design, feedback, and curricular goals (Purushotma
et al., 2009). Although these factors require acknowledgement, there can be little doubt that
the current generation of tools open up new avenues for research with the potential for a
wider application than has been the case in the past.
1.3.9 Gaming in informal contexts

Contemporary digital games form part of a spectrum of continuously evolving digitally medi-
ated activity that has now penetrated many spheres of everyday life (Reinhardt & Thorne, 2016).
A great deal of this online activity is informal in nature and occurs in the digital wilds, that is,
outside the confines of formal educational institutions (Sauro & Zourou, 2019). Researchers note
that digital games, particularly those that are designed to support social interaction such as many
role-playing games, have elicited the creation of extensive online ecologies that are frequently
international in nature and incorporate game-related texts, fan sites, strategy guides, gameplay
videos, and discussion boards (Thorne et al., 2012). The discussion in this volume emphasizes
that these online resources and forums have the potential to support foreign language learning as
they provide extensive exposure to authentic TL and opportunities for purposeful social inter-
action. As this area remains under-researched, there is considerable scope for future studies to
investigate the potential of these resources. Areas of possible interest could include vocabulary
learning and the development of intercultural knowledge and skills. Furthermore, the online
communities that have evolved in and around social games represent another area that would
benefit from the conduct of additional learner-based studies. There is speculation in the CALL
literature that the in-game social groups that are found in some role-playing games represent
arenas where learners encounter TL rich contexts for intercultural interaction and language
development (Sykes et al., 2010). It is further asserted that in these online groups language learn-
ers may engage in beneficial forms of peer-based interaction and participate in communities of
practice that provide opportunities for language socialization (Thorne et al., 2009). Although
research in this area remains at an emergent stage, a number of learner-based studies have pro-
duced findings suggesting that participation in out-of-school gaming and associated online
game communities may lead to positive learning outcomes, particularly in terms of vocabulary
acquisition, the development of intercultural skills, and learner attitudes (Ryu, 2013; Sundqvist,
2019). These promising findings indicate that more research in this area can shed new light on
language learning in online game communities.
1.4 Conclusions
The contributions to this volume reflect broader developments in the field of CALL and at the
same time highlight some of the strengths of current research on the use of digital games. As
research continues to expand, it appears likely that theoretically informed studies and replication
work will become increasingly influential in shaping the future research agenda in this area. In
this context, the increase in analysis and evaluative work offers potentially valuable insights that
may positively inform many aspects of future work. Moreover, the growing use of case stud-
ies and other forms of qualitative research methodologies will contribute to supplying deeper
insights into the nature of individual language development in and around games. At the same
time, the findings reported in this volume draw attention to gaps and limitations in the current
research base. The majority of current studies have focused on the activities of small groups of
intermediate and advanced level EFL learners located in universities. As research efforts continue,
it will become increasingly important to overcome the many challenges of conducting work in
this area and broaden the research base to include additional large-scale longitudinal projects
that involve more diverse theoretical approaches, learner groups, and contexts. As a great deal of
recent work has focused primarily on role-playing and simulation games, there is clearly scope
for more research that investigates the potential of other game genres. Moreover, as gaming
in informal contexts continues to rapidly expand further research conducted in out-of-school
contexts will enhance understanding of this phenomenon. As noted at a previous stage of this
discussion, current work remains limited in scope and is heavily focused on certain areas such
as vocabulary acquisition and learner attitudes leaving other areas of potential interest under-
researched. However, in the authors’ view, studies that involve other areas of investigation such
as curricular integration, game creation, and teacher roles will likely prove valuable in both
broadening and deepening understanding of the nature of language learning with digital games.
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2
A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF
THEORY-INFORMED DESIGN AND
IMPLEMENTATION OF DIGITAL
GAME-BASED LANGUAGE LEARNING
2.1 Introduction
Researchers and practitioners started to address their interests in digital game-based learning
(DGBL) around the early 2000s. Marc Prensky called for attention to the potential use of DGBL
for business, government, military, pre-school, K-12, and higher education (Prensky, 2001). In
the past two decades, DGBL research has expanded around various research foci and across mul-
tiple disciplines. Prensky (2001) defines educational games as any game on a computer or online
with a learning purpose. Shaffer et al. (2005) emphasized that DGBL is gameplay with defined
learning outcomes. Plass and colleagues (2015) pointed out that a learning game design process
should balance the learning content with gameplay. While there is no universally agreed-upon
definition for DGBL, for this study, we operationalize it as learning activities that use digital
games for defined learning outcomes.
When DGBL is used for language learning, it is referred to as digital game-based language
learning (DGBLL). The emergence of DGBLL can also be traced back to the early 2000s (e.g.,
Coleman, 2002; Emde et al., 2001; Kötter, 2003; Toyoda & Harrison, 2002). Since then, the
number of empirical studies on DGBL for the second language (L2) has grown steadily (Kao,
2014; Poole & Clarke-Midura, 2020). Several recent meta-analyses on the impact of DGBLL
on language learning outcomes show medium or large overall effect sizes (Tsai & Tsai, 2018;
Wang et al., 2020). Researchers attribute the generally positive impact of DGBLL to various
potential benefits, such as increased learner motivation (e.g., Yaşar, 2018; Zhang et al., 2020),
enhanced self-efficacy (e.g., Hung et al., 2018; C. Wang et al., 2020), and the ability of DGBLL
to afford social interaction (e.g., Jabbari & Eslami, 2019; Yudintseva, 2015). Language learning
in a DGBLL context can include first language, L2, and foreign language (Punchihetti, 2013;
VanPatten & Williams, 2015). Language learning in DGBLL focuses on L2 learning, which,
in a broader sense, also includes foreign language learning (Punchihetti, 2013). Therefore, the
scope of DGBLL in the current study is limited to DGBL for L2 and foreign language learning.
2.2 Literature review

With the growing number of empirical studies on DGBLL, literature reviews have also increased.
Indeed, a recent literature search across three databases identified 16 prior literature reviews, sys-
tematic reviews, meta-analyses, or scoping reviews published in the past ten years. The 16 previous
DOI: 10.4324/9781003240075-2
Systematic Review of Theory-Informed Design 15
reviews cover a range between 2000 and 2020, with eight focusing on the scope of DGBLL, four
explicitly focusing on digital game-based vocabulary learning, and two focusing on massively mul-
tiplayer online role-playing games. Regarding the analytical approach, seven (44%) of these reviews
used systematic review methods, four (25%) used meta-analysis, three (19%) presented scoping
reviews, and two (13%) were traditional literature reviews. These 16 reviews mainly focus on learn-
ing effectiveness and research trends. Interestingly, two reviews take on a unique focus to consider
(1) the implementation of DGBLL in schools (Acquah & Katz, 2020) and (2) the integration of
DGBLL and self-regulated language learning (Zhang et al., 2020). Table 2.1 summarizes the prior
reviews regarding the field of study, analytical approach, period, included papers, and review foci.
Of the 16 identified prior reviews, only two studies focused on theory. Zou and colleagues (2019)
looked at the theoretical frameworks of 21 empirical studies that specifically focused on DGBL
for vocabulary learning. The identified theoretical frameworks in this review include three types
of theories: (1) second-language acquisition (SLA) theory/hypothesis such as the input hypothe-
sis (Krashen, 1985), the interaction hypothesis (Long, 2015), and the involvement load hypothesis
(Hulstijn & Laufer, 2001), (2) learning theories such as the zone of proximal development (Vygotsky,
1978) and scaffolding (Hogan & Pressley, 1997), situated learning (Lave & Wenger, 1991), and activ-
ity theory (Engeström et al., 1999), and (3) cognitive theory such as level of processing hypothesis
(Craik & Lockhart, 1972), flow theory (Csikszentmihalyi, 1991), and connectivity theory (Klimesch,
1994). However, a limitation in Zou and colleagues’ (2019) study is that, while the authors identified
the theoretical frameworks used in the 21 articles they reviewed, no analysis or discussion of those
theoretical frameworks is reported. In Jabbari and Eslami’s (2019) scoping review, “32% of the studies
did not refer to any theoretical framework (or assumptions) underlying their hypotheses and choice of
research methods” (p. 105). Given that so few reviews consider theory as a central focus, the reviews
by Zou and colleagues (2019) and Jabbari and Eslami (2019) serve as welcome outliers.
The lack of attention to theoretical grounding in prior reviews does not undermine the
importance of theory in guiding empirical studies. Indeed, Neuman (2014) argues, “Researchers
who proceed without theory rarely conduct top-quality research and frequently find themselves
in a quandary” (p. 88). For many years, researchers in DGBLL and the broader field of com-
puter-assisted language learning (CALL) have been advocating the importance of theory for
DGBLL studies. Doughty (1987) argues that theory needs to play a central role in designing
CALL research. Researchers suggest that both SLA and general learning theories, such as soci-
ocultural theory, inform the development and evaluation of DGBLL interventions (Chapelle,
2009; Peterson, 2013). The importance of theory for DGBLL studies and the lack of reviews on
empirical studies provide the impetus for the current study.
2.3 Purpose and research questions

As the current literature indicates, a research gap is apparent in that most reviews do not consider the
theoretical groundings that have guided and informed prior DGBLL empirical studies. This aligns
with Jabbari and Eslami’s (2019) concern about the quality of DGBLL studies. These authors note
that there is an “absence of a theoretical or conceptual framework” and underline the problem of
“some researchers simply citing the theory without actually incorporating its principles, constructs,
or methodology” (p. 105). To address this research gap, the purpose of the current systematic liter-
ature review is to explore how the theories that are reported in empirical studies have informed the
design and implementation of DGBLL. The overarching research questions guiding this study are:
RQ1: What theories are referenced in empirical DGBLL studies, and with what frequency?
RQ2: What roles does theory play in empirical DGBLL studies?
16
TABLE 2.1 Summary of Literature Reviews Focusing on DGBLL Since 2011
Citation Field of Study Analytical Approach Period Included Papers Review Focus
Kao (2014) DGBLL Meta-analysis 2005 – 2013 25 To analyze several potential moderating variables to investigate which
variable is influential in determining the effects of DGBL.
Yudintseva (2015) DGBVL Systematic review 2005 – 2015 17 To synthesize the recent findings of qualitative, quantitative, and
mixed-methods studies to determine the effectiveness of learning
strategies on English as a second language vocabulary acquisition
through game-enhanced practices.
Hung et al. (2016) DGBLL Systematic review 2010 – 2014 23 To identify the emerging trends of DGBLL articles published in four
influential journals in the field of computer-assisted language learning
(CALL).
Chen et al. (2018) DGBVL Meta-analysis 2003 – 2014 10 To find out the pooled effect of the DGBL on vocabulary acquisition
and the salient moderators that can account for the effects of the DGBL
on vocabulary learning.
Hung et al. (2018) DGBLL Scoping review 2007 – 2016 50 To provide a scoping overview of empirical evidence on the use and
impacts of digital games in language education.
Tsai and Tsai (2018) DGBVL Meta-analysis 2001 – 2017 26 To examine the conditions of research designs on digital game-based L2
vocabulary learning and the overall effect size in each condition and
extend the scope of the potential moderators to better depict the
scenarios of digital game-based L2 vocabulary learning.
Yaşar (2018) MMORPG Literature review 2012 – 2017 5 To draw attention to common threads within the articles and to certain
niches for improvement.
Huang et al. (2019) DGBLL Systematic review 2008 – 2017 42 To establish a more focused disciplinary ground for understanding the
potential of digital games in CALL contexts.
Jabbari and Eslami MMORPG Scoping review 2006 – 2015 31 To discover the extent, range, and nature of L2 research in the context
(2019) of MMOGs.
(Continued)
TABLE 2.1 Summary of Literature Reviews Focusing on DGBLL Since 2011 (Continued)
Citation Field of Study Analytical Approach Period Included Papers Review Focus
Zou et al. (2019) DGBVL Systematic review 2008 – 2018 21 To interrogate types of games, theoretical frameworks, research issues,
and implications.
Acquah and Katz DGBLL Systematic review 2014 – 2018 26 How DGBLL can be implemented in school, and what designers need to
(2020) consider when creating digital learning games (DLGs) for primary
through high-school age students.
Osman and Rabu DGBLL Systematic review 2008 – 2018 19 To analyze the types of games, the gaming platform, and the target
(2020) outcome of the reviewed studies.
Poole and Clarke- DGBLL Systematic review 2012 – 2017 49 To investigate the impact of digital games on L2 development and the
Midura (2020) impact of game design features on the effectiveness of games as learning
tools.
Systematic Review of Theory-Informed Design

Wang et al. (2020) 3DVWLL Meta-analysis 2008 – 2019 13 To synthesize the research findings on the role of interaction in 3DVWs
with theoretical bases and report the effect sizes of moderating variables
based on experimental findings.
Xu et al. (2020) DGBLL Scoping review 2000 – 2018 58 To investigate (1) study design, (2) methodology, (3) game practices, (4)
game outcomes, and (5) game elements by synthesizing findings from
existing research on DBGLL in English language learning.
Zhang et al. (2020) GBSRLL Literature review 2015 – 2020 54 on GBLL; To interrogate the concept and history of GBLL and self-regulated
314 on language learning (SRLL) and review prominent research topics,
SRLL. concepts, and future research directions.
17
18 Rui Huang and Matthew Schmidt
2.4 Method
To approach the above research questions, a systematic literature review was conducted follow-
ing PRISMA guidelines (Page et al., 2021). The following sections provide a detailed descrip-
tion of the research method, which involves (1) literature search strategy, (2) inclusion and
exclusion criteria, (3) screening and coding, and (4) data analysis process.
2.4.1 Literature search strategy

To ensure the inclusion of relevant research, a list of 18 academic databases in a prior meta-analysis
by the first author (Huang et al., 2020) was used as a starting point to search for publications for this
study. To locate relevant publications, a Boolean search term was created, pilot tested, and refined.
The final search term was composed of two parts that were connected using the AND operator:
(1) game-related terms (“Game” OR “GBL” OR “DGBL” OR “RPG” OR “MMORPG”),
AND (2) L2-related terms (“second language” OR “foreign language” OR “international lan-
guage” OR “ESL” OR “EFL” OR “vocabulary” OR “vocabularies” OR “listening” OR “speak-
ing” OR “reading” OR “writing” OR “L2” OR “CALL” OR “TELL” OR “SLA”).
When applying the search term to different databases, minor adjustments were made due to
varying features provided by the databases—for example, constraining the search results to a
manageable scale by applying the search to journals and conference proceedings only and fur-
ther refining the search within related subjects (English, vocabulary, language instruction, etc.).
Advanced search features were used to further constrain the search to articles and proceedings
that were: (1) peer-reviewed, (2) published in English, and (3) published between January 2011
and December 2020. In addition, search terms were applied to abstracts only. Details of the lit-
erature search results from each database are shown in Table 2.2.
Of the original 18 databases searched, ten databases were finally used in this study. They
include ACM Digital Library, EBSCOhost Academic Search Premier, Gale Databases, IEEE
Xplore Digital Library, LearnTechLib, ProQuest, Sage Journals (Sage Premier), Taylor & Francis
Online, Web of Science, and Wiley Online Library. Five databases were excluded because they
focused on particular subject areas such as ACS Publications on chemistry, HEINONLINE on
law-related periodicals, and NCBI Databases on biotechnology and related topics. Three data-
bases were excluded because no results were found after the search strategy was applied. The
literature search across ten databases resulted in 3,542 publications. All the identified publica-
tions were imported into the Zotero citation management software (https://www.zotero.org/).
To remove duplicates, multiple steps were taken: (1) using Zotero’s built-in function to merge
duplicates, (2) exporting all citations in CSV format, and then using Microsoft Excel’s “condi-
tional formatting” function to identify duplicate titles or authors and finally removing the iden-
tified duplicates in Zotero, and (3) sorting articles by title and author in Zotero, and then visually
identifying duplicates that had minor syntax differences. After duplicates were removed, a total
of 2,691 manuscripts were included for further screening against inclusion and exclusion criteria.
2.4.2 Inclusion and exclusion criteria

To locate relevant publications, a set of inclusion and exclusion criteria was developed and
refined during the screening process. To be included in this study, the manuscript had to: (1)
be an empirical study, (2) have at least one digital game-based language learning intervention,
(3) be in a language learning context, (4) have language learners as participants, (5) explicitly ref-
erence theory. To further limit this study to a manageable scope, the following exclusion criteria
were applied: (1) if the authors identified their study intervention as “gamification” instead of
TABLE 2.2 Literature Search Results in Ten Academic Databases
Database Applied To More Specific Constraints Result
ACM Digital Library Abstract Proceedings, Journals 397

EBSCOhost Academic Abstract Peer-reviewed 1,082
Search Premier
Gale Databases Abstract Chosen subjects: Second Language 90
Learning, English (Second Language),
Language Acquisition, Vocabulary,
English Education, Heritage
Language Education, Reading
Instruction, Language Instruction,
Vocabulary Skills
IEEE Xplore Digital Abstract Conferences, Journals 498
Library
LearnTechLib Abstract No 43
ProQuest Abstract only, Subjects: second language learning OR 569
Source type: Conference second language instruction OR
Papers & Proceedings, English (second language) OR
Scholarly Journals language OR reading OR reading
Document type: Article, comprehension OR communication
Conference, Conference OR writing OR linguistics OR
Paper, Conference foreign languages OR computer
Proceeding assisted language learning OR
language acquisition OR English as a
second language (ESL) OR reading
instruction OR writing instruction
OR English language
Sage Journals (Sage Abstract Research article 206
Premier)
Taylor & Francis Online Abstract Subject: Language & Literature, OR 176
Education
Web of Science Articles and proceedings Refined: Linguistics OR Language 152
Linguistics OR Literature
Wiley Online Library Journals No 329
Total 3,542
“game-based learning”, (2) if the study involved non-digital game-based learning (i.e., board
games), (3) if instructors rather than language learners were the participants of the study, and (4)
if the study was conducted in a first language learning context.
2.4.3 Screening and coding

The screening process underwent three stages. In the first two stages, the inclusion criterion
(i.e., explicitly referenced theory) was not applied. This decision was made intentionally to
identify the total number of DGBLL empirical studies in the given time range. This number
was then used to compare the final qualified number of manuscripts that explicitly referenced
theory. The comparison result shows the percentage of the DGBLL empirical studies that at least
referenced theoretical groundings against the full corpus of identified studies.
In the first stage, the inclusion and exclusion criteria (except for the theory criterion) were
applied to all 2,691 abstracts. Zotero’s tagging feature was used to indicate if an article should
be included or excluded. If an abstract did not provide enough information to make an unques-
tionable decision, it was included and annotated to indicate the reason for the uncertainty. After
the first phase, 2,281 manuscripts were excluded, and 410 publications were included for the
FIGURE 2.1 PRISMA Flowchart of the Screening Process
following screening stage. In the second stage of screening, the same inclusion and exclusion
criteria used in the first stage were applied to full-text screening. During this stage, 201 manu-
scripts were excluded. The remaining 209 manuscripts were included for the next stage screen-
ing. In the last stage, full-text reading of the 209 manuscripts was performed again, determining
if at least one theory was referenced in a manuscript. This final screening stage identified 65
qualified empirical studies for systematic coding and data extraction. A total of 144 manuscripts
(69%) were excluded at this stage. Figure 2.1 shows the PRISMA flowchart (Moher et al., 2010)
to depict the entire screening process and the number of manuscripts at each stage.
During the third screening stage, a preliminary coding scheme was developed. It was iter-
atively refined through the entirety of the coding process. Table 2.3 provides the final coding
scheme with a description of each coding category.
2.4.4 Data analysis process

This study centered around theoretical grounding and the roles of theory in DGBLL. The data
analysis was guided by two research questions: (1) What theories are referenced in empirical DGBLL
studies, and with what frequency? And (2) What roles does theory play in empirical DGBLL studies?
TABLE 2.3 Coding Scheme for this Systematic Review Study
Category Description
Citation
Author/Year Authors and year of publication in APA in-text
citation format
Title Title of the manuscript
Game and Technology
Game Type Generally, there are three types of games according to
Van Eck’s (2015) taxonomy:
a. Serious game: the DGBLL intervention is designed
and developed by the researchers and/or designated
designers, or adapted design/content based on pre-
viously developed intervention by others.
b. Learner-developed: the DGBLL intervention is
designed and/or developed by target learners.
c. Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS): this type includes
games primarily for entertainment.
Theoretical Grounding
Theory referenced Name of the theory or theories referenced in the
manuscript.
Author’s description of the theory The exact excerpts from the manuscript in which the
authors described the theory or theories they
referenced.
Theory and Design
Reported design One of three codes may apply to this category:
a. Reported: if the authors explicitly described how
one or more of the theories they identified informed
the design of the DGBLL intervention.
b. Inferred: if the authors did not explicitly describe
how the referenced theory informed the design,
but there was a match between the description of
how the DGBLL intervention was designed and the
identified theory.
c. did not report: if there was neither explicit nor
implicit narrative in the manuscript to report how
the identified theory informed the design of the
intervention.
How theory informed design The exact excerpts from the manuscript in which the
authors described how the identified theoretical
grounding informed the design of the DGBLL
intervention.
Theory and Implementation
Reported implementation Similar to the three codes for the category Reported
design, the focus of this category is on the use of the
DGBLL intervention in actual learning activities.
How theory informed implementation The exact excerpts from the manuscript in which the
grounding informed the implementation process and
how the DGBLL intervention was used.
Theory and Evaluation
Reported evaluation Similar to the three codes for the category Reported
design, this category focuses on the evaluation
methods, instruments, and processes of the DGBLL
intervention.
How theory informed evaluation The exact excerpts from the manuscript in which the
grounding informed the evaluation.
To address the first research question, data on theories referenced in this corpus of manu-
scripts were refined and analyzed in three steps. Some manuscripts referenced multiple the-
ories. In the first step, these records were broken down into one theory per record, which
resulted in 97 instances in which theories were referenced. In the second step, a classification
process was performed to group the theories into categories such as SLA theories/hypotheses,
cognitive science theories, and motivation theories. When determining coding categories,
no established and commonly accepted taxonomy was found to guide this thematic coding.
When more than one category could have been applied to a theory, the decision had to be
made to choose only one category to avoid the inflation of the statistical analysis results. For
example, Dörnyei’s L2 motivational self-system is coded as motivation theory, although it is
also a theory specifically developed for SLA. This coding decision was made because, despite
the unique application of this theory in the SLA context, its core focus is learner motivation.
In the final step, the coded categories were further grouped into six meta-categories according
to their affinity relationships.
To address the second research question of how theories informed the empirical studies, data
were analyzed in three steps. In the first step, data on the three coding categories, “Reported
design”, “Reported implementation”, and “Reported evaluation”, and the author/year data
were copied into a new coding sheet. The design, implementation, and evaluation data were
visually examined to identify: (1) the manuscripts that only referenced the theories but did not
elaborate on how the authors used the theory to inform design, implementation, and evaluation,
and (2) the manuscripts that reported how theory informed the design, implementation, and
evaluation of the DGBLL studies. In the second step, descriptive statistics were calculated along
three dimensions: (1) design, (2) implementation, and (3) evaluation. In the third step, game
types were added as a moderator to analyze the role theory plays in the design, implementation,
and evaluation of DGBLL.
2.5 Results
This systematic review identified 209 empirical studies on DGBLL in the scope of L2 learning
between 2011 and 2020. Within the corpus of 209 manuscripts, 65 (31%) studies specifically
referenced theory. Results are organized by research questions.
RQ1: Theories referenced in empirical DGBLL studies and the frequency
The 65 qualified manuscripts contain 97 instances in which theories were referenced, from
which 47 unique theories were identified. Through the classification and thematic coding pro-
cess, these theories were grouped into six meta-categories, including (1) sociocultural, (2) cog-
nitive, (3) constructivist, (4) motivation, (5) SLA, and (6) behaviourist theories. Figure 2.2 shows
the distribution of theories in these six groups. The most commonly referenced theories fell
into the sociocultural meta-category, followed by cognitive theories, and motivational theories.
Theories that fell into the SLA theory/hypotheses, constructivist, and behaviourist meta-cate-
gories were referenced less frequently.
In the following section, the specific theories referenced are reported in separate tables for
the top three meta-categories, including sociocultural (Table 2.4), cognitive (Table 2.5), and
motivation (Table 2.6). Because theories in the remaining three meta-categories were referenced
less frequently (i.e., SLA, behaviourism, and constructivism), they are reported in a single table
(Table 2.7).
RQ2: Roles that theory plays in empirical DGBLL studies
FIGURE 2.2 Distribution of Theories in the 65 Manuscripts across Six Meta-categories
TABLE 2.4 Sociocultural Theories and Publication Sources
Theory Count Citation
Situated learning 10 (Bytheway, 2014; Chen & Lee, 2018;

Chen et al., 2018; Collins et al., 2020;
Culbertson et al., 2016; Culbertson
et al., 2016; Fu et al., 2019; Hwang &
Wang, 2016; Lin et al., 2018; Wang
et al., 2015)
Sociocultural 7 (Alobaydi et al., 2016; Butler, 2017;
Ebrahimzadeh & Alavi, 2016; Elaish
et al., 2019; Lan, 2015; Rama et al.,
2012; Wen, 2018)
Social constructivism 5 (Franciosi et al., 2016; Fu et al., 2019;
Ibrahim, 2017, 2018; Tang, 2020)
Zone of proximal development 4 (Butler, 2015; Culbertson et al., 2016;
(ZPD) Mustika et al., 2014; Rama et al.,
2012)
Community of practice (CoP) 4 (Bytheway, 2014, 2015; Collins et al.,
2020; Duran, 2017)
Activity Theory 3 (Neville, 2015; Pan, 2017; Vosburg,
2017)
Connectivity Theory 2 (Franciosi, 2017; Franciosi et al., 2016)
Theory of expansive learning 1 (Berns et al., 2016)
Social identity theory 1 (Peng et al., 2016)
Situated cognition theory 1 (Hitosugi et al., 2014)
Embodied cognition theory 1 (Si, 2015)
Ecological, dialogical, and 1 (Newgarden & Zheng, 2016)
distributed (EDD) perspective
Conversation Theory 1 (Alobaydi et al., 2016)
Community of Inquiry 1 (Huang et al., 2018)
TABLE 2.5 Cognitive Theories and Publication Sources
Flow theory 8 (Ebrahimzadeh & Alavi, 2016, 2017; Hsu et al., 2017;
Hsu, 2017; Huang et al., 2018; Li et al., 2019; Tang,
2020; Wei et al., 2018)
Cognitive load theory 3 (Calvo-Ferrer, 2020; Chang et al., 2017; Hsu et al., 2017)
Scaffolding 2 (Collins et al., 2020; Yang et al., 2020)
Variation Theory 1 (de Wit et al., 2020)
Theory of encoding specificity 1 (Culbertson et al., 2016)
Piaget’s schemata 1 (de Wit et al., 2020)
PASS theory 1 (Ortiz-Ortiz, 2019)
Multimodality 1 (Newgarden & Zheng, 2016)
Information processing theory 1 (Wei et al., 2018)
Information packaging hypothesis 1 (Edge et al., 2013)
Implicit theory of intelligence 1 (Hsu, 2015)
Growth point theory 1 (Edge et al., 2013)
Dual-coding theory 1 (Chen & Lee, 2018)
Cone of experience theory 1 (Pan, 2017)
Cognitivism 1 (Ahmad et al., 2012)
Cognitive theory of multimedia 1 (Alghamdi, 2016)
learning (CTML)
Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) 1 (Park et al., 2019)
Cognition hypothesis 1 (Yang et al., 2020)
TABLE 2.6 Motivation Theories and Publication Sources
Self-determination theory (SDT) 4 (Cornillie et al., 2012; Freiermuth, 2017; Park et al., 2019;
Peng et al., 2016)
ARCS motivation model 4 (Chen et al., 2018; Hanandeh et al., 2018; Proske et al.,
2014; Wu, 2018)
Vallerand three subtypes of 1 (Freiermuth, 2017)
intrinsic motivation
Theories of language learning 1 (Ebrahimzadeh & Alavi, 2017)
motivation
Expectancy-value theory 1 (Gellar-Goad, 2015)
Dörnyei’s L2 motivational 1 (Collins et al., 2020)
self-system
TABLE 2.7 SLA, Constructivism, and Behavioural Theories Publication Sources
Meta-category Theory Count Citation
SLA The input hypothesis 3 (Shepherd et al., 2011; Shepherd et al., 2011;
Tang, 2020)
The interaction hypothesis 2 (Franciosi et al., 2016; Morton et al., 2012)
Universal grammar 1 (Tang, 2020)
Language socialization (LS) 1 (Duran, 2017)
Affective filter hypothesis 1 (Yang et al., 2018)
Constructivism Constructivism 4 (Ahmad et al., 2012; Gamboa et al., 2016;
Ma et al., 2012; Yang et al., 2020)
Experiential learning theory 1 (Franciosi, 2017)
Constructionism 1 (Li, 2011)
Behaviourism Behaviourism 1 (Ahmad et al., 2012)
The role(s) that theory played in authors’ DGBLL interventions across the corpus of the 65
manuscripts were organized into four descriptive categories, depending on whether and how the
authors used theory: (1) to frame/conceptualize, (2) to inform design, (3) to inform implemen-
tation, and/or (4) to inform evaluation.
The first category (i.e., framing/conceptualization) refers to the manuscripts that only refer-
enced theory but did not describe how the theories informed the DGBLL intervention and/or
the study. Among the 65 manuscripts, seven (11%) fell into this category (e.g., Elaish et al., 2019;
Franciosi et al., 2016; Shepherd et al., 2011).
The second category referred to studies that used theory to inform the design of the DGBLL
intervention. A total of 42 (65%) manuscripts specifically described how the identified the-
ory informed the design of the intervention, including two manuscripts in which the descrip-
tion was not explicit but could be inferred; 23 (35%) manuscripts did not report how theory
informed their design. An example of how theory informed design can be found in Morton
and colleagues’ (2012) manuscript. The authors grounded their intervention design in the inter-
action hypothesis. They claimed that “conversational interaction between a learner and, for
example, a native speaker can facilitate the learner’s development as the learner can be involved
in negotiated interaction which then gives them comprehensible input in the target language
(L2)” (p. 2). Guided by this theory, the authors created gaming situations within which learners
can engage in negotiated interaction with virtual agents. In another example, Lin and colleagues
(2018) grounded their study in situated learning theory. This theory influenced their creation of
authentic learning contexts, which they considered key to promoting students’ language learn-
ing. They designed a role-playing game (RPG) with a clearly designed storyline along which the
learning activities progressed. Finally, Si (2015) developed a gesture-based game using embod-
ied cognition theory. The author postulated that “our body, mind, and the environment are
tightly integrated, and our decision-making processes, perception, and even memory are deeply
rooted in our body and bodily movements” (p. 272). Hence, she designed a “gesture based nat-
ural user interface with narratives and puzzles to provide the users a platform to practice their
verbal and non-verbal skills together” (p. 274).
The third type of role theory plays in DGBLL is that it informs implementation, that is, the use
of DGBLL interventions in language learning activities. This perspective is important because L2
learning is dynamically interconnected with the environment (Larsen-Freeman, 2017), and the
DGBLL intervention is a component of the environment. Within the corpus of 65 manuscripts, 17
(29%) studies explicitly reported how theory informed the implementation of DGBLL, with two
in which theory was inferred from the narrative. A total of 46 manuscripts (71%) did not report
how theory informed implementation. While the role theory plays in implementation appears to
be less commonly referenced by researchers, the following examples illustrate how theory may
inform implementation when applied in DGBLL studies. In de Wit and colleagues’ (2020) study,
variation theory was one of the grounding theories. They argued that “the object of learning …
may be perceived differently between people, where one learner might focus on different aspects
than another” (p. 360). Therefore, when they implemented the intervention, three variations of
social robot conditions (no gestures, repeated gestures, and varied gestures) were used when a
target word came up in the game. Peng and colleagues (2016) identified social identity theory as
one of the grounding theories; therefore, when they implemented the intervention, they grouped
learners based on participants’ social identity conditions such as in-group dyads (participants in
the dyads were told to be both over-estimator or both under-estimator) or out-group dyads (one
participant was told to be an over-estimator and one to be an under-estimator).
The fourth type of role theory plays is to inform the evaluation of DGBLL interventions regarding
the articulation of appropriate evaluation methods, instruments, and/or outcome measures. In the
TABLE 2.8 Theory-informed Design, Implementation, and Evaluation by Game Types
Game Type Studies Design Implementation Evaluation
Serious games 41 82% 22% 41%

COTS 16 19% 44% 63%
Learner-developed 3 67% 67% 0%
65 manuscripts, 30 studies (46%) reported how the identified theory informed the studies’ evaluation
(one was inferred from the manuscript narrative). Conversely, 35 studies (54%) did not report on
this. The following examples illustrate how researchers used theory to inform their decisions. Chang
and colleagues (2017) grounded their study in cognitive load theory; therefore, they used a cogni-
tive load measure to examine “if learner performance was influenced by improper learning design,
including the difficulty of learning materials, teaching methods, task difficulty, and complexity of
task requirements” (p. 662). This study found no statistical difference between the intervention group
and the non-game control group. Wen’s (2018) study was based on sociocultural theory. The author
specifically focused on collaborative learning. To understand how collaborative language learning
occurred when learners used this DGBLL intervention, Wen used language-related episodes (LREs)
as a unit of analysis for investigating learner-learner interaction. Findings suggested that the inter-
vention group outperformed the control group regarding the average number of LREs observed.
Finally, one of the theories Collins and colleagues (2020) adopted was Dörnyei’s L2 motivational
self-system. They argued that “the immersive virtual reality environments have the ability to change
the context for learners and thus change their identity” (p. 148). To evaluate the motivational impact
of their designed intervention on learners, a motivational L2 self-system questionnaire was used that
measured motivation on a 5-point Likert scale. Findings suggested the intervention effects on meas-
ures of Ideal L2 Self, linguistic self-confidence, and attitudes towards learning Irish.
2.5.1 Roles that theory plays with game type as a moderator

The overall percentage of theory that informed DGBLL studies suggests that theory is primar-
ily used to inform design. Studies that referenced theory to inform implementation were less
common. However, game types should be considered as a moderator in understanding the role
of theory.
Table 2.8 shows the results of theory-informed design, implementation, and evaluation by
game types. Game types are taken from Van Eck (2015). Of the entire corpus of 65 manuscripts,
five studies did not include information about game type; therefore, these manuscripts were
excluded from this analysis. Given that researchers are nearly never involved in the design of
COTS games, it is unsurprising that the percentage of studies reporting theoretically informed
designs in this category is comparatively low. For DGBLL studies based on COTS games, theory
appears to be most important to guide the evaluation of DGBLL. Besides, seven studies (44%)
used theory to inform the implementation of COTS games.
When DGBLL is based on serious games as language learning interventions, researchers seem
to be close to reaching a shared recognition that theory is needed to guide the design; 82% of
DGBLL studies use serious games grounded design in one or more identified theories.
2.6 Discussion
Within the corpus of the 65 manuscripts that referenced theories, the top three most referenced
specific theories are (1) situated learning theory, (2) flow theory, and (3) sociocultural the-
ory. Thematic coding indicates that sociocultural theories, cognitive theories, and motivational
theories are the top three meta-categories. This aligns with findings in Jabbari and Eslami (2019)
that sociocultural theory was the most frequently referenced theory in their corpus of 21 studies.
These findings underscore the prominence of sociocultural theory in the field of DGBLL. This
trend aligns with the focus of theories for SLA suggested by SLA scholars (Ellis et al., 2019;
Lantolf et al., 2015; Larsen-Freeman, 2015; Ortega, 2015). For example, Ortega suggests future
attention is needed to theorize experience in explanations of SLA. However, most SLA theories
are not rigorous in dealing with the language learning experience except sociocultural theory
and complexity theory (Ortega, 2015). From the pedagogical perspective, Ellis and colleagues
suggest that sociocultural theory “has the most to offer task-based language teaching” (Ellis
et al., 2019, p. 116).
While we identified the most frequently referenced theories, it is worth noting that the
findings suggest a research gap regarding the use of SLA theories to inform DGBLL empirical
studies. Interventions that fail to attend to the foundational theories of SLA carry the risk of
learners potentially achieving game goals but failing to achieve language learning goals. For
example, Butler and colleagues (2014) found that games attracted players but did not necessarily
improve their language skills. In addition to this, scholars suggest that further research is needed
on combining game principles with L2 learning strategies to make DGBLL more useful for
promoting language learning outcomes (Xu et al., 2020; Yudintseva, 2015). Although general
learning theories can inform DGBLL in general, we argue that greater emphasis on SLA theory
is explicitly needed to guide DGBLL toward achieving L2 learning outcomes—a direction for
future research.
Findings regarding the roles theory play in DGBLL suggest that researchers tend to focus
more on using theory to guide the design of DGBLL interventions, less on the evaluation, and
least on implementation. When considering game type as the moderator, different patterns
emerge. As the findings show, theoretically informed design is most referenced in serious games
for DGBLL. When the interventions are based on COTS games, theories are more referenced
to inform evaluation and implementation. Although the current study does not have a large
enough sample to conclude the role that theory plays for COTS games, it suggests that future
studies need to explore how to use theories to guide the implementation of COTS games in
the context of language learning. This is important because COTS games are not custom-made
to facilitate language learning (Xu et al., 2020). This finding aligns with Jabbari and Eslami’s
(2019) suggestion that further research is needed to verify theory concerning the affordances of
COTS for SLA.
Taken together, findings in this systematic review suggest that many empirical studies in
DGBLL seem to lack theoretical grounding. Indeed, of the 209 articles identified in this sys-
tematic review, only 31% explicitly referenced theories. In alignment with Jabbari and Eslami’s
(2019) claim that empirical studies in this field lack theoretical grounding, the current study
establishes the current state of theoretically-informed research and elaborates on the dimen-
sions in which theory plays a role. Future research would benefit from explicitly identifying
theoretical groundings and deliberately applying the identified theories throughout the design,
implementation, and evaluation stages when applicable.
This research should be interpreted in light of its limitations. Firstly, a limitation of the
search strategy used for identifying prior review studies was that we only searched for peer
reviewed journals and conference proceedings, which means some literature sources may have
been missed, such as “grey” literature, whitepapers, and book chapters in edited volumes. For
example, Peterson and colleagues (2020) provide a review on 26 DGBLL empirical studies
to identify strengths and weaknesses, including the theoretical perspectives that informed the
included studies. However, because this research was published as a book chapter, it was not
included in our results. Our search strategy was informed by Kitchenham’s (2004) highly cited
procedures for conducting systematic reviews and Stern and colleagues’ (2014) search criteria
around research questions. We believe our search strategy was robust and accurately represents
the state of the field. Indeed, although Peterson and colleagues’ (2020) review was not included
in our report, their findings related to theoretical perspectives align with some of the current
study’s findings. For example, they also found that the majority of included studies adopted a
sociocultural theoretical perspective. Secondly, an additional limitation is that we did not per-
form backward and forward searches to identify further studies. Thirdly, this study diverged
from systematic review best practices in that it only included publications in English and did
not consider publications in other languages. For these three reasons, there could be missing
qualified empirical studies. In addition, although the second author (the advising professor to the
first author) reviewed the entire coding process and results and provided advice as needed, the
coding process was mainly performed by the first author. Therefore, we are not able to report
reliability estimates.
2.7 Conclusion
While various reviews have been conducted in DGBLL in the last ten years, they mainly focus
on learning effectiveness and reporting research trends. There is a lack of reviews that focus on
the theoretical perspective of DGBLL. This systematic review not only establishes the current
state of theoretically informed research but also elaborates on the dimensions in which theory
plays a role. Findings suggest that future research might benefit from explicitly identifying
theoretical groundings and deliberately applying the identified theories throughout the design,
implementation, and evaluation stages when applicable. In addition, findings suggest that much
like the field of SLA in general, the field of DGBLL is taking heed of the prominence of socio-
cultural theory as grounding for empirical DGBLL studies.
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.1640745
3
USE OF DIGITAL GAME CREATION TOOLS IN
COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING
A systematic literature review
Anke Berns and Iván Ruiz-Rube
3.1 Introduction
In the last two decades, digital game-based learning (DGBL) has attracted attention in many dif-
ferent areas including language teaching. DGBL refers to the use of digital games for educational
purposes (All et al., 2016; Prensky, 2001) and is perceived to provide an ideal balance between
learning and gaming elements (Nussbaum & Beserra, 2014). In this sense, DGBL provides a
learning environment that is educational while being fun and entertaining (Bellotti et al., 2013).
With regard to DGBL, two types of games can be distinguished: (1) games for educational
purposes (serious games) and (2) games for entertainment purposes (commercial off-the-shelf
games) that are used in an educational context and with a specific purpose. All et al. (2016) and
Stewart et al. (2013) distinguish three types of serious games: those focusing on transmission of
knowledge (cognitive learning outcomes), those focusing on the acquisition of concrete skills
(skill-based learning outcomes) and those aiming to achieve attitudinal or behavioural change
(affective learning outcomes).
In the area of foreign language learning (FLL), digital games are generally employed with two
different purposes: to increase students’ engagement and motivation towards language learning
(affective learning outcomes) and to train and foster specific language skills (skill-based learning
outcomes) (Berns et al., 2013a; Brom et al., 2011; Connolly et al., 2012; Egenfeldt-Nielsen,
2007; Sampayo-Vargas et al., 2013). These skills usually cover a broad spectrum, from basic
language knowledge such as vocabulary and grammar, skills like listening, reading, writing and
speaking, to more specific skills. The latter include interaction, negotiation and effective com-
munication in the target language (Berns et al., 2016; García-Montero et al., 2001; Mukundan
et al., 2014). Literature reviews (Berns et al., 2013b; Jabbari & Eslami, 2019; Peterson, 2016)
show that while most language games focus on improving vocabulary, reading and writing
skills, collaborative online games and massive multiplayer online games (MMPOG) are often
used to stimulate students’ interaction and negotiation in the target language and thus foster
their communicative competence.
Along with the growing interest in DGBL, other educational trends are on the rise. One is
the increasing interest in promoting computational thinking (CT). The latter goes far beyond
a specific area of knowledge and is considered a key skill when preparing future generations
for a rapidly changing digital world and labour market (Dodero et al., 2017; European School
DOI: 10.4324/9781003240075-3
36 Anke Berns and Iván Ruiz-Rube
Network, 2015). CT is understood as the capacity to analyse, understand and formulate complex
problems in order to find solutions (García-Peñalvo, 2016; Moreno-León et al., 2016). Since CT
is believed to not only favour critical and analytical thinking but also help develop other fun-
damental skills including creative thinking, learning to learn, teamwork, reading and writing
(Costa et al., 2018; Deng-Teng & Ching-Yueh, 2014), many countries, educational institutions
and researchers have started focusing on this concept. This has been done by either integrating
the teaching of programming languages (PL) and creative computing into their curricula or
promoting them in different knowledge areas (Bean et al., 2015; Caspersen et al., 2019; Egbert
et al., 2021; European School Network, 2015; von Wangenheim et al., 2017; Wilson et al.,
2012). Some recent FLL studies in this area include Godwin-Jones (2015) and Barcomb et al.
(2017) who underline the need to turn foreign language (FL) teachers from mere technology
consumers into active designers of technology by teaching them how to code. The idea behind
this approach is twofold: (1) to prepare teachers to select, use and design the appropriate learning
resources that are in line with their students’ learning needs and learning styles and (2) to equip
instructors with the necessary knowledge to teach their learners to code and familiarise them
with programming logic and procedure. Learning such skills is seen as helpful for language
learning since the coding process requires several skills that are also key to successful language
learning. These skills include collaboration with peers, the ability to dissect a complex idea into
smaller elements and the deduction of grammar rules underlying the linguistic structures that
learners are exposed to when learning a language (Costa et al., 2018; Rottenhofer et al., 2021).
With the idea of nurturing CT training through creative computing, several end-user author-
ing tools such as Scratch, AppInventor, CoSpaces, and GameSalad have emerged in the last two
decades. These authoring tools provide teachers and students from all educational fields with a
highly intuitive developmental environment that allows them to easily create their own interac-
tive apps, animations and games (Costa et al., 2018; Dodero et al., 2017).
While recent studies in language teaching suggest a rising need to train teachers in coding
and the use of end-user development tools to help them design their own teaching resources,
little research has been conducted in the area of FLL (Barcomb et al., 2017; Costa et al., 2018;
Godwin-Jones, 2015). The current work intends to address these gaps by conducting a system-
atic literature review (SLR) on the topic.
3.2 End-user authoring tools for non-programmers

The following section describes some end-user authoring tools that are currently popular
(Scratch, MIT App Inventor, CoSpaces, Alice, GameSalad, GameMaker and Gamelearn). The
discussion first identifies their main characteristics as well as functionalities and then uses several
examples to analyse their use in FLL. Currently, the most popular and widespread authoring tools
in the area of education are Scratch and App Inventor (Costa et al., 2018; Dodero et al., 2017;
Ruiz-Rube et al., 2019). The first focuses mainly on learners aged 8 to 16 though it can also be
used by a much broader audience that includes educators, parents and other stakeholders. Scratch
was developed in 2003 by the MIT Media Lab (created and supported by the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology) and LabView (created and supported by National Instruments) and has
since launched various versions – Scratch 2.0 in 2013 and Scratch 3.0 in 2018 (Quan, 2015). It
has also been translated into more than 60 languages, allowing students worldwide to access the
Scratch platform in their native language. Scratch is a block-based visual programming language
and website that aims to help students learn coding by creating their own projects on the web
using a jigsaw-like user interface. Instead of typing code with a textual language, creators drag
and drop blocks representing computer instructions to build software artefacts.
Use of Digital Game Creation Tools 37
In the case of Scratch, the website (https://scratch.mit.edu/) allows its users to creatively combine
different media (graphics, sounds and other programs) and develop their own personalised interactive
stories, games, animations and simulations by importing content such as photos, music clips or audio
recordings. In addition, by using the Scratch website launched in 2007, users can share and remix
their creations and projects with one another, comment, discuss and thus collaborate on each other’s
projects (Maloney et al., 2010; Resnick et al., 2009). Scratch can be downloaded for free from its offi-
cial website. Some interesting studies on how Scratch has been successfully implemented in the FL
classroom are those by Costa et al. (2016, 2018) and Moreno-León and Robles (2015). Both studies
analyse and compare the impact of using Scratch versus more traditional tools on students’ motivation
as well as language learning. The results of both studies indicate that students who used Scratch to
develop different projects related with their English classes not only improved their reading and writ-
ing skills as reported by Costa et al. (2016, 2018) or improved vocabulary and grammar knowledge as
reported by Moreno-León and Robles (2015) but also obtained better learning outcomes compared
with their peers who learned via traditional learning resources.
App Inventor, meanwhile, was launched by Google in 2010. After a few years, MIT took
over the project and began to develop and host App Inventor 2 (László Takács et al., 2018). App
Inventor is a visual programming platform, comparable to Scratch, that aims to make program-
ming easy and accessible for everyone with no need for familiarity with traditional programming
languages (Morelli et al., 2011). The tool allows the creation of apps for two different operat-
ing systems, that is, Android and iOS. It is free and open-source software released under dual
licensing: a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License and an Apache
License 2.0 for the source code visual objects to create an application that can run on mobile
devices (David et al., 2015; Patton et al., 2019). A notable study on the use of App Inventor (in
combination with VEDILS: http://vedils.uca.es/web/index.html) in the FL classroom is Berns
et al. (2018). The study describes the development and implementation of a VR-based app (Let’s
date!) in an A1 level German FL course (CEFR). The app, which was developed by the teachers
involved in the project, aimed to provide students with the opportunity to practice listening and
speaking skills and at the same time strengthen their pronunciation skills.
CoSpaces is another authoring tool that, like Scratch, targets young learners and allows its
users to create virtual reality-based (VR) environments. It is a mixed-reality web-based appli-
cation and authoring tool that, like Scratch and AppInventor, does not require any specific
programming knowledge. It can thus be used by teachers and students to easily create simple
or more complex virtual environments. Such environments can be games, interactive stories or
immersive virtual tours based on 360-degree videos or panoramic views. Additionally, CoSpaces
provides its users with a 3D editor, a visual programming and class management interface and
VR capacity (Mouzakis et al., 2021). The authoring toolkit can be downloaded from the official
CoSpaces website. An important study in the FLL field was carried out by Yi-ling et al. (2020),
which involved the use of CoSpaces Edu with 24 elementary students learning English. Students
were asked to work in small groups and create four VR scenes with avatar dialogues for each
scene. The results of the study highlight that the learning experience increased both the stu-
dents’ motivation to learn English as well as their language outcomes. Regarding the latter, the
authors especially emphasize improvements in terms of vocabulary learning as well as writing.
Similar authoring tools, especially in terms of features and usability, are Alice, GameMaker,
GameSalad and Gamelearn. Alice was first developed in 1994 at the University of Virginia
and further developed in 1997 at Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) (Conway et al., 2000).
GameMaker was created by Mark Overmars in 1999 and further developed by YoYo Games in
2017 (Squire, 2011) whereas GameSalad and Gamelearn were launched by private companies of
the same name in 2007. The added value of Gamelearn compared with other visual authoring
tools is that it allows its users to easily access the learning management system (LMS) and thus
track their students’ results, which is key for assessing their learning process.
All four authoring tools can be downloaded from their respective websites, offering novice
students numerous tools, including a gallery with 3D models, a drag-and-drop and graphical
user interface, to easily develop their own computer animations and games (Barcomb et al.,
2017; Cooper et al., 2000; Dekhane & Xu, 2012; Deng-Teng & Ching-Yueh, 2014). Games can
be developed for different platforms: iOS, Android, Mac, Windows and HTML5.
3.3 Methodology
3.3.1 Purpose of the study and research questions
By identifying and measuring the use and level of acceptance of end-user authoring tools in the
area of FLL, we intend to answer the following research questions:
1. What end-user authoring tools do creators use the most to design language learning games?
2. At what educational level are end-user authoring tools used?
3. What kind of skills and language content are supported by the language games created and
end-user authoring tools used?
4. What kind of empirical studies are found?
5. Does CT and coding benefit FLL learning?
To answer our research questions, the following section focuses on a more detailed analysis of
the use of end-user authoring tools in FLL. To this end, we conduct an SLR to identify and ana-
lyse the most relevant and recent studies carried out in the field of FLL. By doing so, we intend
to help CALL practitioners and researchers interested in the topic to become familiar with an
emerging research field. Despite being still on the fringes, it provides interesting opportunities
to enrich the language teaching and learning process.
3.3.2 Study design

For our SLR and data collection, we used the guidelines proposed by Moher et al. (2015) in
Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). The main
steps recommended in such guidelines and taken for the current study are the following: identi-
fying and screening the studies’ titles and abstracts, deciding eligibility and including the studies
that meet the selection criteria established.
3.3.2.1 Search strategy

We established a search strategy by using two different bibliography search engines and data-
bases: Google Scholar and Mendeley. The latter allowed us to identify relevant journal and
conference papers, book chapters and technical papers related to our research topic. The data
search was conducted in July 2021 and focused on studies published between January 2011 and
July 2021. To widen – or, in some cases, narrow – our set of results, we used Boolean operators
(i.e., ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’). However, some operators needed to be modified and adapted to the
databases’ search options. The following are the general forms used to identify relevant studies
and projects: ‘the name of the authoring tool’ AND ‘foreign’ OR ‘second’ AND ‘language
learning games’ NOT ‘programming language OR computer language’. Once we obtained the
results, we downloaded and thoroughly analysed the available papers.
3.3.2.2 Selection criteria

To filter the studies of interest for our analysis, we first examined the title, abstract and key-
words. In some cases, we needed to skim the full text to understand the key points and type of
study (e.g., whether it was a theoretical or empirical study). To select or reject a study for the
analysis, we divided the studies into the following categories:
• Off-topic: Studies that are not directly related to our topic of interest
• Unsupported language: Studies that have been published in a language different from
English
• Duplicated: Studies that provide the same or similar information regarding other works
that have already been included
In addition, for a study to be included in our analysis, it needed to fulfil the following eligibility
criteria:
• Uses some of the targeted end-user authoring tools in the area of FLL
• Provides the results of an empirical research study
• Was published in a peer-reviewed journal, book or conference proceedings in English
The results obtained for each end-user authoring tool are presented in Table 3.1.
Given that most of the studies found did not meet the selection criteria established, the corpus
of literature relevant to our analysis was reduced to a total of 12 studies. Eight studies focused
on Scratch, three on App Inventor and one on CoSpaces. The remaining end-user authoring
tools could not be included in our analysis since none of the studies retrieved met the eligibility
criteria. Table 3.A (see Appendix 1) provides a comprehensive list of the included studies.
3.3.2.3 Classification scheme

After selecting the relevant studies, we extracted the required data to classify the different studies
and properly answer our research questions. To this end, we identified the following data and
categories:
TABLE 3.1 Searches Performed
Unsupported
Authoring Tool Source Found Duplicated Language Off-topic Valid
Scratch Google Scholar 306 10 14 275 7

Mendeley 9 0 0 8 1
App Inventor Google Scholar 74 3 3 67 1
Mendeley 3 0 0 1 2
CoSpaces Google Scholar 3 0 2 0 1
Mendeley 1 0 0 1 0
Alice Google Scholar 58 1 7 50 0
Mendeley 2 0 0 2 0
GameMaker Google Scholar 37 1 9 27 0
Mendeley 0 0 0 0 0
GameSalad Google Scholar 8 1 2 5 0
Mendeley 0 0 0 0 0
Gamelearn Google Scholar 47 2 7 38 0
Mendeley 0 0 0 0 0
Authoring tool: Name of the tool used by the author(s) to create the language game
Educational level: Learners targeted
Learning goal: Skills and language content targeted
Study type: Type of quantitative research
Duration of study and sample size: Duration of the empirical study and number of
students involved
Educational outcomes: Reported outcomes in terms of learning and motivation The
results are presented in Table 3.2.
3.3.3 Results
Below we present the results obtained from the analysis to answer each research question.
3.3.3.1 Frequency of end-user authoring tools used in FLL games

Analysing the data retrieved (see Table 3.2) regarding the first research question, the most fre-
quently employed authoring tools used between 2011 and 2021 to create language games were
Scratch (eight studies), App Inventor (three studies) and CoSpaces (one study). However, it is
noteworthy that all studies found were published between 2015 and 2021, with no studies pub-
lished between 2011 and 2014. Moreover, in FLL, no study was found on the use and imple-
mentation of other popular and frequently employed authoring tools such as Alice, GameSalad,
GameMaker and Gamelearn (see Figure 3.1).
3.3.3.2 Educational level

With regard to the second research question, the data suggest that Scratch and CoSpaces were mainly
used with students in primary education (although Scratch was used with university students in two
cases), whereas App Inventor was solely used with university students (see Figure 3.2).
3.3.3.3 Skills and language contents targeted

Concerning the third research question, six out of 12 studies focused on strengthening stu-
dents’ FLL skills through the teaching and learning of CT and coding (Costa et al., 2016, 2018;
Moreno-León & Robles, 2015; Pena & Pladevall-Ballester, 2020; Pinto & Escudeiro, 2017;
Yi-ling et al., 2020). The authoring tools used for this purpose were Scratch and CoSpaces. The
projects aimed to first familiarise learners with their use and coding language; then, they invited
learners to design their own language learning games by applying their knowledge in the FL
they were studying. The idea behind all these projects was that knowledge in CT and coding
would help students develop a variety of skills. These include teamwork skills, critical as well
as analytical thinking, learning to learn, reading and writing, which simultaneously benefited
their FLL process (Figure 3.3).
Apart from the previously mentioned projects on Scratch and CoSpaces, two other projects
were found on Scratch in the area of applied linguistics at the University of Guam (Quan, 2015,
2017). This time, the target learners were university students and potential future language
teachers. Therefore, the primary goal was to train them in coding and provide them with
the necessary knowledge and tools to design their own language learning games in line with
their teaching needs in the near future. Similar to the projects involving Scratch and CoSpaces
described previously, students were first introduced to the authoring tool and coding language
TABLE 3.2 Classification of Studies Included
Authoring Tool Educational Learning Goal Study type Duration/sample Educational Outcomes
Level size
Scratch
Michailidis 1st and Vocabulary & experimental 8 sessions Increased vocabulary

et al. (2021) 2nd grade pronunciation (60 students) outcomes & motivation
Pena and 5th grade Speaking skills; experimental 10 sessions Increased fluency; CT
Pladevall- CT & coding (32 students) & coding skills
Ballester
(2020)
Costa et al. 3rd grade Listening, quasi- 17 sessions Increased reading & writing;
(2018) reading, experimental (33 students) CT & coding skills
speaking &
writing skills;
CT & coding
Quan (2017) University CT & coding to descriptive 6 semesters Teamwork skills; critical
create foreign (not thinking; CT & coding
language indicated) skills
learning games
Pinto and 7th grade CT & coding; descriptive 10 sessions Teamwork skills
Escudeiro oral (23 students) & increased motivation
(2017) intercultural towards learning English;
communicative increased intercultural
competence competence in English;
increased learning; CT
& coding skills
Costa et al. 3rd grade Reading & quasi- 2 semesters Increased learning
(2016) writing skills; experimental (33 students) outcomes (reading
CT & coding & writing) & motivation
skills towards learning English
Quan (2015) University CT & coding to descriptive 2 semesters CT & coding; critical
create foreign (not thinking
language indicated)
learning games
Moreno-León 4th and 5th Vocabulary & quasi- 12 sessions Increased language outcomes
and Robles grade grammar; CT experimental (66 students) (especially vocabulary
(2015) & coding & grammar), motivation
towards learning English
& teamwork skills; critical
thinking; CT and coding
skills
App Inventor
Yeh et al. 1st-year Listening & pre- 1 session Lower cognitive load
(2017) university speaking experimental (40 students) & increased language
outcomes (listening
& speaking)
Berns et al. 1st-year Listening, descriptive 1 session Increased learning outcomes
(2018) university speaking & (24 students) & motivation (listening,
pronunciation speaking & pronunciation)
Mose (2015) 1st-year Vocabulary descriptive 1 session Increased interaction
university learning (23 students) amongst learners &
motivation towards learning
Swahili vocabulary
CoSpaces
Yi-ling et al. Primary Vocabulary & descriptive 1 semester Increased language
(2020) school writing (24 students) outcomes & improved
writing and use of
vocabulary; coding skills
FIGURE 3.1 Frequency of End-user Authoring Tools Used in FLL
and then asked to create several language learning games (Quan, 2015, 2017). However, while
all projects on Scratch focused on FLL through coding, the three studies found on App Inventor
focused exclusively on FLL through the implementation of previously designed language games
(Berns et al., 2018; Mose, 2015; Yeh et al., 2017; Yi-ling et al., 2020). The latter projects were
designed either by the language teachers or game developers involved.
Regarding the language content and language skills targeted, the studies show that there is a
clear trend of designing language games for enhancing oral skills (Figure 3.4).
In fact, six out of the 12 studies focused on the training of oral skills (Berns et al., 2018; Costa
et al., 2018; Michailidis et al., 2021; Pena & Pladevall-Ballester, 2020; Pinto & Escudeiro, 2017;
Yeh et al., 2017). The second most targeted language skills were reading and writing) as well as
vocabulary learning. In this sense, three out of 12 studies targeted the training of reading and/
or writing skills (Costa et al., 2016, 2018; Yi-ling et al., 2020), and another three out of 12
FIGURE 3.2 Educational Level at Which End-user Authoring Tools were Used
FIGURE 3.3 Learning Goals
focused on vocabulary learning (Moreno-León & Robles, 2015; Mose, 2015; Yi-ling et al.,
2020). However, it is notable that grammar is the least targeted language item, with only one
out of 12 studies focusing on it (Moreno-León & Robles, 2015).
3.3.3.4 Type of study, duration and sample size

Regarding the fourth research question, the data indicate that the studies can be divided into
experimental, quasi-experimental, pre-experimental, and descriptive (Table 3.2). While the
experimental (Michailidis et al., 2021; Pena & Pladevall-Ballester, 2020) and quasi-experimen-
tal studies (Costa et al., 2016 and 2018; Moreno-León & Robles, 2015) were conducted with an
experimental and a control group, the pre-experimental ones (Yeh et al., 2017) are conducted
with one and the same group of learners. However, both types of studies provide language
FIGURE 3.4 Language Content and Skills Targeted

FIGURE 3.5 Duration of Study
learning results based on pre- and post-test measurements. In contrast, the descriptive stud-
ies employed instruments such as questionnaires (Berns et al., 2018), student reports (Quan,
2015 & 2017) as well as user feedback to evaluate the learning tools used (Mose, 2015; Pinto &
Escudeiro, 2017; Yi-ling et al., 2020).
In terms of duration, it is notable that only those studies that focused on combining FLL with
CT and coding lasted for a number of sessions or even one or more semesters (Quan, 2015, 2017;
Yi-ling et al., 2020). On the contrary, studies that concentrated merely on FLL (Berns et al.,
2018; Mose, 2015; Yeh et al., 2017), through the implementation of previously designed materi-
als by the teacher or game developer, lasted only one session (see Figure 3.5).
Finally, a look at the sample sizes used for each study highlights that the number of students
involved was in general low (Figure 3.6).
FIGURE 3.6 Sample Size

As illustrated by Figure 3.6 seven out of 12 studies were carried out with fewer than 34 stu-
dents (Berns et al., 2018; Costa et al., 2016, 2018; Mose, 2015; Pena & Pladevall-Ballester, 2020;
Pinto & Escudeiro, 2017; Yi-ling et al., 2020), whereas only three out of 12 had slightly larger
sample sizes, with 40 up to 66 students participating (Michailidis et al., 2021; Moreno-León &
Robles, 2015; Yeh et al., 2017). The remaining two studies do not provide any information on
the sample size involved (Quan, 2015, 2017) indicating only the duration of the study.
3.3.3.5 Educational outcomes

Concerning the fifth research question, the results suggest that students not only enjoy coding
with end-user authoring and visual programming tools such as Scratch, but also recognise that
coding helped them in developing other skills including language skills, critical thinking or
working collaboratively in teams (see Figure 3.7).
Thus, all five projects that focused on CT and coding to support FLL reported increased lan-
guage learning outcomes. Such outcomes were in two out of five studies better reading and writ-
ing skills (Costa et al., 2016, 2018), followed by another two that report better speaking (Pena
& Pladevall-Ballester, 2020) as well as intercultural competence (Pinto & Escudeiro, 2017).
Finally, the fifth study underlines enhanced vocabulary and grammar knowledge (Moreno-
León & Robles, 2015).
Two out of five studies also reported improvements in teamwork skills (Moreno-León &
Robles, 2015; Pinto & Escudeiro, 2017), and one in critical thinking (Moreno-León & Robles,
2015). Very positive results were also reported in the projects that did not focus directly on
learning a FL through CT and coding but instead focused on CT and coding to train future
professionals of language teaching to develop FLL games (Quan, 2015, 2017).
However, regardless of the positive and promising results across all studies, in terms of stu-
dents’ learning and motivation, the limited durations of the studies and the very small sample
sizes do not provide enough evidence to draw stronger conclusions from the data obtained. In
fact, several authors underline the need for further studies with more diversified and larger sam-
ple sizes as well as more longitudinal work (Costa et al., 2016, 2018; Moreno-León & Robles,
2015). This would allow us to obtain stronger evidence regarding the benefits of acquiring CT
FIGURE 3.7 Educational Outcomes

and coding skills to promote the learning of other skills such as critical, analytical and creative
thinking, at the same time benefiting language learning processes.
3.4 Discussion
The results in Section 3.3 allowed us to answer the research questions. With regard to the first
question, a close examination of empirical studies published in the past decade (2011–2021)
revealed that language teachers’ and researchers’ utilisation of authoring tools such as Scratch,
App Inventor, CoSpaces, Alice, GameMaker, Gamelearn and GameSalad remains on the fringes
of FLL. In fact, most works focus on Scratch, which is in line with the increasing popularity of
the platform since 2014 (see https://scratch.mit.edu/statistics/).
Regarding the second research question, the analysed authoring tools in the context of
the current study were mostly used with primary language students combining the FLL with
programming learning (Costa et al., 2016, 2018; Michailidis et al., 2021; Moreno-León &
Robles, 2015; Pena & Pladevall-Ballester, 2020; Pinto et al., 2017; Yi-ling at al., 2020). The
authoring tools were used with university students in only five cases (Berns et al., 2018;
Mose, 2015; Yeh et al., 2017; Quan, 2015, 2017), two of which combined coding teaching
with FLL (Quan, 2015, 2017). This implies that students studying linguistics, who are thus
potential language teachers, should be trained to code so that they can create language games
as future teaching and learning resources. Unlike those carried out by Quan (2015, 2017),
the remaining three projects focused on the use of language games created by the language
teachers themselves. Authoring tools were in this case used to provide language learners with
an engaging and interactive learning environment. The fact that end-user authoring tools are
still primarily used in elementary education reflects the increasing trend to integrate coding
in the school curricula of young learners on the one hand (European School Network, 2015).
On the other hand, it reflects the need to promote its use more amongst students and teachers
at higher levels of education; that is, by integrating subjects such as programming in the cur-
riculum of higher education degrees (Dodero et al., 2017).
Regarding the third research question, most of the authoring tools were employed to
create language games focusing not on vocabulary and grammar learning – as the authors
initially expected – but instead on reading and writing as well as on improving speaking,
pronunciation and listening comprehension or intercultural competence. The results thus
suggest that end-user authoring tools such as those analysed in the current study offer users
interesting opportunities and tools for creating language games and learning resources. The
latter go far beyond the learning of basic language contents and allow for the training of
other equally important skills including speaking or pronunciation, writing, reading and
listening.
With respect to the fourth research question, four different types of studies were found:
pre-experimental, experimental, quasi-experimental and descriptive studies. Nonetheless, the
analysis of the studies has highlighted that all of them require to have greater samples and be
carried out over a longer period to yield reliable conclusions (Berns et al., 2018; Costa et al.,
2018; Michailidis et al., 2021; Moreno-León & Robles, 2015). These results are consistent with
those reported in response to research question 2, reinforcing the need to better promote the use
of end-user authoring tools amongst language teachers.
With regards to the fifth research question, our SLR highlights that end-user authoring tools to
teach coding through the design of language learning games have been marginally used until now.
In fact, only a few projects and studies have been developed and implemented so far in FLL. Equally
noteworthy is that Scratch was the most frequently used authoring tool for such projects, whereas
CoSpaces was used in only one case. This affirms Costa et al.’s (2016) assertion that although research
has shown the positive impact of code learning since primary school, little research has been done so
far to explore the potential of authoring tools in enhancing FLL through coding and CT.
Despite the research gap, the results of the studies suggest that the participatory and construc-
tionist approach (Costa et al., 2018; Kuure et al., 2016) behind coding encourages learners to
become active participants in their learning process. Hence, by creating their own learning games
and resources, they actively engage in the construction of their knowledge. The latter is rein-
forced by the fact that coding is often done in the form of teamwork, which requires learners
to interact with one another and create game dialogues and other language contents (Moreno-
León & Robles, 2015; Yi-ling et al., 2020). However, the participatory and constructionist
approach is not new in teaching and learning but has long been identified by many scholars as
key to learning in general and language learning in particular (Brooks & Brooks, 1993; Sun
& Chang, 2012; Swain et al., 2002; Vygotsky, 1978). As stated by Swain et al. (2002, p. 172),
knowledge-construction occurs when students work jointly ‘to solve linguistic problems and/
or co-construct language or knowledge about language.’ Creating language games with visual
end-user authoring tools, as the ones in the present study, implies not only learning to use a
block-based programming language but also organising and structuring the FL contents previ-
ously acquired in class. This implies, amongst others, that students must understand the rules
governing the target language morphology, syntax, and semantics (Rottenhofer et al., 2021;
Sanjanaashree et al., 2014). This is exactly where critical and analytical thinking comes into
play and where language learners are challenged to reflect on their language knowledge and the
rules that govern different syntactic structures such as the position of nouns, verbs, adverbs, and
adjectives. Language skills that are said to especially benefit from this activity are writing and
reading (Costa et al., 2016; 2018).
3.5 Pedagogical implications

The use of authoring tools to develop language games and teach critical, analytical or CT skills
that could directly benefit FLL will highly depend on the commitment of educational institu-
tions and policies. In this context, teacher training across all areas of education could help pave
the way for a gradual but consistent integration of CT and coding beyond the programming,
mathematics or science classroom (Costa et al., 2016; Moreno-León & Robles, 2015). While
efforts are still needed to promote the use of end-user authoring tools within the FL classroom,
studies such as Quan (2015, 2017), Moreno-León and Robles (2015), Costa et al. (2016, 2018)
and Yi-ling et al. (2020) may inspire future teachers to explore the potential of authoring tools
including those discussed in this chapter. This way, teachers could create their own language
games in line with their teaching needs or use them with their students to enhance the develop-
ment of their transversal competencies.
3.6 Limitations of the study

This research is subject to several limitations, which need to be addressed in future studies. The
first is that the authors limited their SLR to two search engines and databases: Google Scholar
and Mendeley. The use of additional databases including Web of Science, SCOPUS, EBSCO
Discovery Service and ProQuest Central might have rendered more results especially in terms
of longitudinal studies and greater sample sizes and thus would have allowed us to draw stronger
conclusions. The second limitation is that the SLR was limited to peer-reviewed publications
in English. The inclusion of other languages for example Portuguese, Italian and Spanish might
have allowed the authors to gain a deeper insight into European trends and projects to promote
the use of end-user authoring tools in the area of FLL.
3.7 Conclusions and future work

Although the findings of the current study shed light on the potential of end-user authoring tools
to both enrich the FL classroom and turn teachers and students from technology consumers into
developers and designers of learning technology, future work is needed. In this sense, future work
must explore ways not only to promote these tools amongst teachers but also to study their ben-
efits as a means to facilitate language learning. For future work, we therefore intend—amongst
others—to build on the current study by conducting a more widespread literature review.
This will include the use of further databases and studies published in languages other than
English as well as the analysis of theoretical studies. The latter will enable a deeper exami-
nation of the motivations, challenges as well as benefits of combining the training of coding
and CT with FLL.
Acknowledgement
This research was funded by the Spanish Research Agency AEI (DOI:10.13039/501100011033)
through the project CRÊPES (ref. PID2020-115844RB-I00) with ERDF funds.
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Appendix 1
TABLE 3.A List of Studies Included
Authoring tool Studies Source
Scratch Michailidis et al. (2021). Peer-reviewed journal article

Pena and Pladevall-Ballester (2020). Peer-reviewed journal article
Costa et al. (2018, June). Peer-reviewed conference proceedings
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Mose, P. (2015). Peer-reviewed journal article
CoSpaces Yi-ling et al. (2020, June). Report published in conference proceedings
4
A METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK
FOR ANALYZING THE LANGUAGE IN
DIGITAL GAMES
Daniel H. Dixon
4.1 Introduction
Digital games have been frequently praised in the field of Computer-Assisted Language
Learning (CALL) for the large amount of contextualized second language (L2) input that they
can provide to learners (e.g., Dixon & Christison, 2021; Peterson, 2016; Reinhardt, 2019).
Although this input is often seen as a key characteristic for explaining the positive effects
that games can have on L2 learning outcomes, the current literature has tended to generalize
L2 learning outcomes to specific genres of digital games, like massively multiplayer online
(MMO) games, or a specific title, such as World of Warcraft (Blizzard Entertainment, 2004).
Furthermore, much of the digital game-based language learning (DGBLL) literature tends
to focus primarily on L2 vocabulary gains as was reported in a recent DGBLL meta-analysis
(Dixon et al., 2022). Since the current literature is limited in scope, Reinhardt (2021) argues
that we have not yet pinpointed exactly which game designs or mechanics are most correlated
with the L2 gains reported in the literature. To this point, Reinhardt (2021) argues convinc-
ingly for a shift in DGBLL research that moves away from a focus on game genres, ‘which
are dynamic and difficult to define’ and, instead, targets specific ‘game design mechanics and
features’ (p. 74) and the effects that these targeted mechanics have on L2 learning outcomes.
Reinhardt describes game mechanics as essentially the operationalization of the rules of a
game where ‘mechanics can be thought of as delimiting what is required or optional … like
destroying monsters, collecting resources, or taking turns’ (p. 75). Game mechanics might
also simply be thought of as what the Player can do and in what context, or as algorithms that
follow sequences of if/then statements depending on what a player chooses to do (e.g., if the
Player presses X, their avatar moves to Y).
In the framework presented in this chapter, game mechanics (at least the mechanics that
involve language use) are identified through ‘situational analyses’ that identify ‘a language
variety associated with a particular situation of use,’ situations that are referred to as ‘registers’
(Biber & Conrad, 2019, p. 31). As Biber and Conrad explain, because of a register’s unique
situational contexts, including their unique communicative purposes, certain lexical and
grammatical features appear more frequently in one register when compared to another. This
variation in feature frequency is functionally interpreted by the characteristics described in the
situational analyses. For example, in face-to-face conversations, one of the major situational
DOI: 10.4324/9781003240075-4
A Methodological Framework 53
characteristics include the participants. Because the participants share the same temporal space
and context, this shared setting allows for the use of deictics (e.g., here, there, this), which is
not possible in written registers such as academic prose, as the reader and writer do not share
a physical space.
Although Biber and Conrad’s register perspective was not specifically developed for gam-
ing contexts, Biber and Conrad (2019) stress that register analysis can be applied to any lan-
guage-use situation. Like a register, a game mechanic that uses language does so to serve
specific communicative purposes in a game. For example, one common purpose is to commu-
nicate to the Player the steps required to complete a particular goal or quest. These quest-related
mechanics typically use only written language, whereas in other contexts, like interacting
with the game’s automated characters (referred to as non-player characters; NPCs), pre-recorded
spoken audio is used. The specific audio file that plays will often depend on the choices that
the Player makes during the conversation. At times, the Player may be prompted to make
choices that influence the outcomes of the conversation as well as the broader storylines within
the games. At other times, the Player is not given response options, and they can only passively
watch a conversation between characters in the game. Thus, from a linguistic perspective,
registers and mechanics can essentially refer to the same concept: a language variety associated
with a particular situation of use. As Reinhardt (2021) and (Dixon et al., 2022) argue, these
varying contexts of language use within a game are too often ignored in research, limiting the
generalizability of research findings.
Drawing on Biber and Conrad’s (2019) register analysis approach, this chapter presents a
method for identifying, describing, and quantitatively analyzing the language in games with
the goal of advancing understanding of the L2 input that games can provide L2 learners. To be
clear, the language being targeted refers to the actual language in the games themselves, not
the language used by the real-life players. The input from games has been referred to as ‘envi-
ronmental input’ by Dixon (2014) to differentiate from input that comes from real-life players
communicating with one another.
4.2 Literature review: DGBLL research using corpus linguistics

tools and methods
Thorne et al. (2012) is one of the few published studies in which the researchers use corpus
linguistics tools and methods to analyze the language input from games. The researchers
examined the lexical complexity of texts from quests in the MMO World of Warcraft (WoW;
Blizzard Entertainment, 2004). They also analyzed texts from online forums to which WoW
players often refer. They argue that the WoW texts are relatively rich in both lexical sophisti-
cation and diversity. They conclude that WoW seemed ‘to present a diverse and linguistically
complex social-semiotic environment for L2 leaners of English’ (p. 298), but also note that
‘there remains an outstanding need for meticulous empirical studies that critically evaluate
the environments games provide for L2 learning’ (p. 282), a need that the current study aims
to address.
More recently, Dixon (2021) compared the lexico-grammatical features used in three dif-
ferent game mechanic registers in a targeted population of commercial single player games.
The features targeted included ‘two lexical complexity measures (i.e., richness and sophisti-
cation) and three lexical feature ratio measures (i.e., the number of pronouns, mental verbs,
and activity verbs to the total lemma tokens in each text)’ (p. 11). Dixon reported that the
spoken language in the games was more complex than the written registers. The lower com-
plexity of the quest objectives register was functionally interpreted as a way of providing ‘clear,
54 Daniel Dixon
unambiguous directions to the Player, which can help ‘explain the lower ratio of advanced
words within quest objectives’ (p. 18). This lower use of advanced words in quest objectives
may be beneficial for L2 learners because this game mechanic does not require as much vocab-
ulary knowledge as the language used in other mechanics, like dialogue trees. Furthermore,
Dixon reported that the written game registers repeated words more often, which he sug-
gests can allow for ‘incidental form and meaning connections to be made through associative
learning’ (p. 20). This associative learning may lead ‘to habitual and automatic access of those
forms’ (p. 20), which draws on the usage-based perspective put forth by Ellis (2019).
4.2.1 The L2 input in digital games

Outside of DGBLL research employing corpus tools and methods, much of the DGBLL lit-
erature seems to agree that digital games can provide a substantial amount of L2 input and
opportunities to produce output. MMO games have received much attention in the research in
this domain. Dixon and Christison (2021) found that participants produced an average of 150
messages for every 90 minutes of gameplay. They reported that participants’ in-game commu-
nications primarily served the function of pooling information as they cooperatively worked to
complete quests. This type of social interaction has been a popular topic in DGBLL research.
Peterson (2011) reported that participants playing an MMO game engaged in collaborative
social interaction using their L2. He hypothesized that MMO games may focus L2 gamers’
attention on their L2 output problems as they attempt to communicate and collaborate in their
L2. This can lead to a focus on language form (p. 58) which is widely believed to be facilitative
of L2 acquisition (Schmidt, 2001).
In determining the transferability of input received through L2 gaming to non-gaming con-
texts, Scholz and Schulze (2017) argue that input from the game environment is ‘indeed trans-
ferable to non-gaming contexts’ (p. 112). They supported this claim by tracking the number of
times participants produced fewer ‘common words’ in German outside of a gaming context.
They argue that these words were ‘likely to have been developed during the gameplay experi-
ence’ (p. 109), but they note the need for quantitative studies measuring the representativeness
of language in games to real world contexts, a primary aim of the current study.
4.3 Research questions

Although research is limited, the argument for better understanding the various linguistic envi-
ronments within target populations of digital games has been gaining momentum. Thorne et al.
(2012) point out that ‘the amount of exposure to and interaction in the L2 will strongly depend
on what the player wishes to do and to achieve in the game’ (p. 298). That is, different game
mechanics and designs can use language for different communicative purposes, purposes that
require unique combinations of linguistic features as evidenced by Dixon (2021). Using Biber
and Conrad’s (2019) register analysis approach, unique situations of language use, their com-
municative purposes, and the mechanics employed to achieve those purposes can be identified,
described, and analyzed, which is the approach described in this chapter. The following research
questions guide the aims of the study:
1. What registers can be identified through a situational analysis of the language used in the
targeted population of games?
2. To what extent do the identified spoken game registers compare to real-world spoken lan-
guage as measured by the frequencies of 15 linguistic features common in speech?
4.4. Method
4.4.1 The target population of games
Four games were selected to serve as a sample representing a broader target population of games:
Fallout 4 (Bethesda Game Studios, 2015), Divinity Original Sin II (Larian Studios, 2017), the
Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim (Bethesda Game Studios, 2011), and the Witcher III: Wild Hunt (CD
Projekt Red, 2015). These games, and the broader population they aim to represent, are lin-
guistically interesting because they have extensive narratives that incorporate hundreds of hours
of recorded audio and thousands of written texts, providing a wealth of input for gamers who
choose to play such games in their L2. The targeted population are often referred to as single-
player open-world role-playing games. The games are designed to be played by just one person at a
time rather than groups of players like in multiplayer games. The term open world suggests that
the tasks and objectives (i.e., quests) do not need to be completed in a set order, a mechanic that
encourages the Player to explore the virtual world as they see fit. The game developers and
publishers make no claims about the educational value of these games, which are marketed for
entertainment purposes.
The targeted population of games draws heavily on many well-established mechanics made
popular several decades ago in the tabletop game Dungeons & Dragons (D&D; Gygax, 1978). Like
D&D, open-world RPGs typically begin by creating a Player Character. The Player Character
represents the real-life Player in the game’s virtual setting. In this setting, the Player searches
for quests and completes a series of tasks related to those quests. After completing a quest, they
are awarded experience points, points that are used to strengthen the Player Character’s attributes,
skills, and equipment. For example, investments in attributes can open up options for new
abilities or skills that allow the character to attempt more challenging quests and defeat more
powerful foes.
4.4.2 Data collection: Compiling the Single Player Offline Corpus (SPOC)
The goal in compiling the Single Player Offline Corpus (SPOC) was to separate the language
in the four digital games into naturally occurring, recognizably self-contained, and functional
units of observation (see Egbert & Schnur, 2018), simply referred to as texts. Another goal was
to make the corpus 100% accurate to the language that the Player could actually see and hear
during gameplay. For this reason, the digital language files were extracted from the games them-
selves rather than scraping transcriptions of this language from community websites, which can
often contain a number of inaccurate transcriptions.
The process of extracting these files can be quite challenging because the games’ digital files
are often encrypted. In order to extract and decrypt the files, modification software, referred to
as mod tools, was used. More commonly, mod tools are used by gaming communities to change
and add content to games like quests or characters, or they could be used to alter the look and
feel of games. Using such tools can be challenging without prior knowledge, and no single tool
will work with all digital games. In fact, each game in the corpus required a different mod tool.
Detailing the use of these tools is outside of the scope of this chapter, but many tutorials are
accessible online.
Manually coding each text as written or spoken using human coders was not necessary
because the game developers placed these two types of files in different digital locations in the
games’ directories. Once the files were converted to text files, the texts were then automatically
coded using a Python (Van Rossum & Drake, 1995) script that noted whether the text came
from the spoken or written language directory. As a unit, each text, spoken or written, consists
56 Daniel Dixon
TABLE 4.1 The Single Player Offline Corpus (SPOC) Word and Text Counts
Divinity Fallout Skyrim The Witcher Totals per register
Spoken
Words 753,852 2,101,962 600,760 671,203 4,127,777
Text 3,836 3,955 4,362 5,868 18,021
Words/text (SD) 197 (434) 531 (1,258) 138 (573) 114 (219) 229 (713)
Written
Words 78,668 109,305 426,543 141,265 755,781
Texts 2,071 5,999 2,752 1,344 12,166
Words/text (SD) 38 (93) 18 (52) 155 (417) 105 (106) 62 (216)
Totals per game
Words 832,520 2,211,267 1,027,303 812,468 4,883,558
Texts 5,907 9,954 7,114 7,212 30,187
Words/text (SD) 141 (362) 222 (833) 144 (519) 113 (203) 162 (574)
of all the language in a single file as the files are parsed within the games’ directories. As seen
in Table 4.1, this process resulted in a corpus of 4,883,558 words spread across 30,187 texts,
averaging 162 words per text (SD = 574).
4.4.3 Situational analyses

Biber and Conrad’s (2019) situational analysis is used to identify the sub-registers within the
spoken and written texts in the games. Situational analyses ‘describe characteristics related
to [a] situation of [language] use’ (p. 31). Their framework is based on ‘a survey of previ-
ous theoretical frameworks that have been developed for the study of register’ (pp. 40-41).
Because ‘some characteristics will not be relevant for some comparisons’ (p. 39), a subset of
the ‘major’ situational characteristics was selected based on their relevance to gaming con-
texts. The major situational characteristics included in the analysis in this study include the
participants, processing circumstances, and communicative purposes (see Biber & Conrad,
2019, Chapter 2), which are used to answer Research Question 1. It is important to note that
situational analyses like these are often iterative, meaning that additional sub-registers can
later be identified based on findings from quantitative linguistic analysis and the qualitative
functional interpretation of the results (See Biber & Conrad, 2019, Chapter 3). Thus, the
register taxonomy presented here lends itself well to future research that aims to expand
upon the initial findings reported in this chapter by investigating different populations of
games and identifying new digital game registers, an area currently lacking in the current
DGBLL literature.
4.4.4 Linguistic features

Corpus texts were measured on a range of linguistic features that aim to determine the extent
to which the sample of games’ use of spoken language shares linguistic similarities with
real-world spoken conversations (Research Question 2). The analysis targets linguistic fea-
tures common in conversation, drawing on findings from previous research quantifying and
describing the pervasive and frequent features in spoken registers (Biber, 1988; Biber et al.,
2002; Quaglio, 2009). The features included in the quantitative analysis in this study are listed
in Table 4.2.
A Python script was written that counts the occurrences of each feature and writes a
line in a csv f ile containing the name of the text and their feature frequencies normed
TABLE 4.2 Features of Conversation Included in Analysis
Features Examples
Amplifiers absolutely, very, completely, really, extremely

Attention signals hey, yo
Contractions
Endings n’t, ’ll, ’d, ’m, ’ve, ’re
Ain’t ain’t
Informal wanna, gonna, gotta
Discourse markers I mean, you know, you see
Expletives damn, shit, goddammit, dammit, goddamn, ass, asshole, fuck, bitch, hell
Filled pauses um, uh
Greetings/farewells hi, hello, bye, goodbye
Pronouns
First I, me, my, mine, myself, we, us, our, ours, ourselves
Second you, your, yours, yourself, yourselves
Indefinite everybody, somebody, anybody, nobody, everything, something, anything,
nothing
Verbs1
Activity make, get, go, give, take, come
Mental see, know, think, want, mean, like
Response forms yeah, yes, yep, no, nope, sure, okay, mhm, mm hmm, uh huh, huh uh,
mm mm
1 A full list of the activity and mental verbs can be seen in Biber (2006).
per 1,000 words. That is, for each feature, the raw frequency of occurrence was divided
by the total number of words in the text and then multiplied by 1,000, yielding a normed
frequency that is comparable across texts of varying lengths. For many of the features, the
frequency counts were based on the lemma form of the word. For example, the word make
included all forms such as made, and makes, each counted as one instance of the lemma
make.
raw frequency
Normed frequency per 1,000 words = × 1,000
total words
4.4.5 Comparison corpus

To compare the games’ spoken language to that of the real world, these sets of features were
also measured in the Longman American English Conversation Corpus (LAmEC; see Biber et al.,
1999). The LAmEC is made up of 4,830,535 words across 717 texts consisting of transcribed
conversations. The LAmEC was ‘carefully designed to be representative of American English
conversation’ (Quaglio, 2009, p. 36).
Cohen’s d is calculated to quantify the differences in feature distributions across the two
corpora using the means and standard deviations of the features’ normed frequency rates,
allowing for a quantitative comparison of the spoken language in the games to that of
real world. As Plonsky (2015) explains, ‘Cohen’s d is a descriptive statistic that expresses
the mean difference … in SD units—like a z-score’ (p. 31). Plonsky argues that effect size
measurements, and more broadly estimation thinking, have many advantages over null
hypothesis significance testing (NHST). One of the main benefits is that effect sizes show
the extent of a difference, whereas NHST simply shows whether or not the difference was
statistically significant. Further, NHST is heavily influenced by sample size whereas effect
size estimates are not.
58 Daniel Dixon
4.5 Results
4.5.1 Situational analysis of the spoken language
Based on a situational analysis of the spoken language used in the games, two spoken regis-
ters were identified by comparing three of the major situational characteristics from Biber and
Conrad’s (2019) register analysis framework: participants, processing circumstances, and com-
municative purposes. These two spoken game registers are referred to as Interactive Speech and
Immersive Speech, and their situational characteristics are compared in Table 4.3. The primary
difference between the two spoken registers is that during Interactive Speech instances, the
Player is prompted to provide input or take action during the course of a conversation with an
NPC, a mechanic often referred to as dialogue trees. In contrast, Immersive Speech instances do
not prompt the Player to provide input or take action.
Texts within the two speech registers, Interactive and Immersive Speech, were automatically
coded by writing a Python script that searched each spoken text for the presence or absence
of dialogue choices. Dialogue choices were marked in the extracted texts in various manners
within the four games. For example, in Divinity, dialogue choices were marked with asterisks,
and the speaker of the line was denoted as ‘GROUP_Players.’ Thus, the Python script looked
for these markers and automatically coded the text as either Interactive or Immersive speech.
Non-spoken lines or words were not included in the linguistic analyses by denoting these words
in angled brackets and writing Python code that ignores these words and lines during analysis.
These non-spoken lines and words include meta-data like the name of the speaker and the lists of
available dialogue options, among other information. Following Table 4.3, each spoken register
is discussed in more detail with screenshots illustrating their functions in the games.
4.5.2 Interactive speech

Interactive Speech serves several communicative purposes within the games. One primary pur-
pose is to present the Player with dialogue choices while their character engages in dialogue
with NPCs, a mechanic referred to as dialogue trees. During these conversations, options are
displayed which represent an action or a spoken response that the Player Character will take if
selected by the Player. One of the more specific purposes for this mechanic includes providing
a system in which the Player can accept or refuse quests. Quests guide the Player through the
games’ tasks, objectives, and narratives, and they are typically received or ‘picked up’ by inter-
acting with designated NPCs, referred to as quest givers.
An example of a quest giver in the Witcher is shown in Figure 4.1. In Figure 4.1, the quest
giver, using prerecorded audio and computer animation, promises payment to Geralt, the Player
Character, if he completes a quest that involves slaying a monster. The interactive aspect of this
speech instance comes after the quest giver explains the objectives of the quest. After listening
to the NPC explain the story behind the quest, the Player is presented with, in this particular
instance, three options in responding to the request, displayed in text on the bottom-right of
the screen.
4.5.3 Immersive speech

In contrast to Interactive Speech, Immersive Speech plays more of an aesthetic role in the games,
primarily serving the purpose of developing the games’ narratives and characters. Operationally,
Immersive Speech differs from Interactive Speech in that the Player is not prompted to make
a choice or take an action. At times, the Player Character may not even be involved in the
TABLE 4.3 Spoken Game Registers: Interactive Speech and Immersive Speech
Interactive Speech Immersive Speech
Operational definitions Any unit of speech during which the Any unit of speech that does not
Player is prompted to provide input prompt the Player to provide
or a response to an action or utterance input.
of a non-player character (NPC).
Situational Interactive Speech Immersive Speech
characteristics
I. Participants The Player Character and one or Participants can include A, B, or C:
more non-player characters (NPCs)
involved in dialogues A. T he Player Character and
non-player characters involved in
dialogues
B. Only non-player characters involved
in dialogues (i.e., The Player
Character is not involved in the
conversation, but the conversation
can be heard by the Player.)
C. A single non-player character or
the Player Character giving a
monologue
II. Processing A. I nteractive: The Player is A. P assive: The Player is not
circumstances prompted to respond by selecting prompted to respond.
one response from a list describing B. Real time: Typically, game time
the actions or spoken responses progresses as real time during
that the Player Character can take. Immersive Speech instances.
B. Suspended Time: Game time is C. N o feedback: The Player only
typically suspended (paused) watches and cannot interact, so
automatically when the response there is not an action on which
options are shown to the Player, feedback could be given.
giving time to process the options
and make a selection.
C. I ndirect feedback: Depending on
the Player’s choice, the dialogue can
travel along several branches,
providing a form of feedback
communicating the consequences of
their choices. These consequences
can be in the form of a spoken
response or a non-verbal response
(e.g., the NPC attacks the Player
Character).
III. Communicative A. Q uest Givers: Works as a A. A esthetics: Adds a degree of
purposes mechanic in which NPCs give the believability and personality to
Player new tasks, goals, and the automated NPCs ’living’ in
objectives (quests) the games’ virtual worlds.
B. Request information: While B. Story development: At times,
interacting with quest givers, the NPCs can be heard discussing their
Player can often request more opinions about other events or
information regarding the quest people in the game’s fictional world.
objectives or justification for C. H ints/Reminders: Although
taking on the quest. the Player does not interact
C. C ommerce: Works as a mechanic during the speech instance, an
in which the Player can buy and NPC may be discussing an earlier
sell equipment and other in-game event that the Player influenced,
items as a means to gain in-game reminding the Player of the
wealth and strengthen the Player consequences of these past
Character choices. Other times, NPCs’
discussions might provide clues
on a hidden item or quest.
60 Daniel Dixon
FIGURE 4.1 Interactive Speech in the Witcher
conversation such as when two NPCs are speaking to one another, or an NPC is speaking to
themselves. An instance of Immersive Speech from Divinity is shown in Figure 4.2. In this
instance, the Player Characters, highlighted in blue, are at a market. An NPC, highlighted
in orange, says, ‘smells worse over here than a dozen rotten eggs dropped in a vat of vinegar.’
This spoken line is played automatically when the characters are in close proximity to the
NPC.
4.5.4 Situational analysis of written registers

Four written registers were identified through additional situational analyses that observed,
compared, and recorded differences in the written language contexts across the sample of games.
Some of the contexts and purposes include communicating quest objectives, describing the
items and the skills of the Player Character and what those items and skills are used for in
the game, among other communicative purposes. For better cohesion and readability, two of the
four registers, Character Text and Quest Text, are presented in Table 4.4, while the other two, Lore
and Tutorial Text, are presented in Table 4.5.
4.5.5 Character text

Despite being derived from a variety of game mechanics, instances of Character Text serve a
common communicative purpose: To describe the effects that gear, attributes, and skills have
on the Player Character. Using attributes as an example, as the Player progresses through the
game by completing quests, they gain experience points for their character. These points can
FIGURE 4.2 Immersive Speech Instance from Divinity
be used to invest in one attribute over another. For example, the Player could invest in their
character’s intelligence instead of their strength, which affects the strategies available when
battling the enemies in the games. These three aspects (gear, attributes, and skills) give the
Player much agency in how they want to develop and customize their Player Character. As
illustrated in Figure 4.3, on the left-hand side of the screen, a list of attributes related to a
Player Character is displayed as it appears in the game Divinity. In Divinity, attributes include
strength, finesse, intelligence, constitution, memory, and wits, highlighted in orange in Figure 4.3.
Text describing each attribute appears when the Player hovers their cursor over one of the
attributes in the list. The text includes two written descriptions detailing the function of the
attribute:
1. The narrative description: The general description of the attribute (highlighted in green)
2. The statistical description: The statistical effects of the attribute on the Player Character
(highlighted in blue)
4.5.6 Quest text

Written instances in the category of Quest Text are very central to the Player’s progression in
the game. The primary purpose of Quest Text is to communicate the actions needed to com-
plete a quest. Besides listing the objectives of a quest, texts also typically include a narrative that
62 Daniel Dixon
TABLE 4.4 Written Game Registers: Character and Quest Text
Character Text Quest Text
Operational definitions Any unit of text that describes any Any unit of text related to the
one of the following aspects objectives of a named1 quest.
related to the Player Character: These texts typically include two
parts:
A. G ear (e.g., armor, weapons,
and usable items) A. Q uest Objectives: Text that
B. Attributes (e.g., strength, describes the objectives a quest.
intelligence, and dexterity) B. Quest Stages: Text that
C. S kills (e.g., magic spells, provides narrative about those
proficiencies, and abilities) objectives.
Situational characteristics Character Text Quest Text
I. Participants The texts describe the effects of Quest objectives typically address
gear, attributes, and skills to the only the Player while quest stages
Player. Thus, the only participant are typically written from the
is the Player themself. perspective of a character in a
game’s fictional setting.
II. Processing A. S uspended time: Game time A. S uspended time: Game time
circumstances is typically paused when the is typically paused when the
Player opens a menu to see their Player opens a menu to see
character’s gear, skills, and their list of accepted quests.
attributes. B. Progression feedback: As the
B. A nimated feedback: When an Player progresses through a
item or skill is used, the game quest, text is displayed that
typically animates its effects summarizes the choices and
which can act as a form of actions that the Player took
visual feedback. during each stage in the quest.
III. Communicative Describe/operationalize: The A. C ommunicate objectives:
purposes effects of the items, attributes, and The main purpose of Quest
skills are described to the Player, Text is to communicate the
a description that typically includes primary goals and objectives of
a combination of two aspects: the games to the Player, often
referred to as quest objectives.
1. The narrative description: B. Provide context: Besides
What the skill, attribute, or item listing the goals and objectives,
is and does the context of the objectives as
2. The operational description: they relate to the broader
How it affects the player statis- storyline is described. This
tically or what kind of benefit usually appears on the same
the item/skill provides menu screen as the list of quest
objectives. This aspect is often
referred to as quest stages.
C. S tory development: The
events, storylines, and
narratives within the games
are developed as the Player
progresses through the game’s
primary quests.
1 Named in this context refers to a quest that has a title that is listed in the user interface (i.e., ‘Escape from the Island’).
explains the background and purpose of a particular quest. Typically, this population of games
gives a narrative alongside each listed objective, as is the case in Divinity. Other games, like
Skyrim, only display one narrative at a time, which updates after each objective is completed.
An example of this difference is seen in Figure 4.4 showing two Quest Text instances. At the
top of the figure, the Quest Text is from Skyrim, and the one at the bottom is from Divinity.
TABLE 4.5 Written Game Registers: Lore and Tutorial Text
Lore Tutorial Text
Operational definitions Any unit of text that is connected Any unit of text that addresses
to an in-game object that cannot the real-life Player (and not one
be used or equipped by the of the fictional game characters)
Player’s Character(s). Lore tends and describes the mechanics or
to give less important or rules of the game.
peripheral details about the
fictional characters and settings
within the games’ virtual worlds.
Situational characteristics Lore Tutorial Text
I. Participants Texts are written from the Texts address the Player
perspective of one or more
NPC(s)
II. Processing circumstances A. P assive: The Player can only A. P assive: The Player can only
read these texts. That is, the read these texts.
Player is not prompted to B. Suspended or real time:
provide input nor can they use Sometimes game time is
or equip the associated suspended when a message
in-game object other than to appears or game
display its associated text. C. F ail state feedback:
B. Suspended time: When lore Sometimes, if the Player fails
text is displayed, game time is an objective several times, a
typically suspended (paused) tutorial message can appear
automatically to give the that suggests a particular
Player time to read the text. approach to completing that
C. No feedback failed objective.
III. Communicative purposes A. A esthetics: Lore provides Teach: Tutorial texts explain the
less-critical information rules and mechanics of the
related to the characters and games (i.e., how the game is
settings within the games’ vast played).
virtual worlds.
B. Reminders: Some lore texts
describe events related to an
action or choice that the Player
made at an earlier time in the
game, reminding the Player of
the consequences of these past
choices.
C. S tory development: Gives
additional context to the
games’ storylines and
narratives
The final two register categories identified through situational analyses include Lore and Tutorial
Text. These two written registers have a more peripheral purpose compared to the previous two
written registers described above. The major situational characteristics of these two registers are
outlined in Table 4.5.
4.5.7 Lore
Much like the spoken Immersive Speech register, one of the communicative purposes of Lore
is to add a sense of scale and immersion to the game worlds. Lore is often found in the form of
an in-game object like a book or a message, but the key difference between Lore and Character
64 Daniel Dixon
FIGURE 4.3 Example of the Attribute ‘Strength’ in Divinity
FIGURE 4.4 Comparison of Quest Text Instances from Skyrim (Top) and Divinity (Bottom)
FIGURE 4.5 Example of Lore in the Witcher
Text is that Lore objects cannot be equipped or used by the Player Character. That is, these
objects give background and aesthetic information about the games’ characters and narratives
such as the history or politics within the fictional worlds. Although this information is not
critical to progressing in the game, Lore can also function to communicate the thoughts and
opinions of important characters. In Figure 4.5, an instance of Lore is shown in a screenshot
from the Witcher. As the title of the document suggests, the purpose of this particular lore
book is to describe the royal lineage of the North in the fictional world of the Witcher. In the
first paragraph, the genealogy of an important family is detailed. Next, a narrative describes
the unfortunate fate of these family members. Although none of this information is critical to
completing the game’s quests, it can add a sense of immersion and scale to the highly developed
virtual world.
4.5.8 Tutorial text

Finally, another context in which these games use written language is to teach the Player how
the mechanics and rules of the game function during gameplay. These texts are fairly common,
especially during the early stages of these games as the Player progresses through a tutorial phase.
Outside of the tutorial phase, tutorial messages may pop up on screen periodically to inform
the Player of something that the game developers likely felt needed to be stated explicitly at that
particular point in the game. For example, a tutorial message may appear when the Player gains
enough experience points to level up their character, or when an important item is found, or a
66 Daniel Dixon
FIGURE 4.6 Screenshot of a Tutorial Text Instance from the Witcher
major enemy is defeated. The user interface of these games typically has a tutorial log as well so
that the Player can access earlier messages. As seen in the screenshot in Figure 4.6, these texts
usually address the real-life Player rather than addressing one of the fictional characters in the
game.
4.5.9 Word and text counts for the six registers

After these six game registers were identified through a series of situational analyses, the texts in
the SPOC were separated into their appropriate register category through an automated process
using Python code written specifically for this research. Table 4.6 reports the number of words
and texts within each game register category.
4.5.10 Linguistic analyses results

In an effort towards maintaining a feasible scope, only the two spoken registers, Interactive and
Immersive speech, in Divinity and the Witcher are compared to real-world spoken language,
excluding the written registers and the other two games from the analyses. Using Python scripts,
the frequencies of linguistic features for each text in each register were counted and normed per
1,000 words. From these raw frequency counts, means and standard deviations were calculated
and are reported in Table 4.7.
To answer Research Question 2 (To what extent do the identif ied spoken game regis-
ters compare to real-world spoken language as measured by frequencies of linguistic fea-
tures common in speech?), the frequencies of the 15 linguistic features in the spoken game
registers were compared to that of the real world. To determine the extent of the differ-
ences, the mean difference in each feature’s frequency was converted to a standardized
TABLE 4.6 SPOC Word and Text Counts per Register Category
Divinity Fallout Skyrim Witcher Register Totals
Spoken
Interactive Speech
Words 642,674 1,139,418 97,616 455,333 2,335,041
Text 1,268 1,444 562 1,361 4,635
Words/texts (SD) 507 (629) 789 (815) 174 (419) 335 (360) 504 (649)
Immersive Speech
Words 111,178 962,544 503,144 215,870 1,792,736
Texts 2,568 2,511 3,800 4,507 13,386
Words/text (SD) 43 (122) 383 (1,432) 132 (593) 48 (65) 134 (710)
Written
Character Text
Words 12,525 23,752 6,606 2,801 45,684
Text 1,163 3,792 519 204 5,678
Words/texts (SD) 11 (8) 6 (6) 13 (7) 14 (9) 8 (7)
Quest Text
words 42,022 26,744 30,140 75,971 174,877
texts 311 402 597 712 2,022
Words/text (SD) 135 (204) 67 (95) 50 (75) 107 (105) 86 (121)
Lore
Words 18,859 15,160 370,466 61,195 465,680
Texts 350 202 799 383 1,734
Words/text (SD) 54 (48) 75 (124) 464 (677) 160 (103) 269 (499)
Tutorial Text
Words 5,262 43,649 19,331 1,298 69,540
Texts 247 1,603 837 45 2,732
Words/text (SD) 21 (18) 27 (66) 23 (46) 29 (30) 25 (57)
TABLE 4.7 Features of Conversation Mean Frequencies per 1,000 Words
LAmEC Immersive Speech Interactive Speech

n = 717 n = 7,075 n = 2,629
Features Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Amplifiers 4.36 2.45 1.06 7.14 1.61 3.36

Attention signals 0.73 1.05 2.11 18.26 0.29 1.74
Contractions
Endings 31.97 6.9 31.23 47.04 31.21 21.71
Ain’t 0.19 0.7 0.48 6.04 0.48 2.51
Informal 0.28 0.66 0.25 3.8 0.36 1.76
Discourse markers 7.51 4.26 1.09 7.08 1.82 3.5
Expletives 1.17 3.18 4.76 27.87 1.24 3.45
Filled pauses 9.75 6.48 0.69 14.61 0.33 1.74
Greetings/farewells 1.52 2.9 0.77 24.85 0.33 3.05
Pronouns
First 63.81 13.74 52.5 61.16 53.54 30.48
Second 36.04 9.74 38.36 54.76 54.87 32.02
Indefinite 4.99 1.82 3.88 18.14 4.2 7.25
Verbs
Activity 41.63 9.4 38.97 58.23 36.66 20.43
Mental 39.14 7.36 24.55 37.82 33.53 17.93
Response forms 29.6 12.15 9.56 36.46 8.58 9.28
68 Daniel Dixon
FIGURE 4.7 Comparison of Linguistic Features Mean Frequency Difference (Cohen’s d)

Note. The black bars represent the differences between Interactive Speech and LAmEC; the grey bars represent the
differences between Immersive Speech and LAmEC. The values report frequency differences in Cohen’s d.
effect size, Cohen’s d (see Method). The results are illustrated in Figure 4.7 and discussed
below.
In Figure 4.7, the black bars represent the differences in feature frequencies between real-
world conversations (LAmEC) and the Interactive Speech game register while the grey bars
show the same comparison for the Immersive Speech game register. In short, the closer that each
bar is to zero, the greater the similarity is between the game register and the real-world spoken
data. In contrast, higher d values (i.e., longer bars) indicate greater differences in frequencies
between the games and the real world. A negative d value indicates that the game register uses
TABLE 4.8 Linguistic Features Mean Frequency Differences and Standard Deviations (Cohen’s d)
Mean difference (Cohen’s d) SD

Immersive Speech vs. Longman 0.25 0.29
Interactive Speech vs. Longman 0.67 0.84
the feature less frequently than the real-world spoken register while positive values indicate
more frequent use in the game register. Finally, the small bars represent 95% confidence intervals
(CIs). If the CIs do not cross zero, then the difference is statistically significant (see Lee, 2016).
To determine which spoken game register is more similar overall to real-world speech, the
effect size differences for the 15 features were averaged using their absolute values (i.e., ignoring
the positive or negative value in Cohen’s d). Table 4.8 reports the mean differences and standard
deviations for each of the two spoken game registers compared to real-world speech. Immersive
Speech has greater linguistic similarity to real-world speech as seen by the small mean effect size
difference (d = 0.25) while Interactive Speech has a medium to large mean effect size difference
(d = 0.67).
4.6 Discussion
Overall, the Immersive Speech game register was found to have greater linguistic similarity to
real-world speech than Interactive Speech when measured by the frequencies of the 15 targeted
linguistic features. Interactive Speech had very large effect size differences for four features
in particular compared to real-world speech. These features include filled pauses (d = −2.79),
response forms (d = −2.11), discourse markers (d = −1.55), and amplifiers (d = −0.86). These large
negative values indicate that Interactive Speech texts used these features much less frequently
than real-world speech texts, and these differences are statically significant as the 95% CIs do
not cross zero.
The final qualitative step in register analysis is to show ‘how the situational and linguistic
descriptions are related to one another by interpreting the functions that the linguistic features
serve’ (Biber & Conrad, 2019, p. 51). One of the main differences between real-world con-
versation and the Interactive Speech dialogues is related to the processing circumstances. This
difference in the processing circumstances can help explain the much lower frequencies of filled
pauses (um, uh) in the Interactive Speech register (d = −2.79). In the real world, ‘conversations
are produced in real time, [and] participants have very little time to think ahead about what they
want to say’ (Biber & Conrad, 2019, p. 89). In contrast, during Interactive Speech instances in
the games, time is suspended, giving the Player time to process the response options that appear
on the screen. Filled pauses can be used in conversation to signify that the speaker is thinking of
a response. Because the Player does not need to respond in real time during Interactive Speech
instances, there are very few uses of filled pauses compared to real-world conversations.
Relatedly, response forms (e.g., yeah, yes, no, nope, uh huh, okay) are also significantly less
frequent in Interactive Speech than the real world as indicated by the large effect size difference
(d = −2.11). A response form can serve to signal ‘to the speaker that the message is being under-
stood and accepted’ (Biber et al., 1999, p. 1091). Therefore, the much lower frequency of
response forms in Interactive Speech is likely because the conversations occur with automated
NPCs, so whether or not the message is understood, the Player has no way of signaling that
understanding. For instance, the example in Excerpt 1 below comes from a text from the real-
world spoken data (LAmEC). In line 2, the use of okay was not intended to answer a question,
but rather it appears to be used to signal that the speaker’s utterance was understood. The use
of yeah in Line 6 appears to signal that the listener is still paying attention as yeah is used in the
70 Daniel Dixon
middle of the speaker’s utterance, starting on Line 5 and continuing in Line 7. In contrast, the
Interactive Speech texts use very few response forms by comparison. This difference is likely
due to the fact that the game dialogue is scripted, and there is rarely any overlap in turn taking
during these recorded speech instances. For example, in Excerpt 2 from the Witcher, the Player
Character, Geralt, is speaking with an NPC, the Bank Veteran. If this were a real-world con-
versation, we might expect Geralt to utter a response form (e.g., yeah, yes, no, nope, uh huh, okay)
between Lines 2 and 3. Instead, the Bank Veteran says both lines uninterrupted. It is only after
the Bank Veteran is finished speaking that Geralt responds, asking if there is anything he can do.
Thus, if the game developers wanted to make the game dialogue feel more realistic, they might
add more response forms and filled pauses, better reflecting real-world speech patterns.
Excerpt 1 Real world spoken (LAmEC:130102.txt)
1. Yeah what what was she … she was clothing design or fashion something or other. <spell-
ing> H E S </spelling> is a college it’s not a department
2. Oh, okay. I don’t know if fashion is the name of the department or not
3. Look it up and find out
4. Design
5. It’s some kind of design but
6. Yeah.
7. I’ll have a look. Design, Housing and Merchandising.
Excerpt 2 Interactive Speech (Witcher: w3_sp_int_27_mq7011_02_sit_and_wait.txt)

1. <Geralt> See you know this place pretty well. Must’ve taken care of a good amount of
business…
2. <Bank Veteran> Naturally, my friend, naturally… indeed, I’ve managed to work the system
a time or two.
3. <Bank Veteran> I have seen them try everything. Magic, hypnosis, bribery… nothing
works.
4. <Geralt> Might as well go if nothing works. There’s nothing I can do?
Discourse markers (I mean, you know, you see) also had large effect size differences between
real-world speech and Interactive Speech (d = −1.55) and to a lesser extent, when compared to
Immersive Speech (d = −0.93). Biber et al. (1999) report that discourse markers signal a transition
in the conversation and signal an interactive relationship between speakers. They note that the
‘words and phrases [used in] discourse markers are often ambiguous’ (p. 1086). For example,
in Excerpt 3, which comes from a real-world text, there is a discourse marker in almost every
sentence. These discourse markers are ambiguous in that the phrase you know is not necessarily
referring to something that the listener actually knows, but rather the phrase appears to be used
by the speaker to keep the listener engaged, signaling the interactive back-and-forth nature of
the conversation.
Excerpt 3:
1. Yeah, we’ve been there it’s just. Well I you know I said well what will you do when Paul
comes. I certainly didn’t want Paul living in our house
2. Right
3. and so I you know we kept talking about it until I
4. well
5. convinced her that she needed to have a place before Paul got there
Because the references of discourse markers can be ambiguous, they are used much less fre-
quently in the scripted Interactive Speech instances than in the real world. This finding aligns
with previous research comparing scripted conversations to real-world speech. For example,
Quaglio (2009) reports that the scripted dialogue in the television series Friends uses vague refer-
ences, like discourse markers, much less frequently than real-world speech. The discourse marker
you know was three times more frequent in real-world speech than in Friends. In the SPOC, the
comparison of Interactive Speech to real-world speech had about the same result, occurring
7.51 times per 1,000 words in real-world conversations and only 1.82 times in Interactive Speech
(see Table 4.7). Quaglio suggests that vague language in scripted dialogue is less frequent because
ambiguity can decrease the ‘comprehensibility on the part of the audience’ (p. 78). This inter-
pretation can be applied to the spoken game registers: the game developers, like the producers
of Friends, have commercial interests in keeping the audience engaged, and the use of vague
language, like discourse markers, can limit comprehensibility. Limited comprehensibility may
lead to a reduced level of audience engagement, potentially hurting commercial success.
Although discourse markers, amplifiers, filled pauses, and response forms had large effect size
differences between the real-world and the two spoken game registers, other features had very small
effect size differences such as the three categories of contractions as well as expletives and indefinite
pronouns. Other features differed substantially between the two spoken game registers. For example,
the frequency of greetings in Interactive Speech was significantly less than real-world speech with a
medium effect size difference (d = −0.39) while Immersive Speech used greetings in about the same
frequency as real-world speech (d = −0.03). Nevertheless, Immersive Speech had greater linguistic
similarity to real-world speech (d = 0.25) than Interactive Speech (d = 0.67). Thus, it could be hypoth-
esized that games that incorporate mechanics like Immersive Speech could use language that is more
transferable to real-world contexts; however, additional empirical evidence is needed before any
definitive conclusions can be made, providing exciting opportunities for future research.
4.7 Conclusion and direction for future research

This chapter detailed a framework for identifying, describing, and analyzing the various situ-
ations of language use (i.e., registers) in a target population of digital games that share similar
game mechanics and designs. Six register categories were identified through a series of situ-
ational analyses (see Biber & Conrad, 2019, Chapter 2). These registers include two spoken
registers, Interactive Speech and Immersive Speech, and four written registers, Character Text,
Quest Text, Lore, and Tutorial Text. Each of the registers, and the linguistic features making
them unique, serves unique communicative purposes within the broader context of gameplay as
outlined in Tables 4.3–4.5.
These unique game registers can be associated with various game mechanics. For instance,
the register of Interactive Speech uses a dialogue tree mechanic to prompt the Player to provide
input during automated conversations with NPCs. This mechanic can provide contextualized
language learning through ‘multimodal form-meaning-use association’ (Reinhardt, 2021, p.
78) as the Player makes dialogue choices and receives feedback on those choices by observing
the reactions of the NPCs. This feedback on linguistic choices can strengthen the form-mean-
ing-use associations described by Reinhardt (2021), especially when these ‘choices influence
the development of the story’ (p. 80) as is often the case with dialogue trees in this population
of digital games. As for the transferability of the L2 input provided in these games, Interactive
Speech was found to be less similar to real-world speech than Immersive Speech, suggesting that
game mechanics that use language like Immersive Speech may likely be more transferable to
real-world contexts.
72 Daniel Dixon
This framework can be further refined based on findings from future research. DGBLL
researchers could conduct situational analyses on entirely different population of games to inves-
tigate whether the registers identified in this study exist in other populations of games. Another
avenue would be to identify additional game registers based on different sets of game mechanics.
Such research can allow us to better understand the linguistic input that L2 learners receive
during gameplay, and how this input varies across the many contexts within a game or across
populations of games. Using effect size estimation, results can be compared across studies and
aggregated to provide a comprehensive understanding of the L2 input provided through com-
mercial digital gaming. Through this register approach to DGBLL research, future studies can
better target specific games that employ more or less of one particular mechanic over others.
From such analyses, we can better measure the specific effect that targeted game mechanics or
registers may have on L2 learning outcomes, allowing more precise generalizations to be made
regarding the benefits of gaming on second language acquisition.
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5
DIRECT QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF
LANGUAGE LEARNING OUTCOMES IN
DIGITAL GAME-BASED INTERACTION
An exploratory case study
Michael Hofmeyr
5.1 Assessing the effectiveness of digital game-based language learning

The potential of digital games to facilitate second language acquisition (SLA) has long attracted
the attention of researchers working in the field of computer-assisted language learning (CALL).
Since the early 1970s, studies have investigated if and under what conditions game-based activ-
ities may contribute to successful language learning. After systematically reviewing the findings
of 24 such studies, Peterson (2013) concludes that a substantial body of empirical evidence now
suggests that digital games can facilitate SLA under certain conditions. More recent reviews of
empirical studies in digital game-based language learning (DGBLL) (see for example Acquah
& Katz, 2020; Jabbari & Eslami, 2019) also support this claim, further highlighting the varied
learning opportunities that games may offer. However, the researchers also point out that studies
in this field are often beset by methodological flaws that can limit the reliability and generalisa-
bility of their findings, with Peterson (2013) drawing attention to the lack of theoretical consen-
sus among CALL researchers on exactly how DGBLL may facilitate SLA.
5.1.1 Direct assessment of language learning outcomes using

quantitative methods
Many studies that aim to assess the potential effectiveness of a given form of DGBLL in facili-
tating SLA employ one of two broad methodological approaches. Researchers following the first
approach (for example Anderson et al., 2008; DeHaan et al., 2010; Miller & Hegelheimer, 2006;
Ranalli, 2008; Suh et al., 2010) try to assess learning outcomes directly, generally by working
within the quantitative paradigm and administering tests to measure knowledge of a given lan-
guage feature before and after the game-based intervention. Some studies also include a delayed
post-test in order to assess longer-term retention of the language feature acquired. Positive
findings such as those reported by Suh et al. (2010) and DeHaan et al. (2010) provide compelling
and objective evidence that certain kinds of digital games can bring about positive language
learning outcomes, particularly in terms of vocabulary and skill development. However, quan-
titative studies that rely on pre- and post-tests to demonstrate language acquisition are subject
to at least three significant limitations. When designing a quantitative study, researchers need
to determine in advance which specific aspects of language development to measure, meaning
DOI: 10.4324/9781003240075-5
Direct Qualitative Assessment 75
that unexpected gains brought about by the intervention are likely to remain undiscovered
(Dörnyei, 2007). Furthermore, some important elements of second language (L2) competence,
for example spoken fluency, do not lend themselves readily to quantification and comparison
(Luoma, 2004). Finally, studies that focus only on learning outcomes provide little insight into
how language acquisition actually occurs during play.
5.1.2 Indirect assessment of language learning outcomes

The second approach to assessing the potential of digital games to facilitate SLA involves the
indirect measurement of learning outcomes. This is achieved by means of a careful and system-
atic qualitative analysis of learner output during cooperative game-based interaction in order
to identify instances of certain types of linguistic exchanges theorised to facilitate acquisition
according to one of the major conceptual frameworks of SLA.
5.1.2.1 Indirect assessment of language learning outcomes within

the interactionist SLA paradigm
According to the cognitive-interactionist account of SLA, interaction in the target language
plays a central role in language learning. Acquisition is argued to be most likely to occur when
learners receive linguistic input that they find either completely or nearly comprehensible
(Krashen, 1982) and also when they produce modified linguistic output (Swain, 1985). In this
view, breakdowns in communication and subsequent attempts to repair such breakdowns create
especially valuable opportunities for learners to notice and address gaps in their L2 knowledge
(Schmidt, 1995). This process is known as negotiation for meaning (Long, 1996) and comes con-
comitant with numerous discourse management strategies (Ellis, 2008). If we assume that this
model of language learning is accurate, then the regular occurrence of negotiation for meaning
and associated discourse management strategies during learner interaction should serve as strong
evidence for SLA.
In a recent study, Hofmeyr (2021) conducted an interactionist analysis of the spoken output
generated by a group of learners playing the cooperative information-gap puzzle game Keep
Talking and Nobody Explodes (Steel Crate Games, 2015). The positive findings of this study
included evidence that the learner participants engaged in negotiation for meaning and that they
made frequent use of a variety of interactional strategies both to repair breakdowns in commu-
nication and also to pre-empt such breakdowns, with clarification requests and elaborations on
previous utterances identified as the interactional strategies most likely to facilitate SLA. While
this was the sole study to employ the interactionist framework in order to analyse learner output
in a game, it was modelled on earlier studies that had already produced substantial evidence
for the occurrence of negotiation for meaning and interactional strategies within text-based
as well as spoken interaction between learners in the virtual environments of Active Worlds
(Activeworlds, 1995; see for example Peterson, 2006; Toyoda & Harrison, 2002) and Second
Life (Linden Lab, 2003; see for example Chen, 2018; Peterson, 2010).
5.1.2.2 Indirect assessment of language learning within the sociocultural

SLA paradigm
Another theoretical framework used to assess the potential effectiveness of DGBLL is the socio-
cultural account of SLA. This view of language learning has as its foundation Vygotsky’s (1978)
notion of the zone of proximal development, which refers to the knowledge that learners do
76 Michael Hofmeyr
not yet possess, but which they can internalise under the guidance of an instructor or in col-
laboration with more adept peers. The Vygotskian framework for learning was adapted and
supplemented in order to account specifically for SLA, with the development and refinement
of relevant theoretical constructs. Key elements of the resultant sociocultural SLA paradigm
include the notion of scaffolding, which refers to the linguistic support that learners may receive
from their more proficient interlocutors (Donato, 2000), intersubjectivity, which refers to the
collaborative construction of a shared perspective between interlocutors (Antón & Dicamilla,
1999), and the co-construction of linguistic knowledge between learner peers (Lantolf, 2000).
As with the interactionist model of SLA, interaction between learners and their interlocutors is
considered paramount to successful language acquisition. However, researchers working in the
sociocultural paradigm do not share the interactionists’ view of language learning as a cognitive
process taking place in the minds of individual speakers as they interpret and analyse input from
the external world. Instead, learning is construed as a socially mediated activity that occurs
during interpersonal collaboration (Lightbown & Spada, 2013). While Vygotsky conceives of
language itself as the mediating tool pervading inter-psychological learning processes, Gutiérrez
(2006) argues that in the context of CALL, we can also view the computer as a tool that may
mediate collaborative activity.
Zheng et al. (2009) utilised sociocultural constructs in their case study analysing text-
based interaction between two pairs of female participants who collaborated on tasks inside
the game-based virtual environment of Quest Atlantis (Barab et al., 2005). Zheng and her
colleagues identified multiple instances of scaffolding and concluded that the activity ena-
bled participants to co-construct linguistic and cultural knowledge. Three further studies
employed sociocultural theory to examine interaction in the context of the MMORPG World
of Warcraft (Blizzard Entertainment, 2004). In one case study, Thorne (2008) analysed a text
chat transcript between two participants playing this game, one based in the United States
and the other in the Ukraine. Here the researcher identified instances of the construction of
“intersubjective meaning” (Brouwer & Wagner, 2004) in dialogue and also observed that the
two players spontaneously assumed the roles of expert and novice. Peterson (2012) carried
out another exploratory study in which he investigated the text-based interaction between
four learners of English playing the same game. He observed that the players made frequent
use of politeness expressions to strengthen collaborative interpersonal relationships and that
this friendly atmosphere was conducive to the co-construction of knowledge as well as to
the production of ample coherent target language output. Rama et al. (2012) employed an
eclectic range of constructs, including some from sociocultural theory such as mediation and
collaborative dialogue between expert and novice, to analyse text-based interaction between
six learners of Spanish playing the Spanish-language version of World of Warcraft. Focussing
mainly on the behaviour of two participants, the researchers concluded that the game can
provide a social context beneficial for linguistic development and socialisation, but that L2
gains may be enhanced by turning play into a more structured activity in a formal classroom
setting. Finally, in an innovative study drawing on sociocultural constructs to investigate
game-based SLA, Piirainen-Marsh and Tainio (2009) analysed the output of two teenage
learners of English as they collaboratively played the single-player role-playing game Final
Fantasy X (Square, 2001). The researchers drew attention to the two participants’ frequent
repetition of spoken in-game dialogue and presented this as a type of collaborative interaction
in itself, which they considered beneficial for the acquisition of lexical and prosodic features
of the L2. While most of the interaction between the two participants appeared to have taken
place in the L1, Finnish, the authors claimed that these exchanges also contributed to the
co-construction of linguistic knowledge.
Research that assesses language learning indirectly through qualitative analysis of learner
interaction with the help of interactionist or sociocultural theoretical constructs, such as the
studies described above, can provide a more detailed and holistic perspective of how SLA may
take place during game-based tasks. In contrast to measuring learning outcomes with pre- and
post-tests, this approach also allows the researcher to investigate and interpret patterns of output
and interaction that had not been anticipated before the data were collected and analysed, often
producing richer conclusions along with fresh insights. However, any approach that assesses
language learning through the perspective of a complex theoretical model of SLA is subject to
an important limitation. The essence of the problem is that, in order to render the largely unob-
servable cognitive phenomenon of real-world language learning comprehensible, it is necessary
for any model to make a number of assumptions about how such learning takes place. These
assumptions, by definition, cannot be conclusively verified and the various competing models
employed in SLA research often make mutually incompatible assumptions. In the interaction-
ist view of SLA, for example, individual cognition is assumed to function independently from
social environment, while in the sociocultural view, cognitive and social processes are assumed
to be inseparable, like “two sides of the same coin” (Ellis, 2015, p. 221). While one theoretical
orientation or another may be more in vogue among researchers at a given time, little consensus
exists as to which model describes language acquisition most accurately (VanPatten et al., 2020).
The important point to note here is that studies that rely on theoretical constructs to observe
SLA indirectly must necessarily involve a substantial degree of subjective interpretation and, for
this reason, the evidence for language acquisition provided by such studies can never be consid-
ered definitive.
5.1.3 An alternative approach to assessing effectiveness in DGBLL: Direct

assessment of language learning outcomes using qualitative methods
Studies such as those described above have produced evidence to suggest that certain DGBLL
activities can effectively facilitate SLA. However, we have seen that those studies that attempt to
directly assess L2 gains using pre- and post-tests as well as those that do so indirectly by means
of analyses based on theoretical frameworks of SLA both entail significant limitations. In order
to address these shortcomings and to potentially provide further evidence for the effectiveness of
DGBLL, an exploratory case study was conducted that made use of an original research meth-
odology designed to complement those of earlier studies by directly observing and describing
language acquisition episodes as they occurred during interaction. Language acquisition is con-
sidered to have taken place when a learner’s initial linguistic behaviour suggested that a given L2
feature had not yet been fully acquired, whereafter the learner was exposed to the feature during
interaction and subsequently exhibited behaviour indicating that the feature had now been more
fully acquired. This approach differs from theory-led forms of analysis in that it seeks to identify
direct evidence for the acquisition of L2 features, rather than instances of processes theorised
to facilitate SLA, such as breakdowns in communication leading to negotiation for meaning, as
would be the case in an interactionist analysis. By identifying self-evident instances of acqui-
sition and minimising reliance on specific theoretical conceptions of SLA and their respective
assumptions, such an analysis is able to provide more direct, and therefore more objective,
evidence for game-based language learning than previous qualitative studies. Furthermore, by
following an inductive approach in analysing interaction between learners rather than measur-
ing learning gains by means of pre- and post-tests as previous quantitative studies have done, the
effects of game-based interaction on a wider range of L2 features, including forms of SLA that
the researcher had not expected to find, may be identified and examined.
78 Michael Hofmeyr
Research questions
The aim of this exploratory study is twofold. Firstly, it will serve as a test case for a new
approach to assessing the effectiveness of digital game-based tasks in facilitating SLA. Secondly,
it will aim to find additional evidence that spontaneous game-based interaction can facilitate
SLA. The study will be guided by the following two research questions:
1. To what extent can SLA be directly observed in the linguistic behaviour of learners engaged
in game-based peer interaction?
2. What aspects of SLA may be facilitated through peer interaction during an unstructured
cooperative digital game activity?
5.2 Methodology
5.2.1 Game and rationale
The digital game played by the learner participants in this study is the cooperative puzzle game
Keep Talking and Nobody Explodes. The game requires players to work together in order to
disarm a series of time bombs that become increasingly difficult as they progress to the higher
levels. It is played in pairs or in small groups, with each player assuming one of two roles: the
defuser or the expert. The defuser can see the on-screen bomb that consists of a random con-
figuration of puzzle modules (see Figure 5.1), while the expert has access to a Bomb Defusal
Manual that contains detailed instructions on how to defuse each type of puzzle module. The
defuser may not look at the manual and the expert may not look at the bomb itself. This creates
an information gap on both sides, requiring fast and effective communication between players
to solve the puzzles before the countdown timer reaches zero, hence the need to keep talking.
This particular game was selected primarily because of the similarity between the nature of
its cooperative in-game puzzles and that of traditional information-gap tasks, the latter of which
have been shown in earlier interactionist research to facilitate SLA by generating modified
output in conversation (Doughty & Pica, 1986). From the perspective of language pedagogy,
the puzzles that make up each bomb also exhibit several of the critical features associated with
effective learning tasks as laid out by Ellis (2003). For example, in order to solve these puzzles,
learners need to focus primarily on conveying meaning rather than on accuracy of linguistic
FIGURE 5.1 Example Bomb Consisting of a Timer and Three Puzzle Modules on the Front Face
forms. Solving the puzzles requires “real-world processes of language use” (Ellis, 2003, pp.
9–10), such as asking and answering questions, engages learners’ cognitive processes, such as
evaluating information, and leads to clearly defined non-linguistic outcomes, which in this case
means preventing a bomb from exploding.
It should be noted that the potential of this game as a tool for language learning has not
escaped the attention of other CALL practitioners. In addition to the study by Hofmeyr (2021)
described in the previous section, Dormer et al. (2017) as well as Wilson (2019) reported their
experiences with incorporating the game into university-level English language courses in
Japan. These researchers found that learners considered the game to be highly engaging and that
they produced substantial linguistic output during play, providing further reason to expect that
the game would elicit interactions with the potential to facilitate SLA.
5.2.2 Data collection and analysis

In applied linguistics research, case studies are valuable for providing “rich contextualisation that
can shed light on the complexities of the second language learning process” (Mackey & Gass,
2016, p. 224). The field of CALL research in particular stands to benefit from case studies, as
such research is often able to provide more in-depth and holistic perspectives than quantitative
methods on how learning may be mediated or influenced by new forms of technology (Van
Lier, 2005).
The data analysed in the study were collected by recording three learners, one male and
two female, playing the game over four weekly sessions lasting approximately one hour each.
The learners are referred to by the pseudonyms Kazu, Yuki, and Lijuan. All three learners were
enrolled in an English Studies programme at a large national university in Japan at the time
when the sessions took place and had previously attained scores in the TOEFL iBT and PBT
placing them in the high intermediate proficiency range. Kazu and Yuki were 20 years old and
Lijuan was 21 years old when the data was collected. While Kazu and Yuki spoke Japanese as
an L1, Lijuan was an international student from China who spoke Mandarin as an L1. All three
learners self-reported basic IT literacy and substantial experience with playing digital games,
although none of them reported that they had done so before for language learning purposes.
In each of the sessions, learners took turns to play the role of bomb defuser, while the other two
learners cooperated in playing the role of expert. Turns lasted approximately twenty minutes
each, giving all three learners a similar amount of time in each role. Learners completed a short
orientation that covered the game controls at the start of the first session and were instructed to
speak only in English during play time. As the current study forms part of a larger research pro-
ject, findings from a separate analysis of the same interactional corpus were previously reported
in Hofmeyr (2021). The methodology employed in this previous study was informed by interac-
tionist SLA theory and yielded evidence of negotiation for meaning and associated interactional
strategies, as described in the preceding section. In the previous study, different interactional
episodes were examined from those presented in the current chapter.
Video and audio recordings were made of all play sessions. The audio recordings were manu-
ally transcribed in full, revealing that the learners had produced over 17,000 words in spoken out-
put over the four play sessions, averaging approximately 75 words per minute. Building on earlier
qualitative CALL research that successfully employed a descriptive discourse analysis approach
(Gee, 2014) to closely analyse interaction between learners (Peterson, 2010, 2011, 2012; Toyoda
& Harrison, 2002), a two-stage qualitative and inductive analysis of the transcribed learner out-
put was performed with the aim of identifying direct evidence for the occurrence of SLA. In the
first stage of the analysis, the researcher performed a close reading of the entire transcript and
80 Michael Hofmeyr
TABLE 5.1 Summary of Probable Acquisition Episodes (PAEs) Involving the Acquisition of Vocabulary
PAE number PAE 1 PAE 2 PAE 3
Acquirer Lijuan Lijuan Kazu

Feature type vocabulary item vocabulary item vocabulary item
Feature lambda label flashing
Evidence for gap in inability to produce inability to produce inappropriate word choice
L2 knowledge word (K14,18) word (B3) (S2,3)
Exposure to appropriate K11,14,18,21 B4,6,10,11,17,21, S1,2,4-12
L2 feature produced by 22,28,29,33,35
peers
Evidence for acquisition repetition after a peer appropriate usage after appropriate usage after
through interaction (K14) exposure (B11-) exposure (S5-)
Time of probable K14,18 uncertain uncertain
acquisition
Reinforcement after K18,21 B33 S6
initial acquisition
(acquirer repeated
feature shortly after use
by a peer)
Evidence for longer-term no B16,21,23,24, S5-8,12-15
retention (acquirer 25-27,29,33-35
produced feature
spontaneously)
L2 feature appears printed no yes yes
in relevant manual
section
identified specific interactions where one of the learners appeared to acquire a new language
feature or to improve their command of a language feature. These instances will be referred
to here as probable acquisition episodes (PAEs). Such episodes are considered to have taken place
when a learner is observed to accurately produce an L2 feature that he or she was either unable
to produce, or produced inaccurately or inconsistently, at an earlier stage in the activity. In the
second stage of the analysis, the researcher identified and tabulated additional extracts from the
transcript to provide a fuller context for each PAE identified in the first stage. This was done by
means of a text search of the transcript for relevant keywords. These additional extracts help to
reveal a more nuanced picture of each PAE by shedding light on how well and how consistently
the learner demonstrated their ability to use the feature in question before and after acquisition,
as well as by providing evidence of longer-term retention in certain cases.
5.3 Findings
Six PAEs were identified in the data set (see Tables 5.1 and 5.2). Three of these episodes involve
gains in L2 vocabulary and three involve gains in L2 grammar. In this section, we will examine
these PAEs, paying particular attention to contextual factors that point to acquisition.
5.3.1 Evidence for acquisition of vocabulary

PAE 1: lambda
One kind of puzzle module in the game requires players to work out the correct order in
which to press four buttons on a keypad, each marked with one of 27 possible abstract symbols
(see Figure 5.2). One of these symbols resembles the lowercase Greek letter lambda, which is
written as λ. The group of learners first encounter this symbol during the second play session
TABLE 5.2 Summary of Probable Acquisition Episodes (PAEs) Involving the Acquisition of Grammatical
Structures
PAE number PAE 4 PAE 5 PAE 6
Acquirer Kazu Yuki Yuki

Feature type grammatical structure grammatical structure grammatical structure
Feature [ordinal number] from indefinite article (a circle) definite article (the white
the top/bottom/... square)
Evidence for gap in L2 inappropriate structure omission of article omission of article
knowledge (MZ1) (K5,13) (MZ2,3)
Exposure to appropriate MZ1-9 K3,13,14,18,21 MZ2,3,5,9
L2 feature produced by
peers
Evidence for acquisition repetition after peer repetition after peer (K14) appropriate usage after
through interaction (MZ2) exposure (MZ3-)
Time of probable MZ2 K14 uncertain
acquisition
Reinforcement after MZ2,3,5 K18 no
initial acquisition
(acquirer repeated
feature shortly after use
by a peer)
Evidence for longer-term MZ4 no MZ3,4,7
retention (acquirer
produced feature
spontaneously)
L2 feature appears no no yes
printed in relevant
manual section
FIGURE 5.2 Example Keypad Module with Lambda-Like Symbol at the Bottom Left
82 Michael Hofmeyr
while working on the 11th keypad module (K11). Yuki, who, in the role of defuser, describes to
her partners the symbols that appear on the keypad, says “First one is like, lambda,” after which
she draws the symbol in the air using a finger. A few turns later, Kazu, in the role of expert,
says without hesitation “Second is lambda,” indicating the position of the symbol in the button
sequence after consulting the game manual. Yuki confirms her understanding by repeating the
word “lambda.” This exchange makes it clear that both Yuki and Kazu already know this rela-
tively obscure English word.
When Lijuan attempts to identify the same symbol in module K14 twenty minutes later, how-
ever, she is unable to produce the word. To signal her inability to name the symbol, she simply
utters “uh.” Yuki, who now plays the role of Lijuan’s fellow expert, immediately comes to her aid
by saying “lambda.” Lijuan then repeats after Yuki, marking her first use of the word. Towards
the end of the second session, in module K18, the symbol appears again. This time Lijuan is
playing the role of defuser. When she encounters the symbol, the following exchange takes place:
Interactional extract 1
LIJUAN (D)
A nd,1 uh, how to say. Uh, you guys say that, random? [Draws symbol for
lambda in air] random? Landom?
YUKI (E) Lambda?
KAZU (E) Lambda.
LIJUAN (D) Lam, Lambda.
Here Lijuan has to recall the word without the aid of another learner having uttered it shortly
before. While she comes close in her attempts to reproduce the correct form of the word, it is
clear that she has not yet fully acquired it and can produce the word only with additional help
from Yuki and Kazu. Shortly afterwards, Kazu instructs Lijuan to press the lambda button and
she proceeds to do so without difficulty, indicating that she now recognises the word.
PAE 2: label
The puzzle type known as the button module sometimes requires the defuser to check the sides of
the bomb for the presence of a label showing a string of three letters (see Figure 5.3). During the first
FIGURE 5.3 Example Three-Letter Label Appearing on the Side of the Bomb
play session, Lijuan is playing this role when one of the experts asks her to describe the right side of
the bomb. At this stage, no learner has yet uttered the word label during play and Lijuan has not yet
seen the game manual in which the word appears. She responds to the expert’s request as follows:
LIJUAN (D) he right side? Oh, so the right side it says. (2) There is a, there is a, like, a
T
little, ah (2) [gestures rectangular shape of label with both hands] like this kind
of thing, and it says F-R-K.
It is clear that Lijuan is unable to produce an appropriate word here, for example label, to describe
the bomb component in question. Yuki uses the word label on multiple occasions later during
the first session, both as a noun and in the past participle form labelled, but always in the different
context of a text label appearing on a round button. Then, while working on the 11th button
module (B11) in the role of expert near the start of the second play session, Lijuan asks the diffuser
to rotate the bomb “to see if there any batteries or some label.” This marks Lijuan’s first use of
the word label during play and occurs in the same context as the earlier utterance in which she
was unable to produce an appropriate word. She goes on to use the word label in this context 11
more times throughout the remaining play sessions, including four times in the role of defuser,
when she has no access to the game manual in which the word appears. In this example, it is
unclear exactly when the PAE took place. Neither is it possible to say whether Yuki’s use of the
word in a different context or the appearance of the word in the game manual helped Lijuan
to produce the word consistently from the second play session onwards. However, the fact that
she was at first unable to produce the word label and later produced it consistently suggests that
the learner’s ability to recall this word improved as a result of her participation in the activity.
PAE 3: flashing
The Simon Says puzzle type requires the defuser to describe patterns in the flashing of
four coloured lights (see Figure 5.4). Each flash of light lasts for about half a second. Lijuan
FIGURE 5.4 Example Simon Says Module with Yellow Button Flashing
84 Michael Hofmeyr
encounters the first Simon Says module (S1) as an expert during the first play session. She
asks the question “Is any button f lashing?” and utters the word f lashing, which also appears
in the game manual that she is consulting, three more times while working on the same
module. When Kazu, in the role of defuser, has to describe module S2 later in the same
game session, however, he does so as follows: “And yellow is shining.” Since the light does
not shine continuously, but only for very short periods of time at regular intervals, Kazu’s
choice of the word shining here is inappropriate. Even though Lijuan, playing the role of
expert, responds with two questions containing the more suitable word f lashing, Kazu
continues to use shining in his answers six further times in the same play session without
once uttering the word f lashing. Then, about midway through the second play session,
when Kazu encounters module S5, again in the role of defuser, he uses the appropriate
word when he says “And red is f lashing.” From this point onwards, Kazu consistently uses
the word f lashing within the context of this puzzle type: twice more in the second play
session, twice in the third, and four times in the fourth. It is unclear at what exact point
between the f irst and second session the PAE occurred and whether the learner acquired
the word from his peers or from the game manual while he was playing the role of expert.
Nevertheless, the consistency with which he used the inappropriate word during the f irst
session and then the appropriate word from the second session onwards suggests that acqui-
sition had taken place.
5.3.2 Evidence for acquisition of grammatical structures

PAE 4: third from the right
The maze puzzle type requires players to exchange information in order to locate the position
of objects on a grid consisting of six by six squares (see Figure 5.5). One appropriate syntactic
construction to indicate the position of an object on this grid takes the following form:
FIGURE 5.5 Example Maze Module

 ordinal number  from the top / bottom / left / right

 
For example, a player might say “A green circle appears in the position third from the left and
third from the bottom.” However, when Kazu first encounters the maze module (M1) in the role
of defuser during the first play session, the following exchange occurs:
KAZU (D) And (1) from the right, and, from the right and bottom it, its colour is white.
[several turns omitted]
LIJUAN (E) So, ah, can you tell me, where is the, right, uh, the white light you see?
Kazu (D) Uh, from the right [gestures right], third. From the right and bottom.
LIJUAN (E) Third from the right?
YUKI (E) Right.
KAZU (D) And bottom.
YUKI (E) And, bottom.
LIJUAN (E) Okay, so, we have to navigate. So, where is the red triangle?
KAZU (D) Uh, hmm (2) from top one, two, three, four. [gestures incremental levels
down]
YUKI (E) Four?
KAZU (D) And from right, two. [gestures right]
Kazu’s inconsistent and clumsy English syntax in these utterances makes it clear that he has not
yet mastered the appropriate construction at this point. Even though Lijuan models the correct
structure in her question “Third from the right?,” Kazu goes on to produce the grammatically
awkward structures “from top one, two, three, four” and “from right, two.”
Early in the second play session, the players encounter module M2, this time with Yuki
playing the role of defuser. It is clear from the start of this module that neither Yuki nor Lijuan
experience any significant difficulty in producing the correct structure. Kazu listens to the other
two learners and, instead of producing the awkward structures that he uttered during the first
play session, repeats the correct structure after his peers, first partially and then fully, as shown
in the extracts below.
YUKI (D) White square is (1) hmm, the (1) second, is second line from the right,
and, second from the bottom.
LIJUAN (E) Second from the bottom?
KAZU (E) From the bottom.
YUKI (D) Triangle is (1) third from the right.
KAZU (E) Third from the right.
Yuki is still playing the role of defuser when the learners encounter module M3. Just as with the
previous maze module, Kazu does not produce the correct structure spontaneously, but repeats
it shortly after it is uttered by one of his peers. This happens five times while the learners are
working on the module. When it is again his turn to play the role of defuser during module
M4, however, Kazu’s output looks very different from the utterances that he initially produced
during module M1.
KAZU (D) Okay. Two circles. Uh (1) one is from, the first line from the right.
YUKI (E) Right.
86 Michael Hofmeyr
KAZU (D) And, the third line from the bottom.

YUKI (E) Third from the, bottom? Okay.
LIJUAN (E) Okay, this one?
KAZU (D) And, and next one is, uh, third line from the right.
YUKI (E) Yes.
KAZU (D) And third line from the bottom.
YUKI (E) Okay.
LIJUAN (E) Okay. So, tell us where is the triangle.
KAZU (D) Triangle is, uh, fourth line from the right.
YUKI (E) Fourth from the right.
KAZU (D) And second from the bottom.
YUKI (E) Okay.
Kazu’s consistent spontaneous use of the correct grammatical structure here stands in stark
contrast to the ill-formed structures that he produced under similar circumstances in module
M1. This PAE provides evidence to suggest that Kazu gradually acquired the structure over the
course of the first two play sessions. Furthermore, since the structure in question does not appear
printed in the game manual, it seems highly probable that the acquisition was facilitated by
interaction during modules M2 and M3, when Kazu repeated the correct forms multiple times
after the two other interlocutors.
PAE 5: C in a circle
Acquiring the nuances of grammatical article usage in English is a major challenge for learners
whose L1 does not make use of articles, even when the learners have already attained a high level
of general English proficiency. Since neither Japanese (Thompson, 2001) nor Mandarin (Chang,
2001) make use of grammatical articles, it comes as little surprise that all three learners in this
study regularly omitted required articles in their output. They also occasionally produced arti-
cles that were inappropriate for the context in question. It is further evident from the transcripts
that Lijuan’s article usage is on the whole much more accurate than that of Kazu and Yuki.
While the wide range of contexts in which articles were used during the play sessions makes
it hard to draw conclusions about whether Kazu and Yuki’s article usage in spoken English
improved as a result of their interactions with Lijuan, examples of the learners’ article usage in
two very specific contexts suggest that some degree of acquisition may have taken place.
PAE 5 involves Yuki’s improvement in article usage preceding the word circle in the context
of describing one of the symbols appearing on the keypad puzzle type. The symbol consists of
the letter C inside a circle, resembling the commonly used copyright symbol. When Yuki first
encounters this symbol in module K5 during the first play session in the role of defuser, she
describes it as “C in circle,” omitting the indefinite article before the noun circle. Lijuan responds
“Oh, C in circle,” also leaving out the article. During the next play session, Kazu encounters the
symbol in module K13 while playing the role of defuser. Unlike Yuki’s initial description, Kazu
produces a grammatically accurate utterance that includes the indefinite article: “C in a circle.”
However, Yuki omits the article when she repeats his utterance and omits it again twenty seconds
later when she instructs him on which key to press: “So, C with circle.” The fact that Yuki omit-
ted this required grammatical element the first three times in this context reveals that her ability
to use the English indefinite articles accurately was not yet consistent at this stage. However,
when Kazu, still in the role of defuser, encounters the symbol again in module K14, the following
exchange occurs:
KAZU (D) And, C in a circle.
LIJUAN (E) C in a circle?

YUKI (E) C in a circle?

YUKI (E) Okay.
LIJUAN (E) C with a circle.
KAZU (D) C with a circle.
Here Yuki repeats the phrase with the indefinite article after Kazu, without omitting it as she did
in module K13. Later during the second play session, when Lijuan plays the role of defuser and
describes module K18, Yuki again includes the indefinite article in her output.
LIJUAN (D) C in a circle.
YUKI (E) Okay.
YUKI (E) So, C with a circle.
KAZU (E) C.
LIJUAN (D) Okay.
YUKI (E) In the circle.
This time, Yuki does not simply repeat Lijuan’s utterance, but produces the structure more spon-
taneously with some variation, first using the preposition with and the indefinite article, then
using the definite article the, which is appropriate for the specific context. While Yuki did not
use the word circle again in the context of the same puzzle type during the third and fourth play
sessions, the fact that she accurately repeated and then spontaneously produced the indefinite
article multiple times towards the end of the second play session, after initially omitting this
required article several times, suggest that interaction with her peers contributed to an improve-
ment in this area of her L2 knowledge.
PAE 6: the white square
Another PAE that involves article usage in a specific context occurred when learners used the
word square in sentences while working on maze modules. In this puzzle type, the defuser needs
to move a small white square through a partly invisible maze by following instructions provided
by the experts. Speaking about this square may therefore require the use of the definite article
the. The following two extracts from modules M2 and M3 in the second play session illustrate
that even though Lijuan consistently uses the definite article appropriately, Yuki initially omits
it with equal consistency.
YUKI (D) And (1) two, green circles, and red triangle, and white square, and, white
square is (1) hmm, the (1) second, is second line from the right, and, second
from the bottom.
YUKI (D) Is white square.
LIJUAN (E) Is a white square?
YUKI (D) Yes.
LIJUAN (E) Uh, where is the, white light?
YUKI (D) White light? So, white square?
LIJUAN (E) Mmm, the white square.
88 Michael Hofmeyr
YUKI (D) Hmm. And white, white, square is, third from the left and, the last.
LIJUAN (E) The triangle?
YUKI (D) Square.
LIJUAN (E) The, the white square.
KAZU (E) Square.
YUKI (D) [Nods] Square.
LIJUAN (E) And, sorry, one more time. About the white square.
YUKI (D) White square is third from the left.
LIJUAN (E) Sorry, one more time.
YUKI (D) OKAY. (1) The white square is third from the left.
After the latter interaction between Yuki and Lijuan, during which Yuki omitted the article
eight times and Lijuan included it four times before white or square, Yuki finally includes it
when she says “The white square is third from the left.” At this stage, more than a minute has
passed since the previous time when Lijuan uttered the phrase. This spontaneous production
that includes the definite article suggests that Yuki’s proficiency in the use of English articles has
improved through the course of the interaction. This finding is further supported by the fact
that Yuki included the article both times when she referred to the white square in later modules,
first as an expert in module M4 when she uttered “So, so move the white square to the bottom,”
then as a defuser in module M7 when she uttered “And, the, white, white square is, uh, second
from the left and, the bottom, very bottom.” This final utterance occurred during the third play
session, which took place one week after the second session, suggesting that the improvement in
L2 knowledge was retained over that period.
5.4 Conclusion
Previous studies provided evidence that some digital games have the potential to facilitate SLA.
They have done so either by directly measuring learning outcomes or by assessing language
learning indirectly by utilising either the cognitive-interactionist or the sociocultural theoretical
framework. The six PAEs presented in this exploratory study complement the existing body of
research by illustrating how probable instances of SLA may be directly observed during sponta-
neous meaning-focussed interaction among learner peers.
Some PAEs present stronger evidence for acquisition than others. In the case of PAE 1, for
example, Lijuan is clearly unable to name the lambda symbol at first and only acquires the tar-
get word when her two partners teach it to her. Later in the same session, she partially recalls
the word lambda and then produces it accurately after receiving further reinforcement from
her peers. In this PAE, not only is it clear that the learner has become aware of a gap in her
L2 knowledge, but the steps through which she acquired the word in question and that have
improved her ability to recall it are also evident. On the other hand, in cases such as PAE 2,
where Lijuan is unable to produce the word label in the heat of the moment, the evidence for
acquisition is weaker. We can therefore answer the first research question by concluding that
it is possible to directly observe instances where SLA appears to occur between learner peers
engaged in game-based interaction, but that not all acquisition episodes are equally transparent.
It seems likely that learners would have also noticed further gaps in their L2 knowledge and that
full or partial acquisition that are not evident from the output recorded in the interactional tran-
scripts could have taken place. The method of direct observation employed here may therefore
reflect only a fraction of the actual SLA that occurred during the game-based interaction.
Even though the evidence is limited, analysis of the six PAEs presented here suggests that
the acquisition of vocabulary and grammatical features may be facilitated by spontaneous and
meaning-focused interaction between learner peers playing a cooperative digital game, thus
answering the second research question. PAEs 1 and 4 provide especially clear examples of a
learner not knowing a particular word or grammatical structure at all and then acquiring that
word or structure at least in part through interaction.
The findings of this qualitative study support and complement those of earlier quanti-
tative work by Miller and Hegelheimer (2006) and DeHaan et al. (2010), which showed
that participation in games of other genres can also facilitate L2 vocabulary acquisition.
Additionally, the findings suggest not only that L2 features may be acquired during spoken
game-based interaction, but they also concretely demonstrate what the processes of SLA
involving the acquisition of specific linguistic features through interaction may look like
in practice.
Previous qualitative studies that have assessed language learning indirectly relied on theoret-
ical models of SLA that ascribe acquisition to negotiation for meaning (Peterson, 2006; Toyoda
& Harrison, 2002), the co-construction of linguistic knowledge (Piirainen-Marsh & Tainio,
2009; Zheng et al., 2009), and other theoretical constructs whose effectiveness in assessment
is contingent upon the validity of the particular framework used. By assessing language learn-
ing directly as it occurs during interaction, this study attempts to circumvent the need to rely
heavily on theoretical assumptions about how languages are learned in order to demonstrate the
occurrence of SLA. In this regard, it resembles quantitative approaches that are concerned only
with measuring learning outcomes. It thus complements the aforementioned research findings
with more direct evidence that game-based interaction can facilitate SLA in terms of vocabulary
and grammatical structures.
5.4.1 Limitations and caveats

The findings of this study are subject to certain limitations. First, the number of participants that
could be included as well as the time period over which data could be collected was substantially
limited by the labour-intensive nature of transcribing and qualitatively analysing spoken learner
output. Second, the PAEs presented in the study may only present a fraction of the actual acqui-
sition of L2 features that took place during play. A considerably larger number of PAEs were
initially identified, but only the six PAEs for which the available evidence most persuasively
suggested the occurrence of SLA were included. The study should therefore not be considered as
a comprehensive description of the PAEs that occurred during the data collection period. Third,
the method of identifying PAEs by conducting a discourse analysis of interaction may produce
strong, but not definitive evidence for the occurrence of SLA. Some degree of subjective inter-
pretation is inevitable when judging to what extent a learner’s output reflects their acquisition of
a given L2 feature, or the lack thereof. For example, if a learner repeatedly utters an inappropri-
ate word in a certain context, then repeats a more appropriate word after a peer and continues to
use this word unprompted on several later occasions, then this could be interpreted as evidence
that the learner has acquired this word in a particular context as the result of the interaction.
However, it is also possible that the learner could have already partially or even fully acquired
the word, but was simply unable to recall it without some prompting or priming, as sometimes
also happens to L1 speakers. In order to minimise the possibility of such instances being counted
90 Michael Hofmeyr
as PAEs, the consistency with which learners produced an error and later the correct form, as
well as learners’ utterances pertaining to their knowledge or ignorance of the feature, were care-
fully considered in the analysis.
5.4.2 Future directions

In addition to vocabulary and grammatical features, it is possible that the game-based activity
also facilitated other aspects of SLA that are more difficult to observe and measure, for exam-
ple oral fluency or pragmatic knowledge of the L2. Research exploring the potential of digital
games to facilitate these and other components of SLA could make an original contribution to
the field of DGBLL and allow CALL practitioners to harness the educational power of digital
games more effectively in the future. In addition, studies that involve a larger number of par-
ticipants and for which data is collected over longer time periods could yield more conclusive
evidence for the effectiveness of game-based SLA.
Two further interesting points became apparent during the analysis of the data. The first
point is the importance of non-verbal forms of communication such as gestures as a supplement
to, and sometimes a substitute for, spoken language during face-to-face communication. PAEs
2 and 4 each contains examples of such gesture use, with hundreds of further instances observed
by the researcher over the play sessions. The second point pertains to a major risk that is not often
discussed in the literature but inherent in any communicative peer-learning activity, namely
that learners may be prone to adopt not only the accurate language forms used by their peers
to address gaps in their own L2 knowledge, but that they may also imitate the inappropriate
forms of output that their peers sometimes produce with high consistency and then assimilate
such incorrect forms into their own linguistic production. Indeed, such instances were observed
in the data collected for this study. For example, Lijuan fairly consistently mispronounced the
final consonant of the word button as /m/ instead of /n/, resulting in a phonetic realisation that
sounded very similar to the word bottom. In the first few instances when Yuki and Kazu uttered
the word button, they did not make this error. However, once Lijuan had pronounced the word
in this way more than ten times, her two partners started to occasionally mispronounce the final
consonant in the same way, in several cases doing so immediately after Lijuan’s mispronounced
utterance. Each of these two topics is sufficiently complex and relevant to domains of applied
linguistics concerned with meaning-focused interaction to warrant separate studies. Finally, fur-
ther studies that closely analyse PAEs in other interactional contexts, for example when a game
of a different genre is employed or during a traditional communicative task-based activity, may
provide authentic new insights into the mechanisms of interaction-based language learning that
can assist researchers in evaluating and refining existing SLA frameworks and even in devising
entirely new explanatory models.
Note
1 Pauses of a duration shorter than one second are indicated in the transcript with a comma, while
longer pauses are indicated with a number inside parentheses rounded off to the nearest integer.
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6
LET’S PLAY VIDEOS AND L2 ACADEMIC
VOCABULARY
Liss Kerstin Sylvén and John Löwenadler
6.1 Introduction
This exploratory study aims to investigate the extent to which academic vocabulary naturally
occurs in a specific type of gaming-related video known as a Let’s Play (LP). Our focus on aca-
demic language in such videos has several underlying motivations. First, recent years have seen a
dramatic increase in English academic reading comprehension among young people in Sweden
(Löwenadler, 2022, which cannot easily be explained by developments in English school edu-
cation. Furthermore, other research (see below) indicates that young individuals in Sweden and
similar highly digitalized countries learn a great deal of English from extramural exposure, for
example through digital gaming and by watching videos on platforms such as YouTube. This
study is therefore part of a larger investigation into the origins of the increased academic English
language ability among young people in Sweden. Finally, by carrying out this exploratory inves-
tigation, we take issue with the entrenched view of digital gaming as an unproductive or even
useless activity (Pearce, 2006), and argue that the learning potential in these contexts might be
greater and more varied than often assumed. The following are the research questions guiding
this study of the LP phenomenon:
RQ1: To what extent does academic vocabulary occur in the context of LPs?
RQ2: What characterizes the contexts in which academic vocabulary occurs in LPs?
RQ3: To what extent can academic vocabulary occurring in LPs be expected to be learn-
able for young second-language learners?
6.2 The Swedish context

The learning of a foreign language (FL) has traditionally been associated with formal edu-
cation. With the advent of the Internet, however, the role of school as the primary location
where languages are learned has been challenged. This is particularly true as regards the
learning of English as a foreign language (EFL). English is increasingly used as a lingua franca
in many parts of the world and could be regarded as the default language on the Internet and
in social media.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003240075-6
94 Liss Kerstin Sylvén and John Löwenadler
Sweden, the setting of the present study, is an example of a country where the role of English
has changed during the last decades. As outlined below, from primarily having been seen as an
FL taught in school, the English language is nowadays encountered in everyday life, for example
through ads, music, social media, and computer games. Sweden is by no means the only country
witnessing this change in the role of English, but rather one of many (see, e.g. Brevik, 2016;
De Wilde et al., 2020; Hannibal Jensen, 2018). Therefore, investigations into the effects of this
changing landscape on the learning of EFL are of a more general interest.
As described above, Sweden is one of many countries where English has shifted from being
an FL among others to taking a more prominent role in society. Thus, in Kachru’s terminology
(2005), Sweden belongs to the so-called expanding circle of English-speaking countries. Among
many individuals in the younger generations, the use of English is almost on a par with the use of
the respective first language (Sylvén, in press). English is naturally occurring in Swedish society
in, for instance, the original soundtracks of TV shows and movies produced in English-speaking
countries, often with subtitles in Swedish. English abounds in advertisements for anything from
perfumes to trucks. In Swedish school, English is the first FL children are introduced to, nor-
mally in the 1st–3rd grades. However, it is not uncommon for children to be exposed to English
already in kindergarten or preschool class, for example through songs and rhymes. Furthermore,
English is the only mandatory FL to be studied in the Swedish school system, and one of the
three core subjects (the other two being Swedish and mathematics). From the 6th grade, other
FLs are offered, and approximately 87 percent of Swedish students study these languages as a
voluntary choice (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2019).
At tertiary level, English is omnipresent. From master’s level and upwards, English is used
more or less as the default language in both writing and speaking (e.g., Salö, 2016). A vast major-
ity of all PhD theses are published in English, with an accompanying summary in Swedish.
Furthermore, English is commonly used as the lingua franca at companies with a global pres-
ence, such as Volvo Trucks, ABB, and Ericsson. More than two-thirds of all Swedish two-
year-olds spend time on the Internet a couple of times, or more often, per week. Further, 28
percent of two- to four-year-olds watch clips on sites such as YouTube every day, while 40
percent of four-year-olds and close to 70 percent of eight-year-olds report using the Internet
daily (Medierådet, 2019). Much of the content is in English. The widespread use of English has
sparked a debate as to whether English should rather be viewed as an L2 than an FL in Sweden
(Andersson, 2016; Hyltenstam, 2004; Josephson, 2004; Norén, 2006). Officially, English is still
viewed as an FL, but many would argue that for a subset of the Swedish population, English
would be more appropriately characterized as an L2 (Sundqvist & Sylvén, 2016).
6.3 Definition of a Let’s play

According to SuperData (2018), gaming was the second most popular content category on
YouTube in 2017, attracting a huge number of viewers around the world. While a very large
number of gaming-related videos with the potential to support L2 learning can be found on the
Internet, this study is focused on one of the more widespread and popular types, namely LPs.
The choice of analyzing LPs specifically is motivated by the fact that this type of input makes
up a significant share of what young Swedish learners are exposed to during their extramural
English activities. For example, comparing gaming content on YouTube and Twitch to more
traditional content providers like HBO, Spotify, and Netflix, one can find that the former is
much more popular in terms of number of viewers and subscribers (PCGames, 2017). From this
perspective, the language learning potential of LPs arguably represents an understudied research
area and a reason for analyzing this type of data in more detail.
Let’s Play Videos and L2 Academic Vocabulary 95
One of the few linguistic descriptions of LPs is reported by Recktenwald (2014), who pro-
vides a historical overview of the phenomenon as well as a discourse analysis of 11 short extracts
in a case study of a single Let’s Player. While little scholarly attention has been paid to LPs, we
know that the first LP with live commentary was uploaded in 2007, with the genre seeing a huge
increase in popularity between 2009 and 2013 (Recktenwald, 2014). Although superficially
similar to other types of gaming-related videos, the LP genre has its own unique characteristics
(Wikipedia, 2021):
A Let’s Play (LP) is a video (or screenshots accompanied by text) documenting the play-
through of a video game, usually including commentary or a camera view of the gamer’s
face. A Let’s Play differs from a video game walkthrough or strategy guide by focusing on
an individual’s subjective experience with the game, often with humorous, irreverent, or
critical commentary from the gamer, rather than being an objective source of information
on how to progress through the game.
As Recktenwald (2014) points out, LPs are very much multimodal, since in addition to the
audio commentary of the Let’s Player, they may include the game’s sound track, in-game texts
in menus and other interfaces, as well as a visual representation of the world in which the game
takes place. The specific nature of LPs therefore means that although they differ from live
streaming (in the sense that they are prerecorded), much of the language used in them tends
to be spontaneous and unscripted, which gives them an authentic character similar to that of
natural conversation. Furthermore, the commentary itself is the crucial feature of these videos,
‘central to the social dimension of Let’s Play videos because it establishes relationships between
Let’s Players and their audience as well as between Let’s Player and the game’ (2014, p. 40).
From a language learning perspective, a typical property of LPs is that the linguistic output
generally comes from one individual speaker. On the assumption that young language learn-
ers often build a connection with specific streamers (Diwanji et al., 2020; Nilsson, 2020), this
means that the language of these individual speakers might well provide a substantial share of
the English language their viewers are exposed to. For example, in many cases, the input these
language learners receive from their English schoolteacher could be largely insignificant in com-
parison with the input provided by Let’s Players, at least in terms of hours of exposure. These
facts taken together make LPs an interesting area of study, particularly from the perspective of
young people and L2 learning.
6.4 Theoretical underpinnings and previous research

As a result of the increasing use of English as a lingua franca and as the default language in dig-
ital spaces, many people tend to learn much of their English outside the school context. Already
in the 1980s, Bialystok (1981, p. 24) argued that in language learning ‘[t]he most functional
situation would likely occur outside the classroom, in a natural setting, where conveying the
message is the only essential goal of the language occasion.’ Her term for the use of an L2 out-
side the classroom is functional practice. This concept is naturally associated with the sociocultural
approach to language learning, which posits that learning takes place in a social context and that
less knowledgeable learners can be pushed beyond their actual developmental level into the zone
of proximal development (ZPD) with the help of more knowledgeable peers (Tudge, 1990). In
an LP environment, the learner is represented by the viewer, and the peer by the Let’s Player.
Although there is no direct interaction between the viewer and the Let’s Player, the relationship
formed between them (see Recktenwald, 2014) may increase the chance that the viewer will
take risks and attempt to use previously unknown words and phrases in other contexts. Thus,
the viewer is pushed beyond his or her actual developmental level into the ZPD with the help
of the Let’s Player.
Gaming activities have always been attractive for young people, and with the development of
digital technology, games involving other languages than one’s own L1 are omnipresent. The use
of English as the lingua franca in online games is in many cases the default choice. Gee (2007)
set up a total of 36 general learning principles, arguing for a relationship between video games,
learning, and literacy. Most of these principles concern L2 learning (see Sylvén & Sundqvist,
2012b, for a more detailed discussion of these principles in relation to L2 learning). Numerous
studies confirm the L2 learning benefits of online gaming (Brevik, 2016; Chotipaktanasook
& Reinders, 2018; Li et al., 2021; Peterson, 2012; Piirainen-Marsh & Tainio, 2009; Reinders,
2012; Sundqvist, 2009; Sundqvist & Wikström, 2015; Sykes et al., 2012; Turgut & Irgin, 2009;
Vosburg, 2017; Zheng et al., 2015). While most studies investigate vocabulary acquisition, there
are also those that focus on interaction and oral proficiency.
The majority of studies indicating benefits from extramural exposure on L2 learning have
focused on adolescents and young adults, while few studies exist on L2 learning effects when
younger learners engage in digital L2 activities. Among the existing studies, several are set in
the Nordic context, which could possibly be explained by the important role of English in this
region and the fact that the Nordic languages are linguistically close to English (Lindgren &
Muñoz, 2013). Set in Denmark, Hannibal Jensen (2017, 2018) investigated possible correlations
between exposure to English and L2 English proficiency among seven- to eleven-year-olds.
The general conclusion was that the Internet offers an abundance of attractive affordances for
L2 English learning for young individuals. In Iceland, Lefever (2010) showed how eight-year-
old children understand and are able to interact in basic English before formal instruction starts
in school, and that their L2 English was largely acquired through various forms of media and
digital gaming. In a number of publications from the Swedish context, benefits from exposure
to English outside of school in general and from digital gaming in particular have been shown
among the 4th to 6th graders (Sundqvist & Sylvén, 2014; Sylvén & Sundqvist, 2012a). The study
by Lindgren and Enever (2017) was also set in Sweden, where three young language learners
were followed through primary school. One of the key results was that the variation in lan-
guage competency between the three informants to a large extent could be explained by the
amount of exposure to English these children had outside of school. Sylvén (in press), focusing
on children in Swedish kindergarten and 1st grade, drew very similar conclusions. The children
with the largest exposure to English through, for instance, YouTube videos and digital games,
were the ones who scored the highest on English tests. In another context, Flanders, De Wilde
and Eyckmans (2017) focused on L2 English proficiency among eleven-year-olds. This study is
particularly interesting as formal English instruction in Flanders starts relatively late in compar-
ison with other European countries (Enever, 2011). The findings showed that a majority of the
participating children were able to perform at the A2 level (Council of Europe, 2001) despite
not having had any previous formal instruction. As in the previous studies, the main sources of
L2 English learning were gaming and computer use.
Given the abundance of positive language learning outcomes, it seems safe to assume that
English encountered in digital games is conducive to the learning of EFL more generally.
However, not much is known about the content of specific types of gaming-related input, and
even less about the potential for learning academic language through exposure to such input.
For example, by occurring in a multimodal setting (Kress, 2009), the language in these videos
is often embedded in contexts where comprehension is supported not only by purely linguistic
contextual clues but also by features unique to visual aspects of the games.
For the purposes of this study, our definition of academic vocabulary will basically follow
the selection criteria of the major academic vocabulary corpora (see below), and is similar to the
basic view expressed in Malmström et al. (2018, p. 29) where it is argued that academic words
‘are used more frequently in academic than non-academic settings. Because academic vocabu-
lary has a strong enabling function vis à vis other dimensions of academic communication […],
knowledge of these words is beneficial.’
6.5 Method and material

To provide some insights into the nature of academic vocabulary in LPs, the present study
uses quantitative as well as qualitative methods. In this mixed-methods approach, the quan-
titative results provide an initial overview of academic vocabulary in the investigated LPs,
while the qualitative analyses explore in more detail the contexts in which academic words
and phrases occur.
The material used in this study consists of a 180,000-word corpus (approximately 20 h) of
transcribed speech from 30 LPs produced by three major content creators in the LP genre,
namely Daniel Robert Middleton (English YouTuber with the alias ‘Dan TDM,’ Minecraft
Hardcore series), Sean William McLoughlin (Irish YouTuber with the alias ‘JackSepticEye,’
Subnautica series), and Mark Edward Fischbach (American YouTuber with the alias ‘Markiplier,’
Three Scary Games series). These content creators were not randomly selected, but specifically
chosen due to their status as the top three native English-speaking Let’s Players since 2012 and
onwards. All three of them have more than 17 million subscribers as of 2017 (SuperData, 2018).
The specific LP series selected for analysis in this paper represent some of their most viewed
videos, all having between 3 million and 8 million YouTube views.
The videos were initially transcribed using the autogenerated English function available on
the YouTube platform. Although these autogenerated transcriptions occasionally contain errors,
these errors very rarely involve the formal academic words under study here, but usually involve
short function words which are not clearly articulated in the videos. Thus, it is relatively unprob-
lematic to use these transcriptions for quantitative analyses of academic vocabulary. However,
in the qualitative analysis, the transcriptions were investigated with regard to their accuracy and
then manually corrected if necessary to represent the exact phrasing in the recordings.
To determine the potential for learning academic language through watching LPs, the
180,000-word corpus was analyzed using a number of different methods. For the qualitative
analysis and a part of the quantitative analysis, the data were compared with the NAWL, which
is a list of 963 words which frequently appear in academic texts but are not contained in the
New General Service List (NGSL). The NAWL was developed based on a study of a 288-mil-
lion-word academic corpus, consisting of academic journals, non-fiction, student essays, aca-
demic discourse, and academic textbooks. In comparison with the original Academic Word List
(AWL, Coxhead, 1998), the NAWL is argued to be more up-to-date. In terms of organization,
it includes only inflected forms or variant spellings of words, rather than whole word families.
This means that although it has more headwords than the AWL (963 compared to 570), it has
fewer word forms overall (2604 compared to 3112). Additionally, the words are presented in a
single list, in contrast to the AWL, which is presented in ten frequency-based sublists. Like other
academic word lists, the NAWL contains some intuitively unexpected forms, but as a general
measure of the characteristics of the language in LP videos, it is regarded here as suitable for the
purpose. Finally, the qualitative analysis was carried out by coding and categorizing the corpus
examples of words included in the NAWL in terms of their linguistic or multimodal contex-
tual features that can potentially support vocabulary comprehension and learning. This process
involved identifying the vocabulary items in the LP corpus that corresponded to an academic
word form specified in the NAWL. The items were then coded based on visual aspects in the
video or linguistic aspects in the speech stream, which could be assumed to directly support
comprehension of the relevant vocabulary form. The final stage involved finding more general
patterns, where the emerging categories were derived inductively from the analyzed empirical
data rather than being theoretically predetermined (cf. Dörnyei, 2007). In the default case, most
instances could be categorized as exemplifying ‘contextual support,’ essentially similar to that
found in speech situations without any visual component. The other emerging categories were
more specific to LPs and relate to the interaction between speech and visual information on the
screen, as well as to patterns of speech that appeared to be typical of the LP genre.
To obtain a quantitative overview of what types of words are represented in the empir-
ical data, the transcribed LPs were initially analyzed by the software available on LexTutor
(https://www.lextutor.ca). For comparison, texts taken from BBC articles online as well as
from the English reading comprehension part (ERC) of the Swedish Scholastic Assessment Test
(SweSAT) were analyzed in the same manner. BBC was chosen as a source because articles pub-
lished there are known to contain relatively advanced vocabulary. In turn, because of its aim
to measure academic reading comprehension, the ERC typically contains a considerable share
of academic or low-frequency vocabulary. The number of words from these two sources was
roughly the same as that found in the LP transcripts, and they function here as points of reference
for the investigation of the LP data.
6.6 Results
6.6.1 Quantitative overview
The results of the initial quantitative analyses indicate that roughly 90 percent of the words in
the LP corpus belong to the 1000 most common English words (K1). The corresponding figures
for the BBC and ERC texts were 84 and 79 percent, respectively. The number of words at the
next level, K2, was roughly 3 percent among the Let’s Players, and 4 and 5 percent, respectively,
for the BBC and ERC texts. Looking specifically at academic vocabulary, the percentages varied
from 0.6 to 1.1 among the Let’s Players. In the BBC texts, academic vocabulary constituted 4.8
percent of all words, and the corresponding figure for the ERC texts was 6.3. These results are
illustrated in Figures 6.1 and 6.2.
Thus, while K2 and AWL vocabulary items are clearly less frequent in LPs than in typically
academic texts, the analysis shows that even in this seemingly informal context, such words reg-
ularly occur. This is particularly interesting in relation to common assumptions regarding the
character and supposedly unproductive nature of digital gaming (Pearce, 2006). The argument
that these videos provide a very useful resource for advanced vocabulary learning is explored in
more detail in the next section.
6.6.2 Qualitative analysis

The qualitative analysis was carried out to provide a more in-depth description of the content in
the LPs, taking its starting point in a comparison between the corpus material and words in the
New Academic Word List (NAWL). Investigating to what extent words from the NAWL occur
in the LP corpus, it turns out that of the 964 academic headwords in the list, 352 (37%) occurred
at least once in the corpus, again confirming that the spoken language used in LPs is not entirely
informal in character. Several of these words occur many times (up to 50 times), but the majority
of the 352 words occur 1–5 times during the 20 h of recorded videos. The following list provides
FIGURE 6.1 Frequency Levels Represented in the Data.
some selected occurrences in the LP corpus from the NAWL, giving a snapshot of the types of
words that viewers are exposed to in these videos:
adjacent, approximate, comply, consumption, crude, cue, deceive, dense, dependence, dimensional,
domain, elevate, elimination, emit, enforcement, enzyme, fluid, genetically, goods, gravity, grid, hab-
itat, impact, inevitably, infinity, insert, integration, interact, interfere, interrupt, kidney, manipulate,
merge, nonetheless, obscure, obtain, occurrence, predator, presume, productive, progression, radiation,
randomize, reactive, render, replicate, reproduce, respiratory, retrieve, scatter, span, specimen, subtle,
surplus, technically, terminology, thermal, toxic, transformation, transmit, utilize, vein, velocity, viable
FIGURE 6.2 Frequency Levels K2 and AWL in the Data.

To put the academic words into context and evaluate the potential for learning them, we now
present some excerpts from the analyzed LPs involving vocabulary items from the list above.
These excerpts are organized according to the type of context in which these word forms occur
and are discussed from the perspective of unique characteristics associated with academic vocab-
ulary in LPs. The main characteristics forming the basis of categorization involve (1) contextual
support, (2) text support, (3) visual support, and (4) explanatory support. However, as will be clear,
these characteristics sometimes interact with each other, although this is not always the case.
We start with the category of contextual support. Then, we turn to examples where some other
type of support is more explicitly involved in the video. Although the extent to which viewers
can interpret or even learn the relevant word form is not the main study focus here, we present
some tentative hypotheses in the discussion below.
6.6.2.1 Contextual support

The first set of examples (1–5) illustrate cases where the relevant academic word form in one
way or another is supported by contextual clues in the surrounding speech. Although there
may occasionally be additional clues in the visual aspects of the videos, these clues are less
apparent or more abstract in these five excerpts than in the examples described in the visual
support category below. In that sense, these examples represent the default case, where the
type of support is not specific to LPs but similar to that found in most situations where words
occur in a larger context.
Example 1: JackSepticEye (Subnautica - Part 8, 24 January 2018, 26.31-27.02)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d6f 2NJaWxHM&list=PLMBYlcH3smRwM-
6cyq5mKf9FSHy0_h8F4K&index=8
Ok, ‘Sunk to 200 meters in an area of low ecological activity. Transmission origin approx-
imately one kilometer southwest of the Aurora’s stern section.’ Wait, he said that the place,
he said that it was okay, that it was structurally intact. Ok, approximately 1 kilometer
southwest of the Aurora’s stern, it’s the back end right? I don’t fucking actually know ship
terminology…
Example 2: Markiplier (3 SCARY GAMES #6, 6 June 2018, 26.58-27.16)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zxPJzF3oh8A
I don’t remember what the name of the original game or the demo was, but this was really
cool. Good job, Dan. But we got to move on because we’ve got more games for you. Alright.
So in the same vein as the Dora the Explorer horror game, I think this is made by the same
person, or team for all I know…

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IQa1Un1uDsU&list=PLMBYlcH3smRwM-
They also had the… the Sea Emperor… the telepathic creature that’s down below in the
very last facility. They had them, and were trying to figure out how to utilize their blood to
fix everything, I think. They also had their babies, and they weren’t allowed let out. All this
kind of stuff. So I need to get there and I need to synthesize a cure for myself from that facility.
Example 4: DanTDM (I Invaded a WOODLAND MANSION

in Minecraft Hardcore, 10 August 2019, 1.09-1.26)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b6g9SAF0jRI&list=PLUR-PCZCUv7SdncU3P-
ZuehOrsmkKpAd_N&index=8
Today is the day we go into a woodland mansion. I don’t know how long it’s gonna take me
to get there and I don’t know if I’m gonna survive, but today we try and obtain the one item
in Minecraft hardcore that stops you from dying and it’s called the totem of undying.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yAKhFIbpKeI
I’m so excited! I’ve been waiting for AGES to get back into Subnautica. It’s one of the… as I’ve said, it’s
one of the, it’s one of the best series I’ve done on the channel. At least I think so and everybody seems to have
loved it, and we had so many great memories back when I played it the very first time. And that’s a very hard
thing to replicate with any series that I’ve ever done. I’m just so incredibly invested in this game at this point.
In these examples, the speech before and after the relevant academic word provides a context
which arguably facilitates comprehension. Of course, to what degree viewers can interpret or
even acquire a particular word form is a question which requires experimental evidence. The
categorization in this study should therefore not be taken as evidence of acquisition processes.
Still, the excerpts above represent relatively clear examples of contextually supported vocabu-
lary forms, with supporting phrases like It’s the back end, right? (‘terminology’), in the same vein
as Dora the Explorer horror game (‘vein’), trying to figure out how to utilize their blood to fix everything
(‘utilize’), today we try and obtain the one item (‘obtain’), and we had so many great memories back
when I played it the very first time (‘replicate’). However, unlike in the examples presented below,
there is no obvious support from local visual aspects of the LPs in these examples, although
such support may come from sections elsewhere in the videos. Thus, the vocabulary learning
potential in these examples may be similar to that found in spoken language without visual
support, where the possibility of deriving word meanings is dependent on the nature of the
linguistic context.
6.6.2.2 Text support

In the following set of examples (6–8), the relevant academic word forms are introduced in the
form of written information displayed within the game, which the Let’s Players read out loud to
themselves and to the viewers. Sometimes the Let’s Players speculate on the meaning, repeating
parts of the text they have just read. The common specific feature of these examples is that it
is possible for the viewers themselves to read the text on the screen, which means that viewers
receive information about a word’s orthographic form as well as its phonetic form. Arguably,
this combination of oral and written input supports comprehension and provides viewers with
additional opportunities to learn academic or low-frequency vocabulary forms.
Example 6: Markiplier (3 SCARY GAMES #7, 19 July 2018, 28.10-28.32)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6zOAiF3GI7s
‘I couldn’t keep quiet about it anymore, the others deserve to know. I’ve seen it multiple
times in this mind, now closer and closer each time. My co-workers need to know to be careful
and to stay in the light. Joshua didn’t want to believe me at first, he’s young and he didn’t
grow up with the stories like the rest of us did, but he’s seen it too, said it almost got to him
yesterday. Now that even Joshua has seen it, I know for certain that my eyes weren’t deceiving
me.’ Huh, okay…

‘You’re 474 nautical miles off course. Proceed immediately to your assigned mission loca-
tion. Failure to comply will result in severe consequences.’ Okay. Um, oh I don’t really know
how that helps me.
Example 8: Markiplier (3 SCARY GAMES #9, 5 September 2018, 15.26-15.45)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=abHGyg4LKn4
‘This story based game features player choice. The consequences of all your in game actions
and decisions will impact the future. Choose wisely.’ Okay, I will. ‘Based on a true story.’
Man, I’m almost positive that last game, my panic in it was 90 percent, because I had no idea
what was going on.
In these excerpts, the Let’s Player Markiplier reads information displayed in a pop-up window
within the game. In Example 6, he reads a longer piece of text, while Examples 7 and 8 illustrate
his reaction to the information, resulting in a kind of interaction between him and in-game
(non-player) characters.
6.6.2.3 Visual support

In the next set of examples (9-12), interpretation of the relevant academic word is more
explicitly supported by visual clues in the LPs. Such visual clues could be objects that are
visible on the screen, characteristics of objects or environments, or events occurring, and
actions carried out within the game. Combined with the Let’s Player’s descriptions of and
reflections on what is happening, being experienced, or observed in the game, such visual
clues potentially facilitate both comprehension and acquisition of previously unknown
vocabulary forms.

Okay, that’s weird. Alright, let’s just spin this. Goood. That did it I guess. Oh another
one. Got it. I fixed the steam, I really “maintained” it. That should stop the pipes from emit-
ting any more fire. Yeah. Okay. So now I can go to the armory. Get it good.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vj7Q7aztkxk
Oh, I want to see it. I hope the Sun’s up when it happens. Um, do I need the habitat
builder to be able to craft that thing? A compass, copper wire and a wiring kit. Okay, copper
wire I can make. Do I need more silver for the thing? Wiring kits, silver ore. Do I have some
in my… Do I have some in my, my Henry head? No, I fucking don’t.
Example 11: DanTDM (I REBUILT My Minecraft Hardcore Castle,

24 February 2020, 4.32-4.44)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kQX2cr7hpx0
We actually have a decent amount of basalt. I might just have to do it quite crudely like this, and things
are definitely gonna fall off, things are gonna break, we’re gonna have to take this down, this is gonna be
awkward, and there is a lot of water up here, why did I do this…
Example 12: Markiplier (3 SCARY GAMES #5, 21 May 2018, 14.04-14.22)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4eqemEmu4Xs
There’s a cross on that door and there’s a cross on that door, so it’s gotta be this door. I knew it!
You can’t outsmart me, I ain’t got no brains for nothing. Oh… I don’t like it when I walk into a room
and there’s a pipe filled with blood immediately adjacent…
These examples illustrate some of the different types of visual support referred to above. In Example
9, visual aspects of the event associated with the verb emit are displayed in the game while Markiplier
is reflecting on the situation. In Example 10, JackSepticEye uses the noun habitat (in the compound
habitat builder), where the meaning can potentially be interpreted through more general visual aspects
in the storyline of the game. In Example 11, the meaning of the adverb crudely is illustrated by the
in-game actions of DanTDM, while comprehension of the adjective adjacent in Example 12 is sup-
ported by the location of the objects seen in the video. Thus, as seen in these examples, the meaning
of academic vocabulary related to different word classes and semantic types can be specified by visual
information, supporting comprehension and learning for the viewers of the LPs.
6.6.2.4 Explanatory support

In the final set of examples (13–16), the relevant academic word is not only used in an authentic
context but also paraphrased using more informal language. The reasons for this type of language
use may vary, but usually it appears to be part of a strategy typical of the genre where the Let’s
Player deliberately or instinctively avoids pauses by using repetition and paraphrasing. Similar to
some of the previous examples, there are occasionally contextual and/or visual clues supporting
comprehension, but the unique aspect of these examples is the paraphrasing of the utterance fea-
turing the academic word. In other words, what sets this category of examples apart is that the
support is much more explicit than in the default case of contextual support, since the academic
word can be associated with a kind of dictionary description alongside authentic contextualization.
Arguably, vocabulary learning based on such examples is particularly effective, although to deter-
mine whether and to what extent this is the case, empirical evidence is again needed.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d6f 2NJaWxHM&list=PLMBYlcH3smRwM-
Lead, I think I have that. Diamonds, I think I have that. Umm… I do have a bunch of shit in
my inventory that I need to dump into Maria. But also, somebody was saying I can just build a pipe
to get from this to this… But when I try to do it, it does this. It doesn’t let me. I don’t know why.
Maybe there’s something there that I can’t get through or whatever. I can build one here… and then
maybe go… no, cause it’s not at the right angle. I don’t know. I don’t think I can merge them. I don’t
think I can stick them together.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yx06O2L2OP8&list=PLMBYlcH3smRwM-
The screen that shows up on the top of the sea glide kind of showing you the topography of the area. I
really don’t like that display. I don’t find it useful, and I find it obscuring to my view, cause especially at
night time… so it gets in the way of everything. I wanna just see what’s in front of me. Okay here we go…

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vj7Q7aztkxk
So, seamoth fragments. That’s a thing. I think that that’s a thing we should go for. Found a
third laser cutter fragment… Hmm, might take me a while to find the seamoth fragments, because I
don’t think they were all in the same area. I think they were all… just scattered around the world,
so it’d like encourage you to explore actual areas of the game.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yx06O2L2OP8&list=PLMBYlcH3smRwM-
What the hell is using up all my energy? I guess I am… using a lot of shit all the time…
I did use the fabricator a lot. That’s probably a big one, and charging this obviously uses some
energy from the Cyclops, but you’re hoping that it charges faster than it depletes the energy
necessary, so then when you put it back in you’re always kind of at a surplus of energy. But
also this one was probably using up a lot of energy as well.
All four examples in this category come from JackSepticEye, which might be a coincidence or a
typical feature of his LPs. As pointed out above, the use of paraphrasing in these examples seems to
mainly function as a way to keep the discourse going. The relevant phrases and paraphrases are I don’t
think I can merge them (I don’t think I can stick them together) in Example 13, I find it obscuring to my view (It
gets in the way of everything) in Example 14, They were all just scattered around the world (I don’t think they
were all in the same area) in Example 15, and So you’re always kind of at a surplus of energy (You’re hoping
that it charges faster than it depletes the energy) in Example 16. Arguably, such paraphrasing helps viewers
interpret the meaning of the word forms and supports learning of academic vocabulary.
6.6.2.5 General observations

On a more general level, there are several observations that could be made regarding the use of
academic vocabulary in these LPs. One of their more striking characteristics is the frequent use
of language typical of informal conversation, but with the regular inclusion of more formal and
academically oriented words. This pattern is exemplified in most of the examples in this section,
where the academic word forms are generally embedded in an informal context. We will return
to the language learning potential associated with this specific context in the discussion below.
6.7 Discussion
This exploratory study has presented some evidence that many of the most popular and wide-
spread LPs created by native English speakers are suitable for vocabulary learning, and that this
is true even about more academic language. By doing so, like Pearce (2006), we also take issue
with commonly held views of gaming as an unproductive activity.
In response to the first research question, that is, the extent to which academic vocab-
ulary occurs in LPs, it obviously depends on the language use associated with particular
content creators, but arguably, it also depends on the language typical of the gaming genre
itself (Recktenwald, 2014). All three Let’s Players in the current study regularly use aca-
demic vocabulary in their videos, although the share of such words varies between them.
What stands out is that even in this fairly restricted corpus of 20 h of recorded videos, a
considerable share (37%) of all the academic words in the NAWL occur at least once. In light
of the hundreds of hours many young second-language learners spend watching such videos
(Hannibal Jensen, 2018; Sylvén, in press), it seems likely that the LP genre offers extensive
opportunities for learning formal as well as informal words and phrases. In addition, the
unique type of relationship established between a Let’s Player and their audience forms a safe
and non-threatening language learning environment. Thus, despite being separated from
the viewers in time and space, the Let’s Player may often function as a more knowledgea-
ble peer, guiding the learner through the content by using various types of contextual and
multimodal support.
Turning to the second research question, what characterizes the contexts in which academic
vocabulary occurs in LPs?, the qualitative analysis aimed to categorize the examples in terms of
their unique contextual features. The analysis showed that there are at least four typical envi-
ronments labelled here as featuring (standard) contextual support, text support, visual support,
and explanatory support. In some cases, there is overlap between these features. In particular,
the latter three are specific (although not necessarily unique) to the context of LPs and offer
some degree of support in addition to that found in many other types of contexts. Thus, the
sociocultural concept of a more knowledgeable peer helping a learner to advance beyond his or
her current developmental level into the ZPD can be applied here to the Let’s Player using these
four types of support.
Addressing the third research question, i.e., to what extent can academic vocabulary occur-
ring in LPs be expected to be learnable by young second-language learners?, it can be concluded
that although the precise vocabulary learning potential of LPs cannot be directly determined by
the observational methods used in this study, the presented examples indicate that the academic
words used by the Let’s Players regularly occur in environments where there is contextual sup-
port, text support, visual support, and/or explanatory support, all of which are previously known
to facilitate language learning (Rodgers & Heidt, 2020). Furthermore, in light of the very large
amount of time many young learners spend watching LPs or similar videos (Internetstiftelsen,
2018; Medierådet, 2017), 20 h of speech is likely to represent a mere fraction of their total
online exposure to English. The more exact learning potential of LPs remains to be determined
through empirical studies, but there seems to be no question as to the usefulness of LPs for
learning academic vocabulary.
As discussed in the results section, a typical characteristic of the language in these videos is the
combination of colloquial language and academic vocabulary. Considering previous research on
speech and text comprehension, the general emphasis on high-frequency vocabulary may allow
even non-native LP viewers to understand much of the content (Nation, 2007). In that sense,
this stylistically mixed setting arguably provides a relatively unique environment for learning
academic vocabulary, which is different from that associated with more traditional academic
texts. Finally, returning to the original motivation for this study, it is obviously not possible to
conclude that the widespread exposure to LPs is the main factor behind the increased academic
English ability among young people in Sweden. However, as we have shown, LPs and similar
types of input might well be more important for the development of academic language skills
than has previously been assumed.
6.8 Pedagogical implications

The findings in this study show how Let’s Players can take on the role of a ‘more knowledgeable
peer’ in a sociocultural setting associated with language learning. The pedagogical implications
of replacing a physical with a digital peer are several. First, an awareness must be raised among
primary schoolteachers that for some of their young learners, English should still be regarded
as an FL and a language they have had little or no contact with before starting school. For oth-
ers, though, English may basically be regarded as yet another first language (Sylvén, in press).
Second, given the potentially beneficial nature of LPs and the very limited number of teaching
hours in school, LPs should come highly recommended as one way to increase learners’ expo-
sure to English. As is well known, the more contact one has with a language, the easier it is to
acquire. Obviously, LPs represent just one type of input that can support language learning,
but since so many young learners already enjoy watching them, while they also seem to offer
favourable conditions for advanced language learning, their general usefulness as language
learning tools can hardly be denied. Third, there is probably a great heterogeneity in a given
classroom as to the exposure to LPs, where some learners watch them for hundreds of hours
per semester and others might not even be aware that such videos exist. Teachers, therefore,
can take advantage of the LP viewers in class and ask them to explain and introduce LPs to
their peers. In so doing, other students are offered yet another opportunity for beneficial
exposure to English.
6.9 Conclusion and looking forward

It should be noted that a limitation of the data used in this study is that it is focused on three Let’s
Players only, which means that the conclusions cannot be immediately generalized to the genre as a
whole. However, it should also be pointed out that these specific content creators are not randomly
selected but represent those with a very large number of subscribers. In other words, even though
there may be other Let’s Players whose use of academic vocabulary is quite different from those
investigated here, thousands of young people in countries such as Sweden are likely to have devel-
oped part of their English knowledge by watching these specific content creators. In other words,
the very fact that a relatively restricted number of YouTubers are so dominant in the genre arguably
means that the language use of a small group of individual YouTubers may well have a measurable
impact on the language skills of a considerable number of young people. To further understand
the impact of LPs on language learning in general and academic vocabulary in particular, empir-
ical studies are of the essence, for example with regard to possible effects of LPs on learners with
varying levels of L2 English proficiency. Some possible avenues going forward are offered above.
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7
EXPLORING ESL STUDENTS’ PERCEIVED
ENGAGEMENT IN AND EXPERIENCE OF
CONTENT VOCABULARY LEARNING
THROUGH VIRTUAL REALITY GAMES
Muleyke Sahinler Albayrak, Julian Chen and P. John Williams
7.1 Introduction
Vocabulary acquisition has been considered a critical aspect of developing foreign language skills
(Nam, 2010; Nation, 2001; Urun et al., 2017). Without the foundation of vocabulary, learners
cannot express their thoughts (output), understand what they hear or read (input), and are una-
ble to engage further with different aspects of the target language (Tokowicz & Degani, 2015).
Acquiring target vocabulary requires learners to establish a strong connection between meaning
and words (Tokowicz & Degani, 2015), and a thorough comprehension of the context is inte-
gral to understanding the meaning of unknown vocabulary (Gass et al., 2020; Groot, 2000). As
such, language learners often find it difficult to link lexis to their meaning, and struggle to learn
vocabulary related to a specific subject area (Alfadil, 2020). Therefore, discovering and devel-
oping effective approaches to teach content-based vocabulary has the potential to improve ESL
students’ academic success, as retaining content-based vocabulary can pave the way for students
to acquire new knowledge across subjects in mainstream classes (Kohnke & Ting, 2021).
Given the digital age, young adults nowadays are increasingly invested in online games out-
side of school (Alfadil, 2020; Rhodes, 2017). Previous research indicates that virtual reality
(VR) games are conducive to situated learning as they enable learners to acquire the target
vocabulary while being immersed in topic-related scenarios (Chen, 2016). This has pedagog-
ical implications for English teachers working with ESL students in a mainstream classroom
(Bytheway, 2014; Dawley & Dede, 2014; Hao et al., 2021).
This study was motivated by the pedagogical concerns addressed above to investigate whether
a VR approach to learning content vocabulary could better support ESL students in their sub-
ject learning following the Australian curriculum. It was piloted at an independent school in
which 90 percent of the student population migrated from the Middle East in early childhood
and do not speak English at home. ESL students at this school generally have difficulty learn-
ing content-specific vocabulary related to Math, Science, Humanities, Social Sciences, Art,
and English. Mainstream subject teachers often attribute low achievement to students’ limited
vocabulary. They also lack training to develop strategies to support the ESL learners. Thus, they
rely on the English teacher to cover the vocabulary items related to their own subject. The sci-
ence teacher, for example, frequently asks the English teacher to add science vocabulary items
to the students’ weekly target word lists because the students have insufficient science-related
DOI: 10.4324/9781003240075-7
110 Muleyke Sahinler Albayrak et al.
vocabulary knowledge to carry out tasks. Nevertheless, the English teacher uses traditional
methods of teaching science vocabulary, such as asking students to look up unknown words in
the English-only dictionary and memorise them. Consequently, ESL students still struggle to
complete their tasks in class, which impacts their academic performance in school and national
assessments. The situation is particularly high-stakes in the end-of-semester assessments when
students need to receive a scaled mark of 50 or above to meet subject competency requirements
mandated by the Australian curriculum (Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting
Authority [ACARA], 2016a).
To transform the status in this context, this case study explored how headset-enabled VR
games could serve as an innovative approach to optimising content vocabulary learning and
lead to a better understanding of subject content knowledge for ESL adolescents. Specifically, it
examined their perceptions of and attitudes towards VR game-based learning environments to
offer best practices for educational institutions that support ESL learners. Given the scarcity of
research on exploring the perspectives and experiences of ESL students in learning content-spe-
cific vocabulary in a VR-gamified environment supported by headsets (Alfadil, 2020; Godwin-
Jones, 2016), findings drawn from this study can shed light on this area.
7.2 Literature review

7.2.1 Content-specific vocabulary learning via VR games
Content-specific vocabulary forms the building blocks for understanding mainstream subjects
since these words are highly salient and topic-focused, leading to the comprehension of the sub-
ject content (Alfadil, 2020; Donley & Reppen, 2001). If students lack the vocabulary needed to
understand the subject content, they will not be able to make a connection to the concepts being
taught and, as a result, fail to meet the subject demands (Donley & Reppen, 2001). Therefore,
developing effective strategies to teach vocabulary has prompted researchers to explore inno-
vative approaches (Smith et al., 2013). One of these is the implementation of VR technologies
(Dawley & Dede, 2014; Parmaxi, 2020).
VR can be defined as ‘an immersive environment in which a participant’s avatar, a rep-
resentation of the self in some form, interacts with digital agents and contexts’ (Dawley & Dede,
2014, p. 724). Learners can interact with 3D objects via digital games incorporating mainstream
subjects and contexts, which are not normally available in a physical class (Bawa, 2021; Siegle,
2019). VR games augment authentic and immersive learning experiences, such as travelling
through a human body to explore, observing visuals, and interacting with vocabulary items
associated with human body parts (Blyth, 2018). Gee (2005) posited that good educational
games enable the player to take on a new identity (e.g., a scientist), commit to the ultimate
goal, interact with the content and receive feedback from the game, make educated decisions,
and take risks by exploring new things. These ‘good games’ also enable customisation to fit the
player’s learning style, develop a sense of autonomy, stimulate high-level problem-solving skills,
and foster situated learning.
Prior research has shown that desktop VR games afford 3D visuals of target vocabulary items
(Lin, 2015). These games leverage autonomous learning that allows language learners to actively
construct knowledge through immersive experience (Aguayo et al., 2017; Gee, 2005; Huang
et al., 2010), and stimulate educators and students to teach and learn ‘outside the box’ (Chen,
2016, p. 168). In Chen’s (2016) study, ESL students were exposed to multimodal 3D input in
Second Life (SL). They acquired new English vocabulary as they interacted with other SL res-
idents using voice/text chat or with 3D objects they built when exploring different SL islands.
The findings also revealed that VR not only offered an open, immersive, and creative venue
Exploring ESL Students’ Perceived Engagement 111
that enhanced the ESL students’ communication skills and vocabulary acquisition, but above all,
instilled the fun element in their English learning. Similarly, Berns et al. (2013) found that 3D
VR games made vocabulary learning easier as they visualise and situate vocabulary in context
and provide immediate feedback.
7.2.2 Headset-supported VR games

Although desktop VR environments were found optimal for vocabulary acquisition, 3D virtual
worlds can be augmented by headsets (also known as head-mounted displays, HMDs). HMDs
include smart glasses to block the real environment from the learner and increase the sense
of telepresence (Godwin-Jones, 2016). Oculus Rift and Google Cardboard, commonly used
HMDs, can be used with mobile phones and provide augmented existence in the VR world to
engage with the content (Elias et al., 2019; Lee et al., 2017; Palmeira et al., 2020). For instance,
Krokos et al.’s (2019) findings showed that virtual memory palaces (a spatial mnemonic that
assists in recalling information associated with salient features in that environment) in the HMD
condition produced a superior memory recall of information than in the desktop condition.
Similarly, Freina and Ott’s (2015) study also suggested that HMDs enhance immersive learning
and new knowledge retention.
The unique properties of HMD VR games offer advantages in learning content words, such
as interacting with other English speakers and target 3D objects, listening to information of
the content, constructing knowledge in highly immersive experiences, and receiving feedback
(Lai & Chen, 2021; Palmeira et al., 2020). In Alfadil’s (2020) study, HMD enabled Middle
Eastern ESL players to interact with a native English-speaking teacher (‘Mr. Woo’, a raccoon
character host) and discover new information associated with the 3D objects presented. The
results revealed that students who played the VR game acquired more vocabulary than in the
traditional method.
Receiving immediate feedback from the virtual characters in the Mondly HMD VR game
was proven to facilitate 49 Year 7 EFL learners’ vocabulary acquisition as shown in Tai et al.’s
(2020) study. Learners acquired and retained a significantly higher volume of vocabulary than
those who only watched the players from a desktop VR. In Lai and Chen’s (2021) study, the
sense of immersion and telepresence afforded by HMD VR games may have led to a stronger
and positive influence on the vocabulary gains of the 15 Year 12 EFL participants in comparison
to the desktop computer gaming group.
VR headsets enable learners to immerse themselves in content-based games (e.g., InCell VR
(Luden.io, 2017a) teaches cells in Science), where they can interact and explore the target vocab-
ulary in a 3D fashion (Tai et al., 2020). Despite the benefits, further investigations are needed to
gain insights into ESL students’ first-hand experiences and views regarding the impacts of HMD
VR games on learning content vocabulary (Palmeira et al., 2020).
Thus, this pilot study explores ESL adolescents’ experiences of and attitudes towards an
HMD-enabled, VR game-based learning environment. It aimed to provide empirical evidence
on whether the use of VR games, as an innovative approach to content-specific vocabulary
learning, would make a difference in learners’ engagement and understanding of the content
related to the mainstream subjects. Two research questions were addressed:
1. How do ESL learners perceive their first-hand experience of using headset-enabled educational VR
games to engage with the subject content?
2. What are the aspects of a headset-enabled VR game-based learning environment that can facilitate or
hinder content-specific vocabulary learning?
7.3 Methodology
7.3.1 Setting
This study took place during a five-week period in an independent K-12 school in Western
Australia. Year 9 students were chosen, as the content-based VR games support both the Year
8 and Year 9 curricula. Although the Years 8 and 9 curricula are not the same, they are related
and include revision and transition classes. For example, in Science, cells are covered in Year 8
but could be a revision class for Year 9, as there is flexibility for teachers in choosing contexts.
According to ACARA (2016b), developing content-specific vocabulary knowledge is identi-
fied as a required general capability (for years K-10 regarding mainstream subjects). Students are
required to achieve the following: ‘develop strategies and skills for acquiring a wide topic vocab-
ulary in the learning areas and the capacity to spell the relevant words accurately. In developing
and acting with literacy, students: understand learning area vocabulary, use spelling knowledge’
(ACARA, 2016b, Word Knowledge section). The Year 8 Science sample assessment activity,
related to Earth and Space Sciences, for example, requires the students to use content-specific
vocabulary items to identify the type of particles in a rock. Another example is related to The
Arts, where students must use the art terminology to describe an artwork in order to meet
the ‘satisfactory’ standard. In Humanities and Social Sciences, one of the achievement stand-
ards related to Geography is linked to how comprehensibly the content related to landscapes is
narrated. Presenting a detailed description of landscapes by using a variety of content-specific
vocabulary items is awarded 8 marks. However, if students briefly describe the landscape, they
only collect one or two marks (ACARA, 2016c).
The curriculum director’s approval was sought following the ethics protocols mandated by
the Human Research Ethics Committee at the researchers’ University. Informed consent was
explained to and collected from the students and their guardians, who also received a copy of
the informed consent form. The consent form provided information about whom to contact for
inquiries regarding the research. The form also stated the procedures in a language that was easy
for students and their guardians to understand. Pseudonyms were adopted for all participants to
protect their identity from being disclosed, as they might come from a refugee or immigrant
population. Grammatical errors in student data were kept intact unless they interfered with
comprehensibility.
7.3.2 Participants
Twenty-four Year 9 (14-year-old) ESL learners who were struggling with mainstream subjects
were pre-selected for this study, because their English proficiency levels had been assessed at
the lower band of ‘Below Satisfactory’ by their English teacher (ACARA, 2016a). Six out
of these 24 student volunteers were further selected via manual simple random sampling to
collect more in-depth data on their views of using HMD VR games to learn new content
vocabulary. The small sample size would also fit the scope of the pilot study that allowed the
researchers to zero in on the nuanced aspects of educational VR games impacting ESL learn-
ers’ experiences and perceptions. Given budget constraints, only six smart phones and headsets
were available for the study.
An online survey was conducted to gather students’ linguistic and cultural background infor-
mation in the same week they commenced playing the VR games (designated as Week 1). Each
student used an iPad provided by the school to complete the survey, which consisted of closed
and open-ended questions. Five female and one male student participated in the study. Three
students were from Egypt, while the others were from Somalia, Syria, and Jordan. The majority
TABLE 7.1 Summary of Participants’ Demographic Information
Aisha Fatma Zaynab Aleen Lara Ali
Gender Female Female Female Female Female Male

Country Egypt Somalia Syria Jordan Egypt Egypt
Age 14 14 14 14 14 14
Age when moved 6 7 13 8 6 0
to Australia
Home language Arabic Somali Arabic Arabic Arabic Arabic
Ways of learning Using a Asking my Asking my Reading Asking my Internet
new words dictionary teacher teacher friend
of the students’ home language was Arabic, other than Fatma, who spoke Somali. Except for
Ali, who started to learn English at the age of six, the other five students started to learn English
in a mainstream classroom once they had moved to Australia (see Table 7.1). All students agreed
that vocabulary knowledge is important for developing language skills and understanding main-
stream subjects. Half of the students had not played VR games before nor did they know if
games would help them learn vocabulary. Conversely, those who had played VR games at least
once agreed that VR games could help them learn new vocabulary items.
7.3.3 Research design

Qualitative case study research design was employed to provide evidence of and insight into
how students perceived learning vocabulary in a headset-enabled, game-based environment.
According to Merriam and Tisdell (2015, p. 38), a case study is ‘an in-depth description and
analysis of a bounded system, where the case can be a single person, a program or a group that
involves collecting data from multiple sources.’ In this study, an in-depth description of the
effects of the HMD VR game environment was analysed, where the case was six ESL students.
Qualitative research helps the researcher to understand and interpret how people perceive their
experiences and the meaning they attribute to them (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015).
7.3.4 Procedure
Nine different games were carefully selected (three related to Science, one related to Art, five
related to Humanities and Social Sciences) and verified by teachers of the mainstream subjects
for content suitability (see Table 7.2) (Gee, 2005).
The games provided 3D visualisations of the target vocabulary items in tandem with written
and audio information about the content. The games enabled the players to interact with the
game, reach a goal, explore, and think about the relationships between the content and vocab-
ulary items (Gee, 2005) (see Appendix A to view all games’ characteristics according to Gee’s
good game principles). All games were played using Google Cardboard, a VR headset device
that enables gaming in the 3D VR world (See Figure 7.1).
The pilot study was conducted during the regular class time and throughout the five weeks
of VR gaming intervention. The six randomly selected students played each of the nine games
once, two games each week, except for the last week (Week 5) when they only played one
game. They still attended their regular class but played the vocabulary games in a separate room,
whilst other students were completing the normal review activities in the regular class. One of
the researchers, who also works at the independent school, guided the students’ gaming activ-
ities during the VR intervention. Each student was given a headset and a smartphone with the
TABLE 7.2 Summary of VR Games and Relevant Subject Areas
Week Science Art Humanities and Social Sciences
1 InCell (Luden.io, 2017a)

InMind (Luden.io, 2017b)
2 Learning Carbons VR Solar System – Space Museum
(EduChem VR, n.d.) – VR/AR (Yin, 2016)
3 Magi Chapel VR VR Diving Pro – Scuba Dive
(EON Reality, 2015.) with Google Cardboard
(Wang, n.d.)
4 Toumanian Museum VR
(Arloopa, n.d.)Ancient Egypt
VR (Insypiro, 2016)
5 Qantas Guided Meditation
Series in 360 – Sydney
Harbour, New South Wales
(Qantas, 2018)
downloaded VR game application, and received instructions on how to start, select options,
move themselves around and play the headset-enabled VR games. The VR game session took
approximately 30 min, followed by a 10-min session for students to respond to the exit slip
question (see below).
To illustrate, students read about cells, the parts of cells and their function from their Science
worksheet in week 1. Then students played InCell, an action and racing game where the players
were in a human cell and had to stop the virus advance (see Figure 7.2). The game provided tex-
tual and audio information about the content and the players’ mission. At the end of the game,
players would receive a report about their progress. The target vocabulary items in the reading
FIGURE 7.1 Sample of Google Cardboard VR (Othree, 2014)

FIGURE 7.2 A Screenshot from InCell (Luden.io, 2017a)
passage of InCell were also related to the Year 8 Science curriculum (ACARA, 2016c), such as
mitochondrion organelle, invasion, and molecular machine.
7.3.5 Data collection

Data was collected from multiple sources to develop a holistic understanding of how students per-
ceived learning vocabulary via the games. The data sources included a pre-game online survey,
exit slips after each game, semi-structured group interviews, an observation scheme, the research-
er’s journal, and a post-game online survey (see Table 7.3). A five-week intervention was designed
to allow the researchers to document and observe the changes in students’ engagement with and
attitudes towards the games. The duration of the study was suitable for a pilot study and reduced
the risks associated with a one-shot design or a longer period that could have influenced the results
through, for example, participant attrition or practice effects (Alfadil, 2020).
7.3.5.1 Pre- and post-game online surveys

To collect data on students’ linguistic and cultural backgrounds, students completed an online
survey consisting of closed and open-ended questions. The survey took place in Week 1 before
the participants played the games (see Table 7.2). After they finished playing all the games,
TABLE 7.3 Summary of Data Collection Procedure
Week Pre-game survey Exit slip Group interview Observation scheme Journal Post-game survey
1 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
2 ✓ ✓ ✓
3 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
4 ✓ ✓ ✓
5 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
students also completed the final survey, which allowed the researchers to explore whether stu-
dents’ perceptions of learning content-based vocabulary via VR games had changed.
7.3.5.2 Exit slips

After each game, students filled in an exit slip consisting of three short prompts to help them
reflect on and evaluate their VR learning experience. Each week, the exit slip asked different
questions in relation to the subject matter and gaming experience, such as:
How did the history game help you learn new words?
What would you like to change about the VR game today?
What did you enjoy about the science game today?
However, it was found that students struggled to answer three questions in Week 1. To mitigate
this issue and consider students’ lower English proficiency, the number of prompts was modified
from three to two in Week 2, and then one throughout the rest of the weeks (see Figure 7.3).
7.3.5.3 Semi-structured group interviews

Semi-structured group interviews were conducted in English to elicit information about stu-
dents’ thoughts and processes regarding the effects of HMD VR games on learning new con-
tent-based vocabulary, and to investigate their attitudes towards their sense of immersion or
feeling afforded by the games (see Appendix B for the interview questions). The interviews were
conducted in three phases – at the beginning, middle and end of the study – to track the students’
attitudinal change. All interviews were recorded with an iPhone and manually transcribed:
Week 1: After the pre-game online survey and before playing, students were asked about
their prior experience with VR and how they perceived playing video games via head-
sets to learn vocabulary.
Week 3: After playing six games in total, students were asked about their attitudes towards
the headset-enabled VR game practices up to this stage.
FIGURE 7.3 Sample of an Exit Slip Prompt Followed by a Participant’s Response

Week 5: After playing all the nine games, students were asked about which games they
found useful for vocabulary learning and how they compared this VR experience with
regular class activities.
7.3.5.4 Observation scheme and field notes

To document learning practices, the researcher took notes on the observation scheme to capture
the students’ learning behaviours and expressions while they were playing the VR games (see
Appendix C for detail). The researcher also kept a research journal in conjunction with the field
notes to document any notable occurrences in learners’ VR practices, the features of VR games
that seemed to work (and those that did not) in teaching content-based vocabulary, and any
other issues that struck the researcher as relevant.
7.3.6 Data analysis

A thematic analysis was employed to analyse the triangulated data that tapped into the introspec-
tive (exit slips and semi-structured group interviews) and reflective (post-game online survey)
experiences of students (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). This method of analysis aimed to provide a
richer understanding of the investigated phenomenon (Braun & Clarke, 2006).
The data was coded and analysed following the process of (a) familiarisation with data,
(b) generating initial codes from the data, (c) searching for common themes among codes,
(d) reviewing, refining, and labelling themes, and (e) presenting the findings using the students’
feedback to support the themes that emerged (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Initial codes were
generated from the notes jotted down in regards to the interview and exit slip responses. An
open coding technique was adopted for identifying the units of data. A unit of data had to meet
two criteria: standing by itself to be interpretable and stimulating the reader to think beyond the particular
information (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). After assigning open codes to the data, an axial coding
technique was employed to construct thematic categories and make connections across catego-
ries, where codes were sorted into lists, resulting in groups of codes (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015).
These groups of codes were related to each other, which formed the thematic category scheme
(see Appendix D for a summary of the units of data and attached codes).
7.3.6.1 Trustworthiness
Research rigour in this study was ensured following the criteria suggested by Creswell and Poth (2018).
Credibility was ensured by establishing an audit trail to document and reflect on the whole process
through the research journal and observation scheme. This documentation included reflections, ques-
tions and decisions made about the technical issues of using the Google Cardboard for selecting games,
and how students reacted to this VR gamified approach to content vocabulary learning.
The multiple data sources helped to ensure trustworthiness, and text data was collected to
better understand the nuanced factors that influence VR-based vocabulary learning, supported by
students’ perceptions. Triangulated data provide evidence to corroborate the qualitative data and
capture a holistic picture of the investigated phenomenon (Mackey & Gass, 2015). Data triangula-
tion—by drawing on transcribed interviews, exit slip responses, and the observation notes to cap-
ture VR learning episodes and dynamics also helped to strengthen credibility. Transferability was
considered by providing a thick description and supported by concrete evidence from participant
interviews, field notes and documents of the study, thus allowing other like-minded educators to
determine the applicability of findings to their own teaching context (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015).
To address reflexivity, the researcher’s (the first author’s) journal, field notes, and observations
lent themselves to the researcher’s positioning (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Specifically, the follow-
ing questions were considered when the researcher took notes in the journal and observation
scheme: ‘What do I know? How do I know what I know? What student verbatim has shaped
my perspective? With what voice do I share my perspective? What do I do with what I have
found?’ (Marshall & Rossman, 2014, p. 118). This reflexivity practice helped ensure that the data
speaks for itself, and the researcher should be attentive to the nuanced dynamics without making
preconceived judgements. The researcher followed this criterion to minimise pre-existing biases
and weaved it into the data analysis process to verify the other triangulated data.
7.4 Findings and discussion

Appendix D demonstrates how units of data were coded and bracketed, and themes developed
from three interviews, 54 exit slips, nine observation scheme sheets, and journal entries. The
length of a unit of data varied from one sentence response to a few paragraphs of written field
notes. These were identified under Unit of Data, the relevant code was attached to the text, and
connections were made across categories as shown under Theme.
Table 7.4 outlines the themes grouped under the two conceptual categories: students’ perceptions
of VR game-based learning and the effects of headset-enabled VR games on content vocabulary learning. Each
category intersects the positive and negative aspects of learning content-specific vocabulary using
headset-enabled VR games. These two categories provide the structure for the following discussion.
7.4.1 Positive aspects of headset-enabled VR games

7.4.1.1 Immersive learning environment
Learners enjoyed the VR educational games as they provided a sense of telepresence (Chen
& Kent, 2020) via an immersive learning experience in the 3D environment. Data from the
observation notes indicated that all students were excited to be in an immersive learning envi-
ronment. While playing the InCell game where the students chased cells, Aisha expressed her
feeling of telepresence as ‘While I was playing the InCell game, I had a chance to have an expe-
rience with the Mitochondria in person.’ (Aisha, Exit Slip, 2018). Learners also stated that some
games enabled them to explore the target words while providing them with the feeling of a real
and innovative experience. Lara described her perception of how the VR games offered a safe
experience in environments that are not possible in real life: ‘You feel like you really are inside
the human fighting the virus.’ (Lara, Exit Slip, 2018).
Although learners were not able to travel into a cell or outer space in science class, to visit
another country during class time, or to attend venues that entailed risk, a VR environment
TABLE 7.4 ESL Learners’ Overall Perceptions and Effects of Headset-Enabled VR Games on Vocabulary
Acquisition
Perceptions of headset-enabled VR games Effects of headset-enabled VR games on vocabulary learning
Positive aspects
Immersive learning environment Learning through 3D simulation
The fun element VR visualisation of content-specific vocabulary items
Enhanced vocabulary acquisition
Negative aspects
Lack of adequate educational features Technical issues in using VR headsets
made telepresence possible and delivered the content in a safe, immersive learning environment
by eliminating the hazards of real-life situations (Feng et al., 2018).
7.4.1.2 The fun element

Learners stated that using games and mobile phones for vocabulary acquisition was appealing
as they found it fun, enjoyed being in an immersive environment and liked exploring the VR
games. Learners were excited about playing the VR games, which put them in situations that
they had not experienced in real life. VR games that enabled learners to make choices and move
around freely in the 3D form (Chen, 2016; Lin et al., 2017) may have contributed to their per-
ception of the fun element in this study: ‘I enjoyed the various ways you can freely move and
how it teaches you more about cells and how they are invaded by different viruses. Overall, it
helped with vocabulary’ (Zaynab, Exit Slip, 2018).
Learners indicated two main reasons to explain how the fun element could potentially stim-
ulate content-specific vocabulary acquisition. The VR experience provided a sense of telepres-
ence. Previous research supports this finding that learners enjoyed being in an immersive VR
environment during a task when learning new academic content (Chandramouli et al., 2014;
Chen et al., 2021). Therefore, the fun aspect of VR games may have increased learner engage-
ment, empowering them to immerse themselves and deeply connect with the content (Gadelha,
2018; Sala, 2016). Lara explained how incorporating the element of fun into their VR experi-
ment helped her to learn new words:
When you have a fun memory as a kid, if you think of it, you recall it. You see an image of
what happened then. Then you can recall an image of what has happened then and then you
can recall everything that has been happening in that time. It’s the same thing with the game.
You think of a game, you think of an image, thinking of everything you have done in the
game and everything the game said to you and the words you learnt from it. But when it’s
geography and stuff, it goes through one ear and comes out the other because it’s so boring
and we never pay attention but with VR, I have fun with it. I remember what is going on.
(Lara, Interview, 2018)
According to ESL learners’ first-hand experience, using headset-enabled, educational VR games

to engage with the subject content offered a real and innovative experience to explore the sub-
ject matter. Consequently, these games made it easier for the students to learn content-specific
words and enhance vocabulary retention.
7.4.1.3 Learning through 3D simulation

The post-game online survey completed by the students in Week 5, after playing the games, explored
whether their perceptions of how they learn new words had changed. The pre-game online survey
completed in Week 1 showed that students believed that the best method to learn new words was
asking someone. In the post-game online survey, Lara, Ali, Aisha, Fatma and Aleen nominated vis-
ualisation and experience as well as watching videos and playing with educational VR games as the
best methods for learning new words. This was further explained in an interview:
Whatever the teacher tells you, the story [the content information presented in the class-
room], you have to imagine it [in order to understand the content]. But if you see it in the
VR, you will think you are living the moment. It will stick to your mind. It tries to get
you live the moment. Like you can understand it in a better way. You are living it and it
is like if you have done it in your real life. It will help you learn things better because you
are experiencing it and instead of seeing pictures and watching movies about it.
(Ali, Interview, 2018)
One explanation for this finding is that the VR environments offering authentic experiences
with a sense of exploration and telepresence may have enabled learners to have an immer-
sive experience due to VR’s unique features (Lamb et al., 2018). Consequently, learners per-
ceived that the experience of virtually exploring these contexts assisted them and enhanced their
vocabulary acquisition (Monteiro & Ribeiro, 2020). Students also acknowledged that reflecting
on their first-person VR experience, where they were able to move freely as an avatar, helped
them to remember the vocabulary items in the games.
7.4.1.4 VR visualisation of content-based vocabulary items

VR may have clarified the subject matter by connecting the meaning of content-specific words
with 3D visual representations, making cognitively demanding content more concrete and there-
fore more manageable (Gadelha, 2018; Pigatt & Braman, 2016). One of the VR games (Solar
System – Space Museum – VR/AR (Yin, 2016) provided a visualisation of the solar system,
where students travelled and observed the planets closely. Likewise, students had a detailed look
at the features of cells and went into museums to analyse paintings. In the Learning Carbons VR
game, the students travelled through the atom to look at the bonding of carbon; they also visited
historical venues to observe target vocabulary items. According to the interview data, the students
believed that the visual components in a 3D VR environment enhanced content-specific vocab-
ulary acquisition:
When you are looking at an image, you remember it more than words because words are
hard to memorize… images [as input enhancement] are easier [to learn the words]. So, like
VR shows an image so when you have a question you think of the image then you start
remembering all the words, it put a picture in my mind, so it showed me how the word
looked like.
(Aisha, Interview, 2018)
7.4.1.5 Enhanced vocabulary acquisition

Overall, learners described their VR experience as conducive to content-specific vocabulary
acquisition, mirroring a finding reported in previous research (Chen, 2016; Chen et al., 2021).
A case in point are the responses made in exit slips, listing the vocabulary items they had learnt
(from playing InCell in Week 1 and Magi Chapel VR and Solar Museum – Space Museum –
VR/AR in Week 3). That experience which enabled learners to closely observe the vocabulary
items may have enhanced their vocabulary acquisition.
The following features of educational VR games seemed to have facilitated students’ vocab-
ulary learning: enabling students to closely observe target vocabulary, presenting verbal and
written information about the target words, and providing a sense of presence in the immersive
environment. In the interview, Ali and Lara described how they found it easier to learn new
words by playing VR games using headsets – ‘It’s going to give you a short cut to learn. Not too
complicated and not too easy’ (Ali, interview, July 2018). This finding also supports previous
TABLE 7.5 Summary of Vocabulary Items Students Wrote in Exit Slips
Student Vocabulary item learnt
Zaynab Solar system, asteroid, medium, symmetry, contrast,

influenza, mitochondrion, nucleus and lysosome
Aleen Polar vortex, mitochondria, lysosome
Lara Diversity, contrast, medium, nucleus, mitochondrion
Fatma Asteroid
studies that 3D VR environments enhance immersive language learning (Chen, 2016; Dawley
& Dede, 2014; Kaplan-Rakowski & Gruber, 2019).
The collaborative interaction whilst playing in the 3D VR environment also seemed to have
fostered students’ use of target vocabulary items in subject context. Each learner wrote at least
one target vocabulary item they learnt per game (see Table 7.5).
7.4.2 Negative aspects of headset-enabled VR games

7.4.2.1 Lack of adequate educational features
Although the VR introduced the target vocabulary items in visual form and most games sup-
ported those words in written and verbal form, learners reported negative perceptions of their
VR game experience. They wanted detailed written or verbal explanation of the content.
Learners assumed that VR games with limited player instructions might diminish the VR expe-
rience to some extent (Research Journal, 2018). They also wanted games with better storylines
as they believed this would provide a higher level of engagement.
Learners also mentioned that the headset-enabled educational VR games they played
lacked the writing and reading features for promoting the literacy and analytical skills they
will need to use in real life. Previous research has emphasised that theoretical guidance is
essential to develop VR games for teaching vocabulary (Hooshyar et al., 2018; Klopfer,
2017). There was also an opinion that students had too much fun and therefore these games
should be played only once a week as a treat. Learners also reported negative views about
limited player instructions, poor storylines, and lack of adequate educational features related
to writing and reading.
7.4.2.2 Technical issues in using VR headsets

Although learners enjoyed playing games using VR headsets as previous research indicates (York
et al., 2021), they also expressed concerns that possible technical issues could interfere with their
learning experience. Poor sound quality prevented one of the learners from hearing the pronuncia-
tion of target words in the Solar System – Space Museum – VR/AR game. Learners did not report
that they felt dizzy but found holding headsets on their heads uncomfortable. They complained
about the blurry vision caused by the inexpensive optics of Google Cardboard, which has also been
found to be an issue in previous research (Dede et al., 2017; Sakamoto et al., 2018). The researcher’s
journal also noted that the amount of time each student played the game could vary (Ma et al.,
2007), as there were a few occasions where the 3D VR game applications on the phones quit while
the learners were playing. In this situation, learners had to restart the game, thus disrupting the
continuity of the fun factor. Thus, poor sound quality, blurry vision, and applications quitting
were identified as the aspects that could potentially hinder vocabulary learning.
7.5 Limitations and implications

This pilot study was conducted to explore ESL learners’ perceptions of content-based, head-
set-enabled VR games and examine the factors that influence the game-based VR approach to
vocabulary learning. The findings provide pedagogical implications for future VR game design
and for research and educational institutions that support ESL learners. HMD VR games could
be used as a resource to engage ESL students with other subjects such as English and Health.
For example, students can practice their English speaking and listening skills by interacting
with native speaking characters of the target language, based on the subject content without
worrying about making mistakes. This feature of VR could increase self-confidence, decrease
nervousness, and improve students’ language productivity (Melchor-Couto, 2016). VR games
presenting content information in written form also have the potential to improve ESL students’
reading skills (Chen et al., 2019).
Only six ESL learners were chosen to take part in this pilot study. This small sample allowed
the researchers to collect rich data from each student. Nevertheless, findings should be inter-
preted with caution, as positive claims of learning are based on a small sample size and learners’
self-reports. That said, trialing these games to ensure their effectiveness for further application
in a larger-scale study was more practical and closely observable with the small number of stu-
dents. Due to the limited number of educational VR games available for Google Cardboard,
only nine games in three different subjects were found to comply with the Year 8 and Year 9
curricula. In the future, educational VR games currently available on the market are likely to
offer more options for customisation. That is, educators should be able to choose the topics and
vocabulary items in those VR games that are compatible with their students’ knowledge, skill
levels and academic demands. Additionally, the VR games in this study required each student
to play individually without interacting with each other. Future collaborative educational VR
games could be developed to enhance students’ written and verbal communication skills using
target vocabulary items, as students are likely to call out target words when they are interacting
with each other (Peterson, 2012).
Inevitably, some technical issues arose in this pilot study. A few of the game applications
on mobile phones turned off abruptly; poor screen resolution led to eye strain due to the
inexpensive lenses of Google Cardboard; and speakers failed to produce audible sound. Such
issues can be addressed in future research. Finally, although prior research indicated that
headset-enabled VR games immerse the player in the content-based environment and is
superior to desktop VR games in boosting learner engagement and motivation (Makransky
& Lilleholt, 2018), further research could be conducted to differentiate the effects of desktop
VR and HMD VR games on language learners’ perceptions, vocabulary acquisition and
retention.
7.6 Conclusion
Using HMD VR games is an immersive approach to potentially engage students with the sub-
ject matter and content-specific vocabulary items. Our study suggested that VR games afforded
the audio and written features of vocabulary items alongside 3D visual representation. Thus,
ESL students favoured the VR games over conventional vocabulary learning and memorisa-
tion in the classroom. They also perceived these games to be more effective for learning con-
tent-specific words. One of the most salient findings identified in this study was the element of
fun (Chen, 2016; York et al., 2021). It not only fostered students’ interaction with the content
(Parmaxi, 2020), but also made learning academic content more appealing. Hence, the fun
factor can manifest in increased student engagement (Gadelha, 2018; Makransky & Lilleholt,
2018) and content-specific vocabulary acquisition (Berns et al., 2013; Johnson et al., 2020; Tai
et al., 2020).
Despite the positive claims, students also shared concerns about the technical issues such
as a lack of adequate educational features and no demands to use VR in future workplaces.
However, these concerns did not dampen their motivation and engagement. The results also
showed that students felt that using VR games helped them process content and vocabulary
better. Not only do VR games afford 3D visualisation of the content associated with the target
vocabulary items, but they also further prompt students to explore experience and acquire
content-based target words in situated and immersive learning – something they would not
be able to do in a conventional classroom following a textbook or through memorisation. As
such, this affordance of VR games could be potentially useful for their future study and job
demands.
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Appendix A: Summary of VR games’ characteristics based on Gee’s good

Game Principles
VR Games Characteristics of the VR game Links to Gee’s Good Game Principles
InCell (Luden.io, Immerses player in human cell Identity

2017a) Enhances experiential learning
Exploration
Opportunity to learn new vocabulary related Situated meanings
to cells by experiencing them by travelling in
the human body
Player has control over where to shoot Agency
Interacts by hitting viruses in the human body Interaction
Produces the story through killing viruses and Production
completing a level
Players think about the broader view on how System thinking
human cells and viruses function in the
human body
(Continued)

Game Principle (Continued)
InMind Immerses player in the human brain Identity

(Luden.io, Opportunity to learn new related vocabulary Enhance experiential learning
2017b) Explore
Experiencing the mind by travelling in the Situated meanings
human brain
Player has control over where to shoot Agency
Interacts with viruses by shooting them in a Interaction
human brain
Players save the human’s life in the game at the Production
end of a successful level
Players need to think about how viruses System thinking
threaten the human brain
Toumanian Immerses player in an ancient environment Identity
Museum VR Enhance experiential learning
(Arloopa, n.d.) Explore
Opportunity to learn new vocabulary related Situated meanings
to ancient times by visiting target ancient
destinations
Player has control over which venues to visit Agency
Interacts by walking to destinations Interaction
Ancient Egypt Immerses player in ancient Egypt Identity
VR (Inspyro Opportunity to learn new vocabulary Enhance experiential learning
Ltd., 2016) Explore
Players visit an Egyptian temple and listen to Situated meanings
information. Players also move freely in
ancient Egypt to choose the information they
would like to listen to
Players have control over the information they Agency
choose to listen to
Interacts by choosing where to walk and which Interaction
information to listen to in the temple.
Learning Carbons Immerses player in various forms of carbon Identity
VR (EduChem Enhance experiential learning
VR, n.d.) Explore
Opportunity to learn new vocabulary in an Situated meanings
immersive 3D virtual world incorporating
atoms and molecules
Players have control over where to look Agency
Interacts by travelling through atoms and Interaction
molecules and choosing where to observe
Players think in a bigger picture about how System thinking
atoms combine by forming covalent bonds to
form molecules
Solar System – Immerses player in the solar system Identity
Space Museum Enhance experiential learning
– VR/AR (Yin, Explore
2016) Opportunity to learn new vocabulary by Situated meanings
travelling to the Solar System and visiting planets.
Players have control over which planet to Agency
travel to and which asteroid to hit
Interacts by choosing which planet to travel Interaction
to and stopping asteroids from falling to earth.
Produce story by saving the world from asteroids Production
Players see our solar system that is made up of System thinking
eight planets, sun, moon, and asteroids
(Continued)

Game Principle (Continued)
Magi Chapel VR Immerses player in a museum Identity

(EON Reality, Enhance experiential learning
n.d.) Explore
Opportunity to learn new vocabulary by Situated meanings
visiting a museum in Italy. Students observe
and listen to information about art pieces
related to the splendor of Renaissance Italy.
Players have control over the which artwork to Agency
choose
Interacts by walking to the chosen art piece Interaction
VR Diving Immerses players in a virtual diving experience Identity
Pro – Scuba where they can discover marine life Enhance experiential learning
Dive with Explore
Google Opportunity to learn new vocabulary by Situated meanings
Cardboard swimming underwater with sea creatures
(Wang, n.d.) Interacts by swimming with the sea creatures Interaction
and reading their features
Player has control over where to swim Agency
Qantas Guided Immerses player in Sydney Harbour Identity
Meditation Enhance experiential learning
Series in Explore
360 – Sydney Opportunity to learn new vocabulary by Situated meanings
Harbour, New experiencing the Sydney Harbour scenery and
South Wales listening to information about the harbour
(Qantas, 2018) Players have control over where to look Agency
Interacts by walking at the harbour and Interaction
listening to information
Appendix B: Semi-structured group interview questions

Week 1
• Have you seen this VR headset before?
• What do you think about using VR games in science class to learn about cells?
• What do you think about learning sculptures by making a virtual sculpture in your Art class
using a VR game?
• What do you think about learning history by visiting those places in a Virtual world?
• Do you think it can help you learn new words? How?
Week 3
• How did you find using headsets to play VR games?
• Did you like using VR games in classrooms? Why?
• How did the VR game help you learn new words?
• What do you think about catching cells in the Science game?
• Did it help you learn new cells? How?
• How did visiting an ancient Egypt museum help you learn new words?
• Was there any game that you did not enjoy? Why?
Week 5
• Which one was your favourite game? Why?
• How did the games help you learn new vocabulary items?
• Was there any game that you did not like? Why?
• How do you feel about using VR games in classrooms to learn about history?
• How did the VR game help you learn new words about geography?
• Did the science game help you learn new chemical substances? How?
• Would you like to use VR games more frequently at school to learn new words? Why or
why not?
Appendix C: Classroom observation scheme

Subject: __________________________________
Observer: __________________________________
Date and Time: ___________________________
Time Review Section Description Researcher’s Reflection
1. S
tudent attitudes towards each
VR game across subjects
(Science, Humanities, Social
Sciences, and Art)
• Students’ engagement with the
game (adjectives students use
while playing the headset enabled
VR games)
• Students’ emotional reaction to
the game
• Students’ concentration level
whilst playing the game (whether
they pause playing or talk about
off task topics)
2. Students’ reaction to headset
enabled VR features
• Students’ level of comfort holding
the headset
• Students’ expression of feeling
presence in the game
• Students’ body language while
playing the game
3. Vocabulary Acquisition
• New vocabulary items students
call out while playing the game
4. Unexpected Learning Activities
• Learning of new vocabulary items
that are in the game but not
identified as a target word
5. Unexpected Behaviour
Activities
• Unexpected verbal utterances or
non-verbal signals (body language)
while playing the game
Appendix D: Summary of data analysis
Unit of Data Code Attached Theme Number of codes
But when it’s geography and stuff it goes VR is fun The fun element Exit Slips: 19
through one ear and comes out the other Interviews: 27
because it’s so boring and we never pay Observation
attention but with VR, I have fun Scheme and
with it. I remember what is going on. Research
(Lara, Interview, 2018) Journal: 11
The fact that it incorporates fun and has Fun
the appeal to students with colours and
whole ‘VR’ thing is great. It helps to
remember the difficult words much
easier and much more enjoyable.
(Aleen, Exit Slip, 2018)
It’s also more appealing because in this Enjoy playing
generation we love technology. We
love phones and games and all that.
So even when we go home, the
majority of stuff we do is like on a
phone or on a computer. So, by
grouping that with VR, it is always
been like a myth to us. In the future
we are going to have VR, we won’t
need anything, so it’s more
interesting it is more appealing
to have it in a classroom and not as
something only a rich person can
buy. (Aleen, Interview, 2018)
Students were very vocal while they Excited
were playing and called out excited
expressions such as ‘wow, this is
beautiful, this is cool, aaaa, the
game is actually fun’ repeatedly
while they were playing the VR
games. They were also constantly
moving about – standing up, sitting
down as they got excited. (Research
Journal and Observation Scheme, 2018)
When you have a fun memory as a Having fun
kid, if you think of it, you recall it.
You see an image of what happened
then. Then you can recall an image
of what has happened then and then
you can recall everything that has
been happening in that time. It’s the
same thing with the game. You think
of a game, you think of an image,
thinking of everything you have done
in the game and everything the game
said to you and the words you learnt
from it. But when it’s geography and
stuff it goes through one ear and
comes out the other because it’s so
boring and we never pay attention
but with VR, I have fun with it. I
remember what is going on. (Lara,
Interview, 2018)
(Continued)
Appendix D: Summary of data analysis (Continued)

It put a picture in my mind so showed me Picture of vocabulary VR visualisation Exit Slips: 21
how the word looked like. (Aisha, Exit of content- Interviews:38
Slip, 2018) specific Observation
When you are looking at an image, you Image of word vocabulary Scheme and
remember it more than words because Research
words are hard to memorise. Like images Journal: 7
are easier so like VR shows an image so
when you have a question you think of the
image then you start remembering all the
words, it put a picture in my mind so it
showed me how the word looked like.
(Aisha, Interview, 2018)
I think the fact of VR is nice because you Seeing the statue
learn new words. Like in ancient Egypt,
when we first started the game and when
you first starred at the statue, it gives you
the full detail. You can understand words
and even get more detail of words you
know but you don’t know their description
and much more. (Ali, Interview, 2018)
The InCell game showed how the cells Seeing the cells
looks like in a 3D environment. (Fatma,
Exit Slip, 2018)
Aisha called out ‘look at that fossil’ upon Seeing fossils
seeing it in the game, which was a
content-specific word (Observation
Scheme, 2018)
I got to explore the solar system in a new VR provides Learning through Exit Slips: 9
way. (Fatima, Exit Slip, 2018) innovative 3D 3D simulation Interviews:23
learning experience Observation
Whatever the teacher tells you the story you Remembering by Scheme and
are going to imagine it but if you see it in immersion Research
the VR, you will think you are living the Journal: 8
moment. It will stick to your mind. It tries
to get you live the moment. Like you can
understand it in a better way. You are
living it and it is like if you have done it in
your real life, it will help you learn things
better because you are experiencing it and
instead of seeing pictures and watching
movies about it. (Ali, Interview, 2018)
It just sticks in your head. If you are having a Remembering by
test and asking you locate this place, you can experience
just go back to your memory and say, ‘oh I was
doing that’ and it was there so you can say ‘oh,
it’s right there. When we learn in history, our
teacher just usually tells us the story, we have
to imagine it. But with VR, you can see
everything, and you know exactly how it
goes. (Zaynab, Interview, 2018)
After playing Marine Life and taking their Remembering by
headsets off, students continued to talk experience
amongst themselves saying using content-
specific vocabulary ‘oh, did you see that
seabass?.’ (Observation Scheme, 2018)
(Continued)

While I was playing the InCell game, Experience with Immersive Exit Slips: 9
I had a chance to have an experience object learning Interviews: 22
with the Mitochondria in person. environment Observation
(Aisha, Exit Slip, 2018) Scheme and
You can understand the words better in Experience of content Research
an immersive environment because as Journal: 6
you go through the cell it informs you
and tells you why you are going
through it. (Aleen, Interview, 2018).
It tries to get you to live the moment. Real life experience
Like you can understand it in a better
way. You are living it and it is like if
you have done it in your real life.
(Ali, Interview, June 2018)
The game helped me learn new words Experiencing cells
by taking me to a human body to
collect good cells and kill bad cells
that caused the influenza virus. (Ali,
Exit Slip, 2018)
You feel like you really are inside the Experiencing fighting
human fighting the virus. (Lara, Exit viruses
Slip, 2018)
Student said, ‘oh this asteroid is going Experiencing
coming towards me it is going to asteroids
kill me.’ (Observation Scheme, 2018)
You can see the places. It’s like I want Experiencing danger
to go to Paris, and it is just one button
in the air, and you press it. You go
there automatically instead of spending
money buying a ticket getting a visa etc.
It’s so much easier. You would not die if
you accidently fell in a volcano. It’s not
like every day you get to go through a
cell. It’s like you do it once or you
don’t even do. It’s something new that
probably none of us did before. (Lara,
Interview, 2018)
While playing the Toumanian Experiencing ancient
Museum VR game, each time they environment
explored something about ancient
history in the 3D environment, the
students described the scene to their
friends so they could discover
something together, although they
could not see each other in the VR
game, and it was not a requirement
of the game. (Research journal, 2018)
All students mentioned that the VR Experiencing content
games enabled them to explore in immersive
immersive environments – something environment
that is impossible in a classroom
environment. (Research Journal, 2018)
(Continued)

It’s going to give you a short cut Learned target words Enhanced Exit Slips: 7
to learn. Not too complicated easily vocabulary Interviews: 28
and not too easy. (Ali, Interview, acquisition Observation
2018) Scheme and
Not a lot of effort into it either so Learned target words Research
it is easier to learn. (Lara, Interview, easily Journal: 16
2018).
Learners called out target vocabulary Use of target
items from six out of nine VR vocabulary
games while they were interacting
with each other verbally. The more
learners were immersed in their
position in the game and described
what they were doing loudly to
each other, the more likely it was
that they used the target
vocabulary items. (Research
Journal, 2018)
Each learner wrote at least one Used target
target vocabulary item they learnt vocabulary
per game (Research Journal,
2018)
Student said, ’oh this asteroid is Used target
going coming towards me it is going vocabulary
to kill me.’ (Observation Scheme,
2018)
The collaborative interaction whilst Used target
playing the Toumanian Museum vocabulary
game fostered students’ use of target
vocabulary items in context.
(Observation Scheme, 2018)
While playing the Marine Life game, Used target
Fatma called out rockfish, jellyfish. vocabulary
Aleen called out opal eye, and Zaynab
called out Perch. (Observation Scheme,
2018)
Summary of vocabulary items students Wrote target
wrote in Exit Slips after playing InCell, vocabulary
Magi Chapel VR, and Solar Museum –
Space Museum –VR/AR (Exit Slips,
2018):
Zaynab: solar system, asteroid,
medium, symmetry, contrast,
influenza, mitochondrion, nucleus
and lysosome
Aleen: polar vortex, mitochondria,
lysosome
Lara: diversity, contrast, medium, nucleus,
mitochondrion
Fatma: Asteroid
(Continued)

Based on responses from interview and Better storyline Lack of adequate Exit Slips: 6
exit slips earners assumed that VR educational Interviews: 16
games with limited player instructions features Observation
might mar the VR experience to some Scheme and
extent. They also wanted games Research
with better storylines as they Journal: 5
believed this would be more engaging
in the VR environment. (Research
Journal, 2018)
In response to what they would like Better storyline
to change about the game they
played, Aisha said she would increase
the length of the InMind game.
(Aisha, Exit Slip, 2018)
Zaynab would add more action and Move freely to
enable players to move freely in the increase engagement
VR environment. (Zaynab, Exit Slip,
2018)
Ali would change the aim of the game. Better storyline
(Ali, Exit Slip, 2018)
Fatma would add features other than just Add information of
shooting the virus. (Fatma, Exit Slip, content
2018)
When you are at work, they are not Lack of literacy skills
going to give you a VR and ask you to
write on it. They are going to give
you a pen and paper and you will
have to use that. (Lara, Interview,
2018)
Learners stated that they had too much Lack of focus on
fun playing the VR games and that content
therefore these games should be played
only once a week as a treat. (Research
Journal, 2018)
Overall, it def initely is a method to Lack of focus on
learn new words, but I feel like some content
people could get distracted with it.
It is a game, and they might be having
too much fun to the point where they
don’t focus on the actual subject, and
they just want to play the game.
(Zaynab, Interview, 2018)
If you let us use it every day, we Lack of literacy skills
would forget about how they used to
teach us, and we write stuff down
and learn by looking up words texting
and analysing. (Fatma, Interview,
2018)
Whilst playing the Toumainian game, Move freely to
Ali said “it is very annoying that I increase engagement
couldn’t walk into the antique house”
and Lara said she agreed with him
while playing the game. (Observation
Scheme, 2018)
(Continued)

Poor sound quality prevented one Technical sound issue Technical issues Exit Slips: 5
of the learners from hearing the in using VR Interviews: 11
pronunciation of target words in the headsets Observation
Solar System – Space Museum – Scheme and
VR/AR game as the student complained Research
‘I couldn’t hear it’ [the information Journal: 6
presented about each planet].
(Observation Scheme, 2018)
Learners did not report they felt dizzy Blurry vision
but found holding headsets on their
heads uncomfortable and they
complained about the blurry vision
caused by the inexpensive optics of
Google Cardboard. (Research Journal,
2018)
It [Google Cardboard] hurts your Hurting nose
nose (Aleen, Interview, 2018)
Sometimes it [InCell game] hurts Blurry vision
your eyes because you are too close
to the screen. (Aisha, Interview,
2018)
Your hands get tired holding it Holding headset
[Google Cardboard]. (Lara,
Interview, 2018).
Zaynab said ‘my eyes are hurting’ and Blurry vision &
Lara said ‘my arms are hurting’ while holding headset
playing the InCell game (Research
Journal, 2018).
The amount of time each student Timing & closing
played the game could vary as there application issue
were a few occasions where the 3D VR
game applications on the phones quit
while the learners were playing,
which then reduced the fun factor.
In order to complete the task, learners
had to restart the game. (Research
Journal, 2018)
8
BECOMING A RESOURCEFUL LANGUAGE
LEARNER IN A NARRATIVE-DRIVEN
PARTICIPATORY GAME
Zeyu Cui, Jin Dong, Yang Liu, Michaela Nuesser, Huaiqing Zhang,
Dongping Zheng and Yuanqing Zuo
8.1 Introduction
While computer-assisted language learning (CALL) research mostly focuses on how learners
learn additional languages assisted by technology following a traditional Second-Language
Acquisition research paradigm, the principles in the Bizhuwanshang project underlying this
study employ a design from a Distributed Language Learning Environment (DLLE) that reframes
‘learners’ and ‘learning.’ A DLLE explores how we can help learners become initiative-taking
resourceful individuals – not centering on tasks for learning language forms, but rather, to help
solve problems as an enmeshed member of a community. This shift away from learning about
grammatical forms towards agential participation is seen as a viable research avenue in relation
to numerous conceptualizations, such as community of practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991), the
wholeness of experiences (Dewey, 1905), entrepreneurial learning (Zhao, 2012), distributed
cognition (Hutchins, 1995), and by empirical studies grounded in situated cognition (e.g., Barab
& Plucker, 2002). However, such a focus as an empirically valued approach to CALL is a first of
its kind (Cui et al., 2021).
This study, a test of our DLLE-designed Virtual Reality (VR) game Bizhuwanshang, is based
on a 2D picture book version of the 3D world we are creating. Our study offers valuable insights
into how we create affordances (loosely defined as action potential, Van Lier, 2004) for gaining
linguistic and coordination skills holistically, and this shifts the participants from a standard
‘learner’ focused on memorizing and practicing grammar or eliciting interactional feedback and
modifying output into becoming resourceful and embedded community members. We argue
this mirrors real-world coordination events in which language plays a part, and this allows par-
ticipants to make valuable connections to their language beyond repetition and focusing on form
or meaning exclusively. We investigate how gamification of an environmental degradation nar-
rative surrounding a panda sanctuary affords participants’ development into resourceful learners
and how exolingual co-learning through participants taking up and acting out their roles in the
Bizhuwanshang story contributes to this form of co-learning.
Video games offer innumerable opportunities for experiencing a world in which additional
languages are a necessity to engage with people, things, and activities (Newgarden & Zheng,
2016; Squire, 2008). Such experiences can be scaffolded and tuned by the design of materials
and co-learning structures, and the design of our Bizhuwanshang picture book is an emulation
DOI: 10.4324/9781003240075-8
Becoming a Resourceful Language Learner 137
of these video game studies. We distributed learning across the main interface of the picture
book and access to websites and social media for independent reading, and this afforded partici-
pants scientific knowledge targeting the environmental problem at hand. Ultimately, to become
resourceful community members under this new paradigm shift towards placing participation at
the core of interaction, new members cultivate their skills during the various stages of progress-
ing through the story of Bizhuwanshang in order to contribute their own cultural and scientific
insights multilingually. Coordinative participation is the basis for balancing language skills and
becoming community members in terms of roles and identity as found in technology sustained
design-based studies (Hellerman et al., 2019; Zheng et al., 2017, 2018).
Bizhuwanshang represents an extension of these studies and aims to foster linguistic embod-
iment and exolingual community building and becoming. Building of the community requires
individuals to contribute from their personal experiences; being able to portray personal experi-
ences facilitates more meaningful communication across languages, which then positively feeds
back into the building of the bi/multilingual community. To investigate how holistic linguistic
embodiment is possible when multilingual participants partake in our DLLE, we build on var-
ious frameworks including translanguaging and exolingual communication, which are related
constructs born out of different research strands but each serving a specific role in our design and
analysis. The use of this verb form of languaging or translanguaging commonly serves to high-
light the nature of language use as an activity rather than an abstraction or mere code. The con-
cept of caring is part of Hodges’ (2009) work, which highlights interpersonal relationships that
humans build through action. Caring is relevant to the Bizhuwanshang project in many ways.
First, caring about the environmental degradation setting allows participants to be invested in
and engage with the material-as-mirror of real-world issues. Second, caring for other partici-
pants contributes to community building and cooperative dialogue. Third, care for language use
to properly assess the story amongst participants leads to the community interacting responsibly
and purposively. Furthermore, we build our design on careful analysis of previous participatory
role-play and DLLE research leaving us with an empirically assessed framework for grounding
our study of Bizhuwanshang.
The experiment was carried out on Zoom due to pandemic regulations and seeks resolutions
to these research questions: (1) How does our picture book design afford languaging and trans-
languaging in each section of the playthrough? (2) How does our design afford each player to
become a resourceful learner?
8.2 Theoretical framework and literature review

8.2.1 Translanguaging and exolingual communication
Translanguaging is a process that has come to researchers’ attention relatively recently and is
defined as using one’s idiolect, that is, one’s full linguistic repertoire, without sticking to any
socially predefined language names or linguistic and semiotic resources (Li, 2018). With that, it
does not only draw on conventionalized language but also feeds into it, contributing to new lan-
guage uses. Importantly, translanguaging research looks at linguistic practices rather than words
as bits of code that can be abstracted out of the use of language. The analysis of an individual’s
linguistic repertoire is not thorough enough to understand how speakers of a language make use
of their resources and so practices must be examined rather than words as abstractions.
A research strand that can be seen as a special case of translanguaging is that of exolingual
communication (Chovancova et al., 2020; Dausendschön-Gay, 2003; Porquier, 1984, 2003;
Rosén & Reinhardt, 2003). Exolingual communication describes any conversation between
speakers who do not share a native language and is characterized by its speakers using various
138 Zeyu Cui et al.
subconscious and conscious strategies to communicate despite limitations (or what would com-
monly be referred to as limitations) relevant to each of the languages being employed. These
strategies can involve explicit awareness of the language system, also known as the taking of a
language stance (Cowley, 2011), but do not have to. Exolingual speakers are highly cooperative
in constructing the conversation and commonly show high levels of tolerance towards non-nor-
mative speech since they are not limited to a portion of their shared linguistic repertoires. Each
participant takes on the roles of either mediator – someone whose specific knowledge of the lin-
guistic structure in question is greater than that of the speaker or learner – based on their expe-
rience with the given situation or that of a learner making use of the resources offered to them
in this multilingual community. This supportive attitude of mediators is often mentioned in
exolingual literature (e.g., Chovancova et al., 2020) fits in well with our grouping of participants
informed by the Confucian concept of event friendship, which is captured in this well-known
verse from Analects that reads ‘三人行, 必有我师焉’ (‘Sān rén xíng, bì yǒu wǒ shī yān.’), when
three are on a journey together, one must be my teacher.
While translanguaging is a common pedagogy (García et al., 2017), the concept of exolin-
gual communication is less frequently encountered in language teaching research. Combining
both, this chapter offers new insights into applications of these multilingual pedagogical prac-
tices in new contexts – those that allow dynamic and holistic play with and about language
in a DLLE.
8.2.2 Game-based participatory narratives and role play

In studies of computer-mediated language learning, participatory language learning and associ-
ation enabled by technologically mediated space and place differentiate themselves from studies
testing out how an application can assist learning of linguistic skills. These research projects
are typically narrative-based, augmented by mobile technologies, and are given form in virtual
worlds or realities. Learners’ interaction with technology-enabled design is driven by a story,
usually mythical in nature, that invites play and co-creation. In an augmented reality (AR)
project, Hellerman et al. (2019) equipped multilingual groups of language learners with mobile
phones and analyzed their mobile AR gameplay across an urban university campus. The AR
game, ChronoOps, tasked students with finding green technology sites as part of their time
travel mission from the future, a dystopian scenario in which the Earth is about to be destroyed
by environmental disasters. Players are required to read instructions from a shared mobile phone,
find locations on campus using maps, and decide how to answer prompts from the game in audio
or video formats.
Another AR research project is Zheng et al.’s (2018) mobile-enabled place-based game,
Guardians of the Mo’o, that employed an iPad app. The interactive story in this game led
participants to different locations on the University of Hawai’i campus to help the Hawaiian
mythical lizard called Mo’o. Using GPS maps and virtual artefacts from the storyline, par-
ticipants identified problems, coordinated with their team members, and developed their
collective agency in a mix of languages via the practices of translanguaging and ostensive
meaning-making.
A second common feature of game-based participatory environments enabled by technol-
ogy is their role-play functionality. In classrooms, role-play is commonly used to help stu-
dents act out a real-world situation, such as shopping, which provides opportunities for students
to use their additional language in detailed social situations and social roles (Larsen-Freeman,
2000). This classroom-based role-play is usually form-focused and, in practice, treats language
as merely information exchange between the interlocutors (Liu & Ding, 2009). Even though
learners can act as a shopper and practice the new lexical and grammatical forms by acting and
speaking properly, it is performed in an abstract way since there are no shops, shopkeepers, or
goods to make use of as semiotic artefacts that correspond to their roles and contexts within the
classroom (Kuśnierek, 2015).
Role-play in massively online role-playing games (Newgarden & Zheng, 2016; Zheng
et al., 2015, 2017) embodies learners as characters of the game narrative and locale. While
the game itself, such as World of Warcraft (WoW) which the above authors studied, is not
designed for language learning, its role-playing function provides affordances for language
learners to engage in the game through self-selected roles. In these games, participants play
their preferred roles while reading, speaking, and learning what the role is called on or
required to do in the ongoing game narrative for the success of players and their storyline
progression. This co-learning by role-playing enables learners to act and react towards
events within the player’s groups linguistically and embody language in action through the
playing of the game itself: Language is foundational to success as a team in the game since
communication is necessary for cooperation. Nigel Love (2004) calls such phenomena lin-
guistic embodiment. Newgarden and Zheng (2016) found that the game structure provides
affordances for both language stance taking during communicative activities as well as a
rich tapestry of coordinating events for meaning-making relevant to the project within the
game at hand, and what they call (and derive from Hodges, 2009) caring for yourself and
others, or human values-realizing. Therefore, role-playing in WoW differs from role-play
as a classroom practice.
Influenced by these insights from embodiment of game roles within WoW and learning
emerging out of situatedness in VR or AR, Nuesser (2021) and Caselli et al. (in press) developed
another possibility for a pedagogical application of role-playing from a distributed language
perspective – one that does not use AR or VR technologies: Ecological Role-Play (ERP). ERP
fosters becoming a person who can take skillful actions in the role they take on within the game
or that they want to be in real life, in addition to teaching and learning linguistic skills. This ties
language learning and use directly to concepts and knowledge that are important and motiva-
tional to the participants.
Making use of findings from pedagogical studies of role-play and combining them with the
concepts of translanguaging and exolingual communication, our design offers an extension of
both fields of research. Our study also provides empirical evidence of a DLLE’s affordances for
various learning processes and the advantages of combining multilingual pedagogies with nar-
rative-driven role-play games.
To address these gaps and thus offer a novel addition to the CALL literature, our DLLE
was designed for participants in groups of three who were prompted to immerse themselves
in our materials by reading on their own in preparation, reading aloud with other members,
and helping each other to understand what is being read. Frequent activities occurring in the
triad are aligning common ground to coordinate future actions, negotiating their individ-
ual solutions to capitalize on the vested interest of their chosen role, and combining these
elements together for the group’s ultimate decision regarding environmental degradation in
Bizhuwanshang.
In helping the villagers gain resolutions to their environmental predicaments in
Bizhuwanshang, participants embodied characters of different world views and collaborated to
find viable solutions that were inclusive rather than exclusive. All participants were bilinguals
with varying degrees of exposure to each other’s languages, and they were grouped together for
encouraging exolingual communication to create opportunities for them to learn their addi-
tional language and to help others in their home language.
140 Zeyu Cui et al.
8.3 Methods
8.3.1 Participants, exolingual grouping, and data selection
For this study, 15 participants were recruited, mostly from English language and Chinese lan-
guage classes, and Chinese-speaking international graduate students attending the participat-
ing university in the Mid Pacific. The focus group was selected from five exolingual groups,
each group containing three participants. The group was made up of two Chinese speakers,
one a first-year Ph.D. student majoring in theatre and dance. Yin was given to her as a pseu-
donym. Yin was born and raised in Northeast China where Mandarin Chinese is the domi-
nant language. The other, from Guangdong Province, China, where Mandurian Chinese and
Cantonese are commonly spoken, attended English language classes the semester before. At
the time of the study, she was recruited by the researchers via her formal English instructor
and was given the pseudonym Bin. The third member was named Sharon. She is a heritage
speaker of Chinese and fluent in Cantonese. She was recruited from a 400 level Chinese class
at the time of study, meaning that she had at least 2 years of prior Chinese instruction at the
university level.
8.3.2 Research materials

Educational games like Bizhuwanshang are narrative environments that require students to
apply skills and knowledge to successfully make it through their storyline (Gredler, 2004). We
created three sets of multilingual materials for our DLLE: The first set was the Bizhuwanshang
Picture Book, co-created by our content development, design, and programming team (Dong
et al., 2021a). The picture book was the main site of collaboration for the players, and contained
the narrative story set in a Chinese village close to an endangered panda habitat. This will be the
framework for the larger VR world pursued in future research. The Chinese-English bilingual
picture book plays a key role as a portal for role-playing. It depicts visuals, implicit directions,
and multilingual dialogues surrounding the Giant Pandas, nearby villagers, and environmental
degradation problems. The picture book’s multimodal text is purposefully prepared to encour-
age exolingual communication through its game aspects, like a clear interface intended to afford
and support interaction between player and materials.
It was compiled in English for the technical instructions and narratives and in Chinese for
the dialogues between fictional Non-Player Characters (NPCs) and player characters (PCs).
This exolingual text aims to provide materials for both English and Chinese language learners’
reading in their additional language, and at the same time, provide opportunities for them to
read in their home language to better support their team members in their respective additional
language. Additionally, it is based on our assumption that a text’s language influences its reader’s
choice of language when talking about that text.
All these features common to gamification and serious games, the narrative structure, fic-
tional characters, and challenges to be overcome strategically (Steinkuehler & Squire, 2014) in
Bizhuwanshang, are designed to engage users and keep them motivated (defined in line with
Heckhausen & Heckhausen, 2008) in their language learning experience as well as promote
content language learning (see e.g., Deterding et al., 2011; Werbach & Hunter, 2015). For that
reason, gamification is considered one of the most enjoyable and effective methods in teaching
languages (see e.g., Barab et al., 2009; Jackson & McNamara, 2013; Sundqvist & Wikström,
2015). Instructional materials that are coherent as games in themselves are their own genre
called serious games (games for non-entertainment purposes; Lewis Johnson et al., 2005), and
this genre has been found to promote long-term user engagement and motivation. Interestingly,
game enjoyment seems to positively correlate with motivation and learning effects in L2 learners
(Allen et al., 2014).
The second set of game-based DLLE materials designed was the bilingual PC profiles, which
are embedded in the Bizhuwanshang website designed by Dong et al. (2021b). See Cui et al.
(2021) for the rationale of profile development and complete design of our virtual panda village
of Bizhuwanshang. Three professional character profiles, a businessperson, a herbalist, and a
spiritual healer, were created based on interviews conducted with professionals in these fields.
Their respective professional outlooks and world views were further rendered with philosoph-
ical thoughts. The role of the businessperson follows Confucian thought that knowing and
doing are unified in one’s conduct and language according to the theory of Zhengming, or
Rectification of Names. The herbalist follows a Daoist philosophy that argues the nature of
things are as they are and are done a disservice when discussed abstractly. Furthermore, non-co-
ercive action is encouraged out of unity with nature rather than one’s own will. This character
profile reflects the Daoist conception of 无为 (wúwéi). Wúwéi is directly translated as no-action
or without-action, but it is a misunderstanding to take the literal at face value. Rather, wúwéi is
about acting in accord with natural processes rather than attempting to bend the natural world
to our own means and ends. The role of the spiritual healer follows practices of mindfulness in
which the mind is calmed and focused. This allows the spiritual healer to center their goals on
contentment in the world rather than the never-ending pursuit of material goods and wealth that
arise as desires from a mind full of excessive desires.
The third set of materials are science- and evidence-driven reading materials compiled
in English and Chinese, representing the respective worldviews. They were written by the
research team members and published in popular English and Chinese social media networks.
For example, the English reading on Ancient Medicines Healing Modern Illness was published
on Facebook; and the Chinese reading on Ticket Prices Increase, Economics Says ‘Yes’ (门票
提价, 经济学说 ‘可以’) on WeChat. Depending on their selected roles, the players read two
articles relevant to their professional roles’ worldviews. The English materials are accessible on
respective Facebook professional groups created for the game, and the Chinese materials were
forwarded on demand by an imaginative guru (one of our team members) on WeChat.
8.3.3 Activities mediated by zoom

In face-to-face teamwork, one utilizes embodied semiosis and actional cues while manipulating
material cues. In contrast, in Zoom-enabled teamwork, while losing the affordances of physi-
cality for indexing common ground, one gains the capacity of fostering joint attention towards
the screen. In order to keep the group’s attention on the same material, we arranged for one par-
ticipant to navigate the picture book by screen share, while the other two followed along. The
main action needed to navigate the picture book is to click an arrow to proceed. While this is a
simple job mechanically, in a group work setting, it has shown to be an affordance for becoming
a mediator and encouraging care, as demonstrated by the navigator, Yin.
8.3.4 Transcription, segmentation, unit of analysis, and coding

The focus group Zoom-recorded video data is 75 min long. The entire video was transcribed
in Transana by two of the co-authors and checked for consistency by a third co-author. The
second step was segmenting the entire transcription into meaningful units for keyword coding.
At the macro level of this segmentation, we used the theory of communicative activity types
(CAT; Linell, 2009; Zheng et al., 2012) in that sense-making is based on the persuasive impact of
142 Zeyu Cui et al.
interactions, contexts, and its omnipresence of ‘other’ in dialogues. CAT has a unique sequence
and organizational structure interdependent with situations and the larger world of discourse
and sociocultural milieu (Linell, 2009). Each section of the picture book has its own unique
function by design. Therefore, we segmented the sequence of gameplay data into five CATs
from beginning to the end of the entire transcript. It is hypothesized that each CAT provides
affordance for different organization, coordination, and characteristics of gameplay. In Transana,
CATs are organized into the technical function of collections. Thereafter, to be consistent with
Transana terms, collections are used to refer to CAT.
At the micro level, we segmented the transcription by using Communicative Projects (CP)
as units of analysis (Linell, 2009). See Newgarden et al. (2015) and Zheng et al. (2019) for other
applications of CP theory for multimodal analysis. A CP is understood as the most basic dia-
logical unit. CPs were segmented according to meaning completion, which is why some CPs
require three basic turns (A, B, A), and others are composed of multiple turns. In Transana, the
CPs are technically called clips.
Keyword coding was done abductively. This entails a coding process from top down and
bottom up simultaneously, following Peirce’s abductive reasoning (Kovács & Spens, 2005).
Keywords were not predefined. Instead, in an abductive coding process, the constructs iden-
tified in the literature and coded top down are reconsidered, revised, and reassigned during
analysis following grounded theory. This means that constructs emerged out of analysis of the
data in a context-dependent manner.
8.3.5 Trustworthiness and robustness of the coding

Trustworthiness was achieved through various techniques in each round of keyword coding.
The first round was performed similar to Strauss and Corbin’s Open Coding (1990), except that
the open coding and subsequent coding were conducted by a team of three authors who are
all heavily involved in the picture book design and research process. We coded one-tenth of
the CPs together with one person navigating the Transana screen on Zoom. Keyword naming
was suggested spontaneously and discussed openly for each CP at a time. Disagreements were
discussed at the end of coding of each CP by three of the co-authors. This practice alongside
Peirce’s abductive methodology noted prior led to positive cogency in our results. Cogency is
an evaluative term used to describe how logical, clear, and convincing a non-deductive argu-
ment is. In the case of coding abductively for Bizhuwanshang, cogency is more relevant than
reliability.
In round two, the rest of the CPs were divided into three portions and were assigned to
one of three co-authors for individual coding. After completion of individual coding, all three
coders took turns to present their coding in a Zoom session. Disagreements were resolved in a
synchronous Zoom meeting with all coding co-authors present by discussion of the reasoning
behind why the CP was coded by the relevant co-author as well as why the reviewing co-au-
thors disagreed with the use of keywords or the coding of a specific portion of a CP. During
this round, similar to Axial Coding (Strauss & Corbin, 1990), some keywords were deleted,
some combined, some were reassigned, some naming was altered to reflect the combined key-
words, and some new keywords were generated. Instead of reaching rater agreement with an
accepted percentage, all codes were checked and agreed to by all coders, which furthered pos-
itive cogency.
In the third round, we checked for consistency throughout all five collections. Differing from
observation and interview data, our design invites agentic participatory patterns. While the
focus on a learner as an agent is not new, the objectives in Bizhuwanshang and what is needed to
achieve them require that learners act with far more freedom than many classroom activities that
focus on a routine, script, or planned dialogue and tasks. Each CAT has its own characteristics
reflecting our design layout and its affordance for teamwork. Thus, it is necessary to check the
consistency of coding throughout and across all CATs. Instead of Selective Coding as suggested
in Strauss and Corbin, we coded all CPs which are nested in CATs and the entire playthrough
as a whole. A process similar to selective coding was carried out at the analytical stage using the
Transana keyword visualization function. See the analysis section for details.
The three rounds of coding speak to the robustness of abductive coding because the process
reflects creativity, selection, and negotiation to attain the highest level of cogency possible.
Coders also employed constructs from existing literature but further imbued them with new
meaning emerging out of context and meaning-making events in the transcripts. This dia-
logicality allows new constructs to be introduced to second-language learning literature such
as caring, values realization theory (Hodges, 2009; Newgarden et al., 2015), and becoming
(Ames, 2020).
8.3.6 Operationalization and illustration of keywords

8.3.6.1 Becoming
Becoming in Confucian role ethics can be understood as a dynamic and situated process of
identifying the self with families, communities, places, and events (Ames, 2011, 2020). Based on
this shift in understanding identity as relational rather than purely individual, Zheng et al. (2017)
incorporate the Confucian concept of becoming in understanding coordinative mobile-based
activities. They frame becoming as prospective events that communally come together in novel,
creative collaborations where language learners are considered as community contributors rather
than individual users of language. In this chapter, becoming is further extended to exolingual
collaboration describing a dynamic process in which a person moves towards a certain role in
the community via the PC roles a participant chooses. The keywords that emerged, as shown in
Table 8.1, capture the characteristics of exolingual grouping as well as ecological role-playing.
‘Becoming we’ describes a situation in which all three members are synchronized to move on
with the story and know what to do to achieve a sense of ‘we.’ The word ‘We/我们/Wǒmen’ is
used as a linguistic marker in languaging. ‘Becoming a mediator’ indicates the action of encour-
aging other participants to continue, telling them how to continue, and positively motivating
the group. ‘Becoming a member of the group’ indicates one’s move from lurker to participant,
demonstrating legitimate peripheral participation (Lave & Wenger, 1991), and becoming a full
member. A full member means their participation is unique, reflecting their own understanding
of the game or story book, their expertise, and their own languaging styles that they bring to the
experience themselves. ‘Becoming a resourceful learner’ indicates one’s understanding of which
resources are available to them, initiative-taking in asking for help, knowing their goals, and
where they are. They also reflect and scaffold their own actions to cooperatively communicate
TABLE 8.1 Keyword Group and Keywording Codings of Becoming
Keyword Group Keywording Codings
Becoming Becoming ‘we’

Becoming a mediator
Becoming a member of the group
Becoming a resourceful learner
Becoming the PC
144 Zeyu Cui et al.
TABLE 8.2 Keyword Group and Keywording Codings of Caring
Caring For everyone’s learning

For everyone’s understanding
For the ecosystem
For the group’s progress
Language selection
Perceived needed demonstration
Perceived needed mediation
these elements. ‘Becoming the PC’ is coded for the events in which players speak and act in the
selected professional role; however, it is not the focus of the present study.
8.3.6.2 Caring
Hodges (2007, 2009) suggests that conversing encompasses three systems: A perceptual, an
action, and a caring system. People are always in an environment full of action potential,
but they can only perceive and act on certain affordances based on what they care about.
Scrutinizing what the participants cared about at that moment, the keywords shown in Table 8.2
emerged from open coding that kept caring and targets of care in mind. Our narrative-
driven text and three-member exolingual grouping are applications of the caring concept.
All members are learners and helpers from interaction to interaction when accessing readable
text or offering content help in their home language to learners of that language. This design
and grouping are balanced and show that learners can be affordance providers while learning
from doing it.
8.3.6.3 Coordination and co-action

Nigel Love (2014) defines languaging in its relationship with coordinations and co-actions that
involve language such as reading, signing, and listening. Newgarden et al. (2015) used mul-
timodal analysis to document participants playing WoW together with a focus on how their
languaging processes affected their actions and activities as a group. Three coordinative actions
were operationalized in the context of WoW play: common ground alignment, prospective
coordination, and co-action. They found these three coordinating procedures are always at
work because of the ebb and flow of the gameplay against the narrative. This rich coordinative
mechanism is a result of the demands of the gameplay, the participant’s desire to progress the
story, and the impact of how they played as the driver of progression, or failure, in advancing
the story. In other words, without these three coordinating procedures at work, the participants
would not have been successful within the game or in progressing the story. Newgarden et al.
(2015) found a statistical significance. When players are verbalizing their action and taking
the actions at the same time, their main action is prospective coordination. This is an example
of cooperative interaction since the player verbalizing their action reveals their care for their
co-participants’ focus by keeping them informed.
Newgarden et al. (2015) operationalized the definition of these three movements, but
in short, common ground alignment refers to players directing others’ actions, inviting
others to the same space, or drawing others’ attention to certain object(s) and references
in the virtual world. Prospective coordination was defined as players’ verbal language or
actions that invited others to move forward with a task. Co-action was defined as players’
TABLE 8.3 Keyword Group and Keywording Codings of Coordinating
Coordinating Co-action
Common ground alignment
Prospective coordination
Reading aloud to themselves
Reading and summarizing aloud for the group
actual coordination of their actions (and/or avatar actions) with other players, either using
verbal language or not, to accomplish a mutual goal that could not be accomplished by
players independently (p. 31). In the Bizhuwanshang project, co-action is differentiated into
linguistic and bodily co-action. The former refers to a co-player taking one’s request and
immediately acting on it linguistically, for example, translation, reading, and pronunciation.
By doing so, the co-action indicates that co-players recognize affordances immediately, and
taking an action is a common task done cooperatively rather than individually. The lat-
ter entails taking one’s request and immediately acting on it bodily/digitally, which may
be evidenced by cursor trailing by one player being synchronized with the reading done
aloud by another or mouse clicks performed being immediately followed by a co-player’s
confirmation or suggestions.
In addition to these established keywords, two additional keywords emerged from open
coding. They are reading aloud and summarizing aloud for the group as shown in Table 8.3.
8.3.6.4 Second order

One of the most important concepts in distributed language is Love’s (2004) first- and second-
order languaging. He uses this distinction to split language use into two dimensions. First-order
languaging refers to the natural use of resources that do not presuppose any metalinguistic
considerations of any kind. This type of languaging thus assumes that, while coordinating with
others, we do not always treat language as a thing, object, or code. However, especially in liter-
ate societies, we often treat language as a metalinguistic abstraction such as when we write, talk
about language, or adjust our language to match conventionalized registers as in the academic
sphere. This is called second-order language. Under the keyword Second Order, the emerging
codes are shown in Table 8.4.
TABLE 8.4 Keyword Group and Keywording Codings of Second Order
Second order Additional language communicative marker

Co-adaptation
Home language communicative marker
Indicative
Language switch between reading and talking
Language switch when finishing thoughts
Repeating the utterance in both languages
Responding in a different language
Responding in the same language
Single word/phrase additional language use
Single word/phrase home language use
Taking a language stance
146 Zeyu Cui et al.
8.4 Analysis: Spatio-temporal characteristics of the design narrative

and their co-constitutive play
8.4.1 Description and top keyword occurrence and frequencies
of each collection
This first cluster of analysis describes the design and salient activities happening under each col-
lection, and each collection is a portion of the group’s progression through the storyline of the
Bizhuwanshang picture book (see Dong et al., 2021a for the entire picture book). The keyword
visualization figures below display keyword types and occurrences in each collection. Looking
at the visualization horizontally, the same coloured bars across the keyword map on the timeline
show the number of times each keyword occurred. The lengths of the bars represent the size of
each clip, which directly reflects dynamic variations of communicative projects. The length of
the CP is determined by a coherent unit of meaning co-constructed by the players. Thus, clips
of CPs vary in length.
Collection 1 (Figure 8.1) consists of clips encapsulating the beginning of the study when the
researchers introduced the study’s goal and procedure. One of the participants is expected to
download the PDF file of the picture book, open it in Adobe Reader, and share the screen. Yin
volunteered to do this for other participants. The group of three then introduced themselves to
each other and asked other participants a question as an ice-breaker activity.
Collection 2 (Figure 8.2) included the time during which the participants focused on the
first two pages of the picture book and the designed website. The design intention of page two
of the picture book is focused on giving instructions to the participants about selecting the role
and what they need to do to enact their chosen role. The instruction is in English except for
a Confucian saying in Chinese (i.e., ‘When three are on a journey together, one must be my
teacher’) and the names of the player characters. The designed website demonstrates the roles the
participants can select from in this activity in detail, which includes the names, job titles, edu-
cational background, work experience, and beliefs of the businessperson, herbalist, and spiritual
healer. Unlike the picture book, the website displays the same information found in English in
both simplified and traditional Chinese characters as well, allowing users access to the knowl-
edge they need to play their role rather than locking it behind membership knowledge of one
language or another at the outset. The participants read aloud through the two pages and read
the website on their own for gaining information on the PC roles before the final step of select-
ing the role they want to journey through Bizhuwanshang as.
FIGURE 8.1 Collection 1: Let’s Get Started and Introduce Yourselves

FIGURE 8.2 ollection 2: Start off the Picture Book by Introducing the Professional Roles (i.e., the
C
Player Characters) the Participants Will Need to Pick
Collection 3 (Figure 8.3) reoriented the players back to pages three and four of the picture
book which were primarily in English. Page three has the same content as page four except
that an animal companion in the form of a parrot flies in to talk to them with a pre-recorded
audio sound, ‘Remember, when you read aloud, everyone knows what you know.’ This
design intends to reinforce and tune the participant’s habit to read aloud in Zoom-mediated
teamwork. Page four provides access to the external sources of information and the reason
why the participants need to visit the extended community located in Facebook and WeChat.
We separated pages five to 23 from the others for Collection 4 (Figure 8.4) since we identified
it as the main portion of the transcript to include gameplay. The narrative (pages 5-12) written
in English introduces the players to the village. Pages 13–23 are dialogues in Chinese, with the
exception of directional slides used to help the participants navigate the picture book, on 18 and
22 in English. At this point, the participants had already chosen their roles, set up their Facebook
and WeChat accesses, and had begun clicking through the picture book in PDF format and
immersing themselves in its storyline.
FIGURE 8.3 ollection 3: Introduce the Professional Community Distributed on Facebook and
C
WeChat
148 Zeyu Cui et al.
FIGURE 8.4 Collection 4: Begin the Journey into Bizhuwanshang
The last collection of clips (Figure 8.5) captures the end of the story written in English (pages
24–30) wherein the participants meet the panda family through narratives. The conclusion to their
adventure through the story sees the trespassing predicament central to environmental degradation
in the area resolved, and this was due to their effort of painstakingly seeking scientific and well-
evidenced solutions to the issues plaguing Bizhuwanshang. The mother panda, Ruyu, gave birth to
Zhijing and Zhikong. The end of the story is lighthearted, fun, and aesthetically appealing by using
FIGURE 8.5 Collection 5: Meet the Panda Family for Concluding the Story
professional photographs of the pandas shot in Wolong, the Panda Sanctuary in Sichuan Province,
China. The ‘clicking’ job for the epilogue is linear and the story is descriptive at this stage.
8.4.2 Top keyword occurrences across all collections

In order to find out which languaging activities occur most often throughout the co-play,
we calculated the top five most occurring keywords with confirmation (5a) and becoming a
resourceful learner (5b) occurring an equal number of times. Table 8.5 displays the most com-
mon keywords and their frequency calculated by the number of occurrences in individual col-
lections and the transcript as a whole (all collections together). Three patterns were observed.
Firstly, across all six keywords, Collection 4 contributes the largest percentage to the total of
each keyword. Secondly, the following keywords from Collection 2 such as responding in the
same language (1.3 times per minute), common ground alignment (1.5 times per minute), pro-
spective coordination (.88 times per minute) and confirmation (.88 times per minute) contrib-
uted the most to the entire collection. The third pattern is that players are increasingly becoming
more resourceful and demonstrating actions aligned with a mediator starting from Collection
2 to Collection 5, with the exception that there is a drop in Collection 3 for becoming a medi-
ator. In Collection 3, the participants experienced some technical difficulties, and the keyword
frequency shifted so that common ground alignment (1.5 times/second) and responding in the
same language (1.2 times/second) became more prevalent to resolve those difficulties.
8.4.3 Actions taken by resourceful learners

Twenty-four clips in total are coded as becoming a resourceful learner. The primary examples
of becoming a resourceful learner are collapsed into four major themes including asking for help
directly, integrating resources, confirming what to do next, and other. This distinction amongst
TABLE 8.5 The Five Most Frequently Occurring Keywords among All Collections and the Percentage
of Contribution of Each Keyword to Each Collection
Most Frequently Collection 1 Collection 2 Collection 3 Collection 4 Collection 5

Occurring Keywords
in all Collections %* freq** %* freq** %* freq** %* freq** %* freq**
1. Responding in 4 (8%) 0.23 9 (17%) 1.3 13 (25%) 1.1 22 (43%) 0.83 4 (7%) 0.67
the same
language (52)
2. Common 8 (16%) 0.47 10 (20%) 1.5 15 (30%) 1.2 17 (34%) 0.64 0 (0%) 0
ground
alignment (51)
3. Prospective 8 (16%) 0.47 6 (14%) 0.88 6 (14%) 0.48 20 (46%) 0.75 4 (9%) 0.67
coordination
(44)
4. Becoming a 0 (0%) 0 4 (11%) 0.59 4 (11%) 0.32 21 (57%) 0.79 8 (21%) 1.3
mediator (37)
5a. Confirmation 0 (0%) 0 6 (25%) 0.88 6 (25%) 0.50 12 (50%) 0.45 0 (0%) 0
(24)
5b. Becoming a 4 (17%) 0.23 1 (4%) 0.15 4 (17%) 0.32 11 (46%) 0.41 4 (17%) 0.67
resourceful
learner (24)
* %= occurrence in this collection/total occurrence

** freq=occurrence in this collection/minutes in this collection
150 Zeyu Cui et al.
TABLE 8.6 Themes of Clips Embedding Becoming a Resourceful Learner
Theme Number of Clips in each collection
Asking for help directly Collection 1:2; Collection 4:3; Collection 5:1
Linguistic help
Translation help
Procedure help
Integrating resources Collection 4:4; Collection 5:1
Facebook and picture book
Picture book and website
Referring to what has been read on picture book
Conforming what to do next Collection 2:2; Collection 3: 3; Collection 4:2
Clarification
Confirmation request
Other Collection 1:1
Pointing out resources common to team members
Seeking advice of how to learn English Collection 1:1
Relating current activity to a previous similar Collection 3:1
experience
Using an online dictionary Collection 4:1
Reading the picture book on their own device Collection 4:1
Anticipating future tasks related to the current Collection 5:1
primary types allowed us to examine communicative activity types of resourceful learners that
emerged after analysis (see Table 8.6). The linguistic actions under each theme were coded as
sub-keywords in our data analysis.
8.4.4 Individual differences in becoming resourceful

From the open coding stage, we observed Bin being resourceful. Even though her self-reported
and observed English level was low, to our surprise, Bin utilized various techniques to be on
par with her team members. Becoming a resourceful learner emerged out of Bin’s outstanding
performance, and this was observed towards the end of the playing of the picture book. Table 8.7
displays the number of occurrences of becoming a resourceful learner in different collections by
participants. Sharon only has two occurrences for this keyword because selected communicative
activities have demonstrated her role as a mediator in both languages across the collections (see
Table 8.8). Her role, then, stood out more in mediation and helping others than being a learner
herself. She consistently integrated different resources to make meaning of the text, to make
suggestions of actions for the group to take, and to facilitate the participation of the others in
both linguistic and action-based help.
Throughout the group’s progression, Bin becomes a member of the community. This is
to be found in her increased languaging activity (4, 1, 1, 5, 3 respective occurrences from
Collection 1 to 5) characterized as being a resourceful learner. That is to say, in Collection
1, her resourcefulness is evidenced in her ability to self-disclose that she was not confident
to complete the picture book journey alone and tell other participants about what resource
they all/both share. In Collection 4, from her actions of integrating resources, using online
dictionaries, and anticipating future actions (see more in Table 8.7), we can see she is fully
aware of group progress and constantly appropriates resources for her active participation. Her
concerns from Collection 1 may have been valid at the beginning but became unwarranted as
the group’s cooperative interactions drew her deeper into the activity of progressing through
Bizhuwanshang.
TABLE 8.7 Occurrence of Becoming a Resourceful Learner in Different Collections
Collection Number Resourceful Learner Occurrence Type Clip
1 Bin 4 Ask for help directly Clips 2 and 4

Pointing out resources common Clip 3
to team members
Seeking advice on how to learn Clip 14
English
2 Bin 2 Confirm what to do next Clips 18
and 22
2 Yin 1 Confirm what to do next Clip 22
3 Yin 3 Confirm what to do next Clips 34, 34a
Relating current activity to a Clip 41
previous similar experience
3 Bin 1 Confirm what to do next Clip 36
4 Bin 5 Integrate resources Clips 75, 88
Confirm what to do next Clip 84
Use online dictionary Clip 77
Reading the picture book on Clips 63, 80
their own device
4 Yin 3 Ask for help directly Clips 48, 62,
and 89
5 Bin 3 Ask for help directly Clip 95
Anticipating future tasks related Clip 98
to the current
Integrating resources Clip 102
5 Yin 1 Ask for help directly Clip 93
In contrast, Yin’s resourcefulness is not as evident as Bin’s. Her becoming a resourceful

learner (0, 1, 3, 3, 1 from Collection 1 to 5 respectively and in contrast to Bin’s progression)
may be hindered by her having been the navigator for the group. The resourceful learner
keywords are mostly related to action, but Yin’s navigator role meant that she had to confirm
with the group whether they were ready to move to the next page, figure out what texts meant
when there was confusion for clicking functions, or how to pronounce certain vocabulary.
She also asked for help with spelling certain words when she typed for the group. This meant
her role as a mediator and navigator for the group demanded more from her than the other
participants in the way of becoming a resourceful learner, but she was also able to cooperate,
interact, and be part of the linguistic community that was her group of three. By always initi-
ating, self-checking, and making sure everyone was on the same page, Yin’s role of becoming
a mediator (14 times in total as shown in Table 8.8) was, then, more salient than being or
becoming a resourceful learner.
8.5 Findings and discussion

Q1: How does our picture book design afford languaging and translanguaging in each
section of the playthrough?
TABLE 8.8 Mediator and Learner
Bin Yin Sharon
a Mediator 1 14 26
a Resourceful Learner 16 8 2
152 Zeyu Cui et al.
Through the use of gamification elements, Bizhuwanshang was found to motivate players in
and increase their engagement during languaging and translanguaging, which is in line with cur-
rent gamification literature reporting considerable motivation and engagement effects in game-
based instructional materials (e.g., Deterding et al., 2011; Jackson & McNamara, 2013; Sundqvist
& Wikström, 2015; Werbach & Hunter, 2015). In our pilot study, the effects of game elements
were most apparent in the keywords that show the participants’ coordination and engagement
with each other, the storyline, and the material. Responding in the same language is the highest
occurring theme across the five collections in total. It occurred most frequently in Collection 2 at
1.3 times per minute where players selected their roles. Collection 2 is the beginning of co-learn-
ing activities for them as agents rather than the directed reading of Collection 1, which was for
their edification and preparation. Responding in the same language indicates the participants’
natural tendency in terms of language choice, which was not regulated by their group dynamics.
Common ground alignment, prospective coordination, and confirmation also occurred most
often in Collection 2. In order to move forward, players at this stage frequently used confirmation
devices to keep each other informed using both coordinative movements, such as common ground
alignment, and prospective coordination. Out of the total confirmation occurrences, two of these
confirmation occurrences are directly requested by Bin and Yin, respectively, as indicated in
Table 8.7, and these two confirmation requests are dialogical. This means they were carried out
in such a way so as to inform the other participants of what they were going to do next. This
is a fascinating cross-cultural phenomenon in that Yin uses confirmation requests to constantly
check if she is correct and can therefore move on to the next step of the story with full agreement
and cooperation of the other group members together. For example, in clip 22 (see co-occurring
keywords in Figure 8.2), Bin asked whether they just need to know the background information
of the PCs by asking ‘这是要了解一下这个背景就可以了吗? (Is this just understanding the roles’
background?)’ Yin confirmed by using ‘对, 我们一会要扮演他们的角色, 我们现在要读一下他们
每个角色, 这个人的背景信息吧? (Yes. We will play their roles later. Now we need to read their
roles, this man’s background information?),’ but with doubt. She immediately requested Sharon’s
confirmation ‘是吗？是不是, (Right? Is it right, Sharon?),’ and Sharon agreed by using ‘是的 (Yes).
Yes.’ The other four occurrences are simple confirmation of action. For example, in clip 23 (see
co-occurring keywords in Figure 8.2, Yin requested confirmation as to whether the other two
players had finished reading the information of the first role ‘你们第一个读完了吗 (Have you
finished reading the first one),’ and Sharon confirmed by ‘读完了 (Finished).’
The picture book thus seems to be more than just a collection of text and images. The partic-
ipants become immersed in the setting the picture book creates and allows the participants full
use of their linguistic resources accordingly. However, this does not mean that all subsequent
utterances stay in only one language until the text prompts another language switch based on
the content on the screen. In some cases, participants made use of linguistic resources from a
different language system for only a few words as seen in clip 83 (see co-occurring keywords in
Figure 8.4: ‘这个是三个选择题, 应该是吧, 虽然他们是, (These are three answers, should
be, although they are) like three people, 但是他们是, 我们好像要选择一个, 吧? (but they
are, it seems that we need to choose one, right?).’ These were less predictable occurrences of
translanguaging.
Occurrences like these were fairly frequent, presumably because the participants were aware
of which language repertoires they could access in this particular group (as they would be in
other communities as well). Other less predictable translanguaging occurrences are the instances
in which a player repeated, for example, in English what they first said in Chinese. This was due
to the players making use of multiple language repertoires that the group could access rather
than being limited by a monolingual policy. This can be seen in clip 84 (see co-occurring
keywords in Figure 8.4), which otherwise is a prime example of how coordination, caring, and
exolingual communication (see below) frequently occur at the same time:
Yin: ‘那我们选哪个呢？你们想选哪个呢? (Then, which one should we choose? Which one
do you want to choose?) Which one do you…’
In addition to designing the picture book to elicit coordination amongst the participants, we
added another layer of necessary communication and coordination that involved translanguaging.
This added layer went as we planned, and the three participants of the focus group employed trans-
languaging. Prospective coordination and common ground alignment were made salient via the
requirement of one participant sharing their screen, acting out all group members’ decisions, and
by focusing the PCs attention on the environmental degradation that the NPCs discussed in the
story. This coordination indirectly fostered translanguaging by helping to create a community that
the participants felt trusted in, which led to frequent acts of caring as described below.
When directly fostering translanguaging, the most interesting cases were those where the
observed coordination showed habitualized co-action, especially prevalent in phrases like ‘Keep
going,’ uttered by Yin almost every time she clicked to proceed in the picture book. In addition
to translanguaging opportunities improving the coordination and an increased sense of becoming
a community for the group, this kind of repetition acted as a crucial opportunity for participants
to express their own opinion about the root cause of a problem related to the environmental deg-
radation issue in their additional language. For example, in clip 31 (see co-occurring keywords
in Figure 8.4), when the parrot flew in, it came with an arrow button that participants pushed to
play the attached audio. Players had to reach a common ground alignment to figure out what to do
with the parrot and related play button. Sharon acted as a mediator in this instance by indicating
that Yin should click the ‘next’ arrow, Na ge (那个), not the one Yin placed her mouse on (which
was the play button to trigger the voice of the parrot). However, her mediation turned out to be a
misleading one because Yin did the right thing as she explained, ‘So I so I I I clicked this one (from
the previous page) and they jumped to this picture.’ So, Yin was correct to click on the play button
even though it did not work. This failure to play was not caused by her clicking the wrong button;
rather, it was a technical problem that her computer did not allow the PDF to play sound. This is
the technical difficulty that affected a shift in keyword occurrence mentioned earlier.
These major translanguaging occurrences were facilitated by the group’s frequently
observable processes of becoming (resourceful learners, participating group members, lead-
ers, and a caring community). Translanguaging occurrences included events we could not
design for such as the emergent keywords ‘home and additional language communicative
markers’ being used or participants ‘repeating their utterances in both languages.’ This
three-member community developed largely because their acts of caring led them to trans-
language and include the other members rather than exclude them based on linguistic pref-
erence or policy. This can be seen in events wherein one participant perceived and acted
upon another participant’s need for clarification through mediation (as in clip 63 and see its
co-occurring keywords in Figure 8.4).
Q2: How does our design create affordances for each player to become a resourceful
learner?
We found a correlation between our theoretical framing of co-playing by role-playing and the
group’s actual and observed progress through the Bizhuwanshang narrative and their interactions.
This is best seen where participants were increasingly becoming more resourceful and demon-
strating actions aligned with a mediator starting from Collection 2 to Collection 5. Interestingly,
common ground alignment, prospective coordination, and confirming and responding in the
same language decreased in Collections 4 and 5. This change indicates that members quickly
154 Zeyu Cui et al.
became familiar to each other, and they actively took control in regulating their behaviors
towards each other.
Our activity design provided opportunities for Bin to become a resourceful learner, and at the
same time, the group work and the design created affordances for her to participate as a whole
person rather than being restricted to her role as a learner. In other words, as mentioned earlier,
Bin felt concerned that she could not participate in the project owing to her linguistic resources as
seen in Collection 1. However, from Collection 2 on where she took up her role as a resourceful
learner within Bizhuwanshang, she demonstrated multiple times that she could and did become a
member of the group and community. This also further opened the way for her to become a medi-
ator in later Collections. This indicates that she might be a resourceful person in her immediate
and extended communities. The ways in which she played out her role cannot be ascertained from
this short activity, but the playing of the picture book provided an opportunity for her to invoke
her habitual learning, being, and becoming behaviours. This shows that, compared to textbook
learning and task following activities that limit the agency of participants, Bin’s resourcefulness is
allowed for by our picture book design and becomes important as the group builds their commu-
nity. By always initiating with confirmation requests, asking for help explicitly, and integrating
resources, Bin shows her potential to become a member of the community. She participated as a
resourceful dialogical partner rather than a learner with a lack of linguistic resources.
The resourceful learner, being the counterpart of the mediator in exolingual communication,
often co-occurs with patterns of becoming in various forms. The resourceful learner behaviour
patterns appear to align with the mediator behaviour patterns in the sense that they start out
broader, and more general, when the participants do not know each other and their competen-
cies well. Without the well-formed community the group displays in later Collections, Bin asks
early on in the recording ‘能够, 谁能够给我翻译一下’ (Can, can someone translate for me?) in
clip 2 (see its co-occurring keywords on Figure 8.1), and neither of the other group members
respond. In the following cases of participants becoming resourceful learners, the questions
become much more specific as they learn what specifically they can ask of their fellow com-
munity members. In clip 95 (see Figure 8.5 for co-occurring keywords), for example, she asks
merely for a specific word ‘这个词, 后面这个单词 (The word, the word after this)’ and then its
meaning ‘这什么意思啊? (What does this mean?)’ when reading an English text out loud.
Even though mediators and resourceful learners can be seen as counterparts, this does not mean
that one participant is restricted to only one of the roles. As a bilingual group that does not share a
home language, the deficiencies to be overcome by exolingual communication are on both sides.
Clip 93 (See Figure 8.5 for its co-occurring keywords) shows well how Sharon and Yin, frequent
mediators, become resourceful learners. Yin asked the meaning of a specific word by saying ‘什么
意思？病毒吗？(what does this mean? virus?).’ Then, Sharon rejected the meaning being virus, but
she was not sure of the saying in Chinese: ‘不是不是 (no, no) laugh 不是不是 (no, no). 哦 (oh) wait,
virtues 我要怎么解释 (how can I explain) virtues, 该怎么说, 我也不知道该怎么说, 中文。(How
to say it? I don’t know how to say it in Chinese). After that, Sharon guessed the translation in
Chinese “但是 (but), what’s the definition, 等一下啊, 道德？(Wait a second, moral?).’
8.6 Conclusion
An important facet of the Bizhuwanshang project is that it crystallizes care as a crucial facet of
the language learning process. Where traditional classrooms can embody care – often in the
form of the instructor caring for the students and their progress – regardless of age group being
taught, Bizhuwanshang incorporates care into the dialogue and narrative of the story itself to
create the affordance for participants to, in turn, care about the material they are presented
with. This is further compounded by the amount of caring that interactivity in group efforts
within Bizhuwanshang fosters. This can help participants replace feelings of individual per-
formance anxiety with a desire to cooperate and willingness to coordinate in home and addi-
tional languages. In addition to the positive aspects just mentioned, caring as an element of
Bizhuwanshang also tracks with serious ethical work started by Carol Gilligan in her text In
a Different Voice (1993). In this text, Gilligan noted that standardized and widely used ethical
systems from the past were structured in a way so as to be objective and as universally applicable
as possible. While this approach has its benefits, she noted that there were negatives that had not
been addressed, and these included the fact that not all human beings experience the world in
the same way. Owing to this, people may have ethical concerns that others simply never con-
sider, and this highlights the importance of care itself as well as community building.
Out of this open-minded approach to a person’s situation, Gilligan formulated an ethical system
that focused on those differences, and elements of this can be found in Bizhuwanshang. For example,
the mixture of language learners – Chinese learners of English and English learners of Chinese –
are allowed to translanguage rather than being subjected to a draconic monolingual policy, and this
frees them to communicate more effectively to progress through the story. Owing to this freedom
of communication, participants can be cared for by others by way of language allowances, become
a ‘we’ rather than a silent member struggling with their language, and learn more readily through
participation instead of focusing on performance. The freedom also allows participants to explore
their learning capacity, thus expanding their cognitive toolkits and caring for others’ learning. On
a macro level, the caring focus of the Bizhuwanshang story also shows the participants that there
are problems in the world that transcend language barriers: a noble and worthwhile motivation to
inspire participants to pursue their language further. One more aspect to keep in mind in further
studies is that game enjoyment seems to correlate with motivation and learning effects.
Acknowledgements
The Panda Reserve Virtual Reality, Bizhuwanshang project is partially supported by the
Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Non-profit Research Institution of Chinese
Academy of Forestry (CAFYBB2018GB001), the Foundation for Outstanding Young
Scholars in Guangzhou (No.18QNXR11), and the 13th Five-year Research Plan Project of
Guangdong Province in 2020 (Moral Education Special Sciences of Guangdong Province, No.
2020JKDY018). We are grateful for the following intramural grants we received from various
funding programs at the University of Hawai’i at Mānoa (UHM) for the development, design,
research, and storage of our virtual reality equipment for this project: UHM Diversity and
Equity Initiative Awards (SEED IDEAS), UHM and Peking University Exchange Program of
Center for Chinese Studies (CCS), Women’s Campus Club Grant, and Chung Fong & Grace
Ning Fund for Chinese Studies sponsored by CCS. We are indebted to research participants and
previous Research on Integrating Distributed Language Learning Environments (the RIDLLE
Group) members Jia Yang, Zhi Li, Peiqi Huang, and Dr. Naiyi Xie Fincham for their input in
the earlier phases of the project.
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9
INTERACTION GAMES TO BOOST
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
IN VIRTUAL WORLDS AND
VIDEO-COMMUNICATION
A case study
Kristi Jauregi-Ondarra and Silvia Canto
9.1 Introduction
Game-based learning (GBL) (Gee, 2017; Prensky, 2003) has gained popularity in education
practices due to the potential that games have to make learning processes more enjoyable
and increase students’ engagement and flow (Perttula et al., 2017; Reinhardt, 2019). Digital
games are being embraced by teachers and researchers due to the constructive (Vygotsky,
1986) and situated learning (Dawley & Dede, 2014) they promote, and the enjoyment ele-
ment games possess. Students learn by doing and exploring, by engaging in problem-solving,
failing, going to a next level, and socialising when games are played in groups. Players acti-
vate and develop key competencies such as self-regulation, information skills, anticipation,
and critical thinking when playing (Pivec, 2007). In spite of the popularity of games, GBL is
still an emerging field in terms of empirical evidence available to firmly support educational
benefits.
In the present chapter, we report on the results of a case study carried out in March–
April 2021, where students in two conditions played in international dyads or groups
of three, playing three online interaction games using Spanish as a lingua franca (LF):
Snakes and Ladders, a Cultural Quiz, and an Escape Room (VC condition) or Treasure
Hunt (VW condition). Students in the f irst condition used video-communication (VC)
environments (Microsoft Teams or Jitsi) to play the games designed in Genial.ly, while
students in the second condition played them in the social virtual world (VW) environ-
ment of Open Simulator. We were interested in exploring how the specif ic affordances
of these social interaction platforms might affect engagement in intercultural commu-
nication processes when playing games. In the VW condition, students – represented as
avatars – are immersed in a VW and can interact with each other and the environment
while taking joint action in game processes ( Jauregi-Ondarra et al., 2022). In the VC con-
dition, on the other hand, students can interact with one another while seeing each other
and can play the game by sharing the screen. The present study aimed at investigating
how specif ic affordances associated with the games’ environment (presence, anonymity,
interaction, action, and immersion) might inf luence students’ engagement in intercul-
tural game playing.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003240075-9
Interaction Games 159
9.2 Theoretical and conceptual frameworks

In this section, we address the main theories and concepts related to our study. We start by dis-
cussing the results of the most recent studies conducted in GBL. We then address essential issues
related to telecollaboration or virtual exchange experiences and the use of synchronous commu-
nication applications such as VC and VWs, as the games in our study were played telecollabora-
tively in those specific environments. We then move to explore the intercultural dimension in
language teaching, as the games developed are designed to enhance intercultural communica-
tion development. Finally, we address the concepts of engagement and flow, which are deemed
crucial to learning processes, in game experience.
9.2.1 Digital games for language learning

This section provides an overview of influential work carried out between 2015 and 2021
on the effects of using commercial and/or digital learning games in language learning pro-
cesses. As a result of the popularity of GBL, researchers have looked into the affordances of
games to promote motivation, engagement, and learning. In addition, some scholars have
conducted systematic literature reviews in search of empirical evidence of the effects games
have on learning processes. Video games have been found to be conducive to second-language
acquisition (Li, 2020), but most research so far has been conducted using immersive massively
multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPG) played in English by university students
(Acquah & Katz, 2020; Hung et al., 2018; Jabbari & Eslami, 2019; Peterson, 2016; Peterson
et al., 2020). These systematic literature reviews reported that MMOPRGs seem to contribute
positively to players’ affective state, participatory behaviour, and language acquisition pro-
cesses, especially vocabulary learning. MMOPRGs expose players to rich interactive contexts
where they can use the target language (TL) to communicate meaningfully, collaborate, and
reach game goals. Opportunities for meaningful interaction and communication embedded
in a positive affective context are basic conditions to enhance language learning processes
according to sociocultural (Lantolf & Thorne, 2006) and cognitive language learning per-
spectives (Long, 1996).
In contrast to commercial games, digital learning games (DLG) are developed and used for
teaching purposes. Scholars have referred to DLGs using the terms gamification and serious
games in different ways, blurring the distinction between them (for a suggestion of term defi-
nition related to gamification, serious games or educational games see Dehghanzadeh et al.,
2019). DLGs include game elements and game dynamics in educational learning activities and
environments to create engaging experiences for learners (Figueroa, 2015). Game mechanics
include, among other aspects, challenges, storytelling, points, leaderboards, levels, badges, char-
ity and gifts, or virtual goods. In addition to game mechanics, game dynamics stimulate the stu-
dents’ emotions during the game experience. Game dynamics include competition, challenge,
self-expression, reward, achievement, fun, or satisfaction. Two systematic reviews concluded
that gamification seems to have positive effects on students’ learning experiences (being enjoy-
able, engaging, motivating and fun), but claim that very few studies confirm clear interconnec-
tions with learning outcomes (Boudadi & Gutiérrez-Colón, 2020; Dehghanzadeh et al., 2019).
Examples of gamified applications used in the studies are Duolingo, Kahoot, or ClassDojo.
In addition to affective affordances, such as increasing motivation and engagement and
decreasing anxiety, vocabulary gains have been reported in systematic review reports using DLG
(Xu et al., 2020). Other scholars have explored motivating ways to enhance language awareness
through digital game-playing (McNeil, 2020). More recently, Hofmeyr (2021) found that when
playing a cooperative puzzle game regularly, students used various interactional strategies, either
160 Kristi Jauregi-Ondarra and Silvia Canto
to repair breakdowns in communication or to prevent them. In the process, students engaged in

negotiation for meaning, which may facilitate SLA (Long, 1996).
From the previous research, we can conclude that no studies so far have looked into how
DLGs can be played internationally to contribute to enhancing intercultural communicative
competence. None of the reviewed papers refers to VC or VW environments for engaging in
social game playing, such as board games (the popular Snakes and Ladders), a Cultural Quiz or
an Escape Room/Treasure Hunt.
9.2.2 Telecollaboration
Web 2.0 technologies offer language learners many ways to contact and collaborate with speak-
ers of other languages from all over the world. Telecollaboration, also known under terms such
as online intercultural exchange or virtual exchange, is one of the possible ways to operation-
alise interaction between learners who are in different locations. These online intercultural
exchanges are regarded as ideal practices for language and intercultural learning because they
provide convenient, authentic, direct, and speedy access to other speakers and their cultures
(Lamy & Goodfellow, 2010; Sadler & Dooly, 2016).
An increasing body of research has shown that telecollaborative activities have a significant
impact on language learners’ linguistic and communicative competence (Çiftçi & Savaş, 2018;
Cunningham & Akiyama, 2018). Moreover, it has been demonstrated that telecollaboration
has the potential to contribute to learners’ awareness and understanding of the target culture,
since learners are provided with opportunities for spontaneous and authentic communication
with real peers (Chen & Yang, 2016; Godwin-Jones, 2019). Some comparative studies have
even shown that these virtual exchanges provide a more advantageous learning environment
than traditional in-class face-to-face interactions (Canto & Jauregi-Ondarra, 2017; Zeng, 2017;
Ziegler, 2016). However, telecollaboration in language learning does not always equal success.
Many studies have revealed that task design plays an important role in determining its learning
outcomes (Guth & Helm, 2011; O’Dowd & Ware, 2009).
9.2.3 Video communication and virtual worlds

Synchronous video-based computer mediated communication allows interlocutors to see each
other, giving them access to non-verbal cues that help maintain social and emotional connections
with each other. This instantaneous nature makes the interaction more dynamic and more like
face-to-face communication in terms of the availability of visual and auditory cues such as into-
nation and gestures (Hung & Higgins, 2016). Studies have explored the added affordances of the
webcam, such as access to non-verbal communicative resources that include facial expressions,
gaze, gestures and body movement, and the ways in which they contribute to successful com-
munication and improved comprehension (Guichon & Cohen, 2014; Yanguas & Bergin, 2018).
VWs are versatile multi-user environments that aim to simulate real-life experiences where
users can interact socially with others via their avatars. The simulated environments that can be
created within VWs bring realism to interactions and enable different aspects of (intercultural)
communicative competence to be exercised and developed (Dawley & Dede, 2014). The use of
VWs for language learning is not only based on sociocultural theory (Lan et al., 2016; Reinhardt
& Sykes, 2012), situated learning and immersion play a very important role (Wang et al., 2019)
when VWs are involved. The added value of VWs, as opposed to other telecollaborative forms,
is, on the one hand, their capacity to support scenarios (a sense of space), situations, and role-
plays. On the other hand, they have the capacity to foster presence, the feeling of being there,
and co-presence, being there together within that space ( Jauregi-Ondarra et al., in press; Lan,
2020). This ability to provide an immersive experience combined with a high level of interac-
tivity distinguishes VWs from other online social spaces.
9.2.4 Intercultural communicative competence

The benefits of telecollaboration are, however, not limited to linguistic gains. Research has
shown that it may also stimulate participants’ intercultural skills, including knowledge, interest,
and awareness of their own culture and that of their partners (Godwin-Jones, 2019). Linguistic
competence does not constitute the sole objective of foreign-language learning. To communi-
cate, language learners need more than grammatical skills and knowledge. They need socio-
cultural knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately (Byram, 1997), a close
integration of language and culture. This intercultural competence requires learners to develop
certain attitudes, knowledge, and skills. These have been identified as Byram’s key savoirs (1997):
skills (acquiring new knowledge of the target culture and applying it through communication
and interaction), attitudes (reforming values and beliefs), knowledge (understanding group and
individual social actions), and critical cultural awareness (the ability to evaluate one’s own and
target cultures).
Research shows that intercultural learning does not occur automatically by merely encoun-
tering a different cultural environment (Helm, 2017). Intercultural interactions and experiences
need to be relevant. They need to create opportunities for reflection and critical awareness
where learners can question their values and beliefs, the attitudes necessary for intercultural
development to occur. In this respect, Hampel (2014) underlines the importance of well-
designed tasks in order to facilitate intercultural communicative competence.
9.2.5 Engagement and flow

Student engagement refers to the effort he or she makes when carrying out a given learn-
ing activity, or as Philp and Duchesne (2016) claim, it is ‘a state of heightened attention in
which participation is reflected in cognitive, social, behavioural and affective dimensions’
(p. 51). Cognitive engagement is seen as the student’s application of mind to attend to learn-
ing; it includes indicators such as attention and effort, but also cognitive and metacognitive
strategy use. Emotional engagement refers to the emotional experience students have while
learning, such as experiencing interest, enjoyment, or satisfaction. Negative emotional experi-
ences, such as boredom, frustration, or confusion, could indicate levels of disengagement. In this
sense, affective variables such as self-efficacy beliefs (Bandura, 1994), anxiety (Horwitz et al.,
1986), and motivation (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011) are closely related to emotional engagement.
Behavioural engagement involves participation and time on task as a continuum, depending on
the degree and quality of participation, taking into account the amount of effort, persistence,
and active involvement as indicators. Social engagement refers to the relationship that is estab-
lished during collaborative work with peers; that is, when they listen to one another, draw from
one another’s expertise and ideas, and provide feedback to one another. Mutuality and reciprocity
reflect learners’ social engagement.
Some researchers advocate for the three-dimensional approach to the study of engagement,
incorporating the ‘social’ under the cognitive, behavioural, and affective dimensions. More con-
cretely, Gijsen (2021) analysed task engagement in student interactions performed in VW as part
of a virtual exchange experience. She claims that when learners are involved in an essentially
social communicative task, the social component permeates the cognitive, behavioural, and
affective subdomains. She suggests that the social component should be studied as part of those
main engagement subdomains.
Despite these different approaches, all scholars agree that engagement refers to action (Lawson
& Lawson, 2013). This action element distinguishes engagement from motivation, which relates
more to desire or intention (Mercer, 2019). This means that students may be very motivated (i.e.,
have the desire or intention to act) but still not engaged in learning; they will need to act and
get involved through engagement by applying the energy of motivation.
Flow, a construct related to engagement, is the term used to describe the feelings of enjoy-
ment that emerge when somebody is performing an intrinsically rewarding activity, which
often emerges when competence and challenge levels are balanced (Perttula et al., 2017). Flow
describes a state of complete absorption or engagement in a specific activity in which a per-
son excludes all irrelevant emotions and thoughts (Sweetser & Wyeth, 2005). During a flow
experience, a person is in a positive psychological state and so completely involved with the
goal-driven activity that nothing else seems to matter (Ma et al., 2014). This kind of intrinsic
motivation is very important, especially in serious games that usually require different cognitive
or physical investments compared to entertainment games (Perttula et al., 2017, p. 57).
The game elements used in DGBL are key in establishing whether a student will be engaged
while playing the game and be able to achieve the specific learning outcomes. In most games, the
player feels empowered to autonomously take decisions on the course of events, which contrib-
utes to enhancing motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000) and engagement. The learners’ motivation
and engagement can be stimulated by challenge (an appropriate balance between competence
and challenge), fantasy (an appropriate level of immersion in a given world while enacting roles
with associated responsibilities), curiosity (linking challenges or goals in the game to uncertain
outcomes), and control (being in charge and responsible) (Perttula et al., 2017). Having a spe-
cific goal, receiving immediate performance feedback, the feeling of being in control, being one
with the activity, and experiencing time distortions increase the sensation of flow and seem to
enhance learning (Brockmyer et al., 2009).
To our knowledge, no studies so far have looked into how digital learning interaction games
can be played internationally to contribute to enhancing intercultural communicative com-
petence and engagement, using a VC or a VW application to communicate and play games in
Spanish as an LF. The present study seeks to address this gap in the research field of CALL. The
concrete research questions are:
1. To what extent do games played using a lingua franca (Spanish) in an intercultural setting
in VW and VC influence self-efficacy beliefs, anxiety, and motivation?
2. To what extent do presence and immersion affect engagement and flow in interaction game
playing?
3. How do differences between both conditions (VC and VW) affect game-related interaction
processes and perceptions?
9.3 Method
9.3.1 Participants
The participants were 19 students from Utrecht University (The Netherlands) and 13 from
Queen Mary University (UK). At Utrecht University, all students were enrolled in the language
course Español 3 (B1, CEFR). They were split into two groups, and each group was randomly
assigned to VW or VC conditions. Students from Queen Mary University were all volunteers
with the B1 required level. Here, also, groups were randomly assigned to each condition. All
participants were between 18 and 24 years old and mainly female. Those in the VC group were
familiar with video-communication applications; however, the VW participants had no previ-
ous experience with VWs.
9.3.2 Procedures and game descriptions

Three games were developed following Task-Based Language Teaching approaches with a cen-
tral focus on intercultural interaction. They were played internationally in dyads or groups of
three students as part of a virtual exchange between the two universities. The two environ-
ments chosen to play were VC and the VW of OpenSim. The VC group interacted via Jitsi or
Microsoft Teams, and the games were hosted in Genial.ly. The interactions were carried out in
Spanish as an LF and recorded by the students themselves.
Participants played the three games in three consecutive weeks: (1) Snakes and Ladders, (2) a
Cultural Quiz, and (3) a Treasure Hunt (VW condition) or escape room (VC condition). Before
task performance, students received the links to the task description, the recording software and
the reflection diary (Figure 9.1). In addition, several online tutorial meetings were organised
for the students participating in the VW condition, as the VW was new to them. During these
sessions, students were shown how to access the VW and practice interaction possibilities. They
also received video instructions illustrating the dynamics of each game.
Snakes and Ladders gave students the opportunity to get to know each other with questions
related to personal experiences. In the VC version (Figure 9.2), instructions on how to play the
game were integrated in the board panel. Students would throw the dice and move the pieces;
the questions were then revealed by clicking on the square they had landed on. For the VW
group, the same board game with the same questions was placed on the ground in OpenSim and
students’ avatars could move freely around it (Figure 9.3).
For the Cultural Quiz, which tested students’ knowledge of their partner’s culture, spinning
wheels were created. Each VC participant received a link to the wheel about their culture. They
had to share it with their partner, who was meant to answer the culturally related questions. For
each correct question, they would earn points, which they could redeem for a prize at the end.
FIGURE 9.1 VC Group Instructions for Task 3

FIGURE 9.2 VC Group Playing Snakes and Ladders
The decision whether the question was answered correctly or not was in their partner’s hands.
Again, for the VW group, the same wheels were placed in two different display panels, and stu-
dents’ avatars could interact with the game panels (Figure 9.4).
The Escape Room used in the VC condition (Figure 9.5) was designed as a mission to find
the secret to learning Spanish. Students had to solve different challenges to find out what the
secret was. The challenges, related to all three cultures (Dutch, English, and Hispanic), had to be
solved collaboratively and were in the form of quizzes and puzzles. Each challenge’s answer was
the key to the next one. The application used for the games played in the VC condition, Genial.
ly, only allowed one player to interact with the game. This meant that the game had to be played
by sharing the screen. The third and also last game for the VW group was this time a Treasure
Hunt that took place in a virtual Valencia. In addition to interacting with one another, students
had to interact with the activity panels, a music box and bots (computer-controlled avatars),
from whom they would receive instructions. Following the information received by the bots,
FIGURE 9.3 V W Group Playing Snakes and Ladders

FIGURE 9.4 V W Group Playing the Cultural Quiz
students’ avatars would move around the VW looking for the next station with the next chal-
lenge and interaction activity (Figure 9.6). All actions required not only negotiating with their
partner about the answers but also interacting with the VW. The clock would tick during the
game performance.
9.3.3 Data collection instruments

Different sources of data, both quantitative and qualitative, were used to help disentangle the
intricacies around game experience, communication, and engagement. They include back-
ground information and final questionnaires, reflection journals, recordings of the interactions,
and focus group interviews. Final questionnaires included items measuring technical quality,
FIGURE 9.5 VC Group Playing the Escape Room

FIGURE 9.6 V W Group Playing the Treasure Hunt
game experience, affordances of the environment, engagement and flow, affective variables,
communication satisfaction, and learning on a 5-point Likert scale. In addition, reflection jour-
nals, completed after each game, were collected, and (group) interviews were conducted at the
end of the project. These instruments had been used in previous research ( Jauregi-Ondarra
et al., 2020) and were adapted to the specific playing context. The items in surveys and the
guiding questions in reflection journals were in English. Students were given the opportunity
to answer in English or Dutch.
Most reported studies analysing flow and engagement used only final questionnaires. As
some authors suggest, this approach ‘may decrease the validity of flow measurement, because
the meaning of last game events may affect too much on player’s answers and distort the overall
experience’ (Perttula et al., 2017, p. 66). Since each game was different in terms of goals, con-
tent, interactivity, challenges and feedback, and was played in different weeks, the reflection
journals were conceived as a natural non-intrusive method to collect valuable data that would
allow us to discover the specific intricacies of each game experience. In the reflection journals,
students were asked to reflect upon the game experience, the specific environment used to play
the interaction games, intercultural learning, cooperation with partner(s), and communication
in an LF setting. Finally, they were asked to look forward and think about what they could do
better next time.
9.3.4 Data analysis

For the quantitative data, mean and standard deviations (SD) were calculated for the closed items
included in the final questionnaire. As to the qualitative data, different categories were created
for analysing the interviews and the reflection journals. They include engagement and flow,
presence, immersion, action, social collaborative rapport, intercultural learning, communica-
tion process, and affective issues. Then, these categories were applied depending on the specific
games being played and the interaction environments used. We contrasted both positive and
negative student views in order to be able to recreate a realistic picture of student engagement
participating in interaction games.
TABLE 9.1 Number of Students Responses According

to Research Instruments per Condition
Condition
Research instrument VC VW
Final questionnaire 20 12
Reflection journal 1 18 13
Condition
Research instrument VC VW
(Group) interviews 22 14
Note: VC = video-communication; VW = virtual world.
9.4 Results
We present the results from both the quantitative (closed items from the final questionnaire) and
qualitative data (open items of the final questionnaire, the weekly reflection journals and the
final group interviews) in an attempt to unravel different aspects that affect students’ engagement
when playing. These aspects include the games played, the environments used, affective factors,
communication, LF use, and collaboration with their partner. The data gathered via the research
instruments are displayed in Table 9.1.
9.4.1 The games

Participants in both conditions enjoyed the games very much (see Table 9.2). They liked using
Spanish as the LF to play and agreed that games make communication more interesting and fun.
Most students reported that they would like to use game activities more often with students
from other countries. As we may observe, the students in the VC condition show slightly higher
scores in all game-related items than the students participating in the VW.
Students observed that the games were an added value because they let them get acquainted
with another person and culture. Moreover, they stimulated and guided the conversations in a
spontaneous enjoyable way. Users felt the games were fun assignments, ‘different from a normal
language exchange,’ engaging and entertaining. This student’s comments summarise the gen-
eral feeling about the positive aspects of the experience: ‘I had fun, met a new person, practiced
Spanish and learned about a new culture.’
The games were developed to help enhance students’ intercultural communicative competence.
As shown in Table 9.2, students in both conditions were very positive about having learned new
things related to their partner’s life, culture, and views.
The data from the reflection journals and interviews provide a clearer picture of the three
interactive game experiences. Snakes and Ladders was categorised by all players in both condi-
tions as a fun and efficient icebreaker and a good way to get to know each other. Although the
dynamic of the game allowed participants to get to know their partners, some students signalled
that once they started to land on questions that had already been answered, the game started
to get too long and less enjoyable. Students reported that the added value of this game, besides
offering easier, laid-back interaction, was that it provided a lot of variation in topics. This was
seen as an advantage together with the prompts it granted, contributing positively to the inter-
action flow. They also brought up that it did not feel like a school assignment and that it was not
TABLE 9.2 Statistical Analysis Related to Games
VC VW
Items x̄ SD x̄ SD
I liked the games I 4.3 0.7 3.9 0.5
carried out with
my partner.
I liked to play games 4.4 0.7 4.0 0.7
communicating in
the foreign language.
VC VW
Items x̄ SD x̄ SD
The games made the 4.7 0.5 4.1 0.8
communication
sessions more
interesting and fun.
I would like to use 4.4 0.8 3.8 0.9
game activities
more often with
students from other
countries.
I was able to learn 4.3 0.5 4.0 0.9
something about
the other student’s
views, life and
culture.
Note: Mean (x̄) and Standard Deviation (SD) values per condition (VC = video-communication;
VW = virtual world). Number of participants per condition: VC (N = 20); VW (N= 12). 5-point
Likert-scale responses (1. Strongly disagree – 5. Strongly agree).
just a question-and-answer routine. A couple of students considered not being able to prepare
themselves for task performance, as a positive aspect of game playing. The students acknowl-
edged that the game contributed to a more relaxed atmosphere and fluid communication.
Most participants in both conditions enjoyed The Cultural Quiz. They liked learning some fun
and random facts about each other’s cultures (‘It was funny to realize that we use things that seems
weird to others’). Some students commented on how it made them aware of their own cultural
habits and how interesting it was having to explain them to others (‘I like that I learned something
new about my country too as I had no idea about some of the answers’). In the VW, students played
the game in the virtual town of Chatterdale. One of the students from the UK commented on the
realistic scenario: ‘I liked Chatterdale, it did actually resemble a town in England.’
The challenge of not being able to prepare their interaction in advance was seen as the source
of a more spontaneous communication. One student commented on how not having right and
wrong answers added to the positive vibe: ‘The fact that we both didn’t know all the answers to
the questions about our country with certainty also added to the informal, comfortable atmos-
phere.’ In this respect, others indicated that they would have preferred to have had access to the
solutions that indicated the right and wrong answers. Some dealt with this lack of confirmation
for right and wrong answers by doing online searches while playing. Only one student declared
to have preferred a normal conversation rather than this second game.
There seemed to be some confusion and technical issues with the game materials. Some stu-
dents only managed to play one culture wheel. Alongside the cultural facts being discussed, posi-
tive intercultural attitudes were observed. One student pointed out that ‘I learned that I know less
about English culture than I thought,’ and another student stated that ‘this is important because I
will know what to eat when I go there. As a result of learning this, I will try these foods.’
The Escape Room was the most popular game in the VC condition. Students liked the theme
and the fact that different challenges took them on a journey to discover various aspects of the
Hispanic culture. It was described as interactive and having a good mixture of questions from
the Hispanic and participating cultures. The participants mentioned that they had learned about
different cultural facts. These findings seemed to have sparked their curiosity. This is illustrated
in the following selected examples from the students’ comments:
‘I am also more curious to what Mexico has to offer.’
‘I learnt that there is a monarchy and that they are very young. This is important because I
honestly had no idea but it’s interesting to know. I’m going to research more monarchies.’
‘As a result of learning, I will watch a movie about Frida.’
‘I learnt that the culture in the netherlands is very different to ours here in the UK and
in the caribbean and their national foods look really interesting to try, this is important
because we should all be aware and acknowledge other cultures and as a result of this
learning I will try harder to be more culturally aware.’
The game was claimed again to have contributed to a more casual, spontaneous, and less stressful
interaction. On top of that, it did not just feel like talking to each other; the aim was to play the
game (‘I liked that we were solving something together/like playing with friends’). Some students
indicated that they struggled to solve certain challenges because they did not know how to proceed.
They mentioned that they would have liked some extra help to guarantee their game progress.
The Treasure Hunt in the VW was the most immersive game as, in addition to interacting
with one another to find the solution to four challenges, students had to interact with bots, the
activity boards, and a music box in the virtual city of Valencia. Besides, they had to explore the
city in search of the next challenge, following the instructions given by the bots, while the clock
was ticking. Most students found this the most interesting game:
‘It was really fun, as we had to go virtually to different places, meaning that we had to do
more tasks together and communicate more.’
‘I liked that this game was more interactive than the previous ones, we really had to walk
(or fly) a lot now.’
‘I really enjoyed the virtual world in this assignment because we had to actively look for
stuff together and explore the city. That was a lot of fun.’
However, some students found the task difficult and confusing and did not like to spend so much
time searching around:
‘It was fun, however it was difficult to know exactly where to go at times. We could not
find one of the places for ages.’
‘It was more difficult than the others and we weren’t really sure we did the right thing.’
Unfortunately, there seemed to be a technical problem in the game, as the bot in the last chal-
lenge could not be seen. Consequently, students could not obtain the necessary information to
be able to finish the game successfully. As one of the very engaged students reported:
‘It [the game] was really nice, but it was really sad that we couldn’t finish it because the last
fantasma [bot] didn’t show up.’
9.4.2 The environments

We may observe in Table 9.3 that students in the VC condition found it much easier to start and
use the tool than the students in the VW condition. Obviously, students in the VC condition
were very familiar with the VC environment, as all teaching during the Covid pandemic was
offered online via Microsoft Teams in both universities. On the contrary, students in the VW
condition were completely new to the simulation environment. It took them some time and
effort to get used to it. In the VW condition, there was a great diversity of perceptions, as can
be seen in the high SD values (see Table 9.3). While some liked the VW and found it easy to
use, others were critical. The audio, key to communication, was quite good in both conditions.
The reflection journals and the interviews helped us better understand students’ expe-
riences using the specific communication application. Interestingly, in relation to being an
avatar or having access to the webcam, the results show that in the VC condition students did
not quite like to be seen but liked to see their partner. While in the VW condition, students
seemed to be fine with being an avatar, but they did not like so much to talk to one. Here
again, there was a big diversity among students, as can be seen in the high SD values. Some
of them really liked the world where they were represented by avatars moving, playing, and
interacting, while others just preferred a VC environment where they could see the person
they were communicating with.
TABLE 9.3 Statistical Analysis Related to Technology and Environment
VC VW
Items x̄ SD x̄ SD
It was easy to START the tool. 4.3 0.6 2.8 1.4
It was easy to USE the tool. 4.2 0.6 3.7 0.8
SOUND was good. 3.7 1.0 3.4 1.1
I like to see my partner when 4.5 0.6 2.6 1.0
communicating / to talk to an AVATAR.
I like to see myself when 3.3 0.8 3.2 1.2
communicating / to be an AVATAR.
VC VW
Items x̄ SD x̄ SD
I enjoyed the interaction games in the 4.3 0.6 4.2 0.4
VC/VW environment.
My interaction experience playing 4.0 0.5 3.3 0.8
interaction games in the VC/VW
environment was rewarding.
The VC/VW environment influenced 3.8 0.8 3.3 1.1
the game experience positively.
The VC/VW environment contributed 4.3 0.7 3.2 1.3
to make the interaction games more
interesting and fun.
This VC/VW environment is nice. 4.2 0.7 3.3 1.2
The VC/VW is an effective system for 4.2 0.7 3.3 1.0
practicing a foreign language.
The VC/VW environment had a 3.6 0.1 3.1 0.7
positive influence on the way I
communicated.
Note: Mean (x̄) and Standard Deviation (SD) values per condition (VC = video-communication; VW =
virtual world). Number of participants per condition: VC (N = 20); VW (N= 12). 5-point Likert-scale
responses (1. Strongly disagree – 5. Strongly agree).
The interaction games played in both environments were highly appreciated by the stu-
dents in both conditions. However, in general terms, the environment as a whole was more
valued by students in the VC condition. They found it a pleasant medium, and the experi-
ence was more rewarding. They perceived that the setting contributed more to make the
interaction games more interesting and fun, and they considered it a more effective system
for practicing a language than in the VW condition. Here again, as the high SD values
indicate (see Table 9.3), the perceptions were split between those being very positive and
those being critical. While five participants were extremely positive about the VW, four
were quite negative and three neutral. As to the question whether the environment had a
positive effect on the way they communicated, students in both conditions seemed to be
rather neutral about any effects.
Since Jitsi is similar to other applications students are familiar with, the interaction via this
application did not pose major problems. Only a couple of students seemed to have trouble
sharing their screen. The facts that it was easy to use (‘it’s just like Zoom or Teams’/‘if you
don’t understand you just can share your screen’), and that students were able to see and hear
their interaction partner were reported to have contributed to a relaxed atmosphere (‘I like how
we can arrange a call at any time and just get out of bed and meet online’). Being able to see
and hear their interaction partner was regarded as beneficial by most students. However, when
sharing their screen with Jitsi, they could not see their partners’ face, and this was regarded as a
limitation of the application.
The VW was new to all students participating in this condition. Most of them liked the
2D environment itself (‘a nice environment’), the immersive dimension and the possibility to
interact with the world (‘The virtual world was fun. I liked the way you can walk around’),
and the sense of being co-present with the other player(s) (‘it felt like being in the same place’).
This contributed to a casual and relaxed atmosphere. One student even pointed out: ‘I liked
the effort people made to make this virtual world, and I thought it was a good initiative to
try such a game.’
Most students felt that the VW ‘contributed a lot to everyone being more at ease and more
comfortable because it’s much more casual than a video call.’ This allowed them to be able to
focus more on the communication and the game. However, one student stated clearly that ‘the
virtual world did not really contribute to a more relaxed sphere. The games did, but the virtual
world made it a bit weird and unclear sometimes.’
Being an avatar and interacting with one was experienced differently by the participating stu-
dents. While for most not being seen while trying to find the right words to express themselves
in the TL was a relief, and the whole experience was more fun and casual (‘I liked that the virtual
world makes it easier to interact with each other. Because you are a character, i find it more easy
to talk in a foreign language because you don’t see my face’), for others not being able to see their
partner but their avatar, was perceived as a very impersonal way of communicating (‘I still don’t
like it, I still think it’s super impersonal and I really don’t feel like me and my partner are building
a connection’).
When asked to compare this experience (with games) with a normal conversation in Skype,
students in both conditions stated that this experience had provided them with the opportunity
to speak about things that do not come up in a normal conversation. They added that it had
been easier to keep the conversation going and that it had been more fun (‘it creates a topic to
discuss whereas on a regular Jitsi call its harder to form a conversation if you’re introverted and
only just met the person’). One student compared this experience to previous telecollaboration
sessions and stated that the games ‘take away all of my nervousness and shame while speaking if
i compare it to telecolaboraciónes we did before without any games.’
The immersive VW scenarios form a context where students meet and engage with one
another while doing things together (playing, communicating, exploring, moving around, fly-
ing, describing scenarios, and engaging in all kinds of action) and, as a result, unexpected con-
versations emerge:
‘This virtual game experience is more fun than a normal conversation in Skype, as we get
to meet up as if we were in a real life scenario and each week we do different tasks, which
made it more realistic.’
‘An added value of games is that you always have something to talk about, because talking
to someone you don’t know via skype can get quite uncomfortable and that was not at
all. You could ask each other questions and you had something to do instead of just a dry
conversation.’
9.4.3 Engagement and flow

Perceptions of immersion, co-presence, attention, and effort are indicators affecting engage-
ment and flow processes. In Table 9.4, we can see that engagement, measured as the effort made
in interaction and being concentrated, scored very high in both conditions. Unexpectedly, key
distinctive features of the VW (i.e., immersiveness and co-presence) were perceived slightly
higher by students in the VC than in the VW condition. Nevertheless, values in both condi-
tions were relatively neutral, except in the third item (I was so immersed playing the interac-
tion games in the VC/VW environment that I lost track of time), where the VW condition
scored slightly higher. As to the items measuring flow (being completely captivated by the
environment, being so involved playing the game that one loses track of time, or everything
around), the values were fairly average and similar in both conditions.
According to the reflection journals and the interviews, students’ feelings of immersion in
both conditions were split between those who felt immersed, those who did not, and those who
TABLE 9.4 Statistical Analysis Related to Engagement and Flow
VC VW
Items x̄ SD x̄ SD
I felt I was in the same place with my partner in 3.4 1.2 2.6 0.7
the VC/VW environment.
I was completely captivated by the VC/VW 3.3 0.9 3.2 0.7
environment.
I was so immersed playing the interaction 3.1 0.7 4.2 1.2
games in the VC/VW environment that
I lost track of time.
I did my best when interacting in the VC/VW 4.4 0.5 3.3 0.9
environment.
I could concentrate well when interacting in 4.1 0.7 3.3 1.2
the VC/VW environment.
I was so involved in playing the interaction 3.3 1.0 3.2 1.0
game in the VC/VW environment that
I ignored everything around me.
Note: Mean (x̄) and Standard Deviation (SD) values per condition (VC = video-communication; VW = virtual world).
Number of participants per condition: VC (N = 20); VW (N= 12). 5-point Likert-scale responses (1. Strongly disagree
– 5. Strongly agree).
felt immersed to a certain extent. There were also participants who were not sure about under-
standing the question. Quite a few students in the VW condition recognised that the immersive
and co-presence dimensions of the world allowed them to move and fly around and explore the
world together while interacting in the foreign language:
‘It was really enjoyable, as it felt as if we were actually meeting up but it was just happening
in a virtual world.’
‘Yes [I felt immersed in the same place as my partner]. I think we all enjoyed being in
Chatterdale and I explained how it actually did look like a town in England.’
However, there were two students who reported not feeling immersed in the same place as their
partner in the VW:
‘No not at all, because you are stuck behind that eternal laptop (which is not something
that is too positive in a corona quarantine).’
‘No, the virtual world is not sufficiently well constructed for that, and also I believe it
would require a VR set, not a laptopscreen that is the same as the one on which you follow
all of the other courses.’
9.4.4 Affective variables

Affective variables, such as self-efficacy beliefs or level of anxiety, can influence students’ emo-
tional engagement and hence hinder behavioural and cognitive engagement (c.f. Gijsen, 2021)
when playing the games. As we can see in Table 9.5, students in both conditions felt very
comfortable in the sessions communicating in the LF in the given environment (VC or VW),
meaning that they were emotionally engaged. However, the students in the VW condition felt
more worried about making mistakes and less confident speaking in the foreign language than
the students in the VC group. However, students in both conditions reported to have managed
to make themselves understood and understand their partner well, which, in turn, contributes
to a positive emotional engagement.
TABLE 9.5 Statistical Analysis Related to Anxiety and Self-efficacy
VC VW
Items x̄ SD x̄ SD
I felt comfortable during the session. 4.2 0.7 3.9 0.8

I felt comfortable interacting in the foreign 4.0 0.8 3.6 0.8
language in the VC/VW environment.
I was worried about making mistakes in 2.4 1.1 3.1 0.9
the foreign language*.
I was confident about my Spanish speaking 3.4 0.9 2.8 0.7
skills.
I was able to make myself understood. 4.1 0.6 4.1 0.5
I was able to understand what the other 4.3 0.6 4.3 0.7
student(s) said.
– 5. Strongly agree). * High scores indicate high levels of anxiety.
TABLE 9.6 Statistical Analysis Related to Lingua Franca Use and International Dimension
VC VW
Items x̄ SD x̄ SD
I liked to use the foreign language as a 4.2 0.7 3.9 0.8

Lingua Franca.
I would have preferred to carry out the 3.1 1.2 4.0 1.2
game tasks with native speakers.
The international dimension made the 4.8 0.4 4.5 0.7
sessions more interesting.
– 5. Strongly agree).
The reflection journals and interviews corroborate these findings. Students perceived that
the games contributed to a more relaxed atmosphere (‘it did not feel like work and was fun
and a bit competitive’) and more fluid communication. A couple of students admitted having
felt uneasy not being able to prepare for the game sessions. The majority, however, indicated
that the games helped them to guide their interactions, be more spontaneous, and work on
their fluency.
9.4.5 International dimension and LF

The international or telecollaborative dimension of the games, that is, the possibility to play
the games with peers from another country, was the first thing students mentioned when asked
what they liked the most about the experience (Table 9.6). They valued the fact that they had
many things in common (approximately the same language proficiency level and the same age).
This contributed to a more relaxed atmosphere, which, in turn, facilitated the social connection.
Most students positively valued communication in Spanish as the LF, although more participants
in the VW group than in the VC condition would have preferred to interact with native speak-
ers. The high SD values indicate a large diversity of perceptions within the groups.
The results of the reflection journals and (group) interviews confirm the quantitative find-
ings. Most students reported that using Spanish as an LF made the communication easier, made
them feel less insecure, and more at ease when making mistakes because they were on a similar
level. This quote from one of the students summarises the general feeling: ‘I 100% felt more
confident talking to someone who is also learning Spanish and not a Native Speaker. I did not
feel that I would be judged if I made a mistake while speaking.’
When asked in the reflection journals about what was good about the collaboration, the
recurrent observations throughout the games were that it was fun, provided good speaking prac-
tice, and that it brought spontaneity. Students further stated that the games provided structure to
the interaction and contributed to avoiding awkward silences. In addition, these internationally
played games allowed them to get to know new people they would not have met otherwise and
learn new things about other cultures:
‘We learned new things about each other, and we had a good laugh, all while practising
our Spanish.’
‘I liked meeting new people. During covid it was a fun way to still have some more social
interaction.’
9.4.6 Interaction examples

We have selected two examples to illustrate how students engaged with the interaction games
according to the specific application used. Examples 1a and 1b (see Figures 9.7 and 9.8) belong
to the third game students played in the VW: the Treasure Hunt. In these excerpts, we can see
(a) how students engage with the game mechanics, (b) how they interact with the VW, a bot, and
FIGURE 9.7 Example 1a

FIGURE 9.8 Example 1b
the boards, (c) how they communicate with each other and collaborate in sequences of negotiation
of meaning, and (d) how they show engagement following the game activities while interacting
accordingly. They explain and describe game-related topics and elaborate on them. They describe
a monument and the advantages of living in a big city. The game lasted 1 h and 9 min.
Example 2 (Figure 9.9) shows engagement evidence that comes from the audio and visual
data, from observation of two VC students in action, working on task 2, the Cultural Quiz.
Cognitive engagement was mainly manifested by exchange of ideas, giving explanations, eval-
uative comments, inferring, questioning, and completion of peer utterances. Throughout the
whole session, while observing students’ participation and effort, behavioural engagement was
FIGURE 9.9 Example 2
exhibited, with learners focused on carrying out the task. There were numerous instances of
laughing, exclamations, and non-verbal expressions where students displayed emotional engage-
ment. The data shows that students were listening and giving feedback to one another, show-
ing signs of being socially engaged by being interactive. Observing the full recording where
Example 2 was embedded revealed that the interaction was also filled with language-related
episodes (Swain & Lapkin, 1998), involving negotiations of linguistic and cultural meaning
9.5 Discussion and conclusions

In what follows, we present and discuss the main results in connection with the research ques-
tions, consider the limitations of the study, and propose further lines of research. The first
research question explored the extent to which playing the games using an LF (Spanish) in an
intercultural setting in VW and VC can influence self-efficacy beliefs, anxiety, and motivation.
Both quantitative and qualitative results show that the three games had a positive impact on stu-
dents’ engagement. Different factors contributed to enhance engagement. The most important
ones include (a) the game content, (b) the game mechanics and dynamics enacted, (c) the inter-
national setting, (d) the relationship with the partner, and (e) the use of LF to play.
Certainly, the interaction games were experienced as being fun. They contributed to cre-
ating a relaxed atmosphere, which facilitated meaningful collaboration and spontaneous com-
munication among peers. Games stimulated a fluid communication exchange, rather different
from rigid question-and-answer interview-like exchanges, since the overall objective was to
jointly play the game. The games triggered rich interaction episodes, where students engaged
in co-constructing social discourses resorting to a wide variety of speech acts. Students initiated
topics, elaborated and reacted to them, compared issues (many related to cultural aspects), made
jokes and laughed, commented on the game mechanics, and helped one another when chal-
lenges arose playing the games or trying to express themselves in the foreign language. Besides
interaction skills, students developed intercultural competencies. They acquired new knowl-
edge, raised awareness about their own cultural habits and enjoyed sharing them with their
international peers, discussed cultural facts, and developed positive cultural attitudes towards
unknown or unexpected social conventions.
Students valued the socio-cultural and interpersonal focus of the challenges in the games,
and the relaxed, casual, and enjoyable atmosphere these games created. This is seen as an ideal
context in which students dare to take risks to communicate in the foreign language, to nego-
tiate and co-create meaning and ultimately learn. As reported in the literature (Acquah & Katz,
2020; Brockmyer et al., 2009; Perttula et al., 2017), game elements such as having a specific goal,
the balance between challenge, competition and ease, feeling autonomy while being in control,
curiosity about what will happen next, and interactivity among the players and with the game
favoured students’ positive attitudes and involvement. In addition, the international dimension
of the interaction games, being played in an LF communication setting, clearly contributed to
a positive emotional engagement. This probably enhanced the students’ active communicative
and game participation (behavioural engagement) and their proactive involvement in making
efforts and take risks to engage cognitively with the specific interaction game sequence (c.f.
Gijsen, 2021).
Issues affecting engagement negatively were also detected. They included experiencing tech-
nological problems, not thoroughly understanding the games, finding them difficult or con-
fusing, not being able to find the next challenge, or, for some students, being an avatar. In line
with previous research findings (Acquah & Katz, 2020; Boudadi & Gutiérrez-Colón, 2020;
Dehghanzadeh et al., 2019; Peterson, 2016), the results showed a direct link between playing
interaction games and positive affective feelings and experiences.
The second research question explored how immersion and presence would affect engage-
ment and flow in game interaction processes. Apparently, these constructs did not seem to play
any fundamental role in enhancing engagement in VC and VW conditions. Unexpectedly, the
quantitative data measuring presence and immersion seemed to indicate that students partici-
pating in the VW condition did not experience the world as an immersive space. Nevertheless,
as it became clear when analysing the reflection journals and the final interviews, most students
valued the immersiveness of the Treasure Hunt played in the VW, as they had to explore the
world together, move around looking for the next challenge, and interact with different arte-
facts in the world (bots, instruction boards, a music box, and a video panel). Obviously, the
interaction games differ from each other in the immersion and interactivity levels they afford.
The Treasure Hunt was clearly the most immersive of all. This was noted and valued by most
students. Therefore, we could claim that it is not just the environment but the direct interplay
between the environment and the immersiveness level the games afford that is crucial when
analysing the impact of immersion and presence in engaging game experiences. Furthermore,
this concrete example shows the importance of gathering different types of data (quantitative
and qualitative) at different stages during the study. This procedural mixed-method approach to
data collection is needed to obtain a deeper understanding of the complex but relevant aspects
being investigated.
The third research question examined how differences between VC and VW conditions
may affect game-related interaction processes and perceptions. Both quantitative and qualitative
results showed that although all students enjoyed the games, the environment being used to
play made a difference. In general, the game experiences were more positive among the stu-
dents participating in the VC condition than in the VW condition. For students participating
in VW, the environment was completely new, and they were not used to controlling avatars.
Five students were very positive about it, four disliked it, and three were neutral. In addition,
some participants faced quite a few technological issues (e.g., not being able to download the
viewer, sound problems, computers loading the world at a slow pace, and being kicked out of
the game). Although they were given several tutorials and received weekly video recordings
explaining the game mechanics in the VW, the lack of previous experience with this kind of
environment, technological problems, and personal preferences might have influenced their
overall game experience.
Our study presents clear limitations. Its small-scale exploratory character with a relatively
small number of participants indicates that caution is required when interpreting the findings. In
addition, this research was of a brief duration. The study took 3 weeks with three games being
played. The effects could have been different in the long run. The focus of the study was on a
small number of variables and aspects of interaction games, leaving other elements unexplored.
The type of participants, undergraduates at a European university, is also another noteworthy
limitation. We are also aware of the limitations of learner self-reporting and how these might
have influenced the results. The potential effect of novelty and how the innovative factor might
have influenced students’ perceptions and engagement level should also be considered in future
research. Lastly, although we have presented here two examples showing how students engaged
in the game, more focused interaction analysis is needed to disentangle engagement processes
students enact in interaction. These factors limit the generalizability of the findings.
Further research is needed to confirm the present results applied in other educational con-
texts, with larger groups of students and using different typologies of games over a longer
period of time. Likewise, future studies could analyse how games played in additional com-
munication platforms and applications (e.g., high-immersion VR) affect engagement and
intercultural language learning. We certainly need more evidence-based information in order
to be able to better meet the wishes, styles and needs of a diverse population of students.
Additionally, more research is required to examine how these practices can be integrated into
the curriculum and whether the benefits identified in the literature transfer to out-of-game
contexts.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Sabela Melchor-Couto for collaborating in the first phases of the
project, Elina Vilar the collaborating teacher at Queen Mary University of London and all
participating students.
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INDEX
Active Worlds 4, 75, 90 Doughty, Catherine 15

Affective factors 5, 7, 24, 35, 159, 161–162, 166, Dungeons & Dragons 55
167, 173, 178
Affordances 4, 27, 96, 136, 139, 141, 144, 145, 153, Effectiveness 3, 15, 16, 17, 28, 74, 75, 77, 78, 89,
158, 159, 160, 166 90, 122
Anxiety 4, 155, 159, 161, 162, 173, 177 Emotion 159, 162
App Inventor 2, 36–37, 39–42, 46, 51 Enjoyment 6, 141, 155, 158, 162
Augmented reality (AR) 6, 111, 138 Errors 97, 112
Authoring 2, 8, 36–42, 45, 46, 48, 51 Eslami, Zohreh R 15–16, 27
Autonomy 110, 178 Exolingual communication 137–140, 153–154
Avatar 37, 52, 110, 120, 145, 170–171, 178 Extramural game play 93, 94
Bizhuwanshang 4, 136–137, 138–142, 145, 146, Fallout 4 55

148, 150, 152, 154–155 Feedback 4, 5, 8, 44, 59, 62, 63, 71, 110, 111, 117,
Bot 169, 175 136, 162, 166, 177
Bridging activities 8 Final Fantasy X 76
Flow theory 15, 24, 26
Case study 3, 5, 74, 76, 77, 95, 110, 113, 158 Fluency 41, 75, 90, 174
Challenge 159, 162, 165, 168–169, 178 Fun 35, 111, 118–119, 121, 122, 130, 134, 135,
Collaboration 4, 36, 76, 140, 143, 167, 177 159, 167–172, 174, 177
Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) game 2, 8, 21,
26–27 Game-based learning (GBL) 14, 19, 110, 111, 118
Communicative competence 35, 41, 160–162 Game dynamics 159
Communities of practice 9 Game mechanics 3, 52, 54, 71–72, 159, 175,
Competition 159, 178 177–178
Computational thinking 35 Gamification 18, 136, 140, 152, 159
Computer assisted language learning (CALL) 15, Gee, James Paul 96, 110
16, 35, 52, 74, 136 Genial.ly 158, 163, 164
Computer-mediated communication Google Headset 4
(CMC) 7 Grammar 8, 24, 35, 36, 41, 43, 45, 46, 80, 136
Constructivism 22, 23, 24
Co-presence 161, 172–173 Head-mounted displays (HMDs) 111
CoSpaces 2, 36–37, 39–41, 46, 47
Immersion 4, 6, 63, 65, 116, 131, 158, 162, 166,
Digital game-based language learning (DGBLL) 172, 178–179
2, 14, 18, 52, 74 Immersive speech 58–61, 63, 66–71
Digital game-based learning (DGBL) 14, 35 Input hypothesis 15, 24
Divinity Original Sin II 55, 58, 60–62, 64, 66 Interaction hypothesis 15, 24, 25
184 Index
Interactive speech 58–60, 68–71 Reciprocity 161

Intercultural communication 5, 158–159 Register 3, 52–53, 54, 56, 58, 63, 66–69, 71–72
Involvement load hypothesis 15 Reinhardt, Jonathon 8, 52–53, 71
Intersubjectivity 76 Replication 7, 9
Role play 4, 137, 138–139
Jabbari, Nasser 15–16, 27 Role playing game (RPG) 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 15,
25, 55, 76, 139, 159
Keep Talking and Nobody Explodes 3, 75, 78 Rules 52, 63, 65
Language socialization 3, 9, 24 Scaffolding 15, 24, 76

Languaging 1, 137, 143–145, 149, 150–152 Scoping review 15–16, 17
Let’s Play 4, 93–97 Scratch 2, 36–37, 39–42, 45–46, 51
LexTutor 98 Second language acquisition (SLA) 1–2, 5–6, 15,
Listening 18, 35, 37, 41, 46, 58, 111, 122, 128, 18, 22, 24, 27–28, 74–79, 88, 89–90, 160
144, 177 Second Life 4, 75, 110
Literacy 8, 79, 96, 112, 121, 134 Self-regulation 158
Lore 60, 63, 65, 67, 71 Serious games 21, 26–27, 35, 140, 159, 162
Love, Nigel 139, 144–145 Simulation 6, 118–119, 131, 170
Simulation game 6–8, 9
Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game Situated learning theory 15, 23, 25, 26
(MMORPG) 16, 18, 76, 159 Skyrim 55, 56, 62, 64, 67
Mechanics 3, 52–55, 60, 63, 65, 71–72, 159, 175, Socialization 3, 9
177 Sociocultural theory 15, 23, 26–28, 76–77, 88,
Mediation 76, 144, 153 160
Meta-analysis 7, 15–18, 52 Speaking 18, 35, 37, 41, 45–46, 60, 94, 97, 122,
Mixed methods 1, 4, 5, 6, 16, 97, 178–178, 179 139, 173–174
Motivation 4, 5, 14, 22, 24, 26, 35, 37, 40, 41, 45,
122, 123, 140–141, 152, 155, 159, 161–162, Tasks 3, 55, 58, 59, 76–77, 78, 110, 136, 143, 150,
177 151, 161, 169, 172, 174
Telepresence 111, 118–120
Narrative 4, 21, 25, 55, 58, 61–63, 65, 136, The Witcher III 55
138–140, 144, 147–148, 153, 154 Thick description 117
Negotiation for meaning 75, 77, 79, 89 Thorne, Steven L. 8, 53, 54, 76
Neuman, W. Lawrence 15 Transana 141–143
New Academic Word List (NAWL) 98 Triangulation 117
Non-player character (NPC) 53, 59, 102, 140
Noticing 75 Virtual reality (VR) 4, 6, 26, 37, 109,
136, 155
Oculus Rift 6, 111 Virtual world 55, 65, 127, 128, 144, 158,
Open Simulator 158 167–174
Online ecologies 3, 9 Vocabulary 2–10, 15–16, 18, 19, 35, 37, 41–43,
Output 3, 54, 75–79, 88, 89, 90, 95, 136 45, 46, 52, 54, 74, 80, 89, 90, 93, 96–98,
100–106, 109–123, 126–129, 131, 133,
Pedagogy 1, 7, 78, 138 151, 159
Peterson, Mark 27–28, 54, 74, 76 Vygotsky, Lev Simkhovich 76
Praxis 7
PRISMA guidelines 18, 20 Walk-through 95
Probable acquisition episodes (PAEs) 80–81 Willingness to communicate 4, 7, 155
Problem-solving 110, 158 World of Warcraft 52, 53, 76, 139
Progression 61, 62, 99, 139, 144, 146, 150 Writing 2, 18–19, 35–37, 40–41, 42, 45, 46, 47,
Puzzle games 3, 75, 78, 159 58, 94, 121
Quest Atlantis 76 YouTube 4, 93–94, 96–97

Quests 53–54, 55, 58–62, 64, 67, 71
Zone of proximal development (ZPD) 23, 95–96,
Reading 18–19, 35, 36, 37, 41–42, 45, 46, 47, 93, 105
98, 113, 121, 122, 137, 139, 140, 141, 144–145, Zotero 18
150, 151, 152, 154 Zou, Di 15

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Understanding Emotions in English Language Learning in Virtual Worlds

Digital Games in Language Learning

Individual differences in Computer Assisted Language Learning Research

Edited by Mark Peterson and Nasser Jabbari

ISBN: 978-1-032-14596-9 (hbk)

List of figures vii

1 Digital games and foreign language learning: Context and future

2 A systematic review of theory-informed design and implementation

3 Use of digital game creation tools in computer assisted language

4 A methodological framework for analyzing the language in

5 Direct qualitative assessment of language learning outcomes in

6 Let’s play videos and L2 academic vocabulary 93

7 Exploring ESL students’ perceived engagement in and experience

8 Becoming a resourceful language learner in a narrative-driven

9 Interaction games to boost intercultural communication in virtual

2.1 PRISMA Flowchart of the Screening Process 20

7.1 Sample of Google Cardboard VR (Othree, 2014) 114

2.1 Summary of Literature Reviews Focusing on DGBLL Since 2011 16

7.5 Summary of Vocabulary Items Students Wrote in Exit Slips 121

Michael Hofmeyr is a Specially Appointed Associate Professor in the Graduate School of

Nasser Jabbari is a lecturer in applied linguistics and language teaching, Department of

Kristi Jauregi-Ondarra is an Associate Professor at Utrecht University and a member of the

John Löwenadler is an Associate Professor of Language Education at the University of

Mark Peterson is an Associate Professor of foreign language studies at Kyoto University. He

Liss Kerstin Sylvén is Professor of Language Education at the University of Gothenburg.

Dongping Zheng is an Associate Professor in the Department of Second Language Studies at

Krzysztof Kotuła (Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Poland)

Mark Peterson and Nasser Jabbari

1.2 An overview of this volume

1.3 Future implications

1.3.1 The role of theory

1.3.2 Research foci

1.3.6 Educator roles

1.3.7 Curricular integration

1.3.8 Game creation

1.3.9 Gaming in informal contexts

2.2 Literature review

2.3 Purpose and research questions

Systematic Review of Theory-Informed Design

2.4.1 Literature search strategy

2.4.2 Inclusion and exclusion criteria

TABLE 2.2 Literature Search Results in Ten Academic Databases

Database Applied To More Specific Constraints Result

ACM Digital Library Abstract Proceedings, Journals 397

2.4.3 Screening and coding

FIGURE 2.1 PRISMA Flowchart of the Screening Process

2.4.4 Data analysis process

TABLE 2.3 Coding Scheme for this Systematic Review Study

FIGURE 2.2 Distribution of Theories in the 65 Manuscripts across Six Meta-categories

TABLE 2.4 Sociocultural Theories and Publication Sources

Theory Count Citation

Situated learning 10 (Bytheway, 2014; Chen & Lee, 2018;

TABLE 2.5 Cognitive Theories and Publication Sources

Theory Count Citation

TABLE 2.6 Motivation Theories and Publication Sources

Theory Count Citation

TABLE 2.7 SLA, Constructivism, and Behavioural Theories Publication Sources

Meta-category Theory Count Citation

TABLE 2.8 Theory-informed Design, Implementation, and Evaluation by Game Types

Game Type Studies Design Implementation Evaluation

Serious games 41 82% 22% 41%

2.5.1 Roles that theory plays with game type as a moderator

Long, M. (2015). Psycholinguistic underpinnings: A cognitive-interactionist theory of instructed second lan-

2.1 PRISMA Flowchart of the Screening Process 20

7.1 Sample of Google Cardboard VR (Othree, 2014) 114

2.1 Summary of Literature Reviews Focusing on DGBLL Since 2011 16

7.5 Summary of Vocabulary Items Students Wrote in Exit Slips 121

4.2 Literature review: DGBLL research using corpus linguistics

FIGURE 4.1 Interactive Speech in the Witcher

FIGURE 4.2 Immersive Speech Instance from Divinity

FIGURE 4.3 Example of the Attribute ‘Strength’ in Divinity

FIGURE 4.5 Example of Lore in the Witcher

FIGURE 4.6 Screenshot of a Tutorial Text Instance from the Witcher

FIGURE 4.7 Comparison of Linguistic Features Mean Frequency Difference (Cohen’s d)

5.1.1 Direct assessment of language learning outcomes using

5.1.2.1 Indirect assessment of language learning outcomes within

5.1.2.2 Indirect assessment of language learning within the sociocultural

5.1.3 An alternative approach to assessing effectiveness in DGBLL: Direct